Kennedy's Cabinet, 1961

KENNEDY’S CABINET, 1961 By Anthony Colarusso and Georgia Steigerwald

INTRODUCTION

The year is 1961, and President John F. Kennedy has just been inaugurated. He will rely on all of you, his cabinet, to help him guide the United States through these trying times. The United States is facing a Cold War with the Soviet Union that has changed the global geopolitical landscape, as well as significant domestic issues regarding civil rights and social reforms. These issues have put President Kennedy in a position to define the future of the United States in many ways through his choice of actions. Your advice as a President Kennedy’s cabinet will be essential to ensuring that the United States navigates inaugural address. difficult decisions and prevents the nation, and even the world, from CBS plunging into conflict and unrest.

THE SPACE RACE

Explanation of the Issue Historical Development The mission to The United States’ journey to space thus far has been a long and put an American difficult process. Engineers struggle to design machines that can in space will be withstand extreme temperatures and successfully make it to space no easy task. and back. Scientists address the problems of sustaining life in space. Thousands work to create facilities and equipment. A handful of “astronauts” train for a mission unlike any they’ve ever flown before. The Birth of NASA For the military, the 1950s were characterized by the development of missile and nuclear propulsion technology (Dunbar).

HARVARD MODEL CONGRESS

The Air Force facilitated the testing of new missiles at their Cape Canaveral Station, while the Army had its own Army Ballistic Missile Agency to conduct research (Ward). Additionally, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), formed in 1915 to counsel the President on how to catch up to European flight technology, was also pioneering reentry plans for space vehicles, both for warheads and for manned missions (Suckow). Rising interest in satellites for strategic defense was also a key driver of innovation as governments continued to fund research to gain military advantages, enabling much of the groundwork for space NACA Director exploration to be laid. William Pickering The launch of Sputnik I, the first satellite to successfully orbit the and lead scientists Earth on October 4, 1957 shocked Americans as they discovered their display the model of lag behind the Soviets (Garber). American efforts to launch a satellite what would be the soared and on July 29, 1958 the National Aeronautics and Space Act United States’ first was signed into law by President Eisenhower to establish the satellite. National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA). NASA Early Missions Project Mercury began under President Eisenhower in 1959 with three main goals: “to orbit a manned spacecraft around the Earth, to Orbit – for an object investigate man’s ability to function in space, and to recover both to move around man and spacecraft safely” (Loff). Intense development and testing another in space went into designing the rockets used throughout the many missions of Project Mercury. Trail after trial was done to check the team’s progress and to continually meet the necessary steps to accomplish the project’s goals. However, the news of the Soviet Union’s successful manned orbit in April 1961 by cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin Intense aboard the Vostok I discouraged many as the public criticized development and NASA’s slow progress. However, American astronaut Alan Shepard’s successful launch into space on May 5, 1961 marked an important testing went into milestone for Americans and showcased the technological designing the capabilities of the United States’ space program (Swenson). Future rockets used missions under Project Mercury are planned to bring a man into throughout the orbit. many missions of Project Gemini, conceived in early 1961, has the goal of Project Mercury. improving spacecraft. This mission, though in its early stages, could also prove useful in perfecting the “entry and re-entry maneuvers of a spacecraft and conduct[ing] further tests on how individuals are affected by long periods of space travel” (“Space Program”). Should it be decided that the United States will pursue a moon-landing, this project could serve as the “bridge” between the “pioneering achievement of Project Mercury” and future projects to come (Grimwood).

Ideological Viewpoints President Kennedy Throughout his 1960 campaign for President, Kennedy attacked the perceived “gap” between the United States and the Soviet Union The alleged that had emerged in missiles and space technology during the “missile gap” Eisenhower administration (Babish). President Kennedy himself didn’t really exist, described the purpose of space exploration as the United States but the “set[ting] sail on this new sea because there is new knowledge to be Eisenhower gained, and new rights to be won, and they must be won and used for the progress of all people” (Swenson). In another argument for administration expanding the goal of the nation’s space program, President Kennedy couldn’t disprove argued that the “justification for it...is because we hope to beat [the these criticisms Soviets] and demonstrate that starting behind [them]...we passed without them” (“JFK”). President Kennedy remains concerned about compromising catching-up to Soviet progress and showing American strength, national security. however given his other ambitious programs and the high cost of space exploration, he may not want to pursue outlandish dreams. Liberals Just as Kennedy ran for president on a platform of criticizing the Republican leadership for allowing the United States to slip in its prestige, so too did many Democrats who ran for office in 1960. Space was a “pressure point” campaign issue against Vice President Nixon and other Republicans that could demonstrate their failures to the electorate (Babish). Liberals criticized President Eisenhower for his lack of response to the Sputnik launches and showed concern for the position of the United States as a world power. As a result of A 1957 political this criticism, many liberals pushed for advances in space exploration cartoon depicts that would prove the United States’ strength. Eisenhower’s However, many liberals, taking office flush with proposals for inaction in response social benefits and expanding New Deal programs, were concerned to Soviet about the massive cost of fully pursuing goals in space, especially a advancements. moon-landing. The relative benefit of showing power and prestige Edgar’s Blog of APUSH must be weighed against the cost of not funding domestic programs that affect Americans on a more day-to-day basis. Conservatives The conservative position on space exploration has historically been to utilize technologies for a stronger military. Initial investment into the agencies that became NASA were made to augment military capabilities. President Eisenhower, in particular, spoke of no grand plan to further the domain of humankind, but instead saw satellites as a fruitful tool to gain intelligence (Babish). More conservative members of Kennedy’s cabinet would be hesitant to throw money into space exploration because of what in their eyes was a mere show of power rather than an expense that would truly strengthen the

American military (Babish). Many members of Kennedy’s cabinet warned him about the uncertainty associated with dramatic space Some saw space programs and the great costs that accompanied them (Day). exploration as a show of power Areas of Debate more than as a What are the Space Program’s Objectives? good investment. Although politicians have yet to express a commitment to a moon-landing, scientists have drawn plans to develop the technology needed to put a man on the moon. However, criticism from the American people and the media regarding the slow progress of the space program and the small effect of progress in space on day-today life leaves many in doubt over whether the United States should continue to funnel money into NASA (Babish). Those who argue in favor of space exploration appeal to the great prestige it would bring the country to be the first to walk on the moon, re-establishing the United States’ place as a global leader. Moreover, the belief that showing the American people a man on the moon would provide a hope and a deep sense of patriotism. A win against the Soviets and against communism at large would also signal the strength of capitalism and democracy, advancing American foreign policy goals (“JFK”). Aside from the intangible pride that a moon-landing and other achievements in space could bring, the scientific gains made could provide insights into how to solve other problems.

