Vol. 77 Thursday, No. 3 January 5, 2012

Part IV

Department of the Interior

Fish and Wildlife Service 50 CFR Part 17 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing Two Distinct Population Segments of Broad-Snouted Caiman as Endangered or Threatened and a Special Rule; Proposed Rule

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR shown in FOR FURTHER INFORMATION regulations. Please make your comments CONTACT below by February 21, 2012. as specific as possible and explain the Fish and Wildlife Service ADDRESSES: You may submit comments basis for them. In addition, please by one of the following methods: include sufficient information with your 50 CFR Part 17 • Federal eRulemaking Portal: http:// comments to allow us to authenticate [Docket No. FWS–R9–ES–2010–0089; www.regulations.gov. Search for docket any scientific or commercial data you 4500030115; 1113F116] number FWS–R9–ES–2010–0089 and reference or provide. In particular, we then follow the instructions for seek comments concerning the RIN 1018–AT56 submitting comments. following: • (1) New biological, trade, or other Endangered and Threatened Wildlife U.S. mail or hand-delivery: Public Comments Processing, Attn: FWS–R9– relevant information and data and Plants; Listing Two Distinct concerning any threat (or lack thereof) Population Segments of Broad- ES–2010–0089; Division of Policy and Directives Management; U.S. Fish and to the broad-snouted caiman, Snouted Caiman as Endangered or particularly whether there is Threatened and a Special Rule Wildlife Service; 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, MS 2042–PDM; Arlington, VA 22203. information that indicates the species AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, We will not accept comments by no longer meets the definition of Interior. email or fax. We will post all comments endangered in any part of its range. (2) New information and data on ACTION: Proposed rule. on http://www.regulations.gov. This generally means that we will post any whether or not climate change is a SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and personal information you provide us threat to the broad-snouted caiman, Wildlife Service (Service), propose to (see the Public Comments section below what regional climate change models reclassify the broad-snouted caiman in for more information). are available, and whether they are reliable and credible to use as a step- Argentina from endangered to FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: threatened in the List of Endangered Janine Van Norman, Chief; Branch of down model for assessing the effects of and Threatened Wildlife under the Foreign Species, Endangered Species climate change on the species and its Endangered Species Act of 1973, as Program; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; habitat. (3) The location of any additional amended (ESA or Act). As part of this 4401 North Fairfax Drive, Room 420; proposed rule, we would establish two populations of broad-snouted caiman. Arlington, VA 22203, U.S.A. Individuals (4) New information concerning the distinct population segments (DPSs) of who are hearing-impaired or speech- the broad-snouted caiman (Caiman range, distribution, and population size impaired may call the Federal and population trends of the broad- latirostris): a DPS in Argentina and a Information Relay Service at 800–877– DPS that would encompass Bolivia, snouted caiman in the wild. 8339 for TTY assistance 24 hours a day, (5) New information on the current or Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. This 7 days a week. planned activities within the geographic second DPS would remain listed as SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: range of the broad-snouted caiman that endangered under the Act. We are Public Comments may impact or benefit the species. proposing this action under the Act (6) New information concerning based on the best available data We received eight comments from the captive-breeding operations in indicating that the Argentine population public on the 90-day finding (73 FR Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and of the broad-snouted caiman no longer 33968, published on June 16, 2008). We Uruguay. meets the definition of endangered received comments from foreign (7) New information and data on the under the Act. Intense management of government agencies, the scientific broad-snouted caiman in Argentina, the species in Argentina has brought the community, and the reptile product Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay Argentine DPS to the point where a industry. We received scientific that would enhance our analysis of change in status is appropriate. This literature about this species from whether or not these two populations also serves as our 5-year review. members of the IUCN Crocodile qualify as a DPS under the Act (16 We also propose that the Argentine Specialist Group. This literature U.S.C. 1531 et seq.), and whether or not population of broad-snouted caiman be provided additional information about these populations warrant continued included in the special rule for trade in the distribution, abundance, and protection under the Act. caiman species. Inclusion in this special conservation status of the species. The (8) Information concerning the status rule would allow U.S. commerce in comments and