TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE by Caleb Esrig

TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE By Caleb Esrig

INTRODUCTION

Politically and economically, Accra, the capital and largest city in Ghana, is one of the most important cities in its region of Africa. As part of the country’s economic development, it is seeing an increasing demand for oranges and other fruit products, yet the country lacks much of the critical infrastructure necessary to facilitate a thriving agriculture industry. Oranges in the capital are a scarce product, making prices high. But just 15 kilometers outside the capital, women transport oranges on their heads to surrounding villages. There, they make a living selling surplus oranges that are gretly in demand just a short trip away. Were roads and bicycles widely available and accessible, these women could more profitably cultivate their land and increase their production. They could build thriving agricultural organizations and generate more income for themselves and their families. Instead, they are limited by poor transport infrastructure. Woman in Ghana Transport infrastructure is critical to the world’s developing carries building economies. Investors know this: When considering agricultural products developments and investments in Ghana, they see access to roads as G-lish Foundation a primary concern. The issue touches all aspects of life: security, prosperity, equality, and freedom. When people lack vital transportation infrastructure, they lack the tools to succeed. This story is not unique to Ghana. Around the world, access to vital transport infrastructure can determine the prosperity of a city, region, or nation. That is your challenge as delegates to the World Bank. You face not a single question in one country but a myriad of dilemmas in countries around the world. Your task is to craft the World Bank’s

HARVARD MODEL CONGRESS

policies for supporting transport infrastructure development around the world. To do so, you must consider two primary objectives: Adequate transport firstly, how the World Bank allocates its resources and secondly, how best to improve on transport infrastructures. investment is The discrepancies are huge. The density of road networks in critical to developing countries is only about 10% of developed countries. In advancing Indonesia, for example, vehicle ownership grows around 10% each economic year while road developments expand the networks only 1% on development and average. Meanwhile, investments in developing countries in public fighting climate transportation systems are often weak or non-existent. This topic is more important now than ever before. Nearly one- change fourth of global energy-related carbon dioxide emissions come from transport, and the number of vehicles on the road is expected to double, reaching two billion, by 2050. Cities are seeing soaring population growth, with around two-thirds of the global population projected to live in cities by 2050. Adequate transport investment is critical to advancing economic development and fighting climate change. It depends, however, on judicious support from the World Bank.

The World Bank EXPLANATION OF THE ISSUE aims to promote shared prosperity Historical Development by increasing the incomes of the Initially chartered in the 1940s to help rebuild European countries after World War II, the World Bank’s mission is now to end poorest 40 percent extreme global poverty and promote shared prosperity. In the past of people in every half-century, it has facilitated billions of dollars of investments in country. developing countries to alleviate poverty and foster growth. The World Bank Group technically comprises five institutions, several of which are critical in transport investments. You as delegates will represent the interests of the group. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and International Development Association Capital – assets, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development such as money, that (IBRD) and International Development Association (IDA) function facilitate by providing loans, guarantees, risk management products, and economically useful advisory services to developing countries. They differ only in that the activities IBRD has often supported middle-income countries, and the IDA has focused on low-income countries. IDA typically offers very generous terms to its borrowers and even provides grants in extreme cases. They together make up the world’s largest development bank, and they aid the missions of the World Bank by providing capital access to growing countries. For capital-intensive projects like

transportation investments, this is essential. They are headquartered in Washington, DC. Debt financing – financing a project by International Finance Corporation loaning money to While IBRD and IDA typically aid governments and public developers projects, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) focuses on advancing the private sector in developing economies. It achieves Equity financing – this goal through loans and investments that create markets for financing a project by private developers to access capital, and it provides both debt providing money in financing and equity financing. exchange for a stake Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency in the future profits of the investment; this is The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) how the stock market promotes international investments by providing loan guarantees works to investors and lenders. These guarantees protect against non- commercial risks which may otherwise make loans difficult to access. For example, a government in a war-torn area may find loans for Loan guarantee – a critical infrastructure projects difficult or impossible to access, as promise by one party creditors may fear political upheaval. MIGA steps in and insures the (such as MIGA) to loans against the risk of war, allowing creditors to grant loans at assume the debt reasonable rates. obligation of a second party if that party Scope of the Problem defaults Transport infrastructure is one of the most important determinants of a country’s economic success: Without some form of transport infrastructure, individuals are limited to the location in which they reside. The results of such caging can be seen in many aspects of life, including access to healthcare and educational opportunities. By understanding the impact of poor transport infrastructure and the possible solutions, you can best devise the strategy of the World Bank. Poverty and Access Around the world, two-thirds of the extreme poor live in rural areas. Public investments in these areas have, over the past 30 years, stagnated or declined, so infrastructure is often lacking or nonexistent. This problem is particularly evident in Africa, where A traffic jam in limited infrastructure impedes economic development. Many of the Delhi, India extreme poor are isolated by distance and terrain from better Wikimedia opportunities, and studies clearly indicate ties between rural isolation and poor health, low productivity, and low school enrollment. This solidifies and reinforces cycles of poverty. Climate Impacts The transport sector is a disturbingly potent contributor to global climate change, as it is the source nearly one quarter of energy- related emissions. The impacts of climate change on human society

and safety are tremendous, and its effects are likely to have enormous damages on low-income countries and populations. When considering transport investments, the World Bank has made climate concerns a central focus, committing billions to climate finance and to climate-focused mobility developments. These policies are discussed in greater detail in later sections. Safety and Sustainability The World Bank is a leader in promoting the safety and sustainability of transport systems around the world. Beyond recognizing the vast economic potential of transport, it understands that there are risks as well. The World Bank leads the Global Road Safety Facility, which works with seven other development banks to harmonize road safety practices in client countries and promote safer roadways. The stakes are large: this project is part of an effort to achieve the UN’s goal of saving five million lives and preventing 50 million serious injuries through better road safety policies. As part of the Africa Transport Policy Program, the World Bank partners with 41 African countries to enhance urban mobility and road safety. It considers this a critical component of laying the foundation for efficient, safe, and sustainable transport systems in Africa. When considering projects for the World Bank to pursue, effective delegates should consider the implications for transport safety and how to further ensure it. Through the Sustainable Mobility for All program, the World Bank has envisioned a world where access, safety, efficiency, and climate-friendliness are universal. Infrastructure Types There are several important types of transport infrastructure frequently supported by the World Bank: roadways, buses, railways, airplanes, and waterways are the most important. Roads and highways are often the dominant form of land transport, and they can be critical to connecting rural areas. They often carry more than 80% of passenger miles, and the World Bank typically works to incentivize the building of new roadways and highways that can expand economic opportunities. Railways are often the most climate-smart form of transport, and Bus rapid transit – they can be powerful at promoting economic growth. Nevertheless, high-quality bus due to inefficiencies and poor integration, they are a shrinking part networks that of transport in developing economies. They still, however, have vast typically include potential. dedicated bus streets Buses, particularly bus rapid transit, are sometimes favored by or lanes the World Bank and economists because they are cheap and easy to deploy and alter. They can be integral for urban economic growth in developing regions.

Waterways are a source of special interest for the Bank because they provide low-emission forms of freight transportation. The World Bank has supported these, for example, with one of India’s first waterway-based transport. Airports are vast, capital-intensive projects that can transform regions and urban areas. From Venezuela to South Africa, the World Bank has used its various resources to aid in the building of airports. However, because these are so capital intensive, they are often a poor choice for particularly poor regions. World Bank Action The World Bank has identified the transportation sector as critical to its sustainable development goals, which include eliminating poverty and hunger, ensuring health, education, and gender equality, and protecting water sources, sanitation, and the Sustainable environment. It has a four-pronged approach to promote mobility – reliable, sustainable mobility around the world by improving: access, safe, and affordable efficiency, safety, and climate-friendliness. Delegates considering transport systems advancing policies for the World Bank should consider their own that minimize adverse ideas using this framework. The World Bank’s actions in the past few climate impacts and decades have served to advance these objectives. foster shared Several projects are particularly important to consider. In prosperity Tanzania, the IDA used a $450 million grant to help fund the creation of a bus rapid transport system. In Egypt, the IBRD committed more than $300 million to aid in a restructuring of the national railway. Through the Pacific Aviation Investment Program, the IDA has granted millions toward the overhaul of regional airports in small Pacific island nations. Climate concerns pervade much of what the World Bank does, and transport is one area it has particularly focused on climate concerns. It has pledged to increase climate finance from 21% of its funding in 2015 to 28% by 2020. In the transport sector, it aims to Network of increase the share of lending informed by climate concerns to 35% highspeed rail by 2020. One of its most important responses is commitments to within Europe supporting rail in China, India, and Central Asia. Rail systems are Journal of typically much more environmentally friendly than alternatives, Transportation Technologies such as highways or airplanes. This can greatly improve the climate- friendliness of mobility in developing countries. Other Policy Action Just about every governmental body at every level of government, foster developments in transport infrastructure. Some of these investments are in megaprojects that can transform the transport landscape of a region or a country. Others are small, local projects, such as the addition of a bus line. As delegates representing the World Bank, your focus should be on how best to use the World

Bank’s resources to advance its mission of ending poverty and promoting shared prosperity with respect to transport infrastructure. However, your policies may not necessarily refer to a single governmental project. To be most effective, they should reflect the scope of the World Bank’s investments around the world and better refine its approach to transport infrastructure development.

IDEOLOGICAL VIEWPOINTS

Conservative View Conservatives and liberals often agree to support certain infrastructure investments. In fact, infrastructure, specifically related to transport, is one area where conservatives and liberals have found common ground in politically divided societies. For examples, in the United States, President Donald Trump and Democratic congressional leaders were able to agree on a $2 trillion infrastructure plan. Disagreements, however, typically come down to

Speaker of the funding. Conservatives are typically less likely to support additional House Nancy Pelosi taxes to fund infrastructure projects, more likely to promote the and Senate inclusion of private industry, and less supportive of restrictive Minority Leader regulations. Chuck Schumer Liberal View leave the White House after a Both conservatives and liberals often agree on a need to advance “constructive” transport infrastructure, but many disagreements often arise in meeting with funding. Liberals are more likely to support additional taxes, less President Trump on likely to be enthusiastic about the inclusion of private industry, and infrastructure less resistant to added regulation. NPR AREAS OF DEBATE

There are many different methods of advancing transport Across Africa, Asia, infrastructure. As the individuals determining the future direction of the Middle East the World Bank, you must carefully consider the different issues and eastern impacting transportation infrastructure and craft a strategy for how Europe, the Bank is best to approach the topic. supporting 16 Investment Loans with Conditions railway investment projects worth $6.9 In order to provide low- and middle-income countries with the billion dollars capital necessary for large transport infrastructure projects, the IBRD and IDA often offer large amounts of debt financing. This is important, as it presents cash-strapped governments with the capital they need to begin investments that will improve the wellbeing of their citizens. Delegates considering the importance of transport

infrastructure to fighting poverty and ensuring sustainable growth might allocate sums of World Bank resources toward debt financing in developing economies for certain types of transport infrastructure investments. For example, the World Bank contributed a $300 million loan for the GuiGuang Railway Project in China to connect less-developed regions in China with economically prosperous ones. However, to maximize World Bank resources and minimize adverse effects, loan conditions are often important. For example, in Ghana, the IDA granted a $100 million loan to advance road development, improve aviation security and administration, and promote railway investments. This has the potential to create positive economic impacts throughout the economy. However, the IDA demanded that Ghana implement safeguard policies as a condition of the loan. The country created environmental management desks at three agencies overseeing various transport sectors. Political Perspectives on this Solution Many of the dilemmas facing the World Bank and client countries transcend the political spectrum. Nevertheless, some, particularly advocates for developing countries, voice concern about the fact that the World Bank is largely controlled by wealthy countries. They argue that this leads to a funneling of loans and other resources toward projects favored by those countries. Others argue that the conditions promoted or required by loans, because of their importance to developing countries, undermine the democratic sovereignty of the borrowing nations. Advancing Public-Private Partnerships The transport sector represents a tremendous business opportunity for private enterprises and unleashing private investment and development can accelerate improvement. The IFC in particular can aid in developing well-structured public-private Public-private partnerships that provide capital to transport infrastructure projects. partnerships – Using IFC debt or equity financing, a supported company would agreements between approach a government to invest in transport infrastructure with the public organizations promise of deriving future revenues. and private sector The impact of this is seen in the ports of Iraq. Following successes entities to collaborate at improving Jordanian ports, a leading logistics company received a on a project multimillion-dollar equity investment from the IFC to modernize and manage four ports in Iraq. This was an important component of the IFC’s goals to diversify the Iraqi economy and support economic development. The custom-built systems for the Iraqi ports have saved time and reduced costs, boosting international trade. Furthermore, the IFC-supported company thoroughly trained workers, minimizing the impact of Iraq’s system of bribes. The IFC estimates that 19,250 Iraqis were positively impacted by the project,