President Kennedy Those in opposition to a moon landing argue that the space meets with Premier program should be used to focus on defense and intelligence (Babish, Khrushchev during Swenson). Satellite development remains an opportunity to gain the Vienna Summit. advantages in spying and has the potential to help the American Smithsonian Magazine people more directly through its uses (Swenson). Many also argue that money is better spent on making domestic policy changes and enacting President Kennedy’s New Frontier programs instead of on the extravagant expenditure required to land on the moon. Should the Space Program Receive More Funding? The multi-billion-dollar expenditure that is the space program is seen by some as an extravagance the country cannot afford. While economic and social problems remain at home, should the government be pouring tax dollars into a space race? Those in favor of the grand expenditure view it as a necessity to uplift American spirits and sure-up the United States’ standing in the world order. Delivering on what seems like an impossible dream could provide the hope and unity Americans yearn for. Moreover, the symbolic win against the Soviets could advance the United States world standing and demonstrate the capacity of capitalism over communism. Those opposed to increased spending to fund space exploration argue that the idea of putting a man on the moon first may sound

nice but has no strategic or practical value. Instead, it takes billions in funding away from other worthy causes like housing, infrastructure, cancer research, military advancements, and countless other projects. Furthermore, given the high rates of poverty and the number of American families struggling to put food on the table each day, the gross expense spent on seemingly pointless tests appear unconscionable. At launches, protesters have even raised concerns and demanded a justification for the program. The cabinet must consider the domestic programs that will be underfunded as a result of the immense spending for the space program if it chooses to move forward. Room for Collaboration? While the space exploration program often seeks justification in re-establishing American prestige, others argue that making space a collaborative effort could better advance scientific goals. This raw Some suggest extending an olive branch to the Soviets, working competition and together to bring a man into space and onto the moon. Preliminary agreements to collaborate in “geomagnetic mapping, patriotism communication satellite experimentation, biomedical data sharing, expanding and weather satellite image exchange” are underway and are set to beyond scientific be finalized in 1962 (Muir-Harmony). Furthermore, a joint effort curiosity fuels could help reduce United States-Soviet tensions, fostering peace. many to reject the Perhaps most importantly, working together would allow each prospect of nation to reduce their massive spending, letting them share the burden of paying for scientific advancement. working side-by- Those against collaboration appeal to the sentiment that the side with the United States must prove itself against the soviets, beating them in enemy. the “space race,” instead of admitting defeat and working together (“Space Program”). Likewise, President Kennedy and the Democratic party would be reluctant to “give up” on their campaign promise to surpass the Soviets in space. This raw competition and patriotism expanding beyond scientific curiosity fuels many to reject the prospect of working side-by-side with the enemy (Babish). Budgetary Considerations The full cost of pursuing a moon landing is projected to be as high as $40 billion, a massive undertaking comparable only to “the construction of the Panama Canal in modern peacetime and the Manhattan Project in war” (“The Decision”). If the project requires the projected budget, it could occupy over 4 percent of the federal budget (Muir-Harmony). Advisors must, in the words of President Kennedy, consider whether they want “to spend that immense amount of money for space” given the “many other pressing needs at home” (Day).

THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

Historical Development Cuba has been allied with the Soviet Union ever since communist leader Fidel Castro took power in 1959. In April of 1961, the CIA launched an invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs to try to unseat Fidel Castro, but the attack failed (Swift). Relations between the United States and Cuba are quite hostile due to Cold War tensions and this failed attack. Just a few days ago, one of our spy planes spotted a Soviet missile in Cuba. This is concerning given the fact that Cuban leader Fidel these missiles are within range of reaching the United States, putting Castro led a Americans at risk of a nuclear attack. In response, the President has communist convened the Executive Committee of the National Security Council, revolution, known as the ExComm, to respond to this situation. Handling this removing a United situation correctly is essential, because this situation could be very States-backed destructive if it escalates. leader and aligning Cuba with the Ideological Viewpoints Soviet Union.. Politico Militaristic View This side argues that using military force is essential to preventing this missile from being used and to deter Cuba from threatening the United States. The militaristic view argues that without displaying strength, Cuba will not be intimidated enough to back off and instead will continue to threaten the United States. This view suggests that trying to negotiate will make the United States appear weak and vulnerable when faced with a threat, and that United States demands will not be taken seriously without the threat of force. As a result, this view argues that military force is the only Bay of Pigs – a option. failed invasion of Cuba by the United Diplomatic View States, which Diplomats argue that military force is too risky, and instead intended to remove nonviolent negotiations should be used. The diplomatic view Soviet-backed leader suggests that military force would likely rapidly and dramatically Fidel Castro. escalate the conflict, and instead suggests that negotiations are a safer way to resolve the situation, mitigating the risk of a dangerous conflict. This view argues that military force will escalate the crisis and instead negotiations will allow for the situation to be resolved peacefully and without risking the possibility of nuclear war. Areas of Debate Invade Cuba Some officials believe that a military invasion of Cuba is necessary in order to take over the island so that no missiles can be aimed at

