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Home , Amarakosha, Amarasimha, Ashvamedha, Brahmadeya, Budhagupta, Chandragupta I

THE AND THE VAKATAKAS

• After the fall of the , the Kushans in the North and the Satavahanas in the Deccan emerged as the two major political powers. • They not only brought political unity and economic prosperity to these regions, but were also great stabilizing forces in their respective areas. • Around c. 230 CE, the Kushans’ reign ultimately came to an end in northern , and a considerable part of its empire came under the suzerainty of the Murundas (possibly kinsmen of the Kushans).

• The Murundas ruled for a short time span of about 25−30 years. • This was the Empire, which kept northern India politically united for more than a century. • The Guptas are believed to be feudatories of the Kushans. They are most likely in origin, and they ruled over fertile parts of the madhyadesha, that is, anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin), saketa (modern , ), and (mostly ). • Prayag (modern , Uttar Pradesh) was probably their important centre of power, which, due to its strategic location, further aided in the expansion of the empire.

• The Guptas could easily exploit the iron ore deposits of and southern Bihar, and also took advantage of their proximity to the areas of which carried on trade with the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman empire). • ‘’ was probably their state seal.

• Historians often consider the Gupta period as the ‘Golden age’ of India’s past as it is often remembered for certain key classical features, such as • The political unification of a large part of the subcontinent under a mostly centralised government. • The production of exceptional literary works, sophisticated stone sculpture. • Architecture and innovative developments in the field of science and technology.

• The political history of the Gupta is largely reconstructed on the basis of certain excavated inscriptions and coins.

Gupta Dynasty

• Gupta/Sri Gupta (Founder of Gupta Dynasty)

• Maharaja

Chandragupta – I (c. 319–335/336 CE)

• First important king of the Gupta Dynasty; laid the foundations of the and claimed the title of maharajadhiraja (king of kings). • Started in 319−20 CE

• His empire included parts of modern Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and ; with its capital was at .

• Enhanced his power and prestige by marrying Kumaradevi, princess of Lichchhavi clan of

• Coins were struck in the joint names of the Emperor, his queen, and the Lichchhavi nation, thereby acknowledging this marital alliance.

• Queen Kumaradevi and King on a coin of their son

Samudragupta (c.335/336–375 CE)

• Son of Chandragupta I, who followed a policy of war and conquest and enormously enlarged his kingdom. • His rule was one of expansion marked first by the conquest of his immediate neighbours and then by campaigns to the east and the south • Due to this policy of his, the historian V. A. Smith has called him the ‘Napoleon’ of India. • Had a disputed accession to the throne.

• His achievements are recorded in a long inscription (an eulogy) engraved on the (Prayaga ), whose surface also contains inscriptions of and later, the Mughal emperor Jahangir. • Unlike the Ashokan inscription which stresses on peace and non-violence, Samudragupta’s inscription extolling his deeds and virtues stresses on violence and military conquest, and gives us information about his different conquests. • It was composed in pure Sanskrit by Harisena, who was not only his court poet but was also a kumaramatya, that is, a high ranking official who described himself by different titles such as sandhivigrahika (minister for peace and war) and mahadandanayaka (judicial/military officer).

• He adopted a different policy for each category. In the first category, located in the , he followed a policy of annexation. He defeated nine Naga rulers and incorporated their kingdoms in the Gupta empire. • In the second category, consisting of neighbouring frontier kingdoms and nine republican states of and , Samudragupta’s conquests awed the frontier kings into submission and they agreed to pay tribute and taxes to him and obey his orders without any fight. • He conquered the atavika rajyas, that is, forest kingdoms of central India and forced their rulers into servitude. • The Vindyan forest kingdoms had a strategic value as they held the key of the route to . This enabled him to proceed to the south along the eastern coast, conquering twelve kings on the way and reached as far as Kanchi near present day Chennai. • The Prayag prashasti mentions the defeat of the twelve south Indian rulers (together) by Samudragupta (including Vishnugopa of Kanchi). • The ruler of Ceylon sent an embassy to secure privileges for Sinhalese monks at . The inscription adds that Samudragupta also received tributes from many kings of south-east Asia.

