\

.FROM THE EDITOR'S DESK

IDPAD Newsletter: The India Launch

e are re-launching the Newsletter of the Indo-Dutch Programme in Alternatives in Development (IDPAD). This is the first issue of the IDPAD Newsletter being brought out from India-and therefore in many ways it is special. Between 1996 and 2001, the IDPAD Dutch Secretariat had successfully published it from The Hague. It was then decided to move the publication from The Hague to the Indian Secretariat in New Delhi. We took a break from the publication as new arrangements had to be put in place. This issue, therefore, carries several reports of activities undertaken during the past year. We have also made some changes in the design and format. As earlier, the Newsletter will continue to be published twice a year. IDPAD is the result of intensive interaction and collaboration between Indian and Dutch social scientists and policy makers. launched in 1980, this bi-lateral programme has already completed four successful phases and the fifth phase (2002-2006) is currently underway. For the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) and the Netherlands Foundation for the Advancement of Tropical Research (WOTRO), the IDPAD is a prestigious and successful joint effort to search for "Alternatives in Development" in India. As the country moves forward to savour the fruits of economic growth and technological advancement, formidable social and environmental challenges confront us, and the goal of sustainable all-round development remains to be attained. IDPAD is there to help our academics and policy-makers search for alternatives pathways and do innovative thinking to bring about a significant rise in the quality of life, social security and a cleaner environment. It is this intervention which makes the programme most relevant today. IDPAD aims to stimulate and support research in the social sciences in India with the mandate that it lead to recommendations for development policy and practice, through a pr.ocess of active interaction between researchers and potential users of research. During the fifth phase, IDPAD will focus on five key areas of activity -research projects; seminars and workshops; exchange of scholars; publications and dissemination; and access to information. Six main themes for research have been identified by the IDPAD for this phase. They are i) employment and social security ii) the contested environment iii) population and health iv)education v) information and communication technologies and vi) mega cities. We carry a number of important reports and articles in this new issue. The article and a conference report on primary education bring into sharp focus the need to take a fresh look at this vital sector, while the article on displaced people of South Asia provides an insight into this complicated issue. Readers will also find the 'Clash of Civilizations' thought provoking for the perspective that it provides. The reports on labour, energy management and environmental protection, and child labour are all topical. The articles, reports and book review in this issue reinforce the IDPAD themes adopted for the fifth phase. We also carry the list of selected projects that IDPAD will fund in the fifth phase. It marks the end result of a year's rigorous work. We congratulate the scholars whose projects have been selected. The features and the reports have been inter-woven to present a balanced format. The feedback from our esteemed readers, I am sure, will enhance the quality of future issues. Happy reading! ~~

(Bhaskar Chatterjee)

IDPAD Newsoletter VoL I, No.1 Jan., Jun~ 2003

PROFILE.

nial environment where the participants were not distracted by other engagements and, therefore, had the opportunity to interact An Innovative Concept even after the closure of the workshop.

The Gains The workshops provided substantial feedback to the researchers, particularly on the shortcomings of the pre-proposals. They were also provided detailed guidelines, including guide- lines for budgeting, to prepare the final project proposal. According to one of the experts:

"The workshops established a systematic and objective method of selecting research proposals; helped researchers as they received comments from experts, Pre-proposal workshops are among the able. The presentations were followed by and also created a healthy environment in many innovative ideas comments by the experts of the Task Forces, which meaningful discussions could be that have been introduced in selecting and a general discussion among the held on the research proposals." research project proposals in the Fifth Phase participants. Given the time constraint, it was of the Indo-Dutch Programme on an effective system and each presentation Alternatives in Development (IDPAD). Six was heard care- fully. Three of the such workshops were conducted in workshops -Em- ployment and Social December 2002 and January 2003 in Security, Educa- tion, Population and Health It also opened up possibilities for Surajkund, Bangalore and Sariska. Scholars -were held in Surajkund in the outskirts of interaction among the researchers in the whose pre-pro- posals had been short-listed Delhi. The Information and Communi- field, networking, and potential mutual for the fi- nal round of selection, made cations Technology workshop was held in collaboration. In fact, although only a third presen- tations on their research proposals Bangalore and was organized to coincide of the selected proposals for the workshop followed by a lively interaction with the with the IDPAD's interna- tional conference would be finally selected, all the scholars Task Force members who had evalu- ated the on 'ICTs and India's Development'. Lastly, would have gained immensely from this proposals and other scholars. The aim was to the workshops on Environment and Mega experience in terms of their research work in enable the research- ers to present their Cities were held in Sariska in Rajasthan. The the field. 8 proposals and its significance for critical plan to hold the workshops outside Delhi Sanchita Dutta / IDPAD evaluation and comments by other experts proved to be wise -it was a conge- and utilise the comments for revising and improv- ing the final project proposal to be sub- mitted to IDPAD by March 3, 2003. It was also an opportunity for the IDPAD and the Task Forces to get to know the researchers and their capabilities for undertaking the projects.

The Format and Process The day long workshops divided the 12- 16 short-listed proposals into common thematic panels to facilitate discussions. Each presentation was for 10-15 minutes and most scholars used MS-power point to most effi- ciently utilise the limited time avail-

4 IDPAD Newsletter Vol. I, No.1 Jan -June 2003

.PROFILE

List of Selected projects Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala PHASE V, I DPAD (5.2.110).

4. Negotiated livelihoods: contending development visions (by and for) tribal villagers living in the Tansa Wildlife Theme 1: Employment and Social Security sanctuary, S. Louw, University of Witwatersrand, South Africa and P. Mondal, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, 1. The right to food in India, N.C. Saxena, Centre for Mumbai (5.2.67). Equity Studies, New Delhi (5.1.129). 5. Contested wetlands in the Gangetic Plains of India: developing frameworks for the evaluation of sustainable self- 2. Globalisation, labour markets and employment security for governance systems for wetland conservation and workers in the unorganised sector in India, A.N. Sharma, management, Pia Sethi, TERI, New Delhi (5.2.88) Institute for Human Development., New Delhi and M. Rutten, University of Amsterdam (5.1.87) Theme 3: Population and Health 3. The condition of poverly in Gujarat: Looking b ack and ahead, G. Shah, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 1. Perspectives on reproductive health in Dharwad, and J. Breman, Amsterdam School of Social Science Karnataka, I. Hutter, Population Research Centre, Research (5.1.17). Groningen and 8.M. Ramesh, J.S.S. Institute of Economic Research, Vidyagiri, Dharwad, Karnataka (5.3.81) 4. Globalisation and informalisation: consequences for skill formation, security and gender, J. Unni, Gujarat Institute of Development, Ahmedabad and S. Uchikawa, Institute of 2. Care of the aged: gender; institutional provisions and social Developing Economies, Japan (5.1.19). security in India, The Netherlands and Sri Lanka, S.I.Rajan, Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum and C. 5. Political economy of labour in a globalised world, Risseeuw, Leiden University and M. Perera, Marga Institute, Sunanda Sen, Academy of Third World Studies Sri Lanka (5.3.79). Jamianagar, New Delhi and B. Dasgupta, University of Kalyani, West Bengal (5.1.28). 3. Expanding basic maternal and child care services for accelerating decline in fertility in high fertility areas in India: an operational research with birth-based ap- proach, Theme 2: The Contested Environment K.Srinivasan and C.P. Prakassam, International Institute of Population Sciences, Deonar, Mumbai (5.3.8). 1. Negotiating conflict: gender; equity resource rights and institutional practice in integrated river basin management, S. Ahme.Q, UTTHAN, Ahmedabad and M Buchy, Institute of 4. Health Status in Kerala: a life course perspective Social Studies, The Hague (5.2.10). (a cross sectional study to identify the pattern, determi nants and inequality of health status in terms of morbidity, mortality 2. Invariant dependency on common property resources at and utilisation of health care systems I services across stages different stages of development: a case study of water in of life course), India, P.R. Panchamukhi, Centre for Multi- Disciplinary Development Research, Karnataka K. Navaneetham and M. Kabir, Centre for Development Studies, Trivandrum, and K Rajamohanan, Medical College, (5.2.118) Trivandrum (5.3.76).

3. Cooperation in a context of crisis: public-private management of marine fisheries in South Asia, J.M. 5. Health and healing in western Maharashtra: role of Bavinck, University of Amsterdam and K. T. Thomson, traditional healing centres (THCs) in mental health

service delivery, B. V. Davar, Centre for Advocacy in P. van der Veer, Amsterdam School for Social Science Mental Health (CAMH), Pune (5.3.11). Research, Amsterdam (5.5.15)

6. Health sector reforms: public-private partnership in the 3. Cross border diffusion and development impact of provision of health care services to the poor, information technology: A comparative study of India and A.V. Raman, University of Delhi, New Delhi and selected EU countries,C.P.Chandrasekhar, Centre for J. Bjorkman. Institute of Social Studies (IS5), The Hague Economic Studies and Planning, Jawaharlal Nehru (5.3.96). University, New Delhi and A. Kleinknecht, Delft Univer- sity of Technology, Delft (5.5.20) Theme 4: Primary Education 4. Enabled or disabled: The future of work relations in , 1, Palanquin bearers: education, decentralisation and Indian ITES Organizations,E.Noronha and P. D'Cruz, social inequalities, M. Majumdar, Centre for Studies in I.I.M Kozhikode, Kerala, Social Sciences, Kolkata and J.Mooij, Royal Tropical (5.5.26) Institute, Amsterdam (5.4.38). Theme 6: Mega Cities

2. The nowhere children: a study of daily practice and 1. New forms of governance in Indian mega-cities: hidden concerns, G.K.Lieten, Amsterdam School of Social decentralisation, financial management and partner ships in Science Research, Amsterdam and N.Ramachandran, urban environmental services, I.Baud, University of Institute for Human Development, New Delhi (5.4.68). Amsterdam and A.Kundu, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi (5.6.26)

3. Reconstructing contents and methods of teaching for dalit 2. Inclusive Mega-Cities in Asia in a Globalising World, children, S.Kumar, Deshkal Society, New Delhi and Darshini Mahadevia,Centre for Development Alternatives, S.Bhushan, Patna University, Patna (5.4.39). Ahmedabad (5.6.8)

4. Gender context of girls in primary schools in Mumbai and 3. Safety in public spaces: Women in Mumbai, R.Srivastava, Ahmedabad -an assessment, S. Shukla, Vacha Partners for Urban Knowledge Action and Research, Trust, Mumbai and A.Yagnik, SETU -Centre for Social Mumbai(5.6.53) Knowledge and Action, Ahmedabad (5.4.52) 4. Envisioning the city and the politics of development, 5. An innovative school-home relationship as a pedagogic M.S.S. Pandian, Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural solution for the integration of artisans and other Heritage,Chennai and A.Srivathsan, School of Architecture marginalized groups, N.Kumar, Centre for Postcolonial and Planning, Anna University, Chennai Education.. Varanasi and N.Ram, Dr.Babasaheb (5.6.3) Arfibedkar National Institute of Social Science, New Delhi (5.4.119) 5. Mapping city spaces: communal violence, social reconciliation and documentary practices of the state, Theme 5: ICTs D.Mehta, Dept.of Sociology, Delhi School of Economics University of Delhi, New Delhi (5.6.55) 1. Communication technologies, digital environments and intellectual property regimes: a social and cultural study, R. Vasudevan, Centre for the study of Developing Societies, New Delhi (5.5.35)

2. Indian IT professionals in India and The Netherlands: work, culture and transnationalism, A.R.Vasavi, National Institute of Advanced Studies (NIAS), Bangalore and

6

.ISSUES

A Talk by Peter van der Veer

Eminent Dutch Indologist and Social very relevant. He wrote on Religions of the fundamental clash of interest be- Anthropologist Peter van der Veer is a India and Communalism in the tween Western and Islamic as well as specialist on religion based social and Encyclopedia of the Social and Behav- Chinese Confucian 'civilizations'. Re- political movements in India and has ioral Sciences, and has a chapter en- cent international and domestic devel- done extensive work on the politics of titled "Religious Nationalism and Glo- opments have kept the debate alive and religion Prof. van der Veer is the Co- bal Fundamentalism" in A.K. Bagchi central to politics in many parts of the Chairman of the Indo Dutch Programme (ed), Comparatives Essays in India world. The world is witnessing a series on Alternatives in Development and Indonesia. of conflicts in the form of armed (IDPAD) and also the Chaim7an of the On the occasion of the inaugural militancy; terrorism and intolerance. renowned Intemational Institute of Asian lecture under the ICSSR-IIAS joint Peaceful co-existence among commu- Studies (liAS) in Leiden. In both these programme for the promotion of Asian nities, states, and religions has come capacities he has strong ties with the Studies launched in May 2002, Prof. under stress in many societies. Yet as ICSSR. Since 2000. Prof: van der Veer van der Veer was invited by ICSSR globalization spreads, peaceful co- has also been the Chairman of the Chairman Prof. V.R. Panchamukhi to existence becomes critically important International Institute for the Study of talk on issues raised by Samuel Hun- among cultures, religions, ideologies, Islam in the Modern World. He teaches tington in his Foreign Affairs article and and differences over approaches to at the University of Amsterdam and in the subsequent book on the 'Clash of development. As we are well aware this recent years has diversified his interest Civilisations'. The issues and the debate is not always easily attained. to include the impact of communication have regained prominence in the We are sure scholars and revolution on society and transnational aftermath of the September 11, 2001 policymakers will find this talk inter- class formation. His latest book Im- events and have evoked strong esting and thought-provoking. perial Encounters: Religion and worldwide reactions, especially in Sanchita Dutta Modernity in India and Britain is an heterogonous and multi-cultural states important study on an issue that is still such as India, and the Islamic states. One of its principal arguments is on

issue concerns Islam and the West. Peter van der Veer: "Huntington takes much of I am here on an invitation from the Huntington takes much of his ideas from ICSSR Chairman, Prof. Panchamukhi, his ideas from an article 'the an article 'the Root of Muslim Rage' by to speak on a topic rather general in Root of Muslim Rage' by (Bernard) Lewis who is one of the major nature i.-5., 'Clash of Civilizations'. And (Bernard) Lewis who is one writers in the United States on Muslim this is indeed revisited because of the major writers in the affairs and has dealt at length on how to scholars from around the world have United States on Muslim deal with the differences between already debated this issue some years western civilization built on the two ago. Huntington's article was published affairs and h~s dealt at pillars of Christianity and the sometime after the Gulf War in 1992- length on how to deal with Enlightenment and Islam. 93 and the book was published in the differences between It is interesting to note that Hun- 1996. Most people rejected the Hun- tington thesis because they saw that it western civilization built on tington was earlier interested in an- other was not scholarly founded. But after the clash, namely between communism and 9/11 the issue became prominent two pillars of Christianity capitalism. But then that contradiction again. And there must be a reason for and the Enlightenment and disappeared after the collapse of the that. This is what I am trying to explore Berlin Wall. International relations had to in revisiting the debate. The central Islam." find a new subject and now they have definitely found IDPAD Newsletter Vol. NO. Jan -June ~UU5

ISSUFS one -civilization. The new idea is to define the world order in terms of the division of civilizations. In his earlier writings Huntington had emphasized the universality of western civilization and the need for the project of the en- lightenment with its stress on universal values to be transplanted to all parts of the world. These values were seen to be an essential part of being modern. Modernity means being en- lightened in the tradition of the European enlightenment. In his new writing, Huntington gives up the application of the term civilization as a universal western standard to judge other guage of the Crown but not of Muslim societies and instead emphasizes the civilization, since most Muslims do not “My argument is: religion lack of a universal standard and the speak Arabic. Clearly, there exists a existence of essential differences be- deep connection between nation states in Europe became important tween civilizations with each having its and civilization. When you look at, for only in the 19th century. own standards. In his view there can- example, the work of the sociologists on Before that it was of much not be a universal civilization, since the civilization then it is very clear that the less relevance in public life. central elements of any civilization - idea of civilization is linked to the idea of This is a radical claim. language and religion -do not show any national character. The notion of Mobilization of large sign of developing into one universal civilization in Europe is very much language or one universal religion. groups of population for the connected to the rise of the nationalism. Huntington therefore rejects the old The move by Hunting- ton to separate political goals of modernization thesis and with it the civilization and the nation state is a democracy makes meaning of modernization. Therefore, complicated one, and this should be religion useful.” the project of universal human rights interrogated. Hunting- ton by being advocated by the United Nations emphasizing civilization at the expense and by the United States is not viable, of the nation state fails to give any and they should stop doing this. We interpretation as to why and how the role should accept that there are differences of nation states has changed in in civilizations and different people have international politics. He also ignores the different values and ways of doing connection between religion and things and no one should interfere. So nationalism. It is the analysis of this let there be widow burning in India, let connection, which leads to a better them kill children in China and so on understanding of so-called funda- and so forth. This is a radical de- mentalism and religion. parture from the earlier position found in In my talk today, I will in the first the United States. section address the role of religion in the Huntington is right in noticing the development of national cultures. After fatal contradiction between linguistic that I will look at the possible decline of diversity and the emergence of univer- nation states as a result of globalization sal language. He knows the importance and the role of transnational religions. I of nation states in creating national will return to the 'clash civilizations' in my languages; how national languages have conclusion. replaced civilisational languages like Latin and Sanskrit. Per- haps Arabic can Religion and the Nation state still be seen as an example of a So let's look at the relation between civilisational language but even there religion and the nation state. Religion, one can discern important national like language, is a carrier of civilization. differences in the spoken language. For example, let's take Britain and However, Arabic is the lan- Holland; these are two prime examples

8 luPAD Newsletter VOl. No.1 Jan -June 2003

.ISSUES

of the results of the formation and the rise of of the products of these recruitment patterns. modern states as they emerged in 19th One year ago, he addressed one of the major century Europe. In both these societies the universities in Beijing by reminding the social significance of religion increased during audience that it would be better for the the industrial and political transformations of Chinese to convert to Christianity. One can the 19th century. My argument is: religion in imagine what kind of response there was in Europe became important only in the 19th China to this particular propaganda. I only century. Before that it was of much less want to say that the idea of the secu- relevance in public life. This is a radical claim. larization understood as disappearance of Mobilization of large groups of population for religion from the public domain is very uneven "...religion has been central to the political goals of democracy makes in the West. It has very different histories, and the religion useful. The socio-political changes in has connections with different patterns of development of modern state formations. There is certainly no genuine the 19th century played a crucial role in the institutions such as democracy transformation of the population into a modern model. in many western societies. The public necessary for the modern nation. As I People who recognize the importance of have argued else- where religion has been religion for the creation of modern institutions, secularization of British and central to the development of modern i.e., democratic institutions often make a Dutch societies did not take institutions such as democracy in many distinction between good and bad religions. place in the 19th century as a western societies. The secularization of Brit- Good religions are those that help in the result of the industrial ish and Dutch societies did not take place in construction of civil society, and bad religions revolution or after the rise of are those that seek to under- mine it. But this the 19th century as a result of the industrial the modern nation states. It revolution or after the rise of the modern is not so simple as it seems, mostly the case nation states. It took place only in the 20th material on this is from western Christianity. It took place only in the 20th century -in a period so different from each might be possible and even likely that different century -in a period so other that it defies universal explanation by a religious traditions have different views about different from each other that secularization thesis. In fact in the civil society. What role religions should play in it defies universal explanation the public de- bate for furthering civil society Netherlands secularization and the drop in by a secularization thesis. II attendance in Church only happened in the as a kind of marker of being good religion or end of the 1960s. So the idea of the bad religion is a complicated business secularization of the European minds in the because religions have claims about society, 19th century is basically bogus. It is also not on what constitutes public debate and who is true of En- gland; it is actually not true of any a moral person. So people who are arguing place. There are different periods and very from non- Christian religious standpoints different histories connected to the decline in might have very different views about author- the importance of religion, of Church ity, free debate and civil society than those attendance and any importance of churches in who argue from the Enlightenment tradition of the various European states. secularism. State- society relations are also The United States, a major modern nation very different in different parts of the world state, offers an even more different picture. and public opinion is accordingly very dif- Secularization here is very uneven and ferently constituted. religion continues to have a strong public At this point one should recognize that secularization is not only about the role of presence even today. The continuance of the Franco- American Christianity appears to be Christianity in the West, i.e., Western Europe largely attained through the aggressive and United States of America. As I have recruitment pattern of the religious or- already said the process is complex and there ganizations, which has not been as successful is no single pattern even there. It is more in Western Europe. President George Bush complex in relation to Islam, Hinduism, Jr., himself is one