the United States. Critics ague that the United States, having already staged a failed invasion of Cuba, has demonstrated that it is not in a position to successfully carry out this plan and that repeated attempts would likely only heighten tensions and potentially lead to the outbreak of nuclear war. Supporters of this option argue that an invasion would force Castro to negotiate or the United States will be able to completely take control of the island and end the Soviet President Kennedy alliance with Cuba. meets with Gen. Bomb the Missile Sites LeMay and the pilots who Alternatively, the US could launch a targeted attack on the site discovered the where the missiles are located in Cuba to destroy the facility and missiles. eliminate Cuba’s ability to launch the missiles at the United States. Smithsonian Magazine One concern with this option is that, assuming that a bombing attack would be effective, it is likely to further increase tensions between the United States and Cuba, elevating the risk of war. Additionally, by attempting to destroy the missiles, which were provided by the USSR, the US risks angering the Soviets and triggering a nuclear war. Blockade the Island The United States Navy could blockade Cuba and refuse to let any ships through until the Castro government agrees to remove the missiles. Although this option is not an attack on Cuba, critics argue A key that if Soviet or Cuban ships approach the blockade and attempt to consideration in pass through, the situation could escalate further and collapse into a attempting to military conflict. Supporters of this option argue that implementing some form of punishment such as a blockade is a nonviolent way to negotiate with a provide the United States with essential leverage to negotiate the hostile power is removal of the missiles. putting in place a Demand the Removal of Missiles threat that ensures demands This option is simple, urging the President to simply demand that Cuba and the Soviet Union remove the missiles. Supporters of this will be taken option argue that it is not risky and very direct, but critics are seriously, without concerned that it may be too easy for Cuba and the Soviet Union to escalating the ignore without any form of threat involved. conflict. Impose Sanctions This option argues that the United States should attempt to sanction Cuba and apply international pressure until the missile is removed. A potential shortcoming of this option is that Cuba is backed by the Soviet Union and already does not have good relations with the United States, so the threat may seem redundant since Cuba does not rely on United States support. Use Special Operations to Neutralize the Missiles This option argues that negotiations will not be enough to eliminate the threat of nuclear weapons reaching the United States,

so some form of military operation to neutralize the missile or put pressure on Cuba will be necessary. The US could send a covert team into Cuba and attempt to destroy the missiles without detection. A secret operation is risky, however, as chances of success are slim and War could result war could result if the operation goes awry. if the operation Negotiate with Cuba or the USSR goes awry. This option is diplomatic in nature, urging the President to focus on finding a peaceful method of negotiating in order to resolve the tensions and prevent nuclear war. Supporters of this option argue that it does not risk causing the crisis to become a full-scale war or nuclear disaster, but critics argue that United States demands will not hold any sway without military pressure. A Hybrid Model This is a complex problem and it is unlikely to be solved with a single solution. It is possible to combine various solutions to achieve a desired result. This approach could take many forms, including blockading the island to gain leverage before entering negotiations or launching a full out invasion to distract from a covert operation targeting the missiles. The President is interested in creative solutions that go beyond the ones presented so far. Budgetary Considerations In this situation, budgetary considerations are not absolutely crucial. The world is on the brink of nuclear war, so if this situation is not resolved, budgetary concerns are irrelevant. This is a crisis of utmost importance. That said, an invasion, or large-scale military operation, would be more expensive than negotiations due to the costs of deploying the military.

THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

Historical Development Jim Crow laws – a The Civil Rights Movement emerged as a response to the historical oppression Black people faced in the United States, even collection of laws after the abolition of slavery. After the Civil War, a collection of laws used to enforce referred to as Jim Crow laws were used to enforce segregation, segregation and control Black Americans, and limit their access to constitutional restrict the rights of rights. The Civil Rights Movement is a series of protests and other Black Americans. events aimed at ending segregation and achieving equality for Black Americans not just on paper, but in reality. In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that segregated public schools were unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education, overturning the previous precedent of Plessy v. Ferguson, which

Brown v. Board of upheld segregation in schools (Carson). This was a significant victory for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Education – a (NAACP) in the fight for advocate for Civil Rights. This case led to landmark Supreme the integration of schools and the transfer of the Little Rock Nine Court case in which to a previously segregated school in Little Rock, Arkansas. This was racial segregation in a victory in the fight to integrate schools. schools was ruled A significant protest in the Civil Rights movement took place in 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama, after a Black woman named Rosa unconstitutional. Parks refused to give up her bus seat to a white man. She was arrested, and in response Black protestors refused to ride city busses for over a year. This became known as the Montgomery Bus Boycott and following a court case that challenged the laws that segregated the busses, the United States Supreme Court ruled the segregated system unconstitutional and ordered the busses to be integrated (Carson). One of the leaders of this boycott, Martin Luther King Jr., emerged as a leader for the Civil Rights Movement following this Little Rock Nine – nine event. In 1960, Black student activists staged a sit-in at Woolworth’s Black students who lunch counter in Greensboro North Carolina, refusing to leave after were the first to attend they were denied service (Carson). These sit-ins rapidly spread a previously all-white nationwide, and later that year Woolworth’s and other dining school in Little Rock, facilities across the South were integrated. Out of this protest Arkansas emerged the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, known as the SNCC, which became a major organizing force for the Civil Rights Movement (Janken). These events are just some examples of ways in which Black Americans have fought for equality and civil rights since the abolition of slavery and the implementation of Jim Crow laws. The Civil Rights movement has been the culmination of a long process, but these events are significant recent developments in the movement. As Kennedy’s cabinet, you will need to advise the President on how best to address further developments in the Civil Rights Movement and respond to concerns of racial justice. Congressional Action Under the Eisenhower administration, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1957, which established mechanisms to protect the voting rights of Black Americans, including creating a division of the Justice Department focused on civil rights (Glass). While this was a more significant step than many would have predicted a decade before, it fell far short of the goals of many civil rights activists. Ideological Viewpoints The division between supporters of the Civil Rights Movement and opponents is not so much due to party affiliation, but rather geography. Southerners tend to oppose the Civil Rights Movement, whereas Northerners tend to support it (Janken).