• It is generally believed that though he had spread his influence over a vast area, Samudragupta exercised direct administrative control mainly over Indo-Gangetic basin. • He celebrated his conquests by performing an () and by issuing ashvamedha coins (portraying the scene of the sacrifice) marking the occasion.

• The magnificence of this monastery was described in the 7th century works of Hieun Tsang/.

• He is depicted on his coins both as a muscular warrior (flaunting his victories on a hundreds battlefields) as well as a poet, a musician, and a patron of learning.

• He was a great patron of art and adopted the title of Kaviraja (king among poets). • His love for music is attested by his coins that represent him playing on the (lyre) on occasion.

• Legends on his coins include epithets such as parakramah (brave), apratirathah (invincible), vyaghra-parakramah (brave as a tiger), and ashvamedha-parakramah (powerful enough to perform the ashvamedha). • Though Hindu by practice, he extended his patronage to other religions, and one of his ministers was the great Buddhist philosopher . Samudragupta is remembered for his patronage of art and literature.

Chandragupta II (c. 376 – 413/15 CE)

• According to some legends, Samudragupta was succeeded by his elder son Ramagupta, but Chandragupta II killed him.

• It is said that Chandragupta II had to kill his brother and marry his wife, , to safeguard the honour of the Gupta dynasty.

• The peak of the territorial expansion of the Gupta empire was reached during Chandragupta II’s reign (also known as Chandragupta ), who extended the limits of his empire by conquests and marital alliances with other royal dynasties of the period.

• He married Kuberanaga, the Naga princess, and had a daughter, Prabhavati, with her. Prabhavati was married to Rudrasena II of the ruling Vakataka dynasty in Deccan. • After the death of her husband, Prabhavati ruled the territory as regent to her minor sons with the help of her father. • During this twenty year period, the Vakataka realm was practically a part of the Gupta Empire.

• Chandragupta thus exercised indirect control over the Vakataka kingdom, which proved very beneficial to him. • With his great influence in this central Indian region, he was able to target his other enemies better. • Thus, he conquered western and from the (one of them was Rudrasimha III) who had been in command in western India for about the past four centuries. • This conquest took the expanse of the Gupta empire to the western sea coast, which was an important region for trade and commerce.

• This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa and its chief city , which was also Chandragupta II’s second capital.

• An iron pillar inscription at Mehrauli in indicates that his empire included even north-western India and Bengal.

• He took the title of Vikramaditya, that is, the one who is as powerful as the sun, and Simhavikrama.

• Iron Pillar, Mehrauli built during the Gupta age

• He was the first ruler to issue silver coins.

• He also issued coins and is referred to as on his coins. He also issued gold coins called dinara.

• The Udaigiri cave inscriptions refer to his digvijaya, that is, his conquest of the whole world.

• Fa Hien/, the famous Chinese traveller, visited India during his reign. • His court at Ujjain was adorned by nine famous scholars known as the (‘nine gems’): • : Renowned classical Sanskrit poet and playwright of India and a peerless genius whose works such as Abhijananashakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvasiyam became famous worldwide.

• : Sanskrit lexicographer and poet, and his ‘’ is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, homonyms, and synonyms. It is also called Trikanda, as it has three parts containing around ten thousand words. • : Renowned mathematician and astrologer who wrote three important books, the Panchasiddhantika • Dhanvantri: Physician who is considered the father of Ayurveda (literally meaning ‘knowledge for longevity’). • Ghatakarapara : An expert in sculpture and architecture.

• Shanku: An architect who wrote the Shilpashastra. • Kahapanaka: An astrologer who wrote the Jyothisyashastra.

• : Grammarian and Sanskrit scholar and the author of the Prakasha, which is first grammar of the Prakrit language.

• Vetala Bhatta: A magician who wrote the Mantrashastra.

Kumaragupta I (c.415 – 455 CE)

• Adopted the title of Shakraditya and Mahendraditya and performed ashavmedha sacrifice.

• Founded the University (near present day ). • Worshipper of lord Karttikeya (son of Lord ).

• During the last years of his reign, peace was disturbed on the north-west frontier due to the invasion of the of .

• In the mid-, the ye-tha, known as White Huns (Hepthalites), became powerful in the Oxus valley.

• After occupying Bactria, the Huns crossed the Hindukush mountains and entered India by occupying .