IDPAU Newsletter Vol. I, No.. Jan -June ~UUj 9

Issues Buddhism and other religions. In several this huge project ----- several volumes of these cases the social significance of offindings were published ----- was state religion measured in terms of church formation and the history of secularism attendance cannot even be raised since in different places. Our esteemed there are no churches. The organization colleague Prof. T.N. Madan was also of religion, the place of religion and part of that project. The project did not society, the patterns of recruitment and really address the nature of secular- ism, indeed the religious traditions are so the nature of the secular state in relation different that not only secularization but to these religions, what kind of issues also the empirical and theoretical are involved in it. In a number of problems that are derived from within the contemporary societies, we have to “What role religions should context of the western society become ignore these issues because this is a play in the public debate for hard to ad- dress. The question, public affair. The secular elite and therefore, is not whether the Muslim or secularist army sustain secularism in furthering civil society as a Hindu or Buddhist society is becoming many of these societies. I think of the kind of marker of being good secularized but what these religions Islamic societies such as Egypt, Tur- religion or bad religion is a actually are; how they are organized; key, Algeria and Pakistan and also of complicated business because what are the causes they espouse and India whose majority population is religions have claims about what they oppose. Since most societies Hindu. Analysis of the Islamic and Hindu society, on what constitutes in the world have adopted the national movements in the societies has to take form it is important to see how religion the role of a secular state into account public debate and who is a has shaped the national culture and vice without adopting the uncritical normative moral person. So people who versa. It should be clear that as much as stand that the secular states is by are arguing from non- in the European and American cases definition progressive since it brings Christian religious religion and politics belong together in secular modernity. So called standpoints might have very non-western societies. In the latter case fundamentalist movements can be different views about religious politics is often combined as understood to an extent as a response fundamentalism. The fact that non- to secularism and intervention- ism by authority, free debate and civil Christian religions tend to have a public the modern state in both the public and society than those who argue role is not what disturbs western private sphere. This kind of state, which from the Enlightenment observers since they are more or less was put in place in most cases by the tradition of secularism. State- aware of their role in their own societies. colonial powers, is directed at the society relations are also very It is, I think, the unfamiliar nature of non- material and moral trans- formation of different in different parts of Christian religious arguments in the entire population. So it has a mission. public sphere, especially about gender Not only the Christians or other religious the world and public opinion related issues and about human rights, movements have a mission, the secular is accordingly very differently the violence involved in some of the state also has a mission. These political constituted." disputes, and the threat they seem to religious movements do not seek to pose to secularists and secular state defend traditional society against which are disturbing. So the genuine interventions; they are actually not term used for religious nationalism, traditionalist but are creatively trying to religious movements, which are not reinterpret religious traditions so as to supportive of civil society is fun- come with alternative model of societal damentalism. transformation. It is essential to see that I was involved in a project on fun- these movements are not conservative damentalism taken up in the early 1990s or reactionary. In such societies struggle at the University of Chicago which was between secularist movement and completely comparative in nature and religious movements takes place over which looked at Christian, Jewish, the control of state apparatus. It is often Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist a violent struggle in which a secularist fundamentalisms. It attempted to find out army is pitched against terrorist groups, what is bad religion -bad in the sense of which transfers the secularist ideals of a not being supportive of civil society. secular state onto the society. The What was not addressed in Egyptian army's confrontation with the

10 IDPAD Newsletter oJ. Jan -June 2003

.Issues

Muslim Brotherhood movement that characterized by strong religious com- seeks to capture the state is a good mitments. Since both the independence example. A very large number of Mus- struggle and the post-colonial nation lim intellectuals and activists have been building depended on mass politics, "If we look at Muslim politics in jailed. Since most of these societies mobilization on the basis of religion could general, or in South Asia also have experienced forms of colonial rule, never be avoided. We have witnessed, at Hindu and Sikh politics, it is the post-colonial secular state is in a therefore, in many societies in Asia and striking to what extent religious significant manner the institutional heir of Middle East religious nationalism that politics is framed by the colonial state, even where the confronts a secular nationalism. To secularist movements is often radically speak of the religious resurgence in the nationalism. Southeast Asia too anti-western. last few decades is a misnomer, since is not different from the western religious politics was never separated Christian cases we have Nationalism and Religion from either the independence movement discussed. An important The struggle in which the nor post-colonial national politics. difference, however, lies fundamentalist groups are engaged in is To acknowledge this direct linkage by and large against specific nation between nationalism and religion, im- in the fact that in the period of states, despite sporadic terrorists at- mediately brings us to Huntington's transformation of modern tack against airlines, office buildings and civilisational essentialism. There are a nationalism in India and in the the rest. It is even argued in the case of great number of nation states in the Middle East the state was AI-Qaida that Bin Laden's main target is world that have conflicting interests. The controlled not by local elites but not America but Saudi Arabia. He has to great geo-political conflicts in the last by western Christian attack America in order to create a century: the First and Second World colonizers. In these societies transformation in Saudi Arabia. If we Wars have been largely between co- look at Muslim politics in general, or in religionists belonging to different nation the colonial state adopted often South Asia also at Hindu and Sikh states. The violent conflicts in the Muslim a neutral secular stand in order politics, it is striking to what extent world have also between co-religionists, not to provoke resistance on religious politics is framed by between people who belong to the same religious ground. " nationalism. Southeast Asia too is not civilization-Iran against Iraq, Iraq against different from the western Christian Kuwait, Pakistan against Bangladesh. cases we have discussed. An important Their conflicts were rooted in national difference, however, lies in the fact that interest not in religious difference. in the period of transformation of modern If the connection between nation- nationalism in India and in the Middle alism and the nation state and religion is East the state was controlled not by local as strong as I have argued here, the elites but by western Christian question arises to what extent it would colonizers. In these societies the colonial be affected by the decline of the nation state adopted often a neutral secular state due to the contemporary processes stand in order not to provoke resistance of globalization. I would like to address on religious ground. The crucial religious this question now. Nation states operate and cultural difference between in a global context or in a world system colonizer~ and colonized, however, of nation states. Despite all the profoundly influenced the interpretation arguments of liberal economists about of religion and secularism for the entire free trade, modern economies are anti-colonial independence struggle. national economies within a capitalist Unlike in modern Europe and America, world system. Similarly, nation-states secularism here became an ideology interact in trans- national bodies of world shaped by elite groups rather than the politics such as the United Nations. In result of the decline of the power of the that sense nation-states have always religious organization or radical been globalised and have existed in a separation of the Church and state. dialectical relationship with the global pro Secularism, often combined with cesses. This conventional wisdom has socialism, was carried forward by been challenged by a growing lit- leaders such as Nehru and Nasser, and continues to be the elite's ideology in societies that are

NewSlener 11

Issues erature on globalization and boundaries. It is true of Christianity, transnational processes over the last Islam, Buddhism and to a lesser ex- tent decade. In this literature attention is Hinduism. They have a message for given to the speed with which produc- mankind and have traditionally been tion and consumption is being globalised organized in a globalising fashion to and to the increase in transnational further the work of expansion. Never- migration. The former is only possible theless as I have tried to show earlier, "It is a universal character of because of the huge advances in religion has been used in great many world religions that they are communication technologies that have cases to build national culture. It is a actually very much tied to taken place over the last decade. universal character of world religions that national cultures. So there is a Similarly migrants increasingly do not they are actually very much tied to creative tension, I would only move from one nation state to national cultures. So there is a creative argue, between the national another, they also maintain more and tension, I would argue, between the more complex network of linkages national and the transnational roles of and the transnational roles of among themselves and with their state of religions. What could be argued is that religions. What could be origin. A number of studies on the transnational element and religion argued is that the transnational globalisation and transnationalism get new possibilities due to the growth of element and religion get new indicate the crisis of the national and the transnational migration. In fact we do possibilities due to the growth nation state. So one way of interpreting see the flourishing of transnational of transnational migration. " Huntington's move to the civilisational religious movements such as level is precisely to perceive it as a crisis Pentecostalism in Christianity. The of the nation state. Pentecostals are today all over the It is hard to deny the significant place. No social scientist wants to give increase in the speed and frequency with any attention to this because it is which people, goods and information religious in nature, and social scientists move across the boundaries of states. would like to believe that they are the The question is to what extent and in only secularized population in the world. what direction they transform and But it is a huge worldwide phenomena - replace people's identities and national in Africa, Latin America, India, Indonesia, cultures. Because 95% of the population China, increase will be in the poorest regions of Pentecostalism is there. Tablighi Jamaat the world one does not have to be a is also a huge worldwide phenomenon prophet of doom. Migration to the rich with enormous implications in Belgium, regions of the world has only just begun. France, Canada, the US, England, or Migration, however, may reinforce here in India. The Vishva Hindu Parishad nationalism rather than weaken it. That is is also founded as a transnational "It is ironic that the most what I feel during discussions on movement as a World Congress of globalised Muslim movement is globalization. The forms it takes and the Hindus and it has established very kind of interaction with transnational quickly chapters in Canada, in Britain, in not an aggressively political bodies is linked to political changes. Yet US and elsewhere. movement. Many such wrong the nation state, which is being It is very interesting to see that the views on the differences transformed in many ways, is unlikely to most successful transnational Muslim between Christianity, Hinduism disappear. Similarly, nationalism is not movement is actually not trying to cap- and Islam -thus prevail in going to disappear because of ture the state. The Tablighi Jamaat is a Huntington's thesis." transnational migration. Nationalism, in silent movement. I am not saying that this is not political, but it certainly is not fact is likely to be reinforced by transnational processes of migration. aggressive in trying to take over the state as the VHP is doing or Pentecostalists are doing in many parts of the world. It is ironic that the most Transnational Religions globalised Muslim movement is not an aggressively political movement. Many What role would religion play in this such wrong views on the differences dialectic relationship between the na- between Christianity, Hinduism and tional and transnational? World religion Islam thus prevail in Huntington's by its very nature transcends national

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.ISSUES thesis. For the Tablighi Jamaat every view, future conflicts in the world will be Muslim must simply try to be a good between civilizations. The Gulf war, Muslim by fulfilling one's duties. As I said which took place just before the publi- already that this does have political cation of Huntington's Foreign Affairs consequences. For migrants its message article could be taken as an example of is defense against assimilation; a such a civilization of war between message to retain their distinctiveness Muslim civilization and the Christian as Muslims. Despite the discourse on the civilizati'on. On close examination, universal community of the Islamic however, it shows the pitfalls of a Ummah it is a fact that the tendency civilisational interpretation of the world towards localization, of becoming order. In fact the Gulf war completely involved in the politics of the nation state divided the Arab world and the Muslim in which one lives, is a reality. The VHP world. Islamic arguments were sup- on the contrary has explicit political aims posed to support Iraq and they were also and is deeply involved in the politics of supposed to support Kuwait and Saudi Hindu nationalism. As you know, it is Arabia. For many Muslims it was a sorry "What we have here is a sight to see the secular- ist Saddam directly connected to the BJP and is tension,which has a long Hussain trying to use Is- lam for his highly successful among the Hindu history, of course, in Europe. migrants in the United States, the political purposes. Only when a massive Caribbean, Britain, South Africa- build up of US troops occurred in Saudi But I think that one of the wherever one finds Hindu communities Arabia did Hussain become an unlikely main issues within the and Diaspora. The Pentecostalism Muslim Hero standing up against boundaries of Europe is the movement is often deeply involved in the America, Britain and Germany, and he question whether people of politics of national culture in the societies began to use Islam as the main basis of other religions can become its conflict with US. However, Muslim in which they are active. modern; whether you can There is no evidence that pro- countries such as Morocco, Turkey, have Muslim modernity and, cesses of globalization and transna- Egypt, and Saudi Arabia continued to tionalism impair the contribution of re- support the western alliance. therefore, a Muslim ligion in the various nationalisms in the If the civilization approach is so weak citizenship. Migration from world. So my point here is that in explaining conflicts of the re- cent Islamic countries is one of the Huntington's ideas of using the term past, why did Huntington receives so most political issues in much attention? It is, perhaps, illu- 'civilization, to account for global move- Western Europe. " ment or another kind of division of the minating to examine the use that has world is actually not working because been made of the term 'civilization' by basically these transnational move- Huntington. He writes about the Atlantic ments do not go against nationalism as joining the United States and Western such. They foster nationalism in the Europe, but in Europe especially in the countries of immigration because we can Mediterranean area the civilisational say European nationalism today is anti- borders between Islam and Christianity Muslim, anti-immigration nationalism. are drawn. The reality is far more They foster competitive nationalisms complex. For the first time, the US is within Europe as is evident from the also feeling the presence of other growth of Turkish nationalism within civilizations within its own borders. It is immigrant communities in Ger- many, in no more in other places, the Muslim England, in Holland. Similarly, Moroccan 'problem' is no more outside the West. nationalism is very much fostered in After the Gulf War, much of the dis- parts of Europe, and Hindu nationalism cussions about the future of Germany is fostered in US, in Britain. So was led by people who supported the transnational ism is not going to dissolve unification of the west contrasting it with the dialectical tension between nation certain specific features of the 'East' in and migration. religious and civilisational terms, forgetting as usual that Berlin is the third Turkish town in the world.

The 'Clash of Civilisations' Thesis Let me conclude. In Huntington's

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ISSUES . book in the following revealing passage: rary world but also for the future of the For the people of Turkey who reside in world order. He said it is not just Samuel Western Europe it is the border be- Huntington's book on 'Clash of tween Muslim Turkey and Christian "Some Americans have pro- Civilizations' that has helped in bringing Greece is the significant one for a uni- moted multiculturalism at home, these key issues to the fore and fied Europe. That is the border inter- some have promoted uni- generated a debate. These issues have nally reproduced as a boundary be- versalism abroad and some have been of concern in many coun tries for tween secular Christian citizens and done both. Multiculturalism at several centuries. Sometimes the terms religiously minded Muslim residents. home threatens the United States of reference have been differences That indeed there is this boundary was and the West; universalism among religions, sometimes races, implicit in the message of the Christian abroad threatens the west and castes and sometimes as different Democrats years ago under the the world. Both deny the unique- origins of nationality. The world is leadership of German Chancellor Helmut ness of Western culture. The witnessing not just conflicts among Kohl, who was so much in favour of global mono-culturists want to the religions but among people of the same uniting East and West Ger- many. There make the world like America. religion. It is heading towards a gener- was no way that Turkey could enter Domestic multi-culturists want to alized crisis of values. He asked European Union because it was another make America like the world. A whether religion or religious fundamen- civilization. They were not part of the multicultural America is im- talism or the interface between religion Christian democratic civilization and, possible because non-western and nationalism playa role in the col- therefore, would never be able to America is not American. A multi- lapse of the values. It should also be become part of Europe. cultural world is unavoidable asked whether those who are engaged What we have here is a tension, because a global empire is in these discussions have fully under- which has a long history, of course, in impossible. The preservation of stood the meanings of the different Europe. But I think that one of the main the United States and the West terms of reference such as 'religion'. He issues within the boundaries of Europe is requires the renewal of Western said the true meaning of religion is the question whether people of other identity. The security of the world Dharma. It is not just rituals. Dharma in religions can become modern; whether requires acceptance of global Sanskrit is defined as the code of you can have Muslim modernity and, multiculturality." conduct, the set of values, by which therefore, a Muslim citizenship. Migra- people would be raised to a higher tion from Islamic countries is one of the pedestal. If religion is defined as most political issues in Western Europe. Attempts to promote universal hu- Dharma then a lot of commonality would Despite all the political rhetoric, man rights thus becomes a threat to the be found in values that different especially in France, Germany and the US and to the world States but also by religions, including the so-called 'ex- Netherlands, the presence of large large number of societies both here in ternal' religions, espouse or cherish. groups of Muslims -as indeed large India and in Europe: namely, Moreover, conflicts mostly arise out of groups of Jews in an earlier period - is a multiculturalism opposes cultural as- economic disparities. The root cause, fact that will continue to disrupt any similation. This issue cannot be solved the beginning of militancy or discontent civilisational illusions one might have ever by projecting multiculturalism out of is to be found in the fact that different about the Christian West and the non- domestic politics on to the stage of world societies and different individuals are Christian East. The struggle is really for politics as Huntington attempts to do. having different living standards. Many the acceptance of the 'stranger' without- times we find that so-called religious :gesiring to obliterate him through conflicts arise due to economic assimilation. There are differences in the disparities and in places where living world, and each community calls what is The lecture was followed by a lively conditions are very poor. Therefore the not his own practice as barbarism. To debate and questions on some of the clashes cannot be explained only in live in each other's 'barbarism' without major issues raised by Prof. van der religious, civilisational or cultural terms. violence in the same multi-cultural Veer. Often they are rooted in basic human society is the challenge of the 21st tendencies to live better and when century. It is a challenge in Europe, in The ICSSR, Chairman Prof. V.R. people are not able to live comfortably US but also here, of course, in India. Panchamukhi in his comments and see somebody else living Although the issue of multiculturalism called the presentation profound for its comfortably they get into a conflict is not straight forwardly raised in lucid analysis of the interface between situation. Economic disparities often Huntington's book, it does seem to religion, secularism, civilizations and lead to intolerance, then militancy, then motivate its entire project. He says this at culture, and the challenges this inter- terrorism, and then to major clashes. the end of his face poses for not only the contempo- This is not only true within