Supporting View Supporters of the Civil Rights Movement want to achieve equal status for Black Americans. This is not just about integration but includes reforms to address the needs of Black Americans in society, such as laws to prevent discrimination in hiring. The supporters advocate for the Civil Rights movement as an issue of human rights, justice, and equality under the law. Woolworth’s lunch counter was the site Opposing View of a sit-in protest Opponents of the Civil Rights Movement sustain one of two that spread across different arguments against the Civil Rights movement. One set of the country and led opponents argues that it would be an overreach for the federal to the integration of government to mandate certain hiring practices. Concretely, these many dining opponents argue that the federal government cannot pass laws to facilities as well as enforce integration, but they are also unable to pass laws enforcing the birth of the segregation. This is an argument against federal involvement in SNCC. either direction. It is not an argument that Black Americans do not Museum of American deserve rights, and it is not an argument against the Civil Rights History Movement as a whole. Instead, it is an argument that the federal government does not have the ability to enforce integration, but rather only to prevent segregation. Another argument against the Civil Rights Act of Civil Rights Movement is based in racial prejudice and the view of 1957 – established Black Americans as “unfit to govern” and therefore unfit to have their protections for the rights protected. This view is not actually a valid argument, but voting rights of Black rather a racist belief that Black Americans are inferior and therefore Americans and undeserving of equality or rights. It would be a falsehood to deny that the true opposition to the Civil Rights Movement is rooted in racism expanded the federal against Black Americans. government’s role in President Kennedy’s View protecting civil rights. As President Kennedy’s cabinet, each of us supports the President’s view and strongly condemns racism. Rather than having a conversation about whether we as a cabinet support the Civil Rights Movement, we must focus our conversation on how to best address the racism and inequality in our society, how to best aid those whose rights need protection, and how to best construct a just and integrated America. There are many ways to tackle inequality, and it Civil rights protests is up to you to decide which will be the most effective given the to end segregation, administration’s limited political and economic resources. expand voting rights, and secure Areas of Debate equality. Encyclopedia The Civil Rights Movement is about much more than just Britannica segregation. In addition to segregation, Black leaders mention issues such as access to services, housing, employment, education, and voting rights, among other topics related to equality and justice. It will be crucial to consider these other aspects of racial justice, not just

segregation, when coming up with policy proposals in order to Support for address the concerns of the Civil Rights Movement and Black segregation and Americans. The topics listed below are not exhaustive, and in order opposition to the to address racial justice it will be crucial to consider all the varying Civil Rights dimensions of inequality and discrimination present in society. Movement was Access to Services largely Many Black communities lack access to services of equal quality predictable based to those available in white communities. One problem in this area is on geography known as redlining, which refers to the systematic denial of services rather than party to certain communities or neighborhoods. Black families are often affiliation. denied loans to buy homes in white neighborhoods and investors consciously avoided developing areas with large minority populations. These phenomena resulted in a dearth of high-quality public services for Black people. With regards to this issue in particular, simply ending legal segregation will not prevent redlining from occurring, as many neighborhoods will still be de facto segregated and be made up of mostly Black residents. One policy proposal includes assisting low-income residents with down Redlining – the payments on homes, which would reduce or replace the need for systematic denial of loans. Another policy proposal would see the government purchase services to a specific the homes and allow residents to acquire them from the government community or themselves. neighborhood, which Employment can also include raising With regards to employment, it is important to consider a variety prices for a specific of factors that influence whether a person receives a job opportunity. community. In addition to a measure to prevent discrimination in hiring, what can be done to provide employment opportunities to a group that has been actively denied employment throughout history? How do other factors, such as education, play a role in resolving this issue? Aside from policy proposals to prevent discrimination in hiring, some have suggested increasing focus on vocational skills in education for low- income neighborhoods, whereas others have argued that the swift De facto - meaning “in integration of schools would in the long-term lead to equal opportunities in employment for Black Americans. fact,” which is often used to refer to Education segregation that With regards to education, the doctrine of “separate but equal” occurred in reality, but was ruled to not truly be equal in the case of Brown v. Board of was not legally Education. Simply integrating schools, however, is not sufficient to level the playing field and achieve equality of opportunity for a group imposed. that has been denied access to equal education throughout history. It will be important to consider how the funding of public schools occurs, as well as how de facto segregation plays a role in neighborhood structure, in order to understand many of the key issues surrounding education. Education is also an area that

influences many other issues, so this will be a relevant focus in any attempts to achieve racial equality. Separate but equal – One policy proposal suggests that investing more funding in refers to segregation public schools in neighborhoods with more minorities is the key to by race providing improving education. Another proposal suggests that due to the system of funding public schools via local taxes, people living in supposedly equal poorer neighborhoods will inevitably have less access to quality services, ruled to be education. As a result, this proposal intends to create a waiver system false in Brown v. of school choice, where students can attend schools outside of their Board of Education. own neighborhood in order to allow access to quality education. Critics of this proposal argue that the already underfunded schools would struggle even more if their students began leaving to attend schools in other neighborhoods, and the quality of education for their existing students would suffer even further. Budgetary Considerations The budgetary challenges related to the Civil Rights Movement revolve around how to address the inequalities Black Americans face with a limited amount of money. Consider how many important issues, such as housing, education, and employment, are all constrained by government budget limitations, and try to brainstorm creative solutions to problems in these areas that are realistic with limited funding.

KENNEDY’S NEW FRONTIER POLICIES

Explanation of the Issue

Historical Development Kennedy delivers President Kennedy introduced his goal of vast domestic reforms his “New Frontier” as a “set of challenges” he hoped to tackle during his presidency when speech. he accepted the Democratic nomination on July 15, 1960. He WBUR articulated that he believed Americans stood “on the edge of a New Frontier—the frontier of the 1960s—a frontier of unknown opportunities and perils—a frontier of unfulfilled hopes and threats,” suggesting his belief in strong institutional changes (Kennedy). This package encapsulated President Kennedy’s aspirations for change and sweeping reform, encompassing a wide range of social and economic programs. Economic Conditions In 1961, when President Kennedy took office, the United States was in the middle of a recession. His administration set out to use traditional expansionary policies rooted in Keynesian theory: lower taxes and increased government spending, specifically increasing spending in domestic areas and defense (Selverstone).