information we received and results of monitoring actions for the skins, other parts, and products of this have been considered and incorporated broad-snouted caiman, including those species originating from Argentina, and into this proposed rule to reclassify the implemented under the Convention on reexport of such specimens originating broad-snouted caiman. International Trade in Endangered in Argentina, if certain conditions are We intend that any final action Species of Wild Fauna and Flora met prior to exportation to the United resulting from this proposed rule is (CITES). States. We are seeking information, data, based on the best scientific and The information available emphasizes and comments from the public on this commercial data available and be as field studies and species management in proposed rule. This proposed rule to accurate and effective as possible. Argentina, with little direct information reclassify the broad-snouted caiman in Therefore, we request comments and on the species in the other range Argentina to threatened under the Act information from government agencies, countries (Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and also constitutes our warranted 12-month the scientific community, industry, and Uruguay). This species is primarily finding (status review) on a petition. other interested parties concerning this being monitored in Argentina, and we DATES: To ensure that we are able to proposed rule. The comments that will were unable to find additional consider your comments on this be most useful and likely to influence information or only able to locate a proposed rule, they must be received or our decisions are those supported by small amount of information regarding postmarked on or before March 5, 2012. scientific data or peer-reviewed studies the broad-snouted caiman in its other We must receive requests for public and those that include citations to, and range countries. We are seeking hearings, in writing, at the address analyses of, applicable laws and information and data on the status of the

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species throughout its range, Endangered Species Program located in Argentina cited reasons for the particularly in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, our Headquarters office (see the FOR reclassification such as the broad- and Uruguay as part of this proposed FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT section). snouted caiman populations in rule. Argentina are healthy, habitat remains Public Availability of Comments Please note that submissions merely plentiful, caiman ranching programs in stating support for or opposition to the Before including your address, phone Argentina have proven successful (wild action under consideration without number, email address, or other populations are increasing), and broad- providing supporting information, personal identifying information in your snouted caiman production and harvest although noted, will not be considered comment, you should be aware that is increasing in Argentina. in making a determination, as section your entire comment—including your The reclassification of the species 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act directs that a personal identifying information—may under the Act would allow for determination as to whether any species be made publicly available at any time. commercial U.S. imports of broad- is an endangered or threatened species While you can ask us in your comment snouted caiman originating from must be made ‘‘solely on the basis of the to withhold your personal identifying Argentina to occur. Because the petition best scientific and commercial data information from public review, we from the Government of Argentina was available.’’ cannot guarantee that we will be able to for reclassification of the Argentine Prior to issuing a final rule on this do so. population only, the Service must first proposed action, we will take into Public Hearing consider whether the population of consideration all comments and any Argentina qualifies as a distinct additional information we receive. Such Section 4(b)(5)(E) of the Act provides vertebrate population segment (DPS) information may lead to a final rule that for one or more public hearings on this under the Act. (See discussion in differs from this proposal. All comments proposed rule, if requested. The main Distinct Population Segment section.). and recommendations, including names purpose of most public hearings is to We then evaluate the entire species to and addresses of commenters, will obtain public testimony or comment. In determine if a change in status under become part of the administrative most cases, it is sufficient to submit the Act is warranted based on any new record. comments through the Federal information since the species was listed You may submit your comments and eRulemaking Portal, described above under the Act. The DPS policy requires materials concerning this proposed rule under ADDRESSES. We must receive FWS to determine whether or not a by one of the methods listed in requests for public hearings in writing at vertebrate population is discrete and ADDRESSES. If you submit a comment via the address shown in FOR FURTHER significant; and the population http://www.regulations.gov, your entire INFORMATION CONTACT by the date shown