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.ISSUES nations but also definitely between spite its weak scientific base, requires a and sufficient conditions for Ram Rajya nations. This debate has to be carried sociological explanation. Suddenly are spelt out in the Ramayana. It is only forward in the crisis situation that we all political science as a scholarly disci- a societal order. But indirectly that too is find ourselves in -whether it is in India, pline does not figure very much in the a political ideal. What it seeks to achieve South Asia or in the rest of the world. decision-making processes in Wash- is a change from a secular government Huntington's project, according to ington. The precise interface between to its notions of a 'just order'. This can one of the participants in the discus- intellectuals, such as those in the only be established with right form of sion, was essentially nationalistic and Kennedy School of Government - which government. This of course is political. his book actually tries to draw a foreign is a kind of intellectual establishment, Another scholar was intrigued by the policy agenda for America. He is saying the liberal audience and policymaking is fact that treatment of civilization as a that after the end of the Cold War the quite complex. On the other point, concept in Huntington is quite apart from entire American foreign policy has to be clearly both the VHP and the Tablighi the early debates and writings on civilization. He agreed with the speaker reconceived, redrawn and he suggests a Jamaat, and such other movements are that in the 19th century, the modern road map. The problem arises because political in nature. Definitely, they are system state is actually set up in the the terms in which he shapes his aimed at defining moral conduct on how context of the rise of religion. But this argument challenges social a person should behave. So they work gets a little tricky when in an effort to anthropologists, political thinkers and all on issues of interpretation of tradition. counter Huntington one can make a sort kinds of people. VHP is quite different because Hindu of relationship, almost functional, He also disagreed with the speaker tradition is so opaque. So there are between a religious movement today that the Tablighi Jamaat is apolitical or certain interesting comparisons possible and the national projects. This is non-political while the VHP is political. because of the way you can use particularly so in the case of radical Both, according to him, are political in tradition for certain kinds of political Islam -also perhaps in the case of VHP - different ways. The Tablighi Jamaat is argument. But the Tablighi Jamaat is where one can make a point that there active in countries where Muslims are in very different from Jamat-e-isiami, very different from the Sangh Parivar in the is this new millenarian impulse, almost a minority, such as India, Canada, France, sense of global achievement after 9/11. Germany and the US, while the VHP is sense that the state actually does not Prof. van der Veer pointed out that primarily operative in a country where figure in its goals. The movement is not radical Islam in most cases up to the the Hindus are a majority. This directed at the state, but at Muslim present day has been connected to distinction has to be underlined behavior. It calls on Muslims to do their nationalist project. And despite all the talk otherwise we tend to glamourise the duty, this has nothing to do with political about the Ummah these movements are Tablighi Jamaat and demonise the VHP. duties. For example, their defense of the wearing of the scarf and sex mostly related to Muslim states such as Both are equally dangerous trends. This Egypt, create a new state in Saudi becomes particularly evident in the segregations on grounds of Islamic orthodoxy, are not directed against the Arabia, create a new state in Turkey. context of their approach towards However, this trend appears to have state but, of course, it has implication for gender and human rights. This is where changed with the AI- Qaida network, state behavior, on education policy, etc. western societies are ahead of other which seems to be attacking the entire It has implications on how people of societies. The Tablighi Jamaat talks world system. This is an interesting new other communities respond, and about being a good Muslim but who is development. The analysis seems to be therefore has indirect political actually a good Muslim? Those -Who that they have to attack the US in order implications. The VHP is much more follow the Shariat and Koran in full or to get any transformation in the society. directly connected to state oriented those who follow other schools of seems that these people have come to politics. And maybe that is the only thought within Islam? the conclusion that there is no change difference. Ram Rajya is a major idea Prof. van der Veer explained that possible in the Middle East without within the VHP circles. This is true also Huntington's argument is structured in changing the role of the US. This is not of the Jamat-e-isiami but not for the terms of civilisations, not nation-states. immediately connected to any na- Nationalism doesn't play any role in his Tablighi Jamaat. tionalist projects. argument. There is a clear shift in a He agreed that merely because the One of the participants questioned systemic view of the world order from VHP has called for Ram Rajya it can't be the validity of the description of secu- described as political. Because Ram one of nation states to one of civiliza- larization in terms of a drop in church Rajya like Hinduism is also a societal tions. But his project is related to one attendance, or the degree to which order. Of course, it has links with the BJP nation state, namely, the United States religion penetrates personal life. He felt as the perceived leader of the West. He and the political order. But it is not said the success of the book de- political because it is asking for Rama Rajya. If you go into the definitions of Ram Rajya, necessary

IIJI'AIJ Newsletter v 1 Jan -June 2003115

ISSUES . one of the objectives in terms of secu- in religion, and not only in liberalism. larization would be to bring about a kind There is lot of possibilities for that in of separation of church and state, which multi-cultural states, such as the multi- is the conventional meaning. It is this cultural Mughal empire in the past, etc. separation, which despite the Christian So to see the sources of institutional However, the Democrats, despite the de- bate on guarantee for multi-cultural interaction secularization thesis is not creationism in the United States and only in liberal conception of a secular right in expecting a decline whether it should be taught in schools, society, is too limited a notion. of the public role of religion remains a project of enlightenment in the On the question of the effects of West. This is a project that is essential in migration on politics, Prof. van der Veer even in societies where every country that wants to ensure a said the nature of migration had state- church separation multi-cultural environment. substantially changed over the past few has taken place. One of the Prof. van der Veer felt the secular- decades. He had addressed some of the strongest cases of state- ization thesis is more complex than what issues in a paper in which he had church separation is the had been said. One of the elements of it compared coolie labour of the 19th cen- US. It is also the place is the privatization of religion within its tury with the IT labour, or the 'techno- coolies' of today. There are many struc- where in fact civil society to own sphere. So indeed, the separation of church from state is an important tural similarities between the earlier a large extent has been element. But other elements of it are the labour transfers and the body shop- ping created by religion. Religion decline of belief, of the importance of involved in the IT sector. At the same plays enormous political religion in daily life. So a secularized time technological change, the change in role in mobilizing people for society in the West sees a steady drop of the system of nation states, the political purposes. If you church attendance, etc. According to the transformation of capitalism actually makes other legal and transitional look at American history, secularization thesis a common point is made about the separation of religion arrangements possible that did not ex- religion has played a huge from politics, science and economics. ist in the 19th century. The constancy political There is no religious economics, reli- and frequency of travel between places role. gious biochemistry or whatever. How- of origin and places of immigration al- ever, the secularization thesis is not right low for interaction that is not compa- in expecting a decline of the public role rable in scale to that possible through of religion even in societies where state- the internet. There is a difference be- church separation has taken place. One tween international migration and of the strongest cases of state-church transnational network, which are being separation is the US. It is also the place created now. where in fact civil society to a large The Member Secretary closed the extent has been created by religion. discussion by thanking Prof. van der Religion plays enormous political role in Veer for addressing a complex subject in mobilizing people for political purposes. a most lucid manner to the listeners. He If you look at American history, religion said the issues that had been raised in has played a huge political role. The the lecture were of great contemporary state -church separation has also to be significance and the de- bate was not yet looked at rather specifically. State- over. There would be occasions to revisit church separation varies from place to them again in future. place. It is a different kind of separation in the US than in France, it is also different in Britain, and very different in Holland. So the claim that this has to do Edited by Sanchita Dutta with modernization is also to be dis- puted. What is essential is that the state has institutional guarantees for multi- cultural behavior and multi-cultural tolerance. This can be found also

16 IUi'AL

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The erosion and decline in the quality of basic education in developing countries has assumed the proportions of a global emergency. Bhaskar Chatterjee, Member- Secretary, ICSSR, and Qutub Khan, Senior Programme Officer, UNESCO, India, examine the central issues involved. The progress achieved worldwide I in products. Non-enrolment, repetition and the field of education during the drop-out and low learning achievement last three decades is a source of pride on the one hand, and their ensuing and at the same time a source of shame. outcomes in the form of a growing Although progress in the last three number of illiterates and functional il- decades has remarkably raised the net literates, on the other hand, have as- enrolment and literacy rates throughout sumed alarming proportions in recent the globe, it is becoming evident that the years. present education systems are ill- The industrialised countries main- Non -enrolment, repetition equipped to take on the challenges that tain virtually a negligible drop-out rate at and drop-out and low lie ahead. Providing learning the primary level mainly due to the learning achievement on opportunities in the Asia-Pacific region enforcement of compulsory education the one hand, and their alone to an estimated 65 million (57 per laws. In the less developed regions, cent) of the world's 113 million out of where the large mass of the rural poor is ensuring outcomes in the school children and 625 million (71 per concentrated, early drop-outs are a form of a growing number cent) of the world's estimated 885 million major problem. Of the approximately 96 of illiterates and functional adult illiterates is a task that will stretch million pupils who entered schools in illiterates, on the other both determination and resources to the developing countries for the first time in hand, have assumed utmost. 1998, 24 million (25 per cent) are likely to alarming proportions in These aggregated figures hide abandon schools before reaching Grade striking disparities, the most pronounced Five. The situation becomes even grayer recent years. of which, in the developing countries is and grimmer when one takes cognizance the rural-urban one. Often marginalised of about 7-9 per cent repeaters in total by language, lifestyle and culture, the primary level enrolment during 1999- ~ rural areas are the victims of official 2000. apathy and political lip ser- vice. The inhibiting and impeding forces to learning in the villages do not relate merely to time, age, circumstances and socio- economic factors. The problem that confronts them runs much deeper than simply inadequate delivery mechanisms. The formal education system can often, in itself, constitute a barrier to learning. The problems of "access, perfor- mance, efficiency and relevance" of education are also not fully recognized by almost all the stakeholders of basic education. It has been observed that a greater part of the national education budget is devoted to access and enrolment, infrastructure and central administration, to the detriment of quality teaching, learning inputs and

1DPAD Newsletter Vol. !, No.1 Jan -June 2003

ISSUES . in countries of South Asia. This is a cause for roles and responsibilities of teachers and Drop-outs in developing nations out of serious worry. The graph and the latest learners have often been narrowly defined th~ million who entered school in 1998 figures also reveal that the Arab States have and perceived with little scope for growth and taken the lead spending a greater proportion change. It is also unfortunate that discussions 24 million of the government budget on education than in educational decision-making circles drop-outs any other regions of the world. While public continue to focus mainly on construction of spending for Sub Saharan African and East new buildings and maintenance of existing Asia Oceania has been marginally better, it ones and trying to get children into them, 72 million has been substantial for Latin America and retained in rather than on what actually happens inside school the Caribbean where there has been a steady the classroom rise in government spending on education for The Dakar Framework for Action places the last two decades. prime emphasis on improving education Public Expenditure on Education The Framework for Action focuses on the quality and effectiveness with reference to the Government spending on all levels of achievement of universal primary education school environment. It underlines that "Quality education together as a share of gross by 2015. For this tar- get to be achieved there is at the heart of education and what takes national product (GNP) slightly declined must be policies which recognize the strategic place in classrooms and other learning since 1980 for the world as a whole. Yet contribution of primary education to de- environments is fundamentally important to raising the levels of public as well as velopment. Governments will need to tackle the future well-being of children, young people private funding for all levels of education the core issue of quality, particularly its and adults. A quality education is one that is crucial for addressing both the enhancement and maintenance in rural areas. satisfies basic learning needs and enriches quantitative and qualitative issues the lives of leamers and their overall expe- involved in universal education. Primary Schools and the Quality Puzzle rience of living." The Dakar Education For All (EFA) Most educational systems stress and In reality, "Quality" means differ- ent Framework adopted in April 2000 states focus predominantly on the teaching learning things to different observers and interest that designing national policies for process, rather than to pro- mote and support groups; not all share the same perceptions of actions to improve basic education a culture of learning. The school system tends priorities for change. It can be a descriptive should focus on, "specific strategies, to rely primarily on the daily lesson planning, rather than a normative term. It can refer addressed to improve the conditions for rigid curriculum and standardised tests and as simply to a trait or attribute. Thus, a pupil or schooling. These should be ad- dressed a result, learning assumes a series of teacher, a school or school district, a regional to respond to learners' needs and mechanical and technical acts where the or national education system, can have any learning processes, personnel (teachers, teacher becomes a technician rather than a number of qualities or defining characteristics. administrators and others), curriculum facilitator. The "Quality" may also be used as a more and learning assessment, materials and aggregate or collective term. physical facilities". The Framework further states that strengthening educational management would require organisational restructuring, management information systems, the capacity for assessing pupils' achieve- ment, effective monitoring, economic and education research. It underscores the need for developing managerial capacity in school, supervision of teachers and improving relations between the school and the local community. Meeting basic learning needs also involves action to enhance the family and community environment for learning and to correlate basic education to the larger socio- economic con- text

The graph (right) shows that while all other regions of the world continue to accord priority to education, there is a marked decline in public expenditure

18 IDPAD Newsletter VoL I, No. 1 Jan -June 2003

.IssuES

where the promotion of solidarity and unity of the nation is the prime goal of education. In these societies the cur- riculum content is a sensitive issue, not least politically. Therefore, schools are required to follow the centrally de- signed curriculum. Further, many countries still do not have adequate administrative and organisation struc- tures to support and facilitate curricu- lum development at school level. Similarly, autonomy in curriculum reform and change is directly associ- ated with the issue of examination and students performance evaluation. The effect which national examination sys - tem can have on classroom teaching is well known. A centrally designed and administered examination system The concept of quality is complex but results in driving large numbers of impedes and restricts school freedom. and value laden. It si hard to find a children out of school long before the On the other hand, such restriction might simple uni-dimensional measure of acquisition of anything useful from well be necessary when schools receive quality. Many factors interact-pupils and education. Teachers, however sympa- more autonomy so as to effectively their background characteristics; thetic and understanding of the indi- control their quality. teachers and administrators and their vidual differences and capabilities of skills; schools and their infrastructure their pupils, have little freedom to de- Enhancing the Contribution of the and ethos; curricula; and societal ex- viate from the official examination re- Curriculum pectations. quirements which at best will benefit only Many developing countries have not a handful of the school-age population. yet fully recognized the role curriculum Decentralization and School Au- This is particularly so for rural areas planning can play in improving the tonomy which find themselves pretty much out of quality of schooling. This may appear The educational authorities in an sync with national initiatives that are surprising since many of them have a increasing number of developing coun- formulated in capital cities and imposed well-defined national curriculum. But a tries have started to recognize that uniformly throughout the country. highly centralized and detailed reform measures are not succeeding in Most education systems around the curriculum does not necessarily en- sure achieving desired goals and large world advocate the idea of school the anticipated outcomes. Neither is the numbers of children are leaving school autonomy, yet the efforts made so far policy of giving full autonomy to long before they learn anything worth- have failed to operationalise the idea, individual schools for curricular de- while. They are also realizing that specially to offer a comprehensive re- cision a desirable alternative solution. schools can do better when they do not sponse to the key problem: which level Therefore, there is a need in these feel imprisoned by-"national directives”. will be responsible for which issues? The countries for restoring a careful balance The uniform application of policy in directives, circular and mechanisms between centrally negotiated national all schools tends to heighten rather than currently in vogue are, in fact, more guidelines and school-based planning for heal the imbalances between the constraining than enabling. curriculum implementation. Restoring developed and underdeveloped sec- Transfer of decision-making au- such a balanced approach is by no tions of the system, particularly when the thority to schools has, however, relative means a simple task, and specific national standards in management, advantages and limitations. For in- problems will certainly vary from one discipline and quality of education stance, curriculum development based country to another depending on the way remain stagnant. The prescribing and on local needs would lead to more rel- in which the educational systems have imposition of uniform curricula, textbooks evant, more adapted schools and would evolved historically. and examination standards from the facilitate teachers to become more active Both at national and local levels, central administration lead to adverse partners. But this would certainly impose curriculum planning rely on an a priori and undesirable effects. It fails to impart difficulties in multicultural and multiracial theory. Most educational systems, education to all the children societies consciously or unconsciously, appear to be working with some kind of cur-

IDPAD Newsletter Vol. I, No.1 Jan -June 2003 119

ISSUES . communities can provide and the ability, self-concept and aspirations. priorities that they attribute. These arguments clearly suggest riculum in mind based on "social and that when efforts at curriculum devel- individual needs". In order to improve the Rationale for Community Involvement opment are carried out in cooperation curriculum planning mechanism and Any resistance to curriculum re- and consultation with the key members machinery, it is necessary to high- light form and change comes predominantly of the community, the outcome can be to these underlying values in a more from the general public. This might be help alleviate potential resistance to explicit manner by a conscious reduced through attempts to involve curriculum changes. It certainly helps to programme of specification such as community members in the process of develop an integrated curriculum cultural analysis. Thus for improving the curriculum development. It is some- espousing "school knowledge" with quality of the curriculum, it is necessary times argued that parents, especially "common sense knowledge". that it should be "broad, balanced, those in rural areas or those who are Therefore, to ensure stronger relevant and differentiated". illiterate or not well-educated, cannot school-community relations with a A common core curriculum is not make a useful contribution to curricu- positive impact on school effective- necessarily a uniform curriculum. A key lum development in schools. But em- ness, national authorities should take element in the art of curriculum planning pirical evidence suggests that educa- action in three core fields. Firstly, is to provide a variety of choices and tors who have attempted to involve "routes" into important areas of communities in a meaningful way in this knowledge, skills and values, as well as activity have found that this is not different "sorties" which can develop necessarily true. Based on their re- individual interests and abilities to the search experiences in several devel- highest possible levels. Some planning oping countries, Chinappah (1998) and of this kind for differentiation can take Khan (2000) have suggested that all place nationally, but it is likely to be most communities are capable of sufficiently effective when planned and implemented understanding the complex issues in- at the school level in relation to specific volved. individual and group needs for Improved student performance is a These arguments clearly differentiation. cogent reason for increasing com- suggest that when Vitally important is the realisation munity involvement in the school, and efforts at curriculum that rural areas have special needs and possibly the best place to start when special sensitivities. These must be attempting to involve greater numbers of development are carried out catered to in a caring and understand- parents. Much research can be cited as in cooperation and ing way. Much of the curriculum plan- evidence that parental aspirations, consultation with the key ning for such areas is thus best done interests and involvement have a members of the community, bottom upwards -that is to say, by pulling positive effect on children's academic the outcome can be to help in from the grassroots the in- puts that alleviate potential resistance village teachers and rural to curriculum. changes.

20 lurAU NeWSlener YOI. I, NO.1 Jan -June I.v\Jj

.Issues evolve legislation to provide a legal Teachers, numbering more than 55 no encouragement to be innovative and framework and define with some pre- millions throughout the world now have little scope for enhancing and/or cision the role and contribution of com- constitute probably the largest group updating their knowledge and skills. The munities. The legislation should not among the various categories of intel- outcome is that not much professional constrain communities nor limit their lectual workers. Yet, the available evi- activity takes place to raise the creativity. Secondly, develop appropri- dence reveals a shortage of 9.5 mil- standards of classroom instruction. A ate structures for effective implemen- lions qualified primary school teach- ers general state of inertia tends to prevail in tation. Many countries have set up some in the developing countries by the end the teaching-learning process. In fact, management committees, with of the year 2000. It has also be- come the efficiency (in- put-output coefficient) representations from the community. evident that an adequate sup- ply of and the effectiveness (achievement level However, few have led so far to a real qualified teaching staff will not be at the terminal grade) of primary school involvement of communities. Their forthcoming without an improvement in education have been very low. membership, their constitution, their the professional, social and economic Teacher training programmes, as relationship with the more official edu- conditions of the teaching profession on they are being conducted in a large cational administration, and their lo- the one hand and re- forms in their roles number of developing countries, tend to calization in the hierarchy (should they and responsibilities on the other. be largely academic and do not be set up for each school, "for a cluster, During the last three decades of adequately meet the training needs of for a village or district?) are some of the educational development, there has teachers. Not enough emphasis is laid elements, which need further been a phenomenal increase in student on practical training and acquisition of consideration. Finally, organise orien- enrolment in primary schools. There has new skills. Once teachers are trained, tation programmes to create aware- ness also been significant progress in the hardly any worthwhile follow:-up among communities. This would establishment and in the consolidation of programmes are undertaken to update contribute to useful interaction and curriculum development processes and knowledge and skills. These factors helpful feedback. the production of textbooks. This rapid demoralise them and discourage their Trends in rural fertility and popu- growth of primary education has not, professional commitment. Their moti- lation growth need to be considered for however, been accompanied by an vation is adversely affected by insuffi- approaching rural development is- sues. adequate provision of operational cient supervisory and support services, In particular, rural demographic changes teachers who can respond to the specific particularly in rural and remote loca- have far reaching implications on needs of a particular situation and bring tions. The lack of regular supervision household incomes, poverty and thus on about positive changes in school impedes the adoption of improved education instructional practices. A majority of teaching practices and encourages ab- primary school teachers after undergoing senteeism. Changing Role and Responsibilities of training are unable to put into practice Concern for the quality of basic Teachers specific strategies and functional skills education is today among the highest The erosion and decline in the that are presumed to be relevant to the priorities in all developing countries; it quality of basic education in develop- ing teaching/learning process. Needless to will undoubtedly remain so for the fore- countries had been for quite some- time say, the process of deriving operational seeable future. There are [10 ready- a largely unperceived but a very real teacher training objectives and relating made or instant remedies for raising problem. The world conference on them to specific instructional acts and quality nor is it a one-off exercise. In Education for All (Jomtien,Thailand pupils outcomes requires constant many education systems, it is rather a 1990) and the World Eorum on Edu- attention and commitment. question of consolidating the numerous cation for All (Dakar 20u0) recognized Most primary schools in developing reforms of recent years and making that the new functions of schools call for countries, particularly those located in painstaking efforts over a long haul to teachers with a variety of skills. rural areas, do not have even the basic bring about improvements in every Admittedly, an ability to teach continues facilities (buildings and furniture) that are aspect of schooling. 8 to be the fundamental requirement for so essential for making any classroom the teaching profession, but the nature of instruction effective. The centrally this ability has also changed. A teacher prescribed school curriculum and Bhaskar Chatterjee & Qutub Khan is no longer visualized as someone who textbooks leave little room for making just "gives lessons" but someone who modifications or adjustments for a has the ability and capacity to organize, particular place, group, or community. observe, stimulate, assess and foster the The teacher's role is mostly passive. various learning processes in children Teachers get practically and to take re- medial measures whenever necessary.