• Their first attack during his reign was repulsed by prince . The Guptas however could not protect their empire for long and the successive waves of Hun invasion made the Guptas very weak. • This was one of the main factors which accelerated the disintegration of the Gupta Empire. • The Bilsad inscription is the oldest record of his reign and dates to Gupta year 96, which corresponds to 415 CE.

• Other inscriptions of Kumaragupta’s reign are the Karandanda, Mandsor, and Damodar Copper plate inscriptions (the latter mentions that trade guilds served as banks for advancing loans and receiving deposits in Kumaragupta’s reign).

Skandagupta (c. 455 – 467 CE)

• Faced and repulsed the Huns successfully.

• Junagarh/ inscription of his reign tells that his governor Parnadatta got the Sudarshan Lake repaired. • Adopted the title Vikramaditya.

• The Gupta Empire continued to exist but central control weakened and local governors became feudatory kings with hereditary rights.

• Later Gupta kings included , Kumaragupta II, , , Kumaragupta III, and Vishnugupta. • The Gupta Empire declined due to a variety of factors.

DECLINE OF THE GUPTAS

• Hun Invasions: In the latter half of the 5th century, weak successors of Skandagupta could not check growing Hun. Banabhatta in his Harshcharitra refers to the Huns invasion. • Rise of Feudatories: The Guptas’ power was severely curbed by the rise of feudatories. of Malwa, who belonged to Aulikara feudatory family, successfully challenged the authority of the Guptas after defeating Mihirkula, and set up 532 pillars of victory commemorating his conquest of almost the whole of northern India.

• Gradual Decline in Economic Prosperity: The gradual economic decline of the Gupta Empire is indicated by the gold coins of later Gupta rulers, which have less of gold content and more of alloy. This further aggravated the feudal tendencies of the empire and indicated lesser control on the part of the central government.

• The decline of the Gupta Empire resulted in the emergence of numerous ruling dynasties in different parts of northern India. Prominent among them were the Pushyabhutis of , scene in the Peninsular India was no different. The Chalukyas and the Pallavas emerged as strong regional powers in Deccan and northern respectively.

The Vakatakas of the Deccan

• In peninsular India, especially in northern and , the Satavahanas were succeeded by a local power known as the Vakatakas, who played an effective role in the political game of the Deccan for more than two and a half centuries.

• The Vakatakas were contemporaneous of the Guptas in northern India. • The refer to the dynasty as the Vindhyakas. The Vakatakas, who were themselves (belonging to the, Vishnuvriddha gotra) were great champions of the Brahmanical religion and performed numerous Vedic sacrifices. • Their history can be reconstructed on the basis of a large number of copper-plate land grant charters issued to the . Even though they promoted Brahminism, they were liberal in outlook and patronised as well. • The Vakatakas had matrimonial ties with the imperial Guptas (Rudrasena II of the royal Vakataka family was married to Prabhavatigupta, the daughter of Chandragupta II of the imperial Gupta family), the Nagas of Padmavati, the Kadambas of , and the Vishnukundins of Andhra. • Culturally, the Vakataka kingdom is important because it became a channel to spread Brahminical culture to southern India.

• The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture, and literature. Their legacy in terms of public works and monuments has made significant contributions to Indian culture.

• The rock-cut Buddhist and of the (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of the Vakataka king, Harisena. They are also credited with having built a few temples in Tigwa and Nachanakuthara.

• They made a remarkable contribution in the field of painting. Ajanta cave numbers XVI, XVII and XIX are the best examples of Vakataka excellence in the field of painting, in particular the painting titled Mahabhinishkramana. • Not only the Vakataka rulers, but their ministers or governors like Hastibhoja and Varahadeva also extended their benevolent patronage to the Ajanta cave painters. • Kings like Pravarasena II (celebrated author of the Setubandhakavya) and Sarvasena (author of the Harivijaya) were themselves poets of great repute in Prakrit.

• A style by name Vaidharbhariti was developed in Sanskrit during their rule, which was praised by the poets of the likes of Kalidasa, Banabhatta, and Dandin.

• The Vakatakas had a stamp of their own in their rulership, which is truly unmatched.

Vakataka Dynasty

Vindhyashakti I (c. 250 – 270 CE)

• Founder of the Vakataka dynasty, who probably ruled from Purika. • He is credited to have performed a number of Vedic sacrifices and thus revived Brahminical rituals, which were in abeyance during the rule of the later Satavahanas.

