KENNEDY’S CABINET, 1961 By Anthony Colarusso and Georgia Steigerwald INTRODUCTION The year is 1961, and President John F. Kennedy has just been inaugurated. He will rely on all of you, his cabinet, to help him guide the United States through these trying times. The United States is facing a Cold War with the Soviet Union that has changed the global geopolitical landscape, as well as significant domestic issues regarding civil rights and social reforms. These issues have put President Kennedy in a position to define the future of the United States in many ways through his choice of actions. Your advice as a President Kennedy’s cabinet will be essential to ensuring that the United States navigates inaugural address. difficult decisions and prevents the nation, and even the world, from CBS plunging into conflict and unrest. THE SPACE RACE Explanation of the Issue Historical Development The mission to The United States’ journey to space thus far has been a long and put an American difficult process. Engineers struggle to design machines that can in space will be withstand extreme temperatures and successfully make it to space no easy task. and back. Scientists address the problems of sustaining life in space. Thousands work to create facilities and equipment. A handful of “astronauts” train for a mission unlike any they’ve ever flown before. The Birth of NASA For the military, the 1950s were characterized by the development of missile and nuclear propulsion technology (Dunbar). HARVARD MODEL CONGRESS The Air Force facilitated the testing of new missiles at their Cape Canaveral Station, while the Army had its own Army Ballistic Missile Agency to conduct research (Ward). Additionally, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), formed in 1915 to counsel the President on how to catch up to European flight technology, was also pioneering reentry plans for space vehicles, both for warheads and for manned missions (Suckow). Rising interest in satellites for strategic defense was also a key driver of innovation as governments continued to fund research to gain military advantages, enabling much of the groundwork for space NACA Director exploration to be laid. William Pickering The launch of Sputnik I, the first satellite to successfully orbit the and lead scientists Earth on October 4, 1957 shocked Americans as they discovered their display the model of lag behind the Soviets (Garber). American efforts to launch a satellite what would be the soared and on July 29, 1958 the National Aeronautics and Space Act United States’ first was signed into law by President Eisenhower to establish the satellite. National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA). NASA Early Missions Project Mercury began under President Eisenhower in 1959 with three main goals: “to orbit a manned spacecraft around the Earth, to Orbit – for an object investigate man’s ability to function in space, and to recover both to move around man and spacecraft safely” (Loff). Intense development and testing another in space went into designing the rockets used throughout the many missions of Project Mercury. Trail after trial was done to check the team’s progress and to continually meet the necessary steps to accomplish the project’s goals. However, the news of the Soviet Union’s successful manned orbit in April 1961 by cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin Intense aboard the Vostok I discouraged many as the public criticized development and NASA’s slow progress. However, American astronaut Alan Shepard’s successful launch into space on May 5, 1961 marked an important testing went into milestone for Americans and showcased the technological designing the capabilities of the United States’ space program (Swenson). Future rockets used missions under Project Mercury are planned to bring a man into throughout the orbit. many missions of Project Gemini, conceived in early 1961, has the goal of Project Mercury. improving spacecraft. This mission, though in its early stages, could also prove useful in perfecting the “entry and re-entry maneuvers of a spacecraft and conduct[ing] further tests on how individuals are affected by long periods of space travel” (“Space Program”). Should it be decided that the United States will pursue a moon-landing, this project could serve as the “bridge” between the “pioneering achievement of Project Mercury” and future projects to come (Grimwood). © HARVARD MODEL CONGRESS 2021 – REDISTRIBUTION OR REPRODUCTION PROHIBITED 2 HARVARD MODEL CONGRESS Ideological Viewpoints President Kennedy Throughout his 1960 campaign for President, Kennedy attacked the perceived “gap” between the United States and the Soviet Union The alleged that had emerged in missiles and space technology during the “missile gap” Eisenhower administration (Babish). President Kennedy himself didn’t really exist, described the purpose of space exploration as the United States but the “set[ting] sail on this new sea because there is new knowledge to be Eisenhower gained, and new rights to be won, and