June 2003121 IUI'l\lJ j~eWSjeuer vc I~ Jan

ISSUES .

Lives in Exile: Displaced People I in South Asia

An IDPAD research project examines the issues relating to migration and development in the South Asian region, with particular emphasis on state policies and interaction with displaced groups.

A major aim of the IDPAD research project on displaced people and and refugees. displacement: Partition and non-sig- development in South Asia is to high- As the reader soon finds out, how- natory states. light emerging themes in cross-border ever, each case is in itself highly com- Partition displacement. Among these themes are plex. Displacement did not take place at The fragmentation of India's colo- the agency and voices of people who one particular moment in time but often nial state structure at the moment of flee across an international bor- der, the occurred in several 'waves' and it decolonisation triggered large popula- identities they forge for them- selves, involved people with different back- tion movements. As the new states of their contributions to their new grounds, skills and expectations. These Pakistan and India were fashioned out of surroundings, and the ways in which people soon found themselves in local the rubble of what had been British India their interactions with states and non- situations, which could differ from state- and 500-odd Princely States, millions of governmental organisations are medi- run refugee camps to relatives' homes. cross-border migrants were on the ated by local circumstances. They arrived among host populations move. In some areas, e.g. Punjab, there The report explores these themes who might welcome them as brothers was a swift, bloody and almost complete across a number of case studies, cov- and sisters or who saw them as exchange of people. In other areas, e.g. ering groups of people originating from undesirables and started organising to Bengal, displacement was a process that India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Burma throw them out. Cross- border stretched over decades and is still going who became displaced in the period displacement also turned people into the on. between 1947 and 20001. The four beneficiaries (or targets) of fluctuating Partition looms large over the study substantial sub-projects that are being state and NGO policies. In short, of displaced people in South Asia. This reported deal with distinct cases. displacement implies a host of different is not only because of the Kathinka Sinha-Kerkhoff (Ranchi) individual experiences, and analyses of unprecedented numbers involved. analyses long-term identity formation displaced people's lives need to take Equally important is the fact that state among settlers from what is now these into account. formation and cross-border migration Bangladesh into the Indian states of In this introduction we consider took place simultaneously. Definitions of Bihar and Jharkhand. Imtiaz Ahmed some of the themes which feature in the citizenship developed gradually and (Dhaka) presents1indings on the shift- case studies and we address their wider remained contested. This was particu- ing relationship between Rohingya refu- implications for the study of dis- larly clear in the east, where the prov- gees from Burma/Myanmar and state placement in South Asia.1 First, we look inces of Bengal and Assam were bi- agencies and non-governmental at two South Asian peculiarities which sected to form the new entities of West organisations in Bangladesh. Abhijit have influenced cross-border Bengal and Assam (India), and East Dasgupta (Delhi) looks at the shifting Bengal (Pakistan). Here it remained political alliances of displaced East ...displacement implies a host of possible for years to define citizenship in Bengalis in West Bengal. And in a terms of either religious community or different individual experiences, separate sub-project, Abhijit Dasgupta territorial location. It was not until five reports on local-level politics and Tamil and analyses of years after decolonisation that efforts refugees from Sri Lanka in the Indian displaced people's lives need to were made to unequivocally pin down state of Tamil Nadu. Each case study take these into account. people's citizenship. Passports and visas considers the themes mentioned above, were introduced in 1952, giving and links its local findings with the territoriality the upper hand. But in this theoretical literature on displacement region of South Asia, citizenship

IUI'AU NO Jan -Jun NeWSlener Vo

.Issues

continues to be negotiable to an un- this area due to the exceptional na ture of usual degree, as was demonstrated by South Asia in this respect. First, although the Indira-Mujib Pact of 1972 and the Partition threw up a flurry of policy- current discussions on 'indigeneity' in related reports, surveys and testimonies Assam. on displaced people, scholarly interest The report deals with several has long remained dormant. Students of groups of people who were displaced in Partition were usually interested in other Definitions differ between the wake of Partition; it demonstrates themes, most notably the high politics countries, between periods, how the uncertainties of post- Partition leading up to the birth of Pakistan and and sometimes between citizenship influenced the decisions of India and subsequent attempts at nation- different parts of the same cross-border migrants as well as their building in the two countries. Only country. Some groups of subsequent lives. recently have Partition studies begun to show a more sustained interest in the people who crossed the Non-signatory States experiences of those who were border were welcomed as A second peculiarity of the South dislocated.4 Second, by not defining citizens joining the nation, Asian region is the fact that none of the cross-border displacements as streams others as refugees entitled to states have become signatories to the of refugees, South Asian states could, state (and UNHCR) support, major international agreements on and frequently did, block access to them yet others as migrants who displaced people i.e., the United Na- by intemational refugee organisations, were tolerated but never given tions Convention (1951) and Protocol the media and scholars. This attitude of (1967) on Refugees. By not signing isolating displaced people from outsid- official residence or these international agreements, South ers -and thereby making documentation citizenship, and many as Asian states have retained a certain of their situation difficult -became almost undesirable ‘illegal autonomy in dealing with refugee prob- a state reflex, a standard response which immigrants' or ‘infiltrators'. lems, and they have defined and rede- needed no justification, even in cases fined refugees according to their con- where international financial help was venience. As a result, the study of cross- sought. We found this ourselves when border displacement in this part of the we were denied access to camps of world is full of conceptual pitfalls. displaced Rohingyas from Burma in Definitions differ between countries, southern Bangladesh and displaced between periods, and sometimes Tamils from Sri Lanka in southern India. between different parts of the same country. Some groups of people who Displacement and South Asian so- and culturally -and yet we are still far crossed the border were welcomed as cieties from understanding it in a comprehen- citizens joining the nation, others as These regional characteristics have siveway. refugees entitled to state (and UNHCR) contributed to a slow development of It is not only the size of the dis- support, yet others as migrants who were refugee studies (or displaced people placed population in South Asia which is tolerated but never given official studies) in South Asia, relative to other impressive. Over the last six decades residence or citizenship, and many as parts of the world. The lack of a strong cross-border displacement in the region undesirable 'illegal immigrants' or 'in- body of analytic and comparative has also involved a dazzling array of filtrators'. The freedom that these non- knowledge of cross-border dis- different groups, from Assamese signatory states allowed themselves in placement is a serious weakness in our Muslims to Sindhi Hindus, from Tibetans choosing a label that appeared most understanding of the societies of South to Burmese, from Sri Lanka Tamils to convenient at the time not only landed Asia. Obviously, the sheer number of Afghans, and from Nepalis in Bhutan to displaced people in administrative people in these societies whose lives Kashmiris in Nepal. Today every South have been touched by cross-border quagmires but also hampered serious Asian metropolis is home to large displacement is staggering. Many tens of comparative research into cross-border communities of displaced people. For millions are involved, even if we displacement in South Asia. example, in Karachi, communities of disregard the effects of displacement on Even though Partition and non-sig- Mohajirs (Partition immigrants from the 'second' and 'third' generations. The natory states have singled out South India) live side by side with later arrivals, behaviour of displaced people has had Asia as a distinct world region in terms of mostly illegal, such as Burmese an enormous impact on these societies - cross-border displacement, it is still Rohingyas, Afghani Pashthuns and politically, economically difficult to assess how this has actually Bangladeshis. affected flows of people. Remarkably The size of different groups of dis- little research has been done in placed people varies enormously, as

Jan -June 2003123 IDPAD Newsletter Vol. No.

ISSUES change of certain categories of state personnel between Pakistan and India does their political impact. And the two ...Iarge-scale displacement lies was organised by allowing them to opt are not necessarily related. In some at the very foundation of three for a position in the other state. These parts of the subcontinent (e.g. Tripura, major states in the region and 'optees,' who arrived at the time of Sindh) violent confrontations today can it became a crucial symbol in Partition, took the place of counter- parts be related to struggles for hegemony who travelled the other way. They took between sizeable and powerful groups of the charge of tasks at all levels and in all Partition migrants and local popula- nationalism which power elites branches of government. Other tions. But the 'anti-foreigner' movement proceeded to construct. An displaced people joined the state on an in Arunachal Pradesh takes a stand adequate understanding of the individual basis. The influence of these against minute groups of displaced organisation of the states of newcomers on state formation and state Hajong and Chakma people from erst- India, Pakistan and policies in the three countries has, to our while East Pakistan. And whereas most knowledge, never been studied, let displaced people in South Asia have Bangladesh needs to alone compared. been able to make their voices heard take account of how these Secondly, early experiences with only at the local level, some have newly emergent states dealt cross-border displacement around managed to project their cause well with large numbers of Partition shaped the ways in which these beyond that. The most successful have immigrants and emigrants. states responded to later cross- border been those who have forged links with displacements, which sprang from international organisations concerned various causes and were often with human rights, refugee issues, or unanticipated. In the second half of the indigenous peoples. The best example is 20th century, major displacements re- provided by displaced Tibetans in India sulted from communal rioting (e.g. who have been players on the world Eastern India and East Pakistan in 1950 political scene for decades. and 1964), war (Bangladesh, Sri Lanka), And finally, as the report shows, invasion (Tibet, Afghanistan), ethnic state responses to cross-border dis- cleansing (Rohingyas from Burma, placement in post-colonial South Asia Nepalis from Bhutan), and development States and displacement have been varied, both regarding dif- policies (the Kaptai hydroelectric project There are three reasons why it is ferent groups of displaced people and in Bangladesh, the Farakka project in regarding the same group over time. important to examine the close links India). How South Asian states were Many displaced people were ignored by between the development of modern involved in initiating these flows of states in South Asia and cross-border the states on whose territory they found people, and how they responded to such displacement. Firstly, large-scale themselves, but others found themselves flows arriving in their territory, need to be on the receiving end of policies, which displacement lies at the very foundation understood as part of a regional history covered the entire range from an of three major states in the region and it in which displacement established itself became a crucial symbol in the occasional handout to rigorous as a tool of statecraft. nationalism, which power elites pro- institutionalisation. Newcomers were Thirdly, cross-border displacement often put into camps, which might be ceeded to construct. An adequate became a constant theme, and often an shortlived but could also survive for understanding of the organisation of the irritant, between South Asian states. states of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh generations. The chapters of this book Two chapters in the report show how provide information on camps for Par- needs to take account of how these recent cross-border population flows tition refugees, Tamil refugees from Sri newly emergent states dealt with large have complicated the relationship Lanka and Rohingya refugees from numbers of immigrants and emigrants. between Sri Lanka and India and And conversely, displaced people Burma. They clearly show that even in between Burma and Bangladesh, but these few cases the term 'camp' covers interacted with state structures, which many other examples could be given. many different forms of localisation, were partly in statu nascendi and were Inter-state relations in South Asia have therefore more malleable than usual. provision, protection and control. been delicate ever since decolonisation, Some Partition migrants joined the Together with information on other and attempts at forging regional co- camps for groups as varied as 'abducted power elite; they found themselves in operation have often been unexpectedly women,' Chinese internees, Jummas, important positions in the new state scuppered. Over the years, unresolved bureaucracies, at the helm of political 'Stranded Pakistanis' and Afghans, these issues emerging from cross-border parties, or in charge of armed forces. cases can be used as building blocks population towards a typology of South Asian state This happened in both regulated and responses to displacement. unregulated ways. An ex-

24 IV

.ISSUES flows have played a considerable role in research project address these issues lifestyles). souring relations between these but they do more than highlight and It is also suggested that the study of states. analyse the varying relationships be- cross-border displacement in South Asia The states of South Asia have been tween displacement and nation-state needs much more historical depth. For described as 'fearful states' whose ruling building. They are particularly forceful in example, policies often define refugees elites have 'failed to manage the their claim that displacement needs to be as a contemporary 'problem' (for whom?) problems of nation-state building, wealth understood by careful contextualisation to be resolved through 'programmes' (by generation and distributive justice,' and of experiences and identities, and by whom?) without any serious who have responded to challenges to listening closely to the voices of the understanding of how the outcomes of their authority 'with coercion rather than displaced and those among whom they these policies will be shaped by compromise.' 7 In many cases, the settled. Criticising the tendency to over perspectives that have developed locally violence of state- making has created generalise, they suggest that distinct in the wake of many previous policy circumstances which compelled groups local scenarios unfolded in which the interventions. of South Asian citizens to flee across the social strategies of displaced people This research project highlights the border and rebuild their lives in another played a vital role. In many parts of need for a more sophisticated field of society. In this way, displaced people South Asia, the contributions of 'refugee studies' in this world region and can be regarded as participants in, and newcomers from across the border have also demonstrates how the study of not just victims of, processes of state been essential elements in new displaced people provides essential formation in 2Q!hcentury South Asia. developments -in terms of economy entry points into new ways of Their perspectives on these processes (contributions to trade, food aid, refugee conceptualising state formation and are valuable; they need to be docu- labour, artisan activities, farming), social social development in South Asian mented. change (educational standards, societies. - competition, net- working), politics (vote banks creating a new political style) and Abhijit Dasgupta & Wil/em van Living in exile culture (linguistic variety, cultural Schendel The contributions to this IDPAD plurality,

Notes to March 25, 1971' (Verghese 1996, 39). This was don & New Jersey: Zed Books, 1993). also the cut-off point enshrined in the Illegal 1 This report is the outcome of a joint re- search Migrants (Determination by Tribunals) Act of 1983 Berjeaut, Julien, Chinois a Calcutta: Les Ti- gres du project entitled 'Displaced Populations & which is in force in Assam. Under this act, the Benga/e (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1999). Development in the Context of the South Asian government of India agreed to detect and deport Economic and Institutional Order.' The research was foreign nationals who entered Assam after that date Chakrabarti, Prafulla K., The Marginal Men: The made possible by a grant from the Indo-Dutch (Mahanta 1986, 109). In April 2000, however, an Refugees and the Left Political Syn- drome in West Programme on Alternatives in Development accord between the government in Delhi, the state Bengaf(Calcutta: Naya l.!dyog, (IDPAD). At various stages of the project, and in government of Assam, and the major political party 1999). various capacities, the fol- lowing researchers were in Assam pushed that date back to 1951, causing a involved: Imtiaz Ahmed (Dhaka), Anugata Akhanda storm of protest and further confusion ('Indigenous 'Development, Displacement and Rehabili- tation,' (Agartala), Gautam Chakma (Agartala), Abhijit definition,' 2000). Economic and Political Weekly, 31:24 Dasgupta (Delhi), Manpreet Kaur Janeja (Calcutta), (June 15, 1996). Amena Mohsin (Dhaka), Dipankar Mukherjee (Ranchi), Zubeeda B. Quraie!-.y (Chennai), Md 4 See also the discussion on citizenship and proxy 'Indigenous definition sparks row in Assam, The Mahbubar Rahman (Rajshahi), Kathinka Sinha- citizenship in Van Schendel (2002). Northeast Daily (17 April 2000). Kerkhoff (Ranchi), Willem van Schendel 5 E.g. Menon and Bhasin (1998). (Amsterdam). Mahanta, Prafulla Kumar, The Tussle Between the Citizens and Foreigners in Assam (Delhi: Vikas, 6 For one study which details the decisive political 1986). 2 The project was concerned with displacement influence of cross-border refugees on the politics of which impels people to cross an inter- national the Indian state of West Ben- gal, see Chakrabarti Menon, Ritu, and Kamla Bhasin, Borders & border. It did not deal with displacement of people (1999). Boundaries: Women in India'sParlition (Delhi: Kali within the territory of a single state, which is the for Women, 1998). topic of a growing literature in South Asia. See e.g. 7 See e.g. Menon and Bhasin (1998), Berjeaut 'Development' (1999). Van Schendel, Willem, 'Stateless in South Asia: The (1996). Making of the India-Bangladesh Enclaves,' The 8 Ali (1993, 247). Journal of Asian Studies, 61:1 (March 2002), 1-33. 3 The Indira-Mujib Pact was an agreement between the prime ministers of India and Bangladesh which 'tacitly provided that Bangladesh would not be held References Verghese, B.G., India's Northeast Resurgent: responsible for persons who had illegally migrated Ethnicit}-: Insurgenc}-: Governance, Develop- ment to India before the birth of the new Republic prior Ali, S. Mahmud, The Fearful State: Power, People and Internal War in South Asia (Lon- (Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1996).