Keynesian Theory – an There continues to be debate over when and how sizeable to make a economic theory tax cut, with liberals arguing for immediate tax relief and introduced by John conservative economists asking to delay (Bernstein). In order to stabilize the economy and promote growth, bureaucrats urge setting Maynard Keynes in the a goal of a 5% growth rate and suggest that to return to full 1930s which attempted employment (identified here as approximately 4% unemployment) to explain output and would take five million jobs and $50 billion (Bernstein). Within the inflation through administration many disagree on how best to promote economic government spending. recovery. While increasing government spending on social programs could prove beneficial, so could raising the minimum wage, Keynesian theory increasing unemployment benefits, and working to support business argues that and the housing sector (Selverstone). The President hopes that some manipulating of his New Frontier policies might also serve the role of improving government spending America’s economic well-being. and taxes can affect an Social Conditions economy In the style of President Roosevelt’s “New Deal,” and President Truman’s “Fair Deal,” President Kennedy viewed his “New Frontier” ideas as a means to promote social welfare. Countless ideas were considered and promoted to Congress in hopes of realizing this progressive dream. Kennedy hopes to pursue instituting Medicare for the elderly, federal funding for elementary and secondary schools, rebuilding of inner-city areas, and the establishment of a Peace Corps (Troy). One proposal of particular interest to the President is the effort to raise the minimum wage. President Kennedy pursued this legislation Roosevelt’s New during his time in Congress but was unsuccessful in getting it passed. Deal served as the The Federal minimum wage is $1 per hour and has been so since model for much of 1956, with approximately one-quarter of all employees covered the subsequent under the law. In Congress, President Kennedy sought to increase the minimum wage to $1.25 incrementally over a few years and to legislation to expand coverage to include workers in retail, cotton ginning, farm expand the role of activities, laundries, equipment manufacturing, transportation, government in construction, gas station services, telephone operating, and other social welfare. fields (Bernstein). Other discussions were raised regarding the institution of overtime pay in many of these fields as well. Another issue of the day is that of women’s rights and equality. President Kennedy has done little to speak out on the issue and has no female cabinet members. However, the President did form a Commission on the Status of Women to “investigate and make recommendations on the role of women” (Bernstein). Possible avenues to pursue include: civil law suits to pursue equal rights; legislation to address child care, paid maternity leave, and widow’s benefits; applying pressure to eliminate discriminatory state laws regarding property and family rights; and executive action to increase opportunities for women to do part-time government work

and to enforce equal opportunity in firms with whom the government collaborates (Bernstein). Ideological Viewpoints Liberals In terms of economic reform, liberals favor large and quick action. They hope to use social projects to both facilitate economic recovery and they believe investing in strategic initiatives will further President Kennedy propel America’s growth. Liberals are not as concerned with the signs labor creation of a deficit, as they acknowledge that long-run growth will legislation into law. exceed short-term costs. JFK Library In terms of social programs, liberal minds are divided on how to address issues and which issues to prioritize. On employment questions, some may favor more aggressive policies to raise the minimum wage and extend coverage whereas others may seek smaller changes or longer time frames for action. The party is divided on women’s equality issues as well. Moreover, individuals have competing priorities in which problems they believe are most pressing. Deficit – a deficit in a Conservatives government’s budget Conservatives also have a wide variety of opinions on the New reflects a time Frontier programs. In terms of economic policies, they favor less wherein spending aggressive measures. Conservative, non-Keynesian advisors to exceeds revenue. If a President Kennedy urge him to delay the tax cut for fear that it could deficit is not resolved hurt more than help (Selverstone). Moreover, many take laissez-faire immediately, the approaches and do not believe the government should intervene in the economy. amount owed In terms of social issues, conservatives generally oppose many of becomes part of the the liberal policies. On the issue of raising the minimum wage national debt conservatives suggest that increasing wages increases expenses and slow the economy. Furthermore, a staunch opposition to government intervention in private affairs leads conservative minds to oppose wide-sweeping government reforms. Many Some Democratic politicians also take conservative viewpoints conservatives on certain issues. On a topic such as collective bargaining, they might take laissez-faire take a more conservative standpoint and oppose policies being approaches and pushed by their counterparts. As a result, conservative here refers more to an opposition to change and a caution to policy do not believe the implementation more than it refers to the Republican party. government should intervene Areas of Debate in the economy. The Economy To stimulate the economy, President Kennedy and the United States government has a variety of tools, direct and indirect at its disposal. Most liberals, following Keynesian economics would

encourage direct actions to support the economy in getting out of a recession and continuing to grow. There are two sets of tools that can be used to do this: monetary and fiscal policy. Monetary policy is controlled by the Federal Reserve bank (the Fed, a bank for banks of sorts) in the United States, which is an independent agency not President Kennedy controlled by the President or Congress. The Fed can use its power proposes lowering to adjust interest rates to incentivize investment and help grow the taxes. economy. However, as the Fed is an independent body, the President NPR and his cabinet should direct their attention to fiscal policy to help the economy. Fiscal policy broadly refers to the policies that Congress can control: taxes and government spending. The President (and his cabinet) can work with members of Congress to write and pass legislation, which he will then sign into law. One area of debate is whether taxes should be lowered to give Americans more money to spend on goods and when the tax cut should be made (Bernstein). Cutting taxes results in a loss of government revenue, leaving the government in a deficit and adding to the national debt. Some argued that accruing a deficit would be worthwhile to pull America out of the recession. Others worry about the long-term consequences of debt and thus are hesitant to cut revenues. Keynesians Another tool used to drive the economy out of a recession is believe that increased government spending as President Roosevelt advocated government for during the Great Depression. Keynesians believe that government spending has a spending has a “multiplier effect” by giving money to citizens by hiring them to do jobs, which workers then spend on goods and “multiplier effect” services, which in turn provides income to spend for other workers. by giving money However, there is much debate about the size of this multiplier and to citizens by how much money needs to be spent to restart an economy. hiring them to do Furthermore, if government spending is increased, then political jobs, which leaders must decide what to spend the money on. workers then A third option for policy changes relies on changing “automatic stabilizers,” or existing legislation designed to help the economy spend on goods when it enters a recession. Examples of automatic stabilizers include and services, a decrease in taxes when income falls and the existence of which in turn unemployment programs for those without jobs. Legislation can be provides income passed to change these policies, increasing the amount of time during to spend for other which benefits can be received, the amount received, or the workers. qualifications to receive benefits. New policies can also be designed for this purpose. As the President seeks economic recovery, the cabinet must consult him on which approach (or approaches) will serve America best. Minimum Wage Many liberals argue for minimum wage and similar reforms on a moral basis. Many suggest that since low-wage earners compete

against each other for jobs, their large supply of labor forces wages down below the threshold of a wage that could support a decent quality of life (Bernstein). Moreover, President Kennedy spoke out, claiming that insufficient wages “promote the spread of slums, of crime, of disease, of all ill that grow from hopeless poverty,” enumerating other social problems that could be ameliorated by a higher wage (Bernstein). Conservatives argue that enforcing a higher minimum wage would put an undue burden on business owners, forcing stores to close and causing fewer jobs, thus aggravating the problem (Bernstein). Their logic was that a higher wage would force employers to spend more on their employees, forcing them to take one of two responses: letting workers go or raising prices. Letting go of workers would mean more families without a source of income, and higher prices would render more families in poverty. Both perspectives point to economic data and theory to support their claims. Women Although Kennedy created the Commission on the status of women, the point can be made that he plans to take little additional action to improve women’s standing. Political figures remain split on