they must be won and used for the progress of all people” (Swenson). In another argument for administration expanding the goal of the nation’s space program, President Kennedy couldn’t disprove argued that the “justification for it...is because we hope to beat [the these criticisms Soviets] and demonstrate that starting behind [them]...we passed without them” (“JFK”). President Kennedy remains concerned about compromising catching-up to Soviet progress and showing American strength, national security. however given his other ambitious programs and the high cost of space exploration, he may not want to pursue outlandish dreams. Liberals Just as Kennedy ran for president on a platform of criticizing the Republican leadership for allowing the United States to slip in its prestige, so too did many Democrats who ran for office in 1960. Space was a “pressure point” campaign issue against Vice President Nixon and other Republicans that could demonstrate their failures to the electorate (Babish). Liberals criticized President Eisenhower for his lack of response to the Sputnik launches and showed concern for the position of the United States as a world power. As a result of A 1957 political this criticism, many liberals pushed for advances in space exploration cartoon depicts that would prove the United States’ strength. Eisenhower’s However, many liberals, taking office flush with proposals for inaction in response social benefits and expanding New Deal programs, were concerned to Soviet about the massive cost of fully pursuing goals in space, especially a advancements. moon-landing. The relative benefit of showing power and prestige Edgar’s Blog of APUSH must be weighed against the cost of not funding domestic programs that affect Americans on a more day-to-day basis. Conservatives The conservative position on space exploration has historically been to utilize technologies for a stronger military. Initial investment into the agencies that became NASA were made to augment military capabilities. President Eisenhower, in particular, spoke of no grand plan to further the domain of humankind, but instead saw satellites as a fruitful tool to gain intelligence (Babish). More conservative members of Kennedy’s cabinet would be hesitant to throw money into space exploration because of what in their eyes was a mere show of power rather than an expense that would truly strengthen the © HARVARD MODEL CONGRESS 2021 – REDISTRIBUTION OR REPRODUCTION PROHIBITED 3 HARVARD MODEL CONGRESS American military (Babish). Many members of Kennedy’s cabinet warned him about the uncertainty associated with dramatic space Some saw space programs and the great costs that accompanied them (Day). exploration as a show of power Areas of Debate more than as a What are the Space Program’s Objectives? good investment. Although politicians have yet to express a commitment to a moon-landing, scientists have drawn plans to develop the technology needed to put a man on the moon. However, criticism from the American people and the media regarding the slow progress of the space program and the small effect of progress in space on day-to- day life leaves many in doubt over whether the United States should continue to funnel money into NASA (Babish). Those who argue in favor of space exploration appeal to the great prestige it would bring the country to be the first to walk on the moon, re-establishing the United States’ place as a global leader. Moreover, the belief that showing the American people a man on the moon would provide a hope and a deep sense of patriotism. A win against the Soviets and against communism at large would also signal the strength of capitalism and democracy, advancing American foreign policy goals (“JFK”). Aside from the intangible pride that a moon-landing and other achievements in space could bring, the scientific gains made could provide insights into how to solve other problems. President Kennedy Those in opposition to a moon landing argue that the space meets with Premier program should be used to focus on defense and intelligence (Babish, Khrushchev during Swenson). Satellite development remains an opportunity to gain the Vienna Summit. advantages in spying and has the potential to help the American Smithsonian Magazine people more directly through its uses (Swenson). Many also argue that money is better spent on making domestic policy changes and enacting President Kennedy’s New Frontier programs instead of on the extravagant expenditure required to land on the moon. Should the Space Program Receive More Funding? The multi-billion-dollar expenditure that is the space program is seen by some as an extravagance the country cannot afford. While economic and social problems remain at home, should the government be pouring tax dollars into a space race? Those in favor of the grand expenditure view it as a necessity to uplift American spirits and sure-up the United States’ standing in the world order. Delivering on what seems like an impossible dream could provide the hope and unity Americans yearn for.