IUPAU Newsletter Vol. Jan. June 2003 1.25

AsiaIn Asia

An international conference on labour Rutten of the Amsterdam School of Social from a historical perspective the need to and Capitalist Transforrnation in Research (ASSR) of the University of refocus our attention on the social Asia was held at the Centre for Amsterdam. Development studies, reproduction of labour. The three remaining Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala in Eighteen papers were presented at the papers in this first set of studies are critical India, during December 13-15, conference. Together, they rep- resent a analyses of the use of the concepts of labour 2001. The conference was broad bandwidth of subjects on capital-labour and capital in the literature: Marcel van der sponsored by the Indo-Dutch relations, from pure theoretical contestation in Linden questions from a historical perspec- Programme for Alternatives in the tradition of Marx to empirical tive the common image of the working class; Development (IDPAD). It brought to- substantiation of trade liberalisation benefits gether a select number of scholars Jairus Banaji demystifies the polarity between from India, China, South East Asia in the neo- classical tradition; from a focus on unfree and free labour; while K.P. Kannan and Europe working on themes of agricultural labour in South Asia to urban and Mario Rutten argue for the need to labour relations in the larger canvas workers in China; from papers dealing with conceptualize both labour and capital in its of capitalist transformation in Asia. the issue of democracy and mobilization of plural dimension. The conference was conceived on labour in Indonesia to the rise of Indian IT the premise that labour, in its relation- professionals in India and abroad. The ship with capital, was one of the central eighteen papers presented may be broadly issues in the social science de- bate at grouped into two sets of categories. The first Theoretical Views the end of the 19th century, but was set of papers discusses issues of the In his paper 'A Question of Pov- relegated to an obscure position at the dynamics of labour and capital from a erty', Jan Breman presents a brief over- end of the 20th century, with little general-theoretical perspective, providing a view of the old and new debates on prospect for a resurrection at the dawn critical analysis of dominant views and dualism especially on the use of the of the 21st century. This is particularly so concepts employed in the literature. The informal and formal sector concept. His as economic liberalisation and the second set of papers deals with various analysis then focuses on the views of cultural effects of globalisation loom specific themes related to labour and capital Hernando de Soto as exemplified in his large in the current research and policy transformation in Asia from an empirical and publications 'The Other Path' (1989) and interests. This focus of academic re- otten country;-specific perspective. A list of 'The Mystery of Capital' (2000). Jan searchers and policy- makers alike need the papers presented is given in Annex 1. Breman's criticism to the work of de to be assessed against the fact that in Soto applies to the lack of theoretical spite of labour having been largely depth and the lean empirical foundation instrumental in bringing about of his main hypothesis. Breman's paper development in Asian societies, its shows that what de Soto presents as contribution has not been adequately social-scientific analysis is in fact an acknowledged in the academic and policy domains. The present interna- Critical analyses of dominant views and ideological statement intended to tional conference was thus an attempt to concepts advocate capitalism as the only true address this concern by bringing back The first set of general and theo- path to development. More specifically, labour into the research agenda. retical papers consists of six studies that Jan Breman indicates a number of The conference was also intended provide a critical analysis of theoretical misconceptions in the work of de Soto to honour Professor Jan Bremen, an views and concepts that have been which results in a strongly biased portrayal of social reality. Contrary to de eminent scholar and former Professor of employed in. the literature on labour and Soto's view, the informal sector does not Comparative Sociology at the Uni- capitalist transformation in Asia. Three versity of Amsterdam. Jan Bremen has papers are a critique of several exist as a separate and closed circuit worked on the theme of labour in Asia prevailing views on the developments of with its own logic and game rules, but can be understood only by tracing the throughout his academic career. The labour and capitalist relations at present lines that connect it to the formal sector. initiative for organizing the conference and in the past: Jan Breman criticizes was taken by two of his former students, the views of Hernando de Soto on the Moreover, de Soto's analysis com- pletely ignores the fact that property is Professor K.P. Kannan of the Centre for informalisation of labour; Terence Byres not necessarily owned by those who use Development Studies (CDS) in critically analyses the revival of neo- Trivandrum and Professor Mario classical neo-populism; while Amiya it as a means of subsistence. As a Kumar Bagchi emphasizes result, it is wrong to assume that

2 26 lUI'AIJ Newstener v

.CONFERENCES 1' the informal sector c consists largely of people who own property. Much of the economic activity in the so-called in- formal sector is founded on capital from the formal sector and given the low cost of labour and taxed minimally or not at all, returns to where it came from with a tidy profit. Terence Byres's paper is largely a critique of a recent lengthy article by Keith Griffin, Azizur Rahmann Khan and Amy Ickowitz (Poverty and Distribution of Land, 2001) that pursues a neo-populist, neo-clas- In his historical paper on the so- cial growth through the 'great mortality sical argument in favour of small-scale production of labour, Amiya Kumar decline'. This was caused by public agriculture. Basically, these authors Bagchi argues that the social needs of a health interventions that Bagchi argue in favour of redistributive land re- population and its labour force are repeatedly argues as critical to public form as the best means of eradicating irreducible to the needs of capital, and welfare. This in turn suggests that be- rural poverty in the contemporary de- economic growth is not sufficient to tween capital's drive for an expanding, veloping countries. Neo-classical neo- ensure sustained growth of a healthy exploitable labour force and the demo- populism, Byres argues, is profoundly population. A wide range of factors, such graphic histories of the 16th to 20th cen- ahistorical, and in its lack of historical as unequal distribution of re- sources, turies, there are crucial mediations which perspective, does not address the pro- access to public health facilities, levels of still have to be identified. cesses of capitalist transformation in literacy, extent of child labour, and male contemporary poor countries. It is also restrictions on or control over women's Conceptual Issues fraught with contradictions emphasizing a reproductive rights have a crucial The first of the three contributions simultaneous pursuit of equality, its bearing on the well being of a population that addressed the issue of conceptu- compelling populist goal, and efficiency, and its active component. The history of alizing labour in its plural dimensions was its disciplining neo-classical force. One of capitalism shows that employers and the a paper by Marcel van der Linden. In this the questions raised during the state strive to reduce the social needs of paper, van der Linden attempts to come discussion, however, was whether one a given population to the narrow require- to grips with the issue of conceptualizing must call someone a neo- populist in toto ments of capital, thereby repeatedly the world working class. He questions if he or she thinks that under conditions of undermining the reproduction of labour. the stereotypical image of the 'working underdevelopment in a poor country, it Bagchi develops these arguments mainly class' as being personally free, having no might be desirable to promote cultivation by reference to the fading of the Dutch property, and being forced to sell labour by small farmers through land reform. golden age, the legacies of Tokugawa power in return for means of subsistence. And whether somebody must be dubbed capitalism of Japan, and the current This image emerged out of the socialist neo-classical if they talk of the need for abysmal state of the population in movement in Western Europe during the providing incentives to peasants to adopt several parts of the third world and the 19th century, but gradually met with a better cultivation practices for in- creasing former Soviet bloc. However it was wide acceptance among liberal and output. Given the policy relevance of such argued during the conference that his conservative intellectuals. Van der basic issues, such a position might take attempts to generalise from the Linden presents a large number of away the space for articulating alternative demographic trajectories of Dutch historical case studies that suggest that strategies of development especially in a capitalism partly fail against the his- there are no clear boundaries between democratic set up. torical reality of 18th century Western the doubly free wage earner and other Europe that experienced rapid subaltern producers in captalist society. population He argues that 'pure'

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CONFERENCES . wage earners in the classical sense do not exist and have never existed. The wage earner as described by Marx and his followers is only an abstraction that cannot be applied in historical research without modifications. At the same time, van der Linden argues for an abstract yardstick that encompasses the generality of the plural reality. Hence his own proposal of a 'world working class' criterion. But the crucial question he directs against the classical criterion seems to rebound upon himself. Although his critical historical analysis of the traditional conceptualization was viewed as an important contribution to the discussion, it remains to be seen to

what extent his own criterion is a viable conceptual alternative, viewing the fact fact that the regulatory logic of the the character of the state. The authors that capitalist transformation of the third capitalist economy is necessarily that of argue for need to bring in the role of the world countries is a long drawn out the total social capital. Unlike individual state which they characterize as an process of entirely different modalities as capital, social capital does not tend to 'intermediate regime'. In the inter- a result of space and time dif- resort to coercion, since the mobility of mediate regimes of these countries, the ferentiation. labour (implying freedom) is essential to ruling class, viz., the intermediate class, The second contribution that ad- the mechanism of capital at this level. or more specifically, the lower middle dressed the issue of conceptualizing Notwithstanding the powerful analysis, it class and the rich peasantry, is labour was the paper by Jairus Banaji on was argued during the discussion that composed of numerous sub-classes of the issue of unfree labour. In this paper, Banaji seems to partly ignore the diverse interests, and hence the state Banaji tries to demystify the polarity present-day reality of unfreedom of stands bound to reflect the same between unfree hired (i.e., bonded) labour imposed by the capital of composition in miniature. And it is here labour and free wage labour, as multinational corporations; there is a that it follows capital and labour in its discussed by V. K. Ramachandran tendency to control labour through the heterogeneity as a category. The pa- per (Wage labour and unfreedom in agri- informalisation of the formal sector within provides a critical generalisation of the culture, 1990) and more in general by the context of globalisation and plural reality at the microcosmic level, Tom Brass (Towards a comparative liberalisation. but this is also its weakness. It seems to political economy of unfree labour). Within this focus on the issue of miss out the macrocosmic implications Banaji criticizes both authors as sub- conceptualization labour and capitalist of globalisation that steadily works to scribing to a liberal-individualistic notion transformation, K.P. Kannan and Mario integrate capital into global capital, that finds wage labour as essentially free Rutten reflected in their paper upon the rendering the space- time plurality of labour, based on the 'consent' of the objective plural dimensions not only of capital and labour largely insignificant. A individual worker and on the free bargain labour but also of capital in the present similar argument arises with regard to that embodies that 'consent'. This developing countries. Their argument the role of the state and the increasing postulation is in sharp contrast to Marx, mainly centres upon the propositions of importance of transnational processes. whose references to free labour have a the works of Jan Breman, who has profoundly delegitimating intent. To forcefully brought out that neither labour abstract the references to free labour nor capital are homogeneous categories, Empirical Perspectives on Thematic Issues from the framework of this critique is to nor do they lend themselves to clear cut The second set of papers deals with dichotomous divisions such as rural run the risk of imparting a naturalness to various specific themes related to labour and versus urban, agriculture versus the notion of 'freedom' which it does not capital transformation in Asia from an industry, and formal versus informal. possess. According to Banaji, Brass falls empirical and often country-specific Since capital and labour appear as into this pitfall because he sees perspective. It consists of twelve papers heterogeneous categories in the capitalism entirely from the standpoint of dealing with developments in various parts of objective historical conditions of most of individual capital, ignoring the crucial South, South-east and East Asia. The the present day Asian countries, this themes covered also applies to 26

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Agricultural Labour A related paper by Alakh Sharma sketches out the significant transfor- mation process in the agrarian rela- tions and the consequent socio-eco- nomic changes in the State of Bihar in India. Though the capitalist devel- opment in agriculture tried to keep the system as exploitative as before as far as labour was concerned, significant changes in agrarian relations also took place. Massive mobilization of poor peasants and agricultural labourers in the state resulted in enhancing agricultural wages, as well as in some semblance of land reform measures. Increased labour migration also had its vary from two historical analyses of plantation to the generalised globalisation of the 21st contribution to changing the rural labour in South-east Asia (Alec Gordon) and century. The richness of this pa- per lies in its markets and social structures. Contrary to popular perceptions currently South India (Ravi Raman); two contemporary analysis of a single commodity, rubber - one fashionable in the media in India, the contributions on agricultural labour in Pakistan of the most globalised and liberalised paper emphasized that changes have (Kristoffel Lieten) and Bihar (Alakh Sharma); commodities - over time and space. The been taking place in the agrarian four analyses on non-agricultural, industrial discussion on this paper brought out need to relations in Bihar. Such changes, workers in India (Rohini Hensman), Kerala further examine the impact of the changing however, need to be looked into the and Tamil Nadu (Rammohan), China (Li characteristics of plantation labour on the context of the emerging production Minghuan) and Malaysia (Raja Rasiah); two production system, in terms of multiplicity of relations and the larger social formation papers that deal with the issue of mobilization job, labour regimes, and levels of work, that have been taking place in the face of labour and democracy in Indonesia (aile especially within a comparative framework. of increased peasant mobilization. It is Tornquist) and Thailand (Staffan Lindberg): Compared with this general expose of a also well known that Bihar is still and two analyses that look at the Information historical process covering the whole of South characterized by political forces resulting and Communication Technology (ICT) in the East Asia, Ravi Raman's study on the in frequent violent struggles of the poor larger context of the development debate in trajectories of peripheral labour in South Indian peasantry and landless agrarian India and Bangladesh (Aswani Saith) and on plantations from the 1820s -2001 fills a gap proletariat. the rise of Indian IT professionals in India and that results from the inadequate representation Another study in this respect is by abroad (Peter van derVeer). of the changes in plantation labour in relation Kristofel Leiten on the capitalist to capitalist transformation in the history of the transformation of agriculture but with Asian labour force. continuation of the feudal mode of Ravi Raman also discusses how such a labour use in Lower Sindh of Pakistan. It transformation ultimately resulted in the illustrates how a concomitant trans- replacement of individual labour by family formative process of labour does not Plantation Labour labour, and of men workers by women necessarily accompany capitalist In the first paper on plantation labour, workers, causing a further process of transformation. The study looks into the Alec Gordon analyses the transformation of intensified labour exploitation. The paper, it hari (share cropping) system of ag- labour in the production of natural rubber in a was felt, could form a useful basis for further riculture prevalent in that region, where historical process during 1900-2001 and research in knowing more about the labouring cultivation has gone beyond subsis- across space in Southeast Asia. The data pre process in the plantations, which is in some tence into surplus generating produc- sented focuses on the cultivation practices, on ways entirely different from the industrial tion for the market with considerable the issue of labour transformation from labouring process. degree of accumulation. The labour use indentured migrant to contract migrant to system, however, continues to be in the settled resident workers, on the discussion on old feudal mode, more or less small-holder versus plantation production, and corresponding to labour slavery (bond- on gender issues, and attempts to link it age), which Lieten calls a 'captive labour' system. The discussion noted

IDPAj) wsletter !OO312.9

CONFERENCES . that a study with such an alarming labour in the coir yarn spinning sites of However, the starting point of a 'con- conclusion on the increasingly wretched southern India (Kerala and Tamil Nadu) trasting' picture between brokerage conditions of the haris calls for in a commodity chain frame- work. He during the indenture period and in alternative strategies to alleviate their concludes that there might be instances present-day China, as described by the captive labour condition. Though the where given the overarching structure of author, seem to be not always suffi- paper did not deal with the failure of the world capital- ism, a substantially larger ciently drawn out in the research con- state's response to this system of labour access to value may not be realised, but ducted. Moreover, one may doubt if the bondage, it was perhaps implied that the there may be peripheral improvement in labour market stabilises. The paper, state as keeping a closed eye to such the conditions of life and work. This is however, drew much appreciation for highly exploitative labour relations. demonstrated by the case of technologi- highlighting the emergence of the early cal reorganisation of defibering and forms of labour brokerage in a socialist Informal Sector Labour and spinning nodes of the coir yarn com- market economy framework. It thus Brokerage modity chain in southern India. revealed the wide gap between official There are four papers that consider Rammohan argues that the limited gain claims of the nature of the regime and different aspects of non-agricultural and to the periphery in terms of value the ground reality of everyday life. industrial labour. Rohini Hensman realisation is primarily due to the pow- The last paper by Raja Rasiah on analyses the impact of globalisation on erful intermediary metropolitan agents, trade and labour market conditions in employment in India and the responses who drain off economic rent. He there- Malaysia, stands apart ideologically from to it from the formal and informal sectors. fore proposes a reduction in the length of the other three papers in this cluster; in Globalisation leads to a leveling of the chain, by strengthening local market. fact it stand out from all other papers labour standards both within and During the discussion it was wondered presented at the conference. The critical between countries. Left to themselves, whether the value chain approach is an questions addressed relate to the way in employers tend to push labour standards appropriate one to the coir yarn sector which industrial trade expansion has down to the level of the informal sector, especially of Kerala, a highly been achieved in Malaysia and its as indicated by developments in India decentralised tiny world of industry, impact on employment, skill formation and other countries. The growing where all the activities, i.e., of design, and wages. Rasiah argues that the rising preponderance of the informal sector is production and marketing of coir yarn trade penetration in GDP of Malaysia explained by the aversion of Indian are confined to individual or household was not driven by mere freeing of employers to regulation, especially in the units; the co-operative sector is nothing markets for efficient resource allocation. area of labour relations. This process but a magnified image of the one- Market strengthening interventions have takes place within a conducive man/household industry. been critical in promoting import atmosphere created by a government Exploitation by intermediary agents, substitution, along with the provision of policy of deregulating the formal sector this time in the context of labour export-oriented incentives. Although under the pretext of globalisation. The markets, comes in for more specific Rasiah indicates that increased trade study has found no evidence that the examination by Li Minghuan in her study and capital flows have led to huge preponderance of the informal on the re-emergence of labour brokers in improvements in unemployment, skills and wage, but wage, but also caused an sector creates more employment. China during the restructuring period. increase in wage in- equality, his model Though the paper is a good contribut1on Economic restructuring in China has of analysis seems to be unable to to empirical evidences on the pernicious resulted in the emergence of several capture the distributional aspects of the effects of globalisation on labour, it is associated phenomena: mass migration trade driven growth in Malaysia. also sprinkled with many general state- from rural to urban areas, a resultant ments in terms of theoretical contes- development of labour markets, a tation. However, globalisation is corresponding adaptation and growth of characterised to offer vast scopes for economic institutions, and a re- Democracy and Mobilization of uniting the world working class in the emergence of labour brokerage. Based Labour face of the ever- integrated global capi- on a case study conducted in Xiamen, Li The following two papers deal with tal; but there is no discussion on the Minghuan concludes that labour bro- the relational aspects of labour and de- kerage emerges because of the de- logic that would cement both the formal mocracy. Staffan Lindberg discusses the mand-supply gap and information and the informal workers from the world recent movements and organisational asymmetries, as well as because of the to effectively respond to globalisation. changes among the farmers in the Chinese government's new policy of Rammohan's contribution exam- central plains of Thai- land. In general, abandoning the old system of national ines the implications of upgrading for his contribution ad- dresses the issue as job assignment procedures. to what extent new farmers' movements become possible as a result of the on- 2 going

30 IDPAD Newslener Vol. I, No.1 Jan -June 2003

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democratisation, and to what extent do sequent papers, one by Ashwani Saith (NRls) in America. To him, there is no these movements contribute in tum to and the other by Peter van der Veer, contradiction, unlike the common belief, the process of democratisation and the look at the Information and Communi- between techno-science and religion; he creation of a more vibrant civil society. cation Technology (ICT) in the larger finds both going together in Hinduism, as More specifically, Lindberg tries to context of the development debate. facilitated by movements like the Vishva answer the question why crop-specific While Saith examines the role of ICT in Hindu Parishad working among the NRls forms of independent pressure- group poverty alleviation, van der Veer pro- in America. Though one may largely organisations successfully emerged in vides a critique of modernity byexam- agree with the paper on its empirical the case of rubber and sugar, but not in ining the handling of this new technol- substantiation, there was some doubt the case of rice? He brings out, among ogy and that of conventional religion by raised during the discussion about the others, the role of the state in repressing the expatriate Indians working in the logic of its critique on modernity. The the movements of the rice peasants, United States IT labour market. Ashwani enlightenment philosophers following the fact that rice is an important Saith takes a critical look at claims that oversimplified ideas by a binary-type tax base. Discussion on the paper ICT has enormous potential for compartmentalisation of religion and revealed the need to spell out the impact alleviating poverty and attempts to science. On the other hand, the of the long-term democratisation process separate the hope from the hype. It is modernity critics today take the other on bringing about changes in redefining apparent that private access to ICT is extreme by coalescing them together: attitudes and interests of groups of prohibitively expensive for the poor while enlightenment tradition views workers, including that of farmers. people in poor countries, as evidenced religion and science as binary opposites, Olle Tornquist also highlights the by two case studies: (i) its critique takes an equally extreme authoritarian subordination and outright the Village Knowledge Centre initiative of position when it sees no difference repression by the state in rendering the the M. S. Swaminathan Research between the two. More in general, it was Indonesian labour incapacitated to Foundation in India, and (ii) the Village emphasized that the critique of playa significant role in the struggle for Pay Phones initiative of the Grameeen modernity should probe more into the democracy. He argues that labour Bank in Bangladesh. In both cases the role of vested interests that dominate played only a little and indirect role in non-poor sections of the community and moderate techno-science and the ousting of Suharto, and even now have benefited more than the poorer religion. contributes little to the post-Suharto sections. There is little evidence that ICT democratisation in Indonesia. The has had any noticeable indirect effect on In Conclusion causes for this are still unclear and can poverty alleviation through over- all The conference was conceived on only be understood by analysing the economic growth. The conclusion that the premise that the study of labour and dynamics of the concrete union work at emerges is that unless infrastructure like capitalist transformation in Asia has the factory level in various lo- cal electricity and telephone are available to become increasingly marginalized as a settings under different balances of the poor and unless they are literate and field of study in the social sciences over power, as well as by looking into the have been exposed to education, their the past few decades. The acceleration role of the politics of democratisation, access to ICT and the ability to use it will in the movement of capital and both among labour and the more well be severely restricted or non-existent. information as part of the process of reputed pro-democracy activists. It was The paper however proposes a third type globalization, and especially its cultural pointed out that to understand the of process, whereby the poor could aspects, have to a large extent relatively minor role of labour ni the benefit indirectly from the use if ICT by overtaken the research agenda in this current democratisation process in inter-mediate development organisations regard. Partly this change in research Indonesia, one needs to take a long- (e.g., the Self Employed Women's As - agenda is related to the process of term view of Indonesian political history sociation known as SEWA in India), or globalization and the increasing since in- dependence. The massacre of activist groups working for the poor. popularity of cultural studies, more in the communist movement in 1965 was Though the paper ignores the signifi- particular of its postmodernist version. a watershed in relegating labour to a cant political and cultural dimensions of But partly it was also the result of the timid posture by a regime of state terror. the ICT in its effective diffusion pro- unchanging and sometimes narrow cess, it does win in demarcating the nature of the field of labour studies and hype from the hope. studies on capitalist transformation itself. Peter van der Veer, on the other In much the same way that the labour hand, considers, through a critique of movement and trade unions have been Information Technology, Poverty and modernity, the relationship between unable to keep up with the recent IT Professionals transnational religion and ICT in the changes at a global level and have lost Moving away from the earlier con- domain of the Non-resident Indians their grip on the new reality at the local ceptual-historical discourse, two sub- level, most studies