Kennedy outlines whether any action is necessary, however the women on the his idea for the New commission advocate for stronger attention to women’s rights. Frontier as he Specifically, they point to opportunities for equal employment and accepts the the end of discrimination on the basis of sex. Others push for more Democratic extreme action, urging the ratification of an Equal Rights Presidential Amendment (ERA). Neither President Kennedy nor the commission nomination. have voiced their support for the amendment, which would JFK Library guarantee equal rights to women. The debate remains whether any substantive action needs to be taken by the white house and if the President should act, what he should do. Other Debates on Social Policy Kennedy seeks to bring vast changes to the American people, but nearly every policy suggestion will receive some opposition. Many are concerned that Kennedy’s policies are too extreme. They believe that New Deal policies were meant only for extraordinary circumstances and oppose the growth of the federal government. Their arguments surrounding government overreach are grounded in the Anti-Federalist beliefs of early Americans. Others believe that these policies do not go far enough. They think the work President Kennedy advocates for is insufficient to make real change and fully support struggling Americans. Every social issue the President hopes to address under these reforms has a multitude of perspectives and suggestions, and the President looks forward to hearing the suggestions of his cabinet.

Budgetary Considerations The New Frontier policies have no official or fixed costs. Depending on what legislation is passed and how much revenue the government loses in taxes and how much expenditures increase, the budget could change dramatically. The fiscal year ending in June of 1961 included total government expenditures of almost $80 billion, with an approximately $4.2 billion surplus – meaning that expenditures were less than tax revenues (United States). One area of concern is creating a deficit. When President Kennedy was presented with a plan that would create a $7 billion deficit, he balked at it for being politically untenable (“John F. Kennedy on the Economy and Taxes”). Creating a large deficit and forcing the nation to take on debt is unappealing to those in opposition to New Frontier policies, so prioritizing the careful allocation of funds is necessary in creating a budget-conscious policy package.

FOREIGN POLICY IN LATIN AMERICA

Explanation of the Issue Organization of American States (OAS) Since the 19th century, peaceful meetings between some or all American nations have been held to discuss the issues and to create alliances. In the late winter of 1945, the Inter-American Conference A scene from the on Problems of War and Peace met in Mexico City, Mexico to 1945 Inter- strategize for a collective plan to defend the American continents. American Those present agreed upon principles by which to collaborate, Conference on protecting national sovereignty establishing a code of “mutual Problems of War protection” for any future conflicts (Dunne). This was affirmed at the and Peace. Organization of 1947 Inter-American Conference for the Maintenance of Continental American States Peace and Security held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil where the Inter- American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance was adopted (OAS). This long history of collaboration was formalized at the ninth International Conference of American States, a meeting in Bogatá, Columbia in which 21 American nations adopted the Charter of the Organization of American States, officially forming the Organization of American States (OAS) establishing themselves as a regional agency under the United Nations to promote peace and security within the Americas. The four pillars of the organization— democracy, human rights, security, and development—provide a framework for nations to come together to resolve issues.

Brief Political History of Latin America The four pillars of At the outset of the twentieth century, most Latin American nations were ruled by military dictatorships, such as Díaz in Mexico the and Gómez in Venezuela, as well as civilian dictatorships in Chile, organization— Argentina, Brazil, and Columbia. Though some political systems democracy, included some form of a constitution or elections, regimes were on human rights, the whole characterized by power in the hands of a few select leaders security, and with an unrepresented citizenry (Kittleson). development— The Mexican Revolution, beginning in 1910 hoped to bring real democracy to Mexico. Different factions of the revolution fought for provide a control, but the ultimate outcome was a collapse of the previous framework for dictatorship, the institution of a one-party state, land reforms, and nations to come the appearance of a “win-win” political situation (Kittleson). together to Although the Mexican revolution was far from perfect, it represented resolve issues. a deeper desire for political change and power in the hands of the people. Elsewhere in Latin America, nations began instituting electoral reforms to increase the share of the power held by the middle-class; Argentina instituted universal male suffrage in 1912; Chile attempted reform, then fell back into a brief military dictatorship before regaining stability in 1932, giving more power to middle class and urban workers (though brushing off other groups); Uruguay democratized and created a welfare-state with minimum wage, social security, and other social benefits; Costa Rica and Columbia came close to broad reform, but were not as successful as other nations; Ecuador, Brazil, Uruguay, and Cuba adopted suffrage for women, but retained a literacy requirement that curbed its effect; Peru faced a military coup; and Venezuela and Brazil remained in the hands of existing regimes (Kittleson). Throughout this period, governments began increasing their role to perform services for those in need to both help their people and decrease the desire for

Map of South political revolutions. America, 1937. Communist and socialist movements also grew in Latin America Pinterest throughout this period. Communist and socialist parties were founded across Latin America, with socialism gaining power in Chile through the Popular Front Government and communism taking control in Cuba after the election of Batista. Elements of fascism were also adopted in certain political parties and regimes, though few openly supported European fascists, simply incorporating elements of fascism into their own regimes to maintain power. In 1959, Fidel Castro successfully took power from Batista and created the first communist state in the Americas. The United States sought to end this administration by invading Cuba with the help of trained Cuban exiles in the unsuccessful Bay of Pigs invasion (Dunne). The United States remains extremely resistant to the appearance of communist states within the Americas and is resolved to upend them at any cost.