• The Ajanta Inscriptions of the time of Harisena describes him as a dvija and praises him for his military achievements.

• It is claimed that the sun was obscured by the masses of dust raised by his horses’ hooves, and he is compared with the gods Puramdara () and Upendra ().

Pravarasena (c. 270 – 330 CE)

• Vindhayasakti’s son and successor, who is considered the founder of the real power and greatness of the Vakatakas.

• He extended the empire southwards into Vidarbha and adjoining areas of the Deccan, with his capital at Kanchanaka (modern Nachna).

• His son Gautamiputra married the daughter of the Naga king Bhavanaga, which cemented an important political alliance.

• By military exploits and matrimonial alliances, he extended his kingdom from Bundelkhand in the north to Hyderabad in the south, and to commemorate his victories, he performed an asvamedha sacrifice and a vajapeya sacrifice. • He was the only Vakataka king who took the title of samrat, while all other kings took the modest title of maharaja. • After the death of Pravarasena, his four sons divided the empire and ruled independently in separate provinces. • Gautamiputra in all likelihood died during the lifetime of his father and hence, his son Rudrasena I succeeded his grandfather Pravarsena to the throne and ruled from Nandivardhana, near modern Nagpur. • Sarvasena, another son of Pravarasena, started ruling independently from Vastugulma as his capital, which is identified as modern Bassien in Vidarbha. We do not have adequate knowledge of the two other sons of Pravarasena. • By 340 CE, the Vakatakas were divided into two lines, one ruling from Nandivardhana and the other ruling from Vatsagulma.

Nandivardhana Branch/Line

Rudrasena I (c. 340 – 365 CE)

• Founder of the Vakataka Nandivardhana branch, which ruled from Nandivardhana (near Nagpur).

• He is known to have been a worshipper of Lord Mahabhairava, the fierce form of Shiva. Prithvisena I (c. 365–390 CE)

• Described in later Vakataka inscriptions as a righteous conqueror, he was compared to the epic hero due to his comparable qualities of truthfulness, transparency, compassion, and humility. Rudrasena II (c. 390–395 CE)

• Ruled only for a period of five years as he died prematurely, leaving behind three minor sons Divakarasena, Damodarasena, and Pravarasena. • His wife Prabhavatigupta ruled as the regent until 410 CE.

• Unfortunately, Divakarasena also died prematurely and did not live long enough to ascend the throne but his younger brothers Damodarasena and Pravavarasena II did. Pravarasena II (c. 395 – 440 CE)

• Largest number of Vakataka inscriptions belongs to his reign. • A dozen copper-plate grants of his were discovered in different parts of Vidarbha, though Prabhavatigupta continued to issue inscriptions in her own right and died during the later part of her son’s reign. Prithivisena II (c. 460 – 480 CE)

• Last known ruler of Nandivardhana branch of the Vakataka dynasty, who is credited with the revival the fallen fortunes of the Vakatakas. Vatsagulma Branch/Line

• The second major Vakataka line was the Vatsagulma branch, which had its capital at Vatsagulma (modern Washim in Akola district, Maharashtra). • The founder of the Vatsagulma line of the Vakatakas was Sarvasena, the son of Pravarasena I. Sarvasena (c. 330 – 355 CE)

• Adopted the title -maharaja.

• Was believed to be a renowned Prakrit poet, and his lost work, the Harivijaya, was lauded by later writers. II/ Vindhyasena (c. 355 – 400 CE)

• He ruled for almost four decades and his kingdom seems to have included the Marathwada region comprising of the southern part of Vidarbha, the northern part of Hyderabad state, and some other adjoining territories. Harisena (c.475 – 500 CE)

• Last known king of the Vatsagulma line, who not only united the two Vakataka branches but also extended his territories by conquering Kuntala, , Kalinga, , , and Andhra. With the death of Harisena II, the glory of the Vakatakas ended and the Nalas, the Kadambas, the Kalachuris, and Yasodharman of Malwa occupied their territory.

Various Facets of Life under the Guptas and the Vakatakas Administrative Organisation

• The king was the focus of administration and Gupta kings adopted pompous titles like parameshwara, maharajadhiraja, paramabhattaraka, parama-daivata (the foremost worshipper of gods), and paramabhagavata (foremost worshipper of Vasudeva ).