segment’s conservation status in relation comment—including any personal in DATES. We will schedule public to the Act’s standards for listing, identifying information—will be posted hearings on this proposal, if any are delisting, or reclassification (i.e., is the on the Web site. Please note that requested, and announce the dates, population segment endangered or comments posted to this Web site are times, and places of those hearings, as threatened). If it qualifies, the policy not immediately viewable. When you well as how to obtain reasonable requires a status determination to submit a comment, the system receives accommodations, in the Federal determine if the population is it immediately. However, the comment Register at least 15 days before the first endangered or threatened. will not be publicly viewable until we hearing. On June 16, 2008, the Service post it, which might not occur until Previous Federal Actions published in the Federal Register a 90- several days after submission. day finding (73 FR 33968) on the If you mail or hand-deliver a We listed this species as endangered petition, stating that the petition hardcopy comment that includes on June 14, 1976 (41 FR 24062), in provided substantial information to personal identifying information, you response to a petition we received in indicate that the requested action (to may request at the top of your document 1975 from the Fund for Animals, reclassify the Argentine population of that we withhold this information from requesting that the Service list all the broad-snouted caiman) may be public review. However, we cannot species that were included in Appendix warranted. In that finding, we guarantee that we will be able to do so. I of CITES (See additional discussion in announced that we were initiating a To ensure that the electronic docket for CITES section.) as endangered under the status review of the species as required this rulemaking is complete and all Act. In 2007, we received a petition under section 4(b)(3)(A) of the Act, and comments we receive are publicly from the Government of Argentina, that we were seeking comments on the available, we will post all hardcopy dated November 5, 2007, requesting that petitioned action, as well as information submissions on http:// we reclassify the broad-snouted caiman on the status of the species, particularly www.regulations.gov. in Argentina from endangered to in Argentina. The comment period In addition, comments and materials threatened. The Argentine population of closed on September 15, 2008. During we receive, as well as supporting broad-snouted caiman has been listed the comment period, we received documentation used in preparing this on Appendix II of CITES since 1997. scientific literature about this species proposed rule, will be available for The broad-snouted caiman is still listed from members of the International public inspection in two ways: in Appendix I of CITES in Bolivia, Union for Conservation of Nature (1) You can view them on http:// Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. With (IUCN) Crocodile Specialist Group www.regulations.gov. In the Enter this petition, the Government of (CSG), and researchers in South Keyword or ID box, enter FWS–R9–ES– Argentina requested reclassification of America, particularly in Argentina. This 2010–0089, which is the docket number the species from endangered to literature provided additional for this rulemaking. Then click on the threatened in that country only. The information about the distribution, Search button. petition contained detailed information abundance, and conservation status of (2) You can make an appointment, about the natural history and biology of the species, particularly in Argentina. during normal business hours, to view the broad-snouted caiman including the The comments and new information the comments and materials in person at species’ current status and distribution have been considered and incorporated the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s in Argentina. The Government of into this proposed rule to reclassify the

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Argentine population of the broad- column direct readers to 50 CFR distribution of the population occurs in snouted caiman. 17.42(g); however, the special rule for the Province of Santa Fe. Here, the all of these species is at 50 CFR 17.42(c). species is found primarily in the Background floodplain along the Parana´ River, the Five-Year Review The primary purpose of the Act is to Salado river watershed, and the prevent animal and plant species’ Section 4(c)(2)(A) of the Act requires Saladillos watershed (Larriera 1995, pp. endangerment and extinction. The Act that we conduct a review of listed 221–230). requires the Service to identify species species at least once every 5 years. A 5- This species is primarily found at that meet the Act’s definitions of year review is a periodic process altitudes up to 100 m (328 ft) above sea endangered and threatened species, to conducted to ensure that the level (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 99). The add those species to the Federal Lists of classification of a listed species is broad-snouted caiman exhibits a high Endangered and Threatened Wildlife appropriate. Section 4(c)(2)(B) requires degree of flexibility in its habitat and Plants (50 CFR 17.11 and 