The political climate in Latin America is characterized by competing objectives of democracy and authoritarianism, differing views on social and economic reforms, and increasing the underpinnings of populist movements. The Current Situation in Latin America During another International Conference of American States in 1954, members agreed to the Caracas Declaration of Solidarity, condemning communism for its “antidemocratic nature and interventionist tendency...incompatible with the concept of American freedom” (“Caracas”). The United States has shown its President Kennedy dedication to this resolution in its failed Bay of Pigs plan as well as visits Venezuelan more covert involvement to oust communist or communist- President Rómulo accepting leaders through the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Betancourt for the such as Guatemalan President Arbenz in 1954 (Kittleson). Alliance for Economically, Latin America remains less developed than the Progress. Western world, here defined as the United States, Canada, and The Atlantic Western Europe. Many within Latin America made bold plans for rapid industrialization and development, hoping to find sponsors to aid in these ambitious plans. While some within the United States government showed hesitation to invest, Latin America turned to Members agreed Sino-Soviet partners for trade, loans, and credit to improve their economic standing, warming them to communism (Dunne). to the Caracas Socially, though there were few changes between the start of the Declaration of twentieth century and the end of the Second World War for most in Solidarity, Latin America, with those on the coasts and in big cities found condemning themselves becoming linked to worldwide communication, communism for culminating in an early public education system and exposure to its media (Kittleson). Social goals for the region include democratization, expanding healthcare, increasing literacy and “antidemocratic education programs, and improving gender equality (Dunne). nature and Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor Policy interventionist tendency...incom President Roosevelt sought to better relations between the United patible with the States and Latin America through cooperation rather than military force, with an ultimate goal of political stability and a united front concept of within the hemisphere (“Good”). President Roosevelt described this American approach as the “Good Neighbor Policy,” characterizing the United freedom.” States as “the neighbor who resolutely respects himself and, because he does so, respects the rights of others” (“Good”). This anti- interventionist policy was in stark contrast to President Theodore Roosevelt’s “Roosevelt Corollary” policy, which justified the United States stepping in on behalf of other American nations to oppose foreign intervention. Much of President Roosevelt’s work was to reverse the common stereotyping of Latin Americans among the people of the United States and to foster a more positive relationship between governments and between peoples (Weishan).

President Kennedy’s Plans On March 13, 1961, President Kennedy delivered a speech regarding his plans to address US-Latin America relations. In his address, he called for an “Alliance of Progress,” to unite the people of the Americas, drawing on themes of freedom and unity (Dunne). As evident in his approval of the Bay of Pigs plan, President Kennedy is committed to fighting the rise of communism in Latin America. However, President Kennedy’s priorities extend beyond fighting communism, his goals also include establishing democracy and A treaty between bettering conditions for people within Latin America. To those ends, the U.S. and the President Kennedy has proposed establishing an Agency for Dominican Republic International Development as part of his “Alliance for Progress” and is signed as a result has plans to ask Congress for a loan of $20 billion to Latin of the Good American nations to produce meaningful reforms (“Alliance”). Neighbor Policy. ThoughtCo Ideological Viewpoints Interventionist During the Cold War era the United States committed itself to the idea of containment to stop the spread of communism. For this reason, many advocated political interventionism in Latin America to ensure that it would not fall to communism. In a 1960 presidential debate, President Kennedy echoed this ideology, stating that, “the big struggle will be to prevent the influence of Castro [from] spreading to other countries” (Sabet). After failures to stop communism in Cuba, many fear the coming of a “second Cuba” in Latin America after factions are inspired to spread communism in their own nations (Sabet). This steadfast commitment is often criticized as the cause of irrational or uncalled for action taken in instances where costs of intervention outweighed the presumed benefits. Defenders of intervention argue that showing strength and gaining international influence is of great benefit to the United States. Moreover, some view America’s values and style of government as exceptional and

President Kennedy thus believe that the United States has a duty to share those values speaks on his with other nations. “Alliance of “Soft Interventionist” Progress.” Wikipedia While some are willing to go to great lengths (and incur great costs) to enhance the United States’ relationship with Latin America, others believe a “softer” approach is more appropriate. This group is against strong-arming governments and using direct military force to effect regimes. Instead, they believe that economic and social projects could provide the necessary support to achieve the same goals. They believe that poverty leaves a population more susceptible to revolution. As President Kennedy articulated while advocating for his New Frontier reforms, people deserve a decent quality of life. The idea of this approach is to support populations to improve their lives

and to show them that democracy is a preferable form of government, while building a friendly, good neighbor-like Isolationism – A relationship. policy of non- Isolationist involvement in the Some believe that the United States should take a policy of affairs of other isolationism, keeping to itself and ceasing intervention in the countries and affairs of other countries. Some in this faction believe that regions. government money is better spent handling problems at home and supporting American citizens rather than foreign nationals. Others refer to past U.S. exploits and the common history between American nations of colonialism and warn against an imperialist-like relationship between the United States and Latin America. They are also reluctant to exert “Yankee imperialism” and harm the nation’s relationship with Latin America instead of helping it (Weishan). Political Areas of Debate Interventionism - refers to a policy 0f Political Intervention actively influencing the One of the many justifications for the United States intervening government or in foreign governments is to stop the spread of communism. As a leadership of another result of the unwavering opposition to communism, many are willing country to manipulate to sacrifice democratic governance in favor of a leader sympathetic their actions. to United States interests. In the case of Cuba, had the Bay of Pigs invasion been successful, the United States would have wanted to implement a democratic government, but would be willing to back an authoritarian regime over a communist one (Dunne). Those who support this level of intervention may favor boots-on- the-ground during rebellions or periods of major unrest. However, the majority of intervention in regimes is covert and relatively unknown to the public, with the CIA pulling strings and with the United States aiding nearby governments in times of conflict. Those in favor argue that this is the most effective way to create change and that it is better for the United States to have allies in power. This policy is opposed by some who believe that it is immoral for Economic and the United States to meddle with other governments so directly. social projects Many in opposition suggest “softer” methods such as economic and could provide the social programs before resorting to these types of actions. necessary International Collaboration support to Another political strategy suggests growing the existing Inter- achieve the same American networks, like the OAS, to encourage more international goals. dialogue and to better coordinate policy. Continuing to nourish these networks would also show a united front among the Americas and could show the United States as an international leader and a friendly and helpful ally to many.