and it has had ripple effects throughout the economy. For example, more efficient processing systems have saved an estimated 25,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide each month in truck idling emissions. In return, the logistics company receives service fees from the businesses using the port. Accordingly, the project proceeded with the company incentivized to build a successful port and without relying on funds from the government. That is the key to this solution: Businesses incentivized with profit motives facilitate investments in transport infrastructure. For that reason, public-private partnerships have great potential. They typically do not require large government investments, meaning cash-strapped governments can harness the private sector. With profit motives, the private sector is, evidence suggests, more efficient and more likely to meet construction targets. However, they also receive criticism. They are often supported by large government tax breaks that can become the target of opposition. Political liberals in particular can express concern about this. Without proper oversight, government approvals and contracts can be granted to firms that use bribes or other malicious tactics. Generally, however, this idea transcends political perspectives. Additionally, some companies engage in public-private partnerships may use tax havens, underpay workers, or engage in illegal activity. Loan Guarantees When developing countries seek to acquire the capital necessary to fund transport infrastructure projects, they sometimes find that potential sources of debt financing fear that political unease would threaten their ability to receive their money back. Loan guarantees attempt to solve that problem by having MIGA provide insurance that non-commercial issues will not prevent the lack of payment of a debt. The importance of this technique can be seen again in the Iraqi ports. As the IFC-supported logistics company prepared to improve

Pictured is Basra – the four Iraqi ports, outside investors considered providing loans to one of Iraq’s main support the project. They feared, however, that political turmoil and ports violence would undermine the project and jeopardize their loan. To The Baghdad Post aid them in providing the loan at an affordable rate, MIGA provided loan guarantees, ensuring that political turmoil would not prevent the investors from seeing the returns on their loan. Without this support, it is unlikely that the project would have found such success. Delegates concerned that political upheaval or war would threaten the ability of a developing nation to access capital might allocate resources for MIGA loan guarantees on loans to that country. Political Perspectives on this Solution Perspectives on loan guarantee programs from MIGA and other international bodies typically transcend the political spectrum.

Nevertheless, there are some important concerns. One central issue is that guaranteed loans can discourage a country from taking the careful steps necessary to preserve economic wellbeing. Otherwise, many of the guarantees are similar to those related to public-private partnerships. Climate-Focused Development The risks from man-made climate change cannot be understated, and devastating effects will be seen if emissions and pollution continue unchecked. The transport sector is responsible for 64% of global oil consumption and nearly 25% of energy-related carbon dioxide emissions. Though the resulting costs will likely be felt across society, existing transport infrastructure will likely see increased risk of damage and destruction from a changing climate. This will only exacerbate transport funding issues in low-income countries. Accordingly, any investments in and development of transport “While we invest in infrastructure must center on minimizing adverse climate impacts. This solution would prevent the World Bank from funding projects a low carbon that facilitate increased carbon emissions, such as intercity highways future, we must or airports. It would allocate some or all of development resources invest in resilient provided for transportation toward carbon-neutral solutions such as societies at the zero-emission buses and bicycle lanes. It would also, as the World same time. Simply Bank is doing, devote resources to decreasing the vulnerability of put, adaptation transport services and increasing investments in resilience and adaptability. and resilience are As previously discussed, rail investments in China, India, and two sides of the Central Asia are a central component of climate-focused transport same coin.” – development. With World Bank support, they can more strongly Kristalina compete with competing forms of transportation. Georgieva, chief One key potential investment area is water transport. The World executive officer of Bank has identified transport using lakes and rivers as potentially disruptive of higher-emissions modes for freight. This would require the World Bank a carefully coordinated effort between regulators, infrastructure developers, and investors. Road and rail connections with ports can help facilitate this. Political Perspectives on this Solution Political liberals, especially in Europe, are typically more concerned about climate concerns than others, and they would be more likely to support a climate-focused transport investment policy. Political conservatives are likely to have a different perspective. Some, particularly in the United States, Australia, and elsewhere, may deny the existence or severity of man-made climate change. Others may focus concerns on the adverse economic impact of restricting transport funding. They may emphasize the undue costs born by developing countries in fighting climate change.

Gender-Sensitive Approach A gender-sensitive approach to public transport development aims to alleviate gender imbalances in education and the workforce around the world. In India, the largest recipient of World Bank support, this problem is particularly visible. According to one study, the country could increase its gross domestic product by up to 60% by 2025 just by upping the workforce participation of women to equal that of men. However, the country is plagued by gender discrimination. It has seen an epidemic of widely publicized rapes, many of which have lacked extensive police responses. And 80% of women fear physical harassment while using public transport. In World Bank is a India and elsewhere, a gender-sensitive approach to public transport complex could alleviate these issues. This situation is seen similarly around organization that the world in many developing economies. thrives on A gender-sensitive approach would be comprised of a variety of compromise and policies. These would attempt to alleviate some of the largest gender- based issues, harassment, poverty, and family issues. Women-only bold ideas. doors, reserved seats, female staff, and awareness campaigns could fight harassment and could be promoted in World Bank-funded programs. Poverty, which often arises from less investment in women’s education and development, can be alleviated with subsidized fare structures and investments in biking. Transportation could be more inclusive for families with greater spatial accessibility, dense and frequent networks, and free school transportation for children. Political Perspectives on this Solution Though, once again, this issue largely transcends political divides Workforce in developed economies, political concerns arising from traditional participation – a and conservative values are often a challenge in developing measure of the economies. Religious organizations can oppose the advancement of portion of the women’s equality. Conservative politicians can advance policies that population, or of a encourage women to remain at home. Traditional taboos and norms subgroup of the can discourage gender equality and workforce participation. In population, that is India, for example, some have vocalized concerns that investment in either employed or gender-sensitive public transport comes at a cost for men who will actively seeking work lack equivalent investments. The World Bank sees gender equality as critical to its mission of lowering global poverty and fostering sustainable prosperity. It has included gender-sensitive approaches into some of its recent transport investments. These approaches have seen some successes and some challenges. Pakistan, for example, introduced women-only buses to address harassment, but they had male drivers. However, similar programs have seen success in Dubai and Mexico City.

BUDGETARY CONSIDERATIONS

Budgetary considerations are typically the most important issues in evaluating World Bank policies and projects. Combined, IBRD and IDA had commitments totaling $3.19 billion in the transport space in 2018. When planning initiatives and advocating for policies, be sure to consider the costs of such plans and the variety of sources money can be obtained from. As many of the areas of debate highlighted, money for transportation infrastructure can be allocated from more than just the World Bank itself, although it can assist. Consider the funds of the World Bank, private actors, and countries themselves when allocating funds.

CONCLUSION

In striving for its mission of eliminating global poverty and ensuring shared prosperity, the development of reliable and sustainable transport infrastructure is critical for the World Bank. By enabling mobility and enhanced economic access, transport facilitates economic development. It fosters improvements in health, education, and labor standards. It can improve human rights and disaster response. Nevertheless, delegates will need to grapple with challenging issues relating to how the World Bank can best facilitate transport infrastructure development and ensure its sustainability. Delegates should carefully evaluate many of the concerns laid out here. They must struggle with policies that acknowledge both the tremendously pernicious potential of climate change without unduly hampering the growth of low-income countries. They must carefully consider the possibilities of perverse incentives and harmful byproducts to World Bank loans and investments. They must recognize the importance of transport infrastructure to low-income countries without forgetting that it is but one small piece in a larger World Bank strategy. The best delegates will not just understand transport infrastructure and the World Bank nor only be familiar with the solution ideas spelled out here. They will, however, generate their own innovative ideas for solutions and combine them with the ideas explained here. They will understand that the World Bank is a complex organization that thrives on compromise and bold ideas.

GUIDE TO FURTHER RESEARCH

The World Bank makes most of its project, strategies, and reports public, and they provide an excellent source to scour to collect ideas. Its website is typically the best place for this. Because it is a large multinational organization, the World Bank often attracts tremendous attention from media outlets, and their sites can be valuable resources to understand the organization’s policies and direction. In addition to those countries highlighted in this briefing look further into transport infrastructure globally. Understand the countries with the most extensive and efficient models, as those can serve as examples with countries lacking modern infrastructure. Stay up to date with the current events surrounding transport infrastructure along with the continuous actions and statements of the World Bank.

GLOSSARY

Bus rapid transit – high-quality bus networks that typically include dedicated bus streets or lanes

Capital – assets, such as money, that facilitate economically useful activities

Debt financing – financing a project by loaning money to developers

Equity financing – financing a project by providing money in exchange for a stake in the future profits of the investment; this is how the stock market works

Loan guarantee – a promise by one party (such as MIGA) to assume the debt obligation of a second party if that party defaults

Public-private partnerships – agreements between public organizations and private sector entities to collaborate on a project

Sustainable mobility – reliable, safe, and affordable transport systems that minimize adverse climate impacts and foster shared prosperity

Workforce participation – a measure of the portion of the population, or of a subgroup of the population, that is either employed or actively seeking work

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