IDPAD Newsletter Vol. I, No.1 Jan -June 2003

CONFERENCES . agenda. The historical juxtaposition of realism. These papers suggest that what conducted on labour and capitalist labour vis-a-vis capital in the transfor- is needed is an analytical frame- work of transformation continue to operate within mation process of the Asian capitalist inductive reasoning that can capture old debates, views and perspectives, societies is examined both in the ana- objective specificities within the and are hardly able or willing to take into lytical framework of the classical labour reference frame of an abstract concept. their approach and analysis the changes theory and in the specific empirical Too much generalisation or too much that have taken place as a result of the exercises. An unusual natural-ness is particularisation does harm an analysis. recent acceleration in the process of found in the general flair of the studies In the case of the empirical studies. this globalization. for perceiving and penetrating into the implies the imperative of a comparative The eighteen papers presented in objective reality of plurality that analytical framework that facilitates well- the Conference represent a broad characterises both labour and capital in founded inductive inferences. Framing bandwidth of subjects on capital-labour their bounded space-time specific such a reference in a specific context relations, from pure theoretical contes- trajectories. It is thus reassuring to could be a fruitful theme of future tation in the tradition of Marx, to em- witness the return of the labour issues on research. Judged from this perspective, pirical substantiation of trade to the informed platform of discourses, then, the papers presented at the liberalisation benefits in the neo-clas- suffused with the convictions of the Conference offer a wide variety of sical tradition. All these papers in gen- down-to-earth realities, rather than led by particular contexts of situating labour vis- eral and each on its own reflect in vary- too-generalised abstractions. a-vis capital, and thus a wealth of future ing degrees the fundamental premise Several of the papers reflect the research agenda. 8 that the Conference has been meant to need for a trade-off between the rigour of K.P. Kannan, Mario Rutten and N. uphold and highlight, viz., bringing the theorization and the disposition for Vijayamohanan Pillai classical concerns over the themes of labour back onto the research

Annex 1 K.P. Kannan and Mario Rutten, K.T. Rammohan, Commodity chain, The papers can broadly be classified Labour and Capital in Asia's upgrading and labour: a view from coir under the two headings of 'Critical transformation: on dichotomies, yarn spinning sites of Southern India. Analyses of Dominant Views and continuities and linkages. Concepts' and 'Empirical Perspec- tives on Thematic Issues'. Empirical Perspectives on The matic Li Minghuan, Making sense of bro- Issues kerage: interactions between brokers and migrant workers when labour Critical Analyses of Dominant Views Alec Gordon, The dynamics of labour market is restructuring in Xiamen, and Concepts transformation in a long term China (1980-2000). globalisation process: natural rub- ber Terence J. Syres, Neo-classical neo- in Southeast Asia 1900-2001 Raja Rasiah, Trade and labour mar- populism 25 years on: deja vu and ket conditions in Malaysia. deja passe: towards a critique. K. Ravi Raman, Of peripheral labour: trajectories of Dalit labour in Staffan Lindberg, When will farmers Jan Breman, Gn the question of po v- plantations in southern India, c. unite? The long road to democracy in erty. 1820s-2001. rural Thailand.

Amiya Kumar Bagchi, The neglected Alakh N. Sharma, Agrarian relations aile Tornquist, Labour and democ- problem of social reproduction of and socio-economic change in Bihar. racy? Tentative reflections on the In- labour. donesian impasse. G.K. Lieten, The captive labour force in Marcel van der Linden, Lower Sindh, Pakistan. Peter van der Veer, Some prelimi- Conceptualising the world working nary notes on transnational religion class. Rohini Hensman, 7 he impact ot and software engineering. globalisation on employment in India Jalrus l:SanaJI, Uemystlfylng wage and responses from the formal and Ashwani Salth, Information-commu- labour: contract, coercion, and so informal sectors. nication technologies and poverty al- called unfree labour. leviation: hope or hype?

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The Centre for Civil Society, New Delhi, had organized a National Conference on Primary Education from December 11-13, 2001, to discuss alternative ways to approach the issue of universal primary education.

Public discussion on primary education Bibek Debroy, Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Indian Secretariat, represented IDPAD. in India generally centres Contemporary Studies; Amarjeet Sinha, Dr. K. Venkatasubramanian in his on making it a fundamental right and on Education Advisor, DFID; T.K Mathew, keynote address dwelt upon the status of ways to increase government spending Chief Executive, Deepalaya, Delhi; P. elementary education in India since on it. Education continues to be Rajendran, chief operating of- ficer, NIIT; Independence and singled out poor governed by the License Permit Raj that Vivek Agarwal eGurucool.com; Marmar governance as the primary reason why has negatively affected the quality and Mukhopadhyay, NIEPA; Dinesh singh, elementary education has remained only quantity of education services in the Delhi University; Sanjiv Kaura, National at a take off stage for so long. It was country. Co-Ordinator, National Alliance for followed by presentations and To discuss alternative ways of Fundamental Right to Education; Rajiv discussions in the various sessions. approaching the issue of education, the Desai, Indian Public Affairs Network; Each session had two presenters and Centre for Civil Society, New Delhi had Joseph P. Overton, Mackinac Centre for two discussants that enumerated the organized a National Conference on Public Policy, USA; Vandana problems plaguing primary education Primary Education from December 11- Sipahimalani Rao, World Bank; Janaki and suggested solutions to remedy 13,2001. It was convened by the Rajan, Director, State Council of Edu- them. President of CSS, Parth J. Shah and cational Research & Training (SCERT), Prof. Govinda highlighted the in- was funded by IDPAD. The focus of this Delhi; Anita Rampal, Eklavya, Bhopal; creased role of Union Government Conference was on the role of the and Steven Rudolph, Education Direc- through significantly higher spending on private sector in primary education: tor, JIVA Institute. education and centrally sponsored studying the existing private initiatives, Peter van der Veer and K.S. Sarma schemes, greater participation of lo- cal role of new technologies, barriers to the -the two co-chairmen, Bhaskar bodies in the planning and man- entry of new educational institutions, Chatterjee, Member Secretary ICSSR, agement of primary education, and large methods of assuring quality in private Marc Verhagen, Dutch Coordinator and scale international funding now available sector education, and decentralisation of Sanchita Dutta, Assistant Director to the governments both at the Centre as curricula and text- book authorship. well as the State level. Despite this, the Participants included K. government has not taken effective steps Venkatasubramanian, Member, Union to improve quality of services. Very little Planning Commission; Anil Bordia, progress has been made regarding former Education Secretary, Govern- partnership with NGOs, except for some ment of India and Chairman, Lok experiments by Lok Jumbish, Education Jumbish, Rajasthan; R Govinda, Pro- Guaran- tee Scheme (EGS), and fessor, NIEPA; Amita Sharma, Secre- PRATHAM. Amita Sharma presented the tary, Raiv Gandhi Shiksha Mission, case of the EGS in Madhya Pradesh, Government of Madhya Pradesh; P. V. which has tried to create new Indiresan, liT Delhi; Gurcharan Das, opportunities through village panchayats, Author and Management Consultant; community participation, and Rohit Dhankar, representing Digantar, prioritisation of human development. Jaipur; Madhav Chavan, PRATHAM EGS has been successful become it is Mumbai; James Tooley, University of community based and not run by the Newcastle, England; Vivek government. Ramchandani, Global Education James Tooley and Madhav Chavan Consultancy Pvt. Ltd, Bangalore; Dilip were united in their critique of the State Thakore, Editor, Education World; in not being able to impart quality education

illPAD Newsletter Vol. ~, No.1 Jan -June 2003

CONFERENCES . However, while James Tooley offered and deregulation of entry is absolutely ments of students. James Tooley full-scale privatisation as the panacea, essential to enable those who may want pointed out the example of Florida in the Madhav Chavan prescribed social to enter the field to provide good quality United States where government investments to create a group of affordable education. Some participants schools were rated under the A+ Plan. "edupreneurs" or social entrepre- neurs also suggested that the government Students from schools that had been underrated for two consecutive years to bring about greater account- ability in should allow completely private were provided with vouchers, which they the system. Professor Tooley pointed out universities, not just professional could use at private schools. This was that government delivery system has institutes, to enter the field of educa- an initial step to reduce the failed and private initiatives have tion. Besides trusts and charitable government's role in providing succeeded on three accounts: ef- foundations, private companies that education. fectiveness and efficiency; equity and might also be interested in catering to accountability; and improvement in the market for education should be al- Prof. Janaki Rajan then described delivery due to competition. Public-pri- lowed to do so. In fact, deregulation of how through an innovative method of vate partnership can be built on three the sector will provide a much-needed associating with NGOs and the com- models contracting out government bridge, which can fill up the gaps be- munity and employing a private agency, managed schools to private managed tween the public and private sector. the SCERT was able to establish more companies; curriculum contracting and Amarjeet Sinha emphasized that the community based schools in the slums state funded vouchers to enable chil- issue of deregulation of education should and lower middle class areas in Delhi. dren to move to private schools. be viewed differently from reforms in This brought to the fore the concept of Some participants felt that the other sectors. Referring to the judgement for profit and 'non-profit' partnership government would have a very signifi- in the Unnikrishnan case he advocated a through which the benefits of the best of cant role to play in the field, but in the differential fee structure and common both sectors of civil society can be process it was crowding out private entrance test to ensure quality. brought together. Joseph Overton agencies genuinely committed to the Regarding quality of education, it described how the principle of market cause. T.K. Mathew took Deepalaya as was felt that the concept of "equitable mechanism could be utilised to improve an example of how the government is quality of education" needs to be de- the quality of education in USA. For making it difficult for entrepreneurs in fined and standardised. There is also an example, in Michigan, there is a system education to establish good quality urgent need to improve the techniques of of child- centered funding for education schools. He argued that while the in- evaluation and the method of assessing so that the money follows the child spector Raj is dead for industry, it is still the learning achieve- around - if he or she changes the school kicking in education. De-licensing the money follows the child. Such schemes might be an interesting model for India to study and adapt in cases where government participation is seen as imperative. Some participants felt that govern- ment expenditure on education needs to be enhanced, but at the same time proper utilisation of the fund has to be ensured through involving creative Besides trusts and people. The Tapas Mazumdar commit- charitable founda- tions, tee has assessed that an additional fund for profit companies that of Rs. 1 ,400 billion will be required over might also be interested 10 years for universalisation of primary in catering to the market for education should be education. This implied a rise of 0.7% of allowed to do so. In fact, DGP per year. Sanjiv Kaura argued that deregulation of the sector a government which can afford to will provide non-merit subsidies accounting provide a much- needed for 13% of its non-plan expenditure bridge, which can fill up surely is in a position to pro- vide that the gaps between the much of additional fund for providing free public and private sector. primary education. However, Dilip Thakore stressed that it is a fallacy to believe that state education

}. 34

.CONFERENCFS is free. It is paid for by the taxpayers' One other aspect of education that money. In fact, state education is more was discussed was the role of tech- expensive (in terms of money spent per nology in improving the reach and qual- capita), more uneconomical (because of ity of education. Vivek Agarwal from waste and lack of accountability) and eGurucool.com began by making a more inefficient (because of not distinction between IT education and IT in achieving outcomes). The only solution, education. Whereas IT education started according to him, lies in the de-licensing fairly early and took off rather well, it is IT of education. in education that has not worked Bibek Debroy argued that since 95% satisfactorily for a variety of reasons. of our total education expenditure was Some participants felt that IT is not a spent on teachers' salary, raising the substitute to pedagogy and can at best budget allocation for education to 6% of playa supplementary role. However, GDP may not help since the major technology presents the possibility of portion of this will again go to pay overcoming constraints of time and teachers many of whom in the current space. Learning with technology opens context do not work conscientiously. up an array of possibilities like access to Therefore, before we increase information, providing connectivity to government spending on education, it is experts and peers and enriching the important to examine mechanisms to learning experience. While it is not an enforce accountability. The principles of end in itself, it is an enabler to achieve experiments being undertaken in some good governance need to be applied on outcomes. Prof. Dinesh Singh located the districts of Kerala with remarkable re- a non-discriminatory basis to both debate in the interface between sults. A shift to the textbooks generated government schools and government- technology and primary education. Dr. within and an informal evaluation system aided schools. Nawalgundkar shared his experience of (as against a formal, print- based Anil Bordia raised the question of Maharashtra. He said computers actually examination system) has been more equity as a very serious concern, es- discour- age a dialogue between the successful in enhancing children's pecially in the varied context of India. He teacher and the taught. Moreover, the cognitive skills than conventional strongly emphasized the need for more teachers are often the hardest nuts to methods. Complete decentralisation is resources for education. However, to crack when it comes to taking new essential in deciding the course and deal with the problem of poor technologies to the classrooms. On the curricula. Government can prepare the accountability in the system the gov- other hand, Amita Sharma talked about guidelines but the choice should rest with ernment could take on the responsibility the success of a new technological the schools. Stephen Rudolph spoke on of funding, while private agencies could experi- ment being tried in 600 schools of some of the experiments that were being handle management. The government Madhya Pradesh. carried out by JIVA, a voluntary institute can also provide loans and credit The conference also studied the committed to combining tra- facilities to those who, for lack of problems of curricula and textbooks. Dr. ditionallndian knowledge with modern personal finance, stay away from the Anita Rampal from Eklavya, Bhopal, scientific technology. He said that edu- provision of education. This would began by observing that curriculum cation under a centralised control gets provide an opportunity to those-genu- should not simply be reduced to sylla- stifled and ceases to be a liberating inely interested to start private schools. bus but should also include training, force. Discussions also took place on assessment, examination, curriculum The conference concluded with Dr. 93rd Amendment of the Indian Consti- management and monitoring in its Parth J. Shah summarising the main tution making primary education a package. She then made a critique of the points that came up for discussions. He Fundamental Right. There was scep- centralised system of curriculum on the said the consensus in the conference on ticism about whether this amendment ground of it being monolithic, deregulation and delicensing of by itself would ensure universalisation standardised and distant from the ac- education and the increased role of the of equitable quality education. Article 45 tuallearner as well as the local realities private sector should be the focus point of the constitution made a provi- sion for and knowledge systems. This can be of any future reforms. 8 universal primary education, but it failed broken by evolving a decentralised to achieve its target. It was felt that system that can be closer to the child and there was a lot of ambiguity about the be more participatory in nature, involving Manali Shah definition of "equitable quality both parents and children. She then Programme Coordinator, Centre for education". narrated the examples of the Civil Society, New Delhi.

IDPAD Newsletter Vol. !, No.1 Jan -June 2003135

WORKSHOPS.

Workshop on strategies and instruments for sustainable growth in India,organised jointly by the Technology and Development Group, University of Twente and 11M, Ahmedabad, on 27 March, 2002, New Delhi

Two days before Holj, more than thirty Energy efficiency and related issues are to deliver appropriate support. It is nec- people from the public and very much back into the international essary to analyse the barriers to the private sector gathered in the India agenda linked to concerns about global dissemination of environmentally be- Habitat Centre for the closing work- shop warming and fossil fuels combustion. In nign and energy efficient technologies to of the IDPAD project on "Energy 1995, India consumed 9106 PJ of fossil the 881 sector in order to identify Management and Environmental Pro- fuels, which produced 212 million tons strategies and policies, at the state and tection in Small Scale Industries" un- (MT) of carbon emissions (Refer section national level, to overcome the barriers. dertaken by the Technology and De- 5). The major users of these fuels are The team used case studies from velopment Group, University of Twente the industrial and transport sectors. The the brick industry and the dyestuffs and the Indian Institute of Manage- gross energy consumption per unit of industry in India. The former is oriented ment, Amhedabad. product is high (in 1987, 26 MJ/U5$ of to the internal market and the latter is There is no doubting the important GDP, com- pared with, for example, the partly oriented to the export market. economic role of the Small Scale In- Nether- lands at 17 MJ/U5$ of GDP), Policy instruments and approaches in dustry (SSls) sector in India. SSls pro- which could be reduced with more the Netherlands towards the promotion duce a wide range of more than 7500 efficient energy use. If the present trends of energy efficiency and environ- mental products, which account for 40% of in economic development and energy impact reduction in the 881s have also manufacturing output and 35% of ex- use continue, the emissions in India will been analysed to identify options for ports and they are thought to employ more than double in the next two de- transfer to India. This is not as surprising more than 17 million people. There is cades, and quadruple in the following as it may seem since there are a lot of evidence to suggest that the numbers of two decades. commonalities between 881s in SSls are increasing from 2082 mil- lion Tackling energy management in the industrialised and developing countries, in 1991-92 to 3 014 million in 1997- 551 sector brings with it interesting for example, low levels of investment in 98. challenges such as the sheer numbers R&D and hence innovation. Unfortunately, there is a negative of the units, whose management often In his opening address to welcome aspect to the sound performance of has a low level of awareness of the need delegates, Dr. Prem Pangotra SSls, as they are significant contribu- for energy efficiency and approaches for (previously at 11M Ahmedabad) re- tors to environmental pollution, and they improvement, as well as an institutional minded delegates not only about the have poor energy efficiencies, relative to structure that struggles international best practice.