• The Gupta kings also tried to exalt their status by comparing them with gods.

• The Allahabad prashasti thus which describes Samudragupta as a god dwelling on earth, equal to the gods Dhanada (Kuber), (god of the waters), Indra, and Antaka (), who had no antagonist of equal power in the world. • Unlike the Mauryan period, where the political authority was concentrated in the hands of the king, the Gupta administration was decentralized in nature and contained many feudatories like local kings and smaller chiefs, who ruled over large parts of their empire.

• The kingship was normally hereditary but there was an absence of the practice of primogeniture (that is, throne always going to the eldest son).

• The Gupta bureaucracy was less elaborate as compared to that of the Mauryas. The most important officers under the Guptas were called the kumaramatyas, with an office of their own called the adhikarana. • They were appointed by the king and were possibly paid in cash. All important functionaries like the mantri and the senapati were recruited from this cadre.

• Administrative posts were not only hereditary, but often several offices were combined in the hands of the same person. • For instance, Harisena, the composer of the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta, was a mahadandanayaka (chief judicial officer) as well as a mahasandhivigrahika (minister for war and peace), and also the son of mahadandanayaka Dhruvabhuti. • The Gupta Empire was divided into provinces known as deshas, rashtra, or bhuktis and their head was called uparika. • The provinces were further divided into a number of districts called pradeshas or vishayas, which were placed under the charge of vishayapati. • In eastern India, the vishayas were divided into vithis, which were further divided into villages. The village headman called gramadhyaksha/ gramika looked after the affairs of the village with the help of village elders.

• Their empire was also divided into provinces called rashtras or rajyas, which were administered by governors known as rajyadhikritas.

• The provinces were further divided into vishayas, which were again divided into aharas and bhogas/bhuktis.

• An officer called sarvadhyaksha presumably appointed and directed subordinate officers known as kulaputras.

• Empire Division Structure:The urban administration included the additional feature of organised professional bodies.

• The judicial system was far more developed under the Gupta rulers than in earlier times. For the first time, civil and criminal laws were clearly demarcated.

• Theft and adultery were subjects treated under criminal law. Disputes regarding various types of property formed the body of civil law. • Elaborate laws were laid down about inheritance. However, like earlier periods, laws were based on the varna hierarchy.

• The supreme judicial power rested with king and he tried cases with the help of the priests. There was the office of mahanadanyaka, who probably functioned as chief justice. • Uparikas and Vishyapatis in their respective territorial jurisdiction dispensed the judicial function. Interestingly, the guilds of merchants and artisans were governed by their own laws and capital punishment was not at all given (as reported by Fa- Hien). The Economy

• Gupta period witnessed an increase in land taxes but a decrease in trade and commerce taxes (such as shulka or tolls).

• The period from c. 4th century to 8th century was a period of agricultural expansion.

• Due to the practice of granting lands to Brahmans (brahmadeyas, agraharas or shasanas) and to some other officers, vast areas of virgin land were brought under cultivation and major improvements were made in the existing methods of production to attain higher yield.

• The king collected taxes varying from one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce. Two new agricultural taxes that appear in Gupta inscriptions are uparikara (probably a tax imposed on temporary tenants) and udranga (its exact nature is not clear, but might be water tax or a sort of police tax). • There is also mention of vata-bhuta tax, which probably refers to cesses for the maintenance of rites performed for the winds and spirits, and halirakara, probably plough tax.

• In addition to these taxes, peasants were also subjected to vishti (forced labour) for serving the royal army and officials.

• Till 550 CE, India continued to have some trade with the Eastern Roman empire, to which it exported silk, and spices.

• Around the sixth century, the Romans learnt the art of rearing silk worms, which adversely affected India’s export foreign trade. • The disruption of the north-western trade route by the Huns was another factor for this decline. India tried to make up for the loss by carrying on trade with South- East Asian countries, but it did not help revive the economy substantially. • The loss in trade lessened the inflow of gold and silver into the country. It is confirmed by a general scarcity of gold coins after the Guptas. • In ancient India, the Guptas issued a large number of gold coins called dinaras though the gold content is not as pure as Kushan ones. • After the conquest of the of Gujarat, they issued a large number of silver coins (rupyakas) mainly for local exchange and very few copper coins. Society

• The structure of the society underwent change in the Gupta period. • The brahmana supremacy not only continued but rather increased in Gupta times, as evident from the large number of land grants to the brahmanas not only from the rulers (brahmadeya) but from certain categories of other people too.

• In return of this favour and support, brahmanas presented the Gupta kings as possessing attributes of gods and tried to legitimise the position of the Guptas.

• The Guptas, who were originally vaishyas, came to be looked upon as by the brahmanas.

• Since the brahmadeya land was given along with administrative rights and tax exemptions, it resulted in creation of a new class of brahmana landlords. • The social and economic status of improved during this period. They were now allowed to listen to the , the , and the Puranas. • They could also perform some domestic rituals that were earlier prohibited for them and could now even worship a new god called Krishna. • The Chinese traveler Fa-Hien mentions in his memoirs that the chandalas lived outside the village and had to maintain distance from the upper castes.

• The chandalas suffered such glaring lack of privilege that whenever they entered towns or market places they would strike a piece of wood to announce their arrival, so that the others might not touch them and get polluted.

• In south India, the notion of untouchability seems to have arrived in the late Sangam age. • The status of women deteriorated further in the Gupta period. The main reason for the subordination of women was their complete dependence on men for their livelihood. • The women lacked property rights. However, they had full right of their stridhana (the presents received by the bride at the time of her marriage). • In the Harshacharita of Banabhata, the queen performs on the death of her husband, king Prabhakaravardhana. • Dharamshastra (law books) texts belonging to the period reflect a tendency towards lowering the age of marriage for girls and advocating a celibate and austere life for widows. Religion

• The period c. 300–600 CE is often considered as the phase of consolidation of Brahmanical ideology as temple-based sectarian cults became popular and Sanskrit was firmly established as the language of royal inscriptions.

• In the Gupta period, smarta religious practices (practice based on the Smritis) became popular.

• Sectarian symbols such as the linga, trishula, bull, Gaja-, chakra, and shankha (conch shell) appeared on the royal , coins, and seals.

• acquired its present shape Gupta age only.

• The Gupta rulers gave patronage to Bhagvatism, which was centred around the worship of Bhagvat or Vishnu and his incarnations.

• Later, Vishnu came to be identified with Krishna Vasudeva, a legendary hero of the Vrishni tribe who gave the historic sermon of Bhagvat Gita in the epic of Mahabharata. So Bhagvatism was also identified with . It put emphasis on bhakti (loving devotion) and ahimsa (non-killing of animals, which is why it stresses more on vegetarianism) rather than Vedic rituals and sacrifices.

• The new religion was quite liberal, and assimilated the lower classes in its fold.

• According to the Bhagvat Gita, the chief text of Bhagvatism, whenever there was a social crisis; Vishnu would appear in a human form and save the people.

• Thus, ten incarnations of Vishnu were envisioned. The Puranas were written to popularise the virtues of each one of these incarnations. Thus, by the end of the Gupta period, Buddhism was overshadowed by Bhagavatism and Vishnu became a member of the trinity of gods along with Shiva and Brahma. • Idol worship became a common feature and the idols of different incarnations of Vishnu were housed in the temples constructed in the Gupta period.

• There was also an emergence of worship of composite deities such as Hari-hara, who is a part Vishnu, and part Shiva, and religious syncretism (for instance, the incorporation of the Buddha as one of the ten Vishnu avatars). • This period also saw a myriad of local cults, beliefs, and practices.

• The popular devotional worship included worship of stone and terracotta images of various demy-gods and demigoddesses such as , yakshini, nagas, , and .

• This phenomenon clearly establishes the attempts of the dominant religious traditions to not only establish links with the popular cults but also points towards their efforts to subordinate them.

• The Gupta kings were devout Hindus, but they followed a policy of tolerance towards other religious sects.

• The Chinese pilgrims FaHien and Hiuen Tsang, who came to India during the reign of Chandragupta II and respectively, clearly give the impression that Buddhism was also flourishing. • However, some and viharas were constructed and Nalanda developed as a great centre of education for Mahayana Buddhism during his time. • There was also spread of Tantrism in India in this period.

• The tribal’s were assimilated in the Brahminical fold as shudras, and simultaneously, the tribal elements came to be assimilated in the Brahminical society. • The brahmanas also adopted their rituals, gods, and goddesses. It is this assimilation of Brahminical religion and tribal practices which resulted in the development of Tantrism.

• Some general features of Tantrism include the importance attached to rituals, yogic practices, terrifying deities, sexual rites, and an emphasis on ‘shakti’ (energy), which was conceived to be feminine. Literature

• The Gupta period is considered as the Golden Age of art and literature in ancient India. • The literature in this period was written in Sanskrit. A huge body of religious and secular literature was compiled in this period.

• The two great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were finally compiled in the 4th century CE.

• The stories of both the epics symbolize the victory of good over evil. • It also marks the beginning of the writing of the Puranas.

• The major Puranas written in this period are the , Vayu Purana, and the Matsya Purana.

• For the worship of Shiva, Shiv Purana was composed, whereas the various incarnations of Vishnu are glorified in the Purana, Purana, and the Narasimha Purana. • Some Smritis or law books were also compiled in the Gupta period. One of these, the Smriti throws light on the general social and economic rules and regulations of the period.

• Several dharamashastras such as Yajnavalkya, Narada, and Brihaspati Smritis were composed in this period.

• The secular literature gems of this period have greater emphasis on verse as opposed to prose, and they include classic works of the following:

• Kalidasa: Kalidasa was one of the navratnas of Chandragupta II. His works are very famous and have been translated in many European languages. Some of his works are: • Meghaduta

• Abhijyanashakuntalam: Considered a classic and one of the best hundred literary works in the world. It was first translated in English by Charles Wilkins and is one of the most widely translated works. • Kumarasambhavam: Story about the birth of Shiva and Parvati’s son and also contains references of Sati system • Raghuvamsha: Depicts Vishnu as the origin and the end of the universe.

• Ritusamhara: Poem describing the cycle of seasons. • Malvikagnimitram: First Dramatic work of Kalidasa, for the celebration of Vasantutsava (spring festival). • Shudraka: Writer of the play Mrichchhkatikam (Little Clay Cart), which deals with the love affair of a poor brahmana with the beautiful daughter of a courtesan. • Vishakhadatta: Author of Mudrarakshasa and . • : Writer of a Sanskrit kavya in the 6th century, Kiratarjuniya, which describes the combat between and Lord Shiva in the guise of a kirata or a mountaindwelling hunter. • Dandin: Writer of Kavyadarshana and Dasakumaracharita.

• Amarshima: Author of the Sanskrit lexicon Amarakosha. • Bhasa: Celebrated writer of 13 plays, including Madhyamavyayoga, Duta- Ghatotkacha, Dutavakya, Balacharita, and Charudatta. • Vishnusharman: Author of the Panchatantra .

• Mentha: Author of the Hayagrivavadha. It is rather interesting to note that Sanskrit literature has produced five , all of which belong to Gupta Empire:

1. Raghuvamsham 2. Kumarasambhavam by Kalidasa 3. Kiratarjuniyam by Bharavi 4. Shishupal-vadha by Magha: Describes the slaying of Shishupala by Krishna. 5. Naisadhiyacharitam by Sri Harsa: On the life of King Nala and Queen Damayanti. Art and Architecture

• Ancient Indian art was mainly inspired by religion. As in earlier times, Buddhism gave a great impetus to art in Gupta period as well. • A life-sized bronze image of the Buddha (around 2 metres in height) belonging to the school has been found from Sultanganj in Bihar. • Beautiful images of the Buddha were also created at Mathura and . The finest examples of during Gupta period are the paintings of Ajanta caves, which are now, included in the list of the World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO.

• Out of the 28 caves at Ajanta, 23 belong to the Vakataka period, while five caves were excavated during the Satavahana period. • Apart from narrative scenes connected with the Buddha, the , and the Jatakas, the Ajanta frescos depict religious scenes of yakshas, gandharvas, apasaras, and include scenes from everyday life as well. • Surprisingly, these paintings with lustrous colors have not fared even after fourteen centuries. The Bagh cave paintings near Gwalior can be termed Buddhist art as well, and as compared with Ajanta, are more simple and plain. • The Gupta period marks beginning of Indian temple architecture, as temples in the form of concrete structures were constructed in northern India for the first time. • These temples were made in the architectural style known as Nagara, in which generally flat-roofed square temples were built. • Two of these temples, in which the images of Vishnu are placed in the centre as a chief deity, are found at Bhitargaon in Kanpur (made of bricks), and the stone sculpture of Nara Narayana from the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh in Jhansi.

• The sculptures pertaining to period of c. 300 – 600 CE not only show a continuation of earlier styles and trends derived from Mathura and Gandhara schools, but also show introduction of new styles. • The inspiration of the themes for sculpture was drawn from Hindu, Buddhist, and Jaina traditions. • Many Vaishnava sculptures, which include images of the avatars such as boar, man-lion, dwarf, and Vasudeva-Krishna, have been found at Mathura. • One of the largest known free standing stone images belonging to this period is a colossal figure of Krishna effortlessly lifting up Govardhana Mountain, found at .

• A stone sculpture of a larger than life figure of a horse (probably representing an ashavmedha horse) carved out of beige sandstone found at Khairigarh in Uttar Pradesh too belongs to this period. • The cave architecture of this period is almost entirely Buddhist, but there are a few exceptions such as the caves at Udaigiri, near , which has the famous relief scene of Vishnu rescuing the earth from the waters in the form of Nri-Varaha (body of a man and head of a boar), and , the largest one of which is dedicated to Shiva.

• The Buddha images of this period displayed a greater variety of than before. For instance, the Buddha images from Sarnath differed in several ways (as robes have no folds) from those of Mathura. • The spectacular Bamiyan Buddha sculptures which were tragically destroyed by the Taliban too belonged to this period. • A dated stone image of a seated belonging to 432 CE was excavated at Mathura, which was different from the seated figurines of preceding centuries.

• The Gupta coins are also pieces of art. They are well designed and meticulously crafted. They carry aesthetically impressive depictions of the activities of the rulers. • At many places such as Kaushambi, Rajghat, Bhita, and Mathura, terracotta figurines and plaques have been found. Science and Technology

• The Gupta period is unparalleled for its achievements in mathematics and astronomy. The roots of Indian mathematics can be traced to the Shulvasutras, which were the appendices to the Shrautasutras. • The Shulvasutras were the manuals for the preparation of the site where Vedic sacrificial rituals were to be performed and they laid the foundations of geometry Some of the notable and eminent personalities belonging to this era are:

1. Aryabhatta I: Father of Algebra and the earliest known astronomer of India, who probably resided at Pataliputra and wrote two astronomical texts called the Aryabhatiya (a text which deals with astronomy and mathematics) and Aryabhata-siddhanta (which has not survived and is known only through references in later works). Aryabhatta is noted for: 2. He was first to discover that the earth rotates on its axis andii. 3. First astronomer to give a scientific explanation of eclipses as he established that they are not caused by some demons but by the moon coming between the Earth and the sun. 4. Varahamihira: a 6th century astronomer, astrologer, mathematician and scholar, who was one of the navratnas of Chandragupta II and belonged to Avanti,. 5. Brahmagupta: Late 6th/7th century astronomer and well known mathematician who made important contributions to geometry. He was the first mathematician to discuss the method of obtaining a cyclic quadrilateral having rational sides and determined the formulae to find the area of a cyclic quadrilateral 6. Mahavira: A famous 9th century mathematician of Karnataka who lived in the court of the Rashtrakuta king Amoghvarsha, and wrote a book called the Ganitasarasangraha, which deals with various mathematical problems. 7. Bhaskara II: Author of the Lilavati written in the 12th century, which contains important ideas of calculus. 8. Vagbhata: A disciple of Charaka and distinguished physician of Ayurvedic system of medicine from c. 600 CE. He wrote the Ashtangahridaya (meaning ‘Heart of Medicine’) and the Ashtangasamgraha (meaning ‘Tome on Medicine’). 9. Maharishi Palakapya: He wrote the Hastyayurveda, a treatise dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of the major diseases of elephants through medication and surgery. 10. Dhanvantri: He was famous for his knowledge of Ayurveda. 11. Kashyapa: A 7th century physician who compiled his Ayurvedic knowledge in a compendium which dealt with the diseases of women and children. 12. Sushruta: The famous author of the Sushruta Samhita, which deals with surgery.