Those opposed to this strategy would claim that diplomatic measures and the creation of more treaties and declarations would have little real impact on foreign relations and would instead waste time and money. Additionally, they may point to existing coalitions like the OAS and the United Nations as sufficient for displaying diplomacy and relatively ineffective at creating substantial change. Moreover, they might claim that more substantive actions are necessary to make a real impact. The Bay of Pigs invasion added to Economic Intervention tensions in the Many suggest that the United States can create its greatest impact region. with economic support. When President Truman introduced the Rare Newspapers Marshall Plan in the wake of World War II, he included Latin America, however he realistically did not offer the same type of aid that was being directed toward Europe (Dunne). Instead of the projects of rebuilding in Western Europe, economic work in Latin America would take the form of advocating for private investment, reducing tariffs, decreasing exchange controls, and expanding the role of government (Dunne). A plan of this scope would require significant expenditures to develop Latin America and create structural economic change. Brazilian President Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira suggested an Operação Pan-Americana, stressing international cooperation, economic development, and defensive capacity (Dunne). Under this plan the “Committee of Twenty-One,” the group of American nations, met to create a plan to fund economic development. They planned to use United States investment and to utilize existing institutions such as the Export-Import Bank, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the Development Loan Fund (Dunne). Those in favor of these sweeping economic development plans noted that increasing quality of life within Latin America and bettering the global status of the United States’ allies would benefit

A cartoon criticizes the United States. Moreover, increasing the number of advanced Kennedy for failing economies would provide more opportunities for trade. Likewise, in to defend Latin the United States took a strong role in providing the funds for this American development it could direct some of the money towards social democracy. programs they believed would benefit the people in Latin America. Cartoon Attic Those opposed cited the enormous amount of money that it would take to develop Latin America’s economies. Even if some of the money came from private investment or other funding sources, money would be pulled away from domestic investment. They worried that money spent would not achieve the goals that it hoped to and that it would make a greater impact at home. Furthermore, some found it difficult to justify vast spending abroad to those struggling at home.

No Intervention Although many thought it was important to develop strong relationships with other nations, others found it unnecessary to pour the time and resources into helping foreign governments and Those advocating improving foreign relations. They argued that the paternalistic for international nature of United States intervention was demeaning and uncalled for. They suggested that the United States does not need to be collaboration responsible for other nations and should keep to itself. believe that the In opposition, many argued the strategic advantages of having United States can foreign allies and of gaining power and prestige in the international effectively community. Others believed that American democracy was to be accomplish its spread around the world and American values were to be lauded for all to see. Likewise, the argument in favor of developing other goals through economies to help the United States was compelling as having more peaceful, developed countries provided more opportunities for business. diplomatic Moreover, in the event of another global conflict, the United States means. would be in a better position having strong allies to fight with them in any conflict rather than against them. All in all, the question of whether or not the United States has an obligation to intervene in any form remains an open question. Budgetary Considerations Depending on the strategy chosen for conducting foreign relations with Latin America, the budget could be vastly different. President Kennedy asked congress for $20 billion over the course of a decade to pursue his “New Alliance” (“Alliance”). This would make it the largest United States aid program for the developing world. It is important to note that half-heartedly funding projects will likely fail to yield significant results (“Alliance”). The magnitude of this plan presents problems in budgeting as it demands money be taken from domestic programs or that the government borrows and increases its debt. Moreover, any private investors willing to support projects in Latin America show far more interest in protecting their own investments than they do in social reform. The cabinet must decide which policies are worth the cost.

CONCLUSION

As you take on the role of the cabinet remember that your job is to advise the President on a wide range of topics. This administration intends to tackle an ambitious set of goals. As such, President Kennedy expects that you will have a solid understanding of the issues of the day and the existing context of these problems and he will turn to you for creative solutions for his administration to pursue.

Although President Kennedy is a Democrat, and this cabinet will not face the same partisan challenges as a Congress, opinions will clash. You are encouraged to consider your own ideology as a member of the cabinet, as the best solutions arise from a diversity of ideas. Although you may not have spoken out on every issue that the cabinet sets out to address, you can apply your values, priorities, and thought process to every topic. The President urges you to refrain from thinking about any one issue in a vacuum. Dramatic spending in one area will leave fewer funds for other projects. Moreover, the decisions you make may affect the context of other problems facing the administration. Finally, as President Kennedy works towards securing his own re- election in 1964, it is imperative that he serve the American people to the best of his ability. President Kennedy is relying on you to help him make critical decisions that will change the course of American history. Are you ready?

GUIDE TO FURTHER RESEARCH

In researching these topics further, make sure you use reputable sources that provide accurate historical information. Researching historical archives may also provide the opportunity to read from primary sources that were written as many of these events took place. When reading from any source, but especially primary sources, be sure to pay attention to the source of the information as well as the presence of any biases of the writer. The perspective people use to evaluate historical events often changes significantly over time, so be aware that what may appear obvious in retrospect would likely have not been as obvious in the past, before events actually happened. As a result, writers that address historical topics years after they have occurred may find it easy to criticize a leader’s course of action, but at the time which the decisions were made, it may have been much more difficult to know which decisions would lead to which outcomes.

GLOSSARY

Bay of Pigs – a failed invasion of Cuba by the United States, which intended to remove Soviet-backed leader Fidel Castro.

Brown v. Board of Education – a landmark Supreme Court case in which racial segregation in schools was ruled unconstitutional.

Civil Rights Act of 1957 – established protections for the voting rights of Black Americans and expanded the Federal Government’s role in protecting civil rights.

De facto – meaning “in fact,” which is often used to refer to segregation that occurred in reality but was not legally imposed.

Deficit – a deficit in a government’s budget reflects a time wherein spending exceeds revenue. If a deficit is not resolved immediately, the amount owed becomes part of the national debt.

Isolationism – A policy of non-involvement in the affairs of other countries and regions.

Jim Crow laws – a collection of laws used to enforce segregation and restrict the rights of Black Americans.

Keynesian Theory – an economic theory introduced by John Maynard Keynes in the 1930s which attempted to explain output and inflation through government spending. Keynesian theory argues that manipulating government spending and taxes can affect an economy.

Little Rock Nine – nine Black students who were the first to attend a previously all-white school in Little Rock, Arkansas.

Orbit – for an object to move around another in space.

Political Interventionism – refers to a policy of actively influencing the government or leadership of another country to manipulate their actions.

Redlining– the systematic denial of services to a specific community or neighborhood, which can also include raising prices for a specific community.

Separate but equal – refers to segregation by race providing supposedly equal services, ruled to be false in Brown v. Board of Education.

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