~ There is no doubting the important economic role of the Small Scale Industry (SSIs) sector in India. SSIs produce a wide range of more than 7500 products, which account for 40% of manufacturing output and 35% of exports and it is estimated to employ more than 17 million people. There is evidence to suggest that the numbers of SSIs are increasing from 2082 million in 1991-92 to 3014 million in 1997-98. ~

36 IDPAU NeWSlener Vol. 1, NO.1 Jan. June ~UU:)

.WORKSHOPS The brick industry is an important rural industry producing 50 to 60 billion bricks a year and general economic growth is expected to see the demand grow. The technology currently employed is not the most energy efficient and that there are environmental problems caused by clay wining and smoke pollution from firing the kilns. academic and practical value of the ergy use, to help them become more Dr. Pangotra presented the case direct outputs of this type of collabora- competitive and sustainable. study on the small scale dye industry tive research but also the additional The case study of the brick indus- and explained why this branch was benefits of faculty and student ex- try was presented by Dr. Amit Garg, selected. Its poor reputation for nega- change between the two institutes,and who has been part of the IIM tive environmental impact made it in- that several dissertations at the mas- Ahmedabad team. The brick industry teresting to identify what environmen- ters and doctorate level were achieved is an important rural industry produc- tal management problems the indus- as well as an international workshop ing 50 to 60 billion bricks a year and try is facing. Such an extreme case on industry ecology held two years ago general economic growth is expected should offer lessons and conclusions at IIM Ahmedabad. It had been an en- to see the demand grow. The objec- relevant for many other industries. riching experience for all concerned. tive of the survey was to ascertain the Gujarat was the focus of the study Dr. Nico Schulte Nordholt from the technological status of the brick indus- because it is the centre of the dye- Technology and Development Group try in the country. The problems and stuff industry. It is an important export University of Twente, said that some concerns of the brick kiln industry and industry producing 4% of the world's might wonder at the relevance of this possible solutions as the kiln owners production and while only 2.5% of type of two country study since the perceive them. The technology cur- India's total production is exported it industry in the two sectors has appar- rently employed is not the most en- brings Rs 2000 crore annually and pro- ently little in common due to the soci- ergy efficient and that there are envi- vides 60000 jobs. On the other hand, etal factors and actors involved in de- ronmental problems caused by clay it produces serious water pollution termining the cause of technology de- wining and smoke pollution from firing which affects agricultural productivity, velopment. Nevertheless, both sides the kilns. There is more energy effi- skin problems for the workers and sur- learn from failures and mistakes. He cient technology available but the own- rounding populations. End of pipe treat- reminded participants that the Nether- ers do not know how to search for in- ments still create solid waste, which lands, has learnt again and again by formation on the options. If they were has to be disposed of, and represents hard lessons that if there is a lack of able to acquire the technology, the a greater concentration of the toxins. transparency in decision making or in owners cannot find the skilled labour A judicial action in 1995 in respect of law enforcement then the clarity of ex- required to operate it. Lack of invest- the plants around Ahmedabad had fi- isting regulations, and corruption will ment capital also hinders access to nally forced a solution to the waste allow a repeat of disasters such as the more efficient technology. Owners also treatment. Units were threatened with one which happened in Enschede close put their business survival before envi- closure, Common Effluent Treatment to the University of Twente's campus ronmental concerns. The comments Plants (CETF) had to be established where a fire works factory exploded two from the participants indicated that cir- and in order to keep in operation a dye- years ago destroying hundreds of cumstances have changed even in the stuff unit had to be a member of a houses. Dr. Venkata Ramana, head of short period since the survey was car- plant. However, these plants have not the Global Environmental Facility for ried out and the government was be- functioned efficiently and the respon- UNDP India, who had also been in- ginning to respond to the situation by sible government bodies have not pro- volved as a researcher in the project, sending a mixture of signals, from vided the necessary infrastructure, in- said that globalisation was proving a awareness raising brochure to direc- cluding roads and drainage facilities. real threat to SSls and they had to tives requiring the use of altemative ma- Dr. Pangotra said that this was clearly improve their efficiency, including en- terials to clay. a role for the private sector, which

IDPAD Newsletter VoL I, No.. 1 Jan -June 20031 J 7

WORKSHOPS.

Dr. Pangotra stressed that environmental improvements were not to be seen as additional costs. Removing pollution has to be seen as removing inefficiency which can be translated into real gains: the so- called win-win situation. This needs society at large to attach a premium to efficient use of natural resources.

would be more willing to provide a fee for trol and accepted lower limits; it as- introduced into a firm. There is a need service, and industry had indicated a sumes that it is more likely to get a for a lengthy period of "hand-holding" to willingness to pay a subscription fee to higher compliance at lower enforce- ensure that people are trained and really be part of the CETP. ment costs. Both parties are generally understand the technology. Dr Joy Clancy, the project team satisfied with the approach and many Dr. Pangotra stressed that envi- leader, who is with the Technology and branches have done very well in fulfilling ronmental improvements were not to be Development group, University of their targets. Interestingly one of those seen as additional costs. Removing Twente outlined the development of that has not done so well is the brick pollution has to be seen as removing energy and environmental policy in the industry, which seems to have inefficiency which can be translated into Netherlands. Energy policy had begun in underestimated what was required. real gains: the so-called win-win the 1970s as one of conserving oil as a The workshop finished with a panel situation. This needs society at large to response to political events in the Middle discussion chaired by Mr. Tuteja, from attach a premium to efficient use of East. This had now evolved into a policy the Ministry for small scale Industries. natural resources. very much driven by environ- mental Dr. Clancy began by saying that there Mr. Tuteja closed the workshop by considerations, in particular efforts to was a surprising overlap between 551s reminding participants that a small- reduce carbon dioxide emissions to try to in India and the Netherlands; in the scale entrepreneur is definitely a mitigate climate change effects. Policy attitude of management, as the capa- businessperson. He or she is not here had been formulated in response to a bilities to address energy management for making losses. You have to dem- growing public awareness of problems. They do not like to take risks onstrate that this technology interven- environmental issues. In which the and they worry about the same sorts of tion will enable the entrepreneur to make media had played an important role in things. 50ft ware issues, for example, more money, otherwise, he or she has creating that awareness. Environ- mental human resources management, could no time, patience or interest in it. It is a policy is increasingly being driven by produce very good improvements in question of how well we are able to outside forces, including European energy consumption usually at lower communicate that it is in his or her policy..and international protocols such investment costs than hardware, but 551 economic interest to take up the as Agenda 21 and Kyoto. The owners are reluctant to train staff fearing technology. Information a'nd com- instruments used by the government they will be lured away by their munication technology can play an have moved from command and control competitors. important role in convincing entrepre- to soft regulations. The government and Mr. Arun Kumar (Development Al- neurs. 8 industry form a partnership to reach ternatives) was concerned about the lack agreement on environmental targets, of willingness of the India Institutes of with the focus on the worst polluting Technology to address the problems of Joy Clancy industries. The agreement is set out in a many of the industries located in the Technology & Development covenant which is the main instrument of small scale sector. Dr. V. V. Kishore Group, University of Twente environmental and energy policy. (TERI) supported this view based on his Industry is then left to implement the experiences in the seri- culture industry. agreement, which government holding in He considered that one of the failures of reserve server last resort penalties. The technology transfer to 55 Is was a lack of Government has taken a risk. It has support for a period after the technology given up some con- has been .2

38 llJl'AD Newsletter Vol. No neL.W-,

.ExCHANGE OF SCHOLARS

tions (FRLHT)), was provided with a travel Scholars from the Nether- lands grant to attend a botanical conference in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa on 15 and 16 November 2001 , and to subsequently July 2001 -June 2002 Education and child labour in India develop a research proposal with South Dr. Rekha Wazir (International Child African and Dutch partners on sustainable utilisation of medicinal plants. The partners Development Initiatives, leiden) paid a one- month visit to India to research on 'The Scholars from India involved are Dr. Henk van Wilgenburg, AMC- University of Amsterdam, and Prof. van Interface between Education and Child Staden, University of Pietermaritzburg. This is labour: Review of Intervention Strategies'. Urban water and sanitation issues Dr. She visited selected NGOs that are an example of a tripartite collaboration (India, C. Ramachandraiah (CESS, Hyderabad) South Africa and the Netherlands) and a developing innovative strategies for achieving paid a two-week visit to the Netherlands south-south ex- change visit. the twin objectives of universalising primary from 13-28 August 2001. He visited education and eradicating child labour, and libraries of selected institutes, collected also contacted relevant resource persons, information on globalisation and research institutions and inter- national urbanisation, urban water issues and agencies working in this field. The purpose of sanitation for further research, and Economic co-operation between India and the research is to re- view the different contacted resource per- sons. The ASEAN initiatives to address these issues in a following organisations were visited: Prof. A. Sarma conducted research on the comparative frame- work and to learn lessons Institute of Social Studies (The Hague), subject of promoting economic co- operation from it. It is intended to publish a research IRC International Water and Sanitation with the ASEAN during a visit to the report, to be used for further discussion and Centre and the International Institute of Netherlands from 14 February- 15 March dissemination. The research took place in the the Urban Environment (in Delft), 2002. He was hosted by the International period October-December 2001. (see also Greenpeace International and the Institute of Asian Studies, Amsterdam branch article on 'The Inter- face between Education International Institute of Asian Studies office. The main purpose of the visit was to and Child labour: Some Reflections from (in Amsterdam) and the Institute for collect information on investment and Andhra Pradesh') Housing and Urban Development technology co-operation between India and Studies (HIS) in Rotterdam. ASEAN as part of a larger research project.

Asian approaches to mental health in the Netherlands Dr. Krishna Mohan (Archives and Re- search, Informalisation of women's work in Kerala Since the beginning of the fourth phase, Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry) visited Dr. M. Eapen, Center for Development a total of 42 exchange visits have taken the Netherlands from 24 September-24 Studies, Trivandrum visited from Neth- place. This number can be broken down December 2001 to conduct research on Asian erlands 21 May-20 June 2002. She collected as follows: religious and spiritual approaches to mental information on informalisation/flexibilisation of -number of exchange scholars from health and well-being with implications for women's work with special reference to India: 31 (74% of the total number of culture based mental health inter- ventions in Kerala and interacted with the gender and visits) development group staff at the Institute of India. The purpose of the research is to better -number and percentage of female Social Studies in the Hague. understand the use of Asian approaches in scholars: 8 (26% of the exchange mental health interventions in India and their scholars from India) implication for community mental health in -number of exchange scholars from the India. The scholar was hosted by Prof. Ria Netherlands; 11 (26% of total num- ber Kloppenborg at Utrecht University. of visits) Customary and personal law in South -number and percentage of female Asia scholars: 4 (36% of the exchange Dr. P. Ghosh, Indian Council of Social scholars from the Netherlands).- Science Research, New Delhi, visited Sustainable utilisation of medici- nal the Netherlands in the period 30 June - plants '30 July 2002 to do research on het Dr. Muthu Velayutham (Covenant Centre for issue of customary and personal law in Development, Madurai; affiliated with the south Asia. He was hosted by the Foundation for the Revitalisation of Local International Institute of Asian Studies, Health Tradition Amsterdam branch office. lDPAD Newsletter Vol. I, No.1 Jan -June 2003139

ExCHANGE OF SCHOLARS .

Dr. Rekha Wazir (International Child Development Initiatives, Leiden) paid a month long visit to India to research on issues related to child labour and education strategies. These are her reflections from Andhra Pradesh.

In large parts of Ranga Reddy district of basic education in India.1 Then, I had Andhra Pradesh entire village gone in with a lot of questions. How do communities are saying a firm 'no' to poor families cope without their child labour and opting to put their children's income and labour? How real children in school instead. Many of these is the focus on the poor? How do they villagers are poor landless labourers interact with the programme? Do the who have not had the benefit of a school children revert back to labour after the education themselves. Until a few years initial enthusiasm of schooling has worn The success and impact of MV ago, they argued that their children's off? Can the formal school system Foundation's approach is both visible income and labour was crucial for the deliver? These doubts had been quelled and measurable. By 1999, its survival of their families. A good number in a fairly comprehensive manner. A of these children were bonded for petty presence was firmly established in return visit in December 2001 as part of sums of money to local landlords, others 500 villages, covering more than half the project "The Interface between of the district. In 400 of these worked in factories or as wage labourers Education and Child Labour: A Review plucking flowers and in the cottonseed of Intervention Strategies" allowed me to villages, every child in the 5-11 age farms, and many were supplementing see new developments in the group was in school. Nearly 150,000 family labour by herding goats or programme at first hand, and confirm if children had been enrolled and performing domestic tasks. In a fairly my earlier reading and enthusiasm had retained in schools, more than 4000 short span of time, these very families been well founded.2 bonded child labourers had been are joining forces to make their villages A few impressions stand out on the released, and 168 villages were child child labour free and to ensure that all basis of this last visit and are worthy of labour free. children are in school. Far from being note. The success and impact of MV de- pendent on their children's income, Foundation's approach is both visible and parents are now contributing towards the measurable. By 1999, its presence was salary of an extra teacher in the school firmly established in 500 villages, or pooling their labour to improve the covering more than half of the school infrastructure. The message is clear and is spreading as more - communities join in this movement and pledge to make their village child labour free. Who is providing the impetus for this grassroots movement and how is it different from other attempts to universalise education and eliminate child labour? The catalyst is the Mamidipudi Venkatarangaiya Foundation (MV Foundation) -a local NGO -that has been working in Ranga Reddy district of Andhra Pradesh since 1991. My first visit to the MV Foundation was in October 1998 when I was collecting information for a volume on the role of NGOs in delivering

Jan -June 2003 . 40 IDPAD Newsletter Vol. No. ..

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district. In 400 of these villages, every child in the 5-11 age group was in school. Nearly 150,000 children had been enrolled and retained in schools, more than 4000 bonded child labourers had been released, and 168 villages were child labour free. The programme On this last visit to Ranga Reddy had grown in scope and complexity and district, I was perplexed by the fact new themes like easing the transition of that my questions about the value children to secondary school and of education did not elicit the same reaching the girl child had been enthusiasm as they had done on incorporated. The last two years have the first occasion. I soon realised seen a further consolidation of the that this was no longer an issue for programme in terms of impact and coverage, both within Ranga Reddy most villagers as it was taken for district as well as in other districts. By granted that children should not the end of 2001 MV Foundation was work but should be in school. active in a total of 8 districts and 2,500 villages in Andhra Pradesh including its achieve these results. Briefly stated, the traditional base in Ranga Reddy. programme starts by stimulating an Perhaps the most significant aspect awareness and demand for education. of MV Foundation's approach is that it Since MV Foundation does not believe in challenges mainstream views on the setting up a parallel school system, it works towards strengthening the existing to involve the community in its owner- related issues of child labour, education ship and management. On this last visit and poverty. The organisation school system. At the core of the Foundation's strategy for transforming to Ranga Reddy district, I was per- recognises poverty as a determinant of plexed by the fact that my questions child labour but it holds social and children from labourers to students are the residential bridge camps where about the value of education did not elicit cultural factors to be equally responsible the same enthusiasm as they had done for creating a climate that condones the prepare children who have never been to school to enter the formal school system on the first occasion. I soon realised that existence of working and non-school this was no longer an is- sue for most in the class appropriate to their age. A going children. Rather than taking the villagers as it was taken for granted that passive approach of waiting for poverty special attempt is made to recruit and retain girl children and to involve the children should not work but should be in to be eradicated, it works towards the school. They had moved on to other creation of an awareness and demand entire community in developing strategies for reaching out to this group. Additional matters like raising funds for their school, for education among the poor. This de- improving the playground, making mand is not restricted to parents of poor teachers -trained in pedagogy, mobilisation and motivation techniques - arrangements to send children to children alone but includes all secondary schools in neighbouring stakeholders such as teachers, em- are as- signed to schools to enable them to cope with the influx of students who towns, and coming to terms with the ployers of children, youth groups, vexed subjects of child marriage and women's groups, elected local repre- enrol as a result of the Foundation's efforts. The entire community is made dowry. These were more pressing sentatives and district and state gov- concerns now and they were interested ernment officials. This means turning responsible for defining the needs of the school and for making sure that children in telling me about the solutions they had around deep-seated value systems and found for dealing with them. changing mindsets of the poor, as also don't drop out. The issue of quality of education is also beginning to emerge as The difficult issue of quality of edu- of society at large. This working cation is one such concern that is now philosophy is expressed in MV an important agenda item. A participatory approach is used to being expressed by parents and fre- Foundation's charter of 'non-nego- quently by schoolteachers. Not sur- create a consensus about the tiable' principles that can be summed up prisingly, the push for quality is most programme at all levels of society and in one single sentence: no child should evident in villages where the community be at work and all children should be in has been mobilised and has been school. successful in achieving 100 percent The MV Foundation has developed enrolment. The MV Foundation decided a set of inter-linked strategies to to discuss this subject systematically with parents, teachers and

IDPAD Newsletter Vol. i, No.1 Jan -June 2003 141

ExCHANGE OF SCHOlARS . youth groups. The government spon- spired by MV Foundation -and was common evaluative framework that will sored Chittoor study had revealed that committed to eradicating child labour identify points of difference as well as only 15 percent of the children were up wherever he went. areas of overlap and synergy. In addi- to the mark in each class, and this Conversely, in other villages that did tion, it will allow one to address the finding was used as the basis for trig- belong to the programme, a group of issue of what are the real, binding con- gering discussion. On the basis of these villagers or panchayat members would straints to the universalisation of edu- discussions the Learning Guarantee tell me about 'their' programme and the cation from the perspective of poor Programme has been launched in 8 innovative means they had found for families. villages on an experimental basis. An getting children out of bonded labour, The following outputs have been external consultant is working encouraging girls to join school, or produced and are envisaged from this intensively with these schools to train stopping or postponing child mar- project: them in evaluation techniques, activity- riages. Sometimes this entire conver- 1. A preliminary paper entitled based learning and academic plan- sation would take place without once "Pathways from Child Labour to Edu- ning. The entire community, including mentioning the M.V. Foundation. I found cation: A Selective Review" was pre- parents are involved in this process. The this a very encouraging example of the sented at the IDPAD seminar on Child headmasters have had to convene fact that the movement triggered off by Labour in South Asia, New Delhi, 15- 17 meetings with parents to explain to them the M. V. Foundation is beginning to be October 2001. It will be included in the that the school has been falling behind owned by the people. It has also volume edited by K. Leiten, R. Srivastava in guaranteeing education to children. sparked off a ripple effect that is going and S. K. Thorat, with the working title The MV Foundation is preparing the beyond its original project base. Local "Child Labour in South Asia". community simultaneously to groups in neighbouring villages and 2. A second paper "No to Child understand the objectives of the districts are taking the initiative to Labour, Yes to Education: The Unfold- Learning Guarantee Programme and to replicate the MV Foundation programme ing of a Grassroots Movement in Andhra ask technical questions about quality. in their own villages and on the basis of Pradesh" which looks more in depth at Once this experimental period is their own resources. Achieving 100 the strategies used by the MV concluded and the results are evalu- percent enrolment and eradicating child Foundation is currently being con- ated, a major campaign on quality will labour have become a source of sidered for publication. be launched throughout the project prestige and pride for villagers and there 3. Finally, a paper reviewing the area. This drive for quality is likely to is a healthy spirit of competition in strategies of all six NGOs will be in- stand a better chance of success than making villages child labour free. cluded in the Indian Journal of Labour other top down attempts to improve I was keen to put the MV experi- Economics special issue on Child Labour education in the government school ence in a comparative framework that planned for July-September, 2002. . system. would include other NGO initiatives. It The process of gathering field was with this in mind that I undertook the material for this project gave me a rare project "The Interface between Education glimpse into the unfolding of a genuine and Child Labour: A Review of Rekha Wazir people's movement. In my travels Intervention Strategies". Apart from the through Ranga Reddy district, I often MV Foundation, five other NGOs that are found it difficult to distinguish between active in the field of education and child villages that were part of the M.V. labour were identified. These are: Foundation's programme and those that Pratham (Bombay), CINI-Asha were not. After all interesting discussion (Calcutta), Sankalp (Allahabad), MAYA in one of the schools with the (Bangalore) and Creda (Mirzapur). Field headmaster, panchayat members and visits were made to each of them to the Village Education Committee, I was gather first hand information about their surprised to hear that the programme did programmes, see their work in action and not cover this village. Yet, their collect available reports and achievements in terms of school documentation. These organisations enrolment and the involvement of the were carefully selected as they have community and the school in realising different entry points and approaches to this were very impressive. I soon learnt achieving the objectives of universalising that this had been made possible by the education and eliminating child labour. headmaster who was a member of the This re- search will bring them together Teacher's Forum Against Child Labour -a into a platform in-

42 illPAD Newsletter Vol. I, No. I Jan -June 2003

.ExCHANGE OF SCHOLARS - and we optimistically wondered whether . the same pattern could be replicated in In respect of the SMRC region. In the second week of July I visited Dr. Parlha S. Ghosh on his vi~;;t to Holland undergramme Germany for a couple of days where I delivered a lecture at the South Asia the Exchange of Scholars my research plan. My discussions with him were Institute, Heidelberg University on 'The ProOf all the bilateral programmes that extremely useful. One of his recent writings on the Role of the Observers in Indian Election'. the ICSSR has initiated over enclaves that appeared in the Journal of Asian If one goes by the lively discussions that the years, either directly or through the Studies (Ann Arbor) was simply fascinating. To my followed, I may conclude that the lecture Cultural Exchange Programmes (CEPs) reckoning it was the most original research on the was well received. Since Heidelberg of the Government of India, the most subject that I have so far encountered. University is the place where I had spent active and innovative is the one with the I concentrated upon organising and two long years in the eighties as a Netherlands. Popularly known as the copyediting the migration manuscript, besides, of Humboldt Fellow I met many of my old IDPAD (Indo-Dutch Programme on course supplementing data wherever required and colleagues and friends. They were Alternatives in Development) it has what- ever was available there in Amsterdam. The memorable re- unions. various facets of cooperative research, result was that by the time I left Holland I had with me Before departing for India, on the one of which is the 'Exchange of a manuscript, though still incomplete, of about 350 advice of Prof. Stokhoff, I submitted a Scholars' (EoS). Under this scheme typed pages. It is hoped that by the end of this year it short write-up on my research on 'Cross- Indian scholars and their Dutch coun- would be completed and submitted for publication as Border Migrations' for publication in the terparts visit each other's country for a a full- length volume. lIAS Newsletter. Probably the period of 30 days to pursue research in Taking advantage of the conducive academic forthcoming number of the journal would their own areas of specialisation and atmosphere of the University of Amsterdam I also carry it. meet and discuss matters of mutual finalised two other research papers, the first entitled On the whole I gained more from interest with fellow colleagues. Prior to 'Kashmir: From Legalism to Realism' and the second the visit than I had actually expected. I the visits their visit plans are considered entitled 'The Muslims, South Asia and the United take this opportunity to express my and approved by the Joint Committee States: A Post Nine Eleven Analysis'. Both these gratitude to IDPAD for making this governing the IDPAD. I visited Holland in papers were communicated to professional journals, possible. I must go on record to ap- July 2002 under this which would hopefully publish them in due course preciate the efficiency and alacrity with scheme. after their referral processes are com- which my visit was handled by both the My original plan was to work on plete. Indian and the Dutch secretariats of the 'The Issue of Personal Law in South I also visited the International Institute for Asian IDPAD. The secretariat of the lIAS, both Asia'. But I later realised that I might not Studies (liAS) in Leiden. I met the Director, Prof. Wim in Amsterdam and Leiden, was also be able to do justice to the subject Stokhoff, with whom I had a very useful scholarly extremely cooperative and friendly. during such a short visit and, there- fore, exchange although our fields of specialisation Otherwise it would not have been should rather concentrate on my other differed. Since the ICSSR is now in the process of possible that within 48 hours of my ongoing project on 'Cross-Border developing institutional linkages with the liAS and has arrival in Amsterdam, which in- cluded Migration in South Asia'. Since I had already signed an MOA with them much of our 24 hours of a non-working Sun- day, I already with me a semi-baked discussion was in the light of what all could be done was in complete command of the tools a manuscript on the subject I thought that to initiate a long term collaborative programme. I was scholar needs -my study room, my it would be worthwhile to further work on informed that the lIAS has already developed some computer, a library card, photocopying it during my stay in Holland. I informed mutually beneficial collaborative programme with the tokens and so on. My special thanks are Prof. Peter van der Veer, Co- ASEAN region due to Dr. Sanchita Dutta of the Indian chairperson of the I DPAD Joint Com- secretariat of the IDPAD and Dr. Heleen mittee, about this change in my plan. He van Minne of the secretariat of the lIAS, appreciated the idea and asked me to Amsterdam branch. From my experience interact with his colleague, Prof. Willem I would say that the EoS scheme of the van Schendel, who was also working on IDPAD is a valuable component of the migrations, so that we could benefit from overall programme. - each other's expertise. Prof. Willem van Schendel's specialised area of interest was migrations across the India- Bangladesh border and the enclaves that dotted that border on both sides. In Dr. Parlha S. Ghosh retrospect I think I did the correct thing by changing

IDPAD Newsletter Vol. I, No.1 Jan -June 2003143

BooKS . REVI EW familiar with Breman's negative (some- some of the characteristics of the work Down And Out: Labouring times biased) and bitter observations all and life of labour in south Gujarat. Ac- these years. Unlike some other coffee cording to them, it is wrong to think of Under Global Capitalism table books, this one is packed with facts the formal and informal dichotomy in and figures indicating the diversity of relation to labour. It is more a case of Jan Breman and Arvind N.Das workforce and its economic activities. continuum. Moreover, it is a myth to Photographs by Ravi Agarwal With the decline of the textile industry in think of rural labour as predominantly Design by Brinda Datta Ahmedabad and Mumbai, there was a agricultural. According to them, even in Oxford University Press, 2000 pp. phenomenal growth in powerlooms in rural areas over 80 per cent labour 156 Surat, rising to a few lakhs within a short works outside agriculture, in small in- period. In art silk industry alone, there is dustries, construction work, transport Down and out is a unique publication in a now a workforce of 215,000. Of these, and service industries. A vast majority of number of ways. First, it 170,000 work on powerlooms and 45,000 workers are migrants from villages to is not an academic volume containing in dyeing and printing (p.64). About other villages or to towns and cities. But findings of a research project. It is a 35,000 workers, 70 per cent of whom are few of them are permanent migrants. photo book with coloured pictures on art women, are engaged in jari handwork. They come and go very of- ten to their paper. It is about life and work of They together contribute to 80 per cent of villages of origin. It is more a case of labourers in the informal sector (in South the total jari handwork in the country circulation of labour. The workers do not Gujarat), rarely a subject of a colourful (p.63). Moreover, the city has 20 textile enjoy any security of employment. They coffee table book to be displayed in a markets with 3,000 shops (p.61). Surat is are paid low wages and made to work drawing room. Second, it is the product also known as the diamond city of India long hours. They are not allowed a fair of a team of researchers assisted by a due to the concentration of diamond share of the final product which they photographer and a designer. While the polishing industry. There are over 10,000 contribute to create with their hard text is written by Jan Breman (a Dutch units employing about 90,000 workers to labour and skill. They receive at the sociologist) and Arvind N. Das (the late polish diamonds (p.78). Another activity most 10 per cent of the final price of the Indian histo- rian and journalist), pictures attracting workers is the sugar- cane product while the employer claims 50 are con- tributed by Ravi Agarwal, and harvest and transport labourers working per cent as profit. As a result, the the book is designed by Brinda Datta. All for the co-operative sugar factories in worker's life is 'nasty, brutish and short' the four together have contributed to the South Gujarat. Over 15,000 labourers are (p.16). attractive end result. At places the pic- involved in the hard work of cutting and For Breman and Das, the origin of tures speak much more effectively than transporting cane (p. 86). Nearly 40,000 deprivation and degradation of the poor the text. Third, although a coffee table labourers are also engaged by about 750 is in the politics and policies of devel- book in format, it is not meant just for brickyards in the area in making opment itself, characterized by low decoration. Some of its observations are bricks(p.98). What is significant to note is wages and long hours of work (p.19). It as serious as in an academic volume. that the majority of these workers are has nothing to do with unemployment or Fourth, it is a part of the publications of migrants from outside, often from distant defects in their labour power. the ICSSR's IDPAD programme, perhaps places. A bulk of the powerloom Globalization has meant increased the most suc- cessful of its international operators are from Orissa. informalization (p.24). The informal collabora- tion ventures. Fifth, this is a There are over 200,000 Oriya work- sector workers are transitory, mobile tribute to the imagination. and dedication ers in Surat. The sugarcane harvest- ing and unsettled (p.50). It is also charac- of Arvind N. Das who passed away soon labourers are from the rural areas of terized by crude technology, low capi- after the publication of the book. Per- neighbouring Khandesh region in tal investment and excessive manual haps this was his last book. It sym - Maharashtra. Initially the diamond cut- nature of production (p.56). The au- bolizes the tragic end of a life full of ters came from Kathiawad region of thors conclude that the poverty that is energy and creative spirit. Last but not Gujarat, mostly kanbi Patels. Now they manifest in south Gujarat is quite often the least, the book reveals the sober come from allover. Many of those the poverty of development, not of phase in Jan Breman's career. A bitter working in stone quarries and road re- backwardness and stagnation. Gujarat critic of 'development' in South Gujarat all pairs come from the tribal district of is a land of predatory capitalism based his life, he admits in this volume Panchmahals. A substantial number of on primitive mode of extraction (p.144). (grudgingly or otherwise) that the poor workers have come from such distant There are several quotable quotes in the have generally become less poor, and places as Solapur in southern text in this regard. For example, they expresses modest optimism about India's Maharashtra, and northern parts of say" post-industrialism both borrows development. It is a pleasant surprise for Karnataka.Breman and Das highlight from and mimics pre-industrialism" those who are (p.154). Or better still, a worker handling chemical dyes says, "I can show you the wounds on my

44

.BOOKS hands, but not the pain that I feel in- side A BRIEF LOOK households within slums may exist my body" (p.75). Policy, Technocracy and concerning environmental factors and The high quality pictures convey the socio-economic conditions, while dis- spirit and feelings of the persons Development: Human tinctions between slum and non-slum represented within. They look natural Capital Policies in the residential areas may get blurred. One and spontaneous, and not in anyway Netherlands and India basic characteristic of slums and their contrived or posed. --- inhabitants remains: insecurity of ten- Breman and Das end on an opti- James Warner Bjorkman ure due to illegal settlement. This forms mistic note. For Breman, his moderate Kuldeep Mathur the basis of the other problems and optimism is based on the growing IDPAD I Manohar delineates the needed policies and diversification of the economy which has The twentieth century was charac solutions for tenure security and urban created more space and strengthened terized by major advances in science poverty alleviation. The problems as well the bargaining power of rural labour. Das and technology, and the pursuit of as solutions cannot be under- stood is optimistic because he believes not ambitious developmental goals with-outlooking at the current re- treat of only work but life must go on. And strengthened the technocratic orien- state involvement in the devel- opment dignity and hope, protest and resistance, tation of public administration. This process as well as general economic honour and optimism must be asserted study addresses technocratic factors in and social issues. even in these dismal conditions. policy formulation and implementation The essays in this book focus on I have only a few criticisms against by examining Indian and Dutch policies the inter-slum differentials, the view of the efforts of the team. The authors in primary education and primary health slum-dwellers on a slum, the gender contradict their own assumption of for establishing and sustaining human dimensions of slum life, and the lack of conspiracy against local labour when capital. While comparisons between basic infrastructural facilities. Re- search they say that the Halpatis and India and the Nether- lands may appear includes qualitative and quantitative Dhodhiyas who used to migrate to to be a mismatch due to substantial methods and varies from all slum Mumbai earlier now stay in the area due differences in levels of socio-economic analyses to attitudes and activities of to employment opportunities in brick development, similarities are slum dwellers, politicians and others. yards nearer home. All labour is treated nevertheless manifest. Deeply The book starts with an out- line and as undifferentiated with no details about democratic, the two countries and their conceptual framework of the their caste background and other social systems of government are not far apart phenomenon 'slum' in Indian society and characteristics. There is also no good despite one being a de-centralized polity from Independence, and word for the Gujarati (or Surati) unitary state and the other a quasi- concludes with an integration of re- entrepreneur who has created federal state. Likewise, search findings and their policy rel- employment opportunities for so many, technocratization in decision-making in evance. The book is a result of re- and helped them survive in difficult both countries has been stimulated by search by a team of Indian and Dutch conditions. Their exploitative nature is changes in the past decade: the anthropologists, sociologists, geogra- Netherlands is adjusting to member- repeatedly mentioned but not their phers and urban planners. - ship in the European Union while India contribution to the vibrant economy of has adopted liberalized economic south Gujarat. policies. This book provides opportu- These criticisms do not in any way nities for learning from experience as reduce the contribution this volume well as generalizations about patterns makes to our understanding of rural of change. 8 labour and development in south Gujarat in a very imaginative and innovative manner. 8 Living in India's Siums- A Case Study of Bangalore B.S. Baviskar Institute of Social Sciences New Delhi Hans Schenk, ed. (2001) IDPAD/Manohar

Many differences exist between slums and slum dwellers,slums near central urban areas or beyond municipal boundaries,and older and newer slums. Differences between

IIJr/l.u Newsletter 'I )all -JUll' 2003 145

INFORMATION.

APPLICATION GUIDELINES institute in India and in the Netherlands is preferred. · The seminar should not be part of a larger conference. DOCUMENT- I .Participation should be both from India and the IDPAD Seminars/ Workshops Netherlands and may involve other Asian and European countries. General .Contributions from policy makers, NGOs and other potential users of The Indo-Dutch Programme on Alternatives in Development (IDPAD) research are encouraged. promotes social science research that is of relevance to India. With a Content of the seminar view to increase relevance and utilisation of research, the programme The seminar should focus on a contemporary topic and, preferably, stimulates interaction between researchers and users of research, relate to one or more of the current IDPAD including policy makers from government and NGOs. themes (see above). The topic should be of relevance to the IDPAD favours collaboration between research and most of its development debate in India and stimulate dialogue between activities are carried out jointly by researchers in India and in the researchers and users of research. Netherlands. Female and young scholars are encouraged to participate in the programme. Format of the proposal The seminar proposal should be formulated in the English language. A IDPAD's main activities are the promotion and funding of research proposal should contain the following informa- tion, and be presented in projects, seminars and exchange visits. In addition, the programme the order given below. provides funding for dissemination of research results, and publishes 1. Title of the seminar working papers and a newsletter. 2. Proposed date and venue For its fifth phase (July 2002-June 2006), IDPAD has adopted the 3. Name(s) of convener(s) and organising institution(s), and one overall perspective of 'improving the quality of life in a globalising world' contact address (including e-mail) with the following research 4. Main topic themes: 5. Introduction to the topic to be addressed/ key issues .Employment and social security 6. Scientific objectives .The contested environment, urban and rural .Population and health 7. Relevance to the development debate in India .Education 8. Publications envisaged, if applicable .Information and communication technologies 9. Draft seminar programme .Mega cities 10. A list of expected participants, indicating for each partici- pant his/her affiliation and disciplinary competence SEMINARS in relation to the seminar's topic IDPAD invites seminar proposals from scholars in India and the 11. An itemised, detailed budget indicating expenses as well as Netherlands. IDPAD intends to select a minimum of two proposals expected as well as expected income (including) possible other each year. Proposals will be assessed by the IDPAD joint steering donors). committee and, when necessary, by external referees. Seminar 12. Summary bio-data of the convener(s) proposals will be considered twice a year in May and November. The size of the proposal should not exceed ten pages (A4, Arial 11 Applications have to be submitted before 1 March (for the May point font). meeting) or 1 September (for the November meeting). Applicants will be informed of the committee's decision in early June/December. DOCUMENT -II Costs that will M funded Funding will be provided upto a maximum of Indian Rupees 2,250,000 IDPAD Exchange of Scholars Programme (or Euro 45,000) per seminar. Financial support can be provided for the The main purpose of the exchange programme is to establish new following: (1) travel, (2) accommodation and meals of the participants, contacts between researchers in India and in the Netherlands (and (3) honorarium for paper writers/eminent speakers (max Rs 5,000 or other European countries), leading to an expansion of the IDPAD Euro 100 per paper/speaker), (4) conference facilities, (5) materials, network and generation of new research proposals. Researchers from and (6) secretarial support. All other costs, including contingencies, do India are especially invited to submit proposal to do research on not qualify for funding. The budget should be effective but modest, issues in European society that have a relevance to development in avoiding unnecessary expenses. Seminar format India. Scholars from India visiting the Netherlands may include a visit .A two to three day meeting bringing together a group of about 20-30 to another European country as part of the programme (with proper participants (male and female), with a balance of senior experts justification). and promising junior researchers. Participants will be required to submit a report on the visit and IDPAD .The workshop should be organised by an institute in India and/or in the may publish output resulting from the visit as an IDPAD working paper Netherlands, and be held in one of these countries. A seminar or as an article in the IDPAD newsletter. organised jointly by an Procedure IDPAD invites proposals from scholars in India and in the Netherlands for an exchange visit of a short term duration to the other country. IDPAD intends to select a minimum of ten proposals each year. Proposals will be assessed by the IDPAD joint steering committee and, when necessary, by external referees. Proposals will be considered twice a year,

.INFoRMAlloN in May and November. Applications have to be submitted before 151 .current position March (for the May meeting) or 151 September (for the November .date of birth meeting). Application will be informed of the committee's decision in .male/female early June/December. .nationality Eligibility criteria .academic degree .date(s) of graduation/doctorate/PhD A General criteria .university 1. The exchange of scholars programme can be used by scholars .field of academic specialisation for one or more of the following purpose: .to undertake research of B. Purpose of visit a short term duration; .to given public lectures; C. Proposed duration of visit. .to prepare a research proposal; D. Affiliation/receiving organisation: .to link with specialists working in a particular field and/ or to E. Activity plan and time schedule; description of activities that will be prepare links between the institutes involved. undertaken during the visit, including time frame. Attending a conference does not qualify for funding but it can be F. Information on research to be undertaken (if appli- cable): part of the visit. .hypothesis/research question(s) 2. The exchange visit should preferably be related to one of the .research methodology IDPAD themes (as mentioned above) and be of relevance to .originality of the research India. .background/history of the research project .co-operation with 3. Scholars have to be affiliated with one of the research institutes other national and international in the country of destination. If scholars are universities/research groups not able to arrange affiliation by themselves, IDPAD can playa .the social relevance of the research and the interac tion with facilitating role upon request. potential users B. Application G. Funding requested from IDPAD: estimate the amounts (in the Researchers with a PhD degree and/or of proven merit, currency of the country where the expenditure will be incurred) associated with an institution of academic research or with an needed for: NGO active in development-related work, in India or in the .travel: international and/or domestic. Netherlands, are eligible to apply for a grant. .living allowance (for accommodation and meals) .research costs Costs that qualify for funding: H. Summary bio data of the applicant The size of the proposals should not exceed seven (7) pages (A4. Arial A. Travel (international and domestic) 11 point font) IDPAD will provide for necessary travel expenses. Reimbursement for air travel is on the basis of DEADLINE FOR PROPOSALS economy class, excursion fare. Costs of visa, insurance and Proposals should be received by IDPAD no later than 1st March (for a vaccinations will also be reimbursed. decision in May) or 1 st September (for a decision in November). B. Living allowance (for accommodation and meals) Proposals must be sent by regular mail or cou- rier service to both the IDPAD will reimburse a maximum of 75% of the applicable UN IDPAD secretariat in India and in the Netherlands. We would also rate for the first 30 days of the visit and 50% thereafter. In case appreciate receiving the applica- tion bye-mail (as a word document). economical accommodation is available IDPAD will pay the real Address in India: cost of accommoda- tion and add a maximum of 75% of the applicable UN rate for meals. Dr. Sanchita Dutta C. Research costs IDPAD, India Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) Aruna IDPAD will reimburse research costs incurred during the visit (e.g. AsafAli Marg, P. O. Box 10528 paper, ph9tocopying). New Delhi 110067, India. Duration of the visit Telefax : +91 (0) 11 26169459 The maximum duration of an exchange visit is three E-mail: [email protected] months. On average, exchange visits have a duration of one month. Address in the Netherlands: Visits exceeding a period of one month need to be properly justified. Marc Verhagen Format of the proposal Coordinator IDPAD Proposals should be formulated in the English language. A proposal NWO WOTRO, P.O. Box 93120 should contain the following information, and be presented in the order 2509 AC The Hague, The Netherlands. given below: Phone: +31 (0) 70 344 07 63 A Applicant(s) and institution(s) (university/research institute/NGO): Fax: +31 (0) 70 381 9874 .name of the applicant and his/her institutions(s) of employment or E-mail: [email protected] affiliation .address, telephone number, fax number and e-mail address of institutions(s) involved.

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