17.12, that we determine: (1) Whether a preferences. It is an opportunistic feeder respectively), and to plan and species no longer meets the definition of and prefers shallow, vegetated water. It implement conservation measures to threatened or endangered and should be generally prefers shallow aquatic improve their status to the point at removed from the List (delisted); (2) environments with abundant vegetation. which they no longer need the whether a species more properly meets In some areas, the broad-snouted protections of the Act. When that the definition of threatened and should caiman is sympatric (occurs in protection is no longer needed, we take be reclassified from endangered to overlapping geographical areas) with the steps to remove (delist) the species from threatened; or (3) whether a species yacare caiman (Caiman yacare), but the the Act. If a species is listed as more properly meets the definition of broad-snouted caiman is usually found endangered, we may first reclassify it to endangered and should be reclassified in quieter, more heavily vegetated threatened status as an intermediate from threatened to endangered. It is waters (Medem 1983, Scott et al. 1990). step before its eventual removal from based on the best scientific and C. yacare prefers large rivers with the Federal Lists of Endangered and commercial data available at the time of adjacent marshes (Scott et al. 1990, pp. Threatened Wildlife and Plants; the review. Therefore, we are requesting 43–51). Like many crocodilians, the however, reclassification to threatened submission of any such information that broad-snouted caiman can be found in status is not required prior to removal. has become available since the original temporary bodies of water and Section 3 of the Act provides the listing of this species. This serves as our manmade habitats, such as isolated following definitions that are relevant to 5-year review of this species. cattle or agricultural stock ponds, this rule: Endangered species means any Species Description livestock watering holes, and drainage species which is in danger of extinction ditches or areas of runoff water. It can throughout all or a significant portion of The broad-snouted caiman is a be found in flooded forested areas in its range; Threatened species means any medium-sized crocodilian with a body years of intense rains usually within species which is likely to become an length usually no more than 2 meters 2,000 m (6,562 ft) from bodies of water endangered species within the (m) (6.6 feet (ft)), and has the (Larriera et al. 2008, p. 151). foreseeable future throughout all or a proportionally broadest snout of any The reproductive cycle of this species significant portion of its range. Species crocodile (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 18). It is seasonal. Mating occurs in the spring includes any subspecies of fish or is found generally in lagoons, rivers, (October through December), when wildlife or plants, and any DPS of any creeks, marshes, ponds, and mangroves polygynous males (males who breed species of vertebrate fish or wildlife in river systems of northeast Argentina, with more than one female) establish which interbreeds when mature. southeast Bolivia, Paraguay, and territories. When laying eggs, this When an endangered species (or DPS) northern Uruguay (Borteiro et al. 2006, species constructs a mound out of has recovered to the point where it is no p. 97; Verdade et al. 2010, p. 18). vegetation, and it deposits its eggs in the longer currently in danger of extinction According to Imhof (unpublished center of the mound. This process is throughout all or a significant portion of 2006), approximately 60 percent of the called ‘‘mound-nesting.’’ Another its range, but is likely to become so in species’ range is in Brazil, 30 percent is characteristic of this species is that it the foreseeable future, it is appropriate in Argentina, seven percent is in exhibits communal nesting (several to reclassify that species (or DPS) to Paraguay, and three percent is in females laying eggs in the same nest). threatened. The broad-snouted caiman Bolivia. The percentage of its range in Partially divided nest chambers, each was listed as endangered in 1976. Uruguay is unknown. Broad-snouted with normal clutch sizes, and nests with However, recent information indicates caiman populations are on the Atlantic unusually large clutches (129 eggs) have that the Argentine population has coast, connected through the Parana´ and been observed in this species which is increased since the time of the original Sa˜o Francisco River systems of indicative of communal nesting listing. northeast Argentina, southeast Bolivia, (Larriera 2002). Clutch sizes range Paraguay, and northeast Uruguay. The between 18 to 50 eggs, with females Technical Corrections Sa˜o Francisco River is 2,914 km (1,811 typically laying between 30 and 40 eggs This proposed rule would correct mi) in length. (Micucci and Waller 1995). Egg laying errors in 50 CFR 17.11 as follows: The The broad-snouted caiman exhibits occurs during the wet summer season, table at 50 CFR 17.11(h) does not greater climatic tolerance than other which occurs from December through currently list Bolivia in the historic caiman species (Verdade and Pin˜ a February (Verdade 1998, pp. 18–19). range of the broad-snouted caiman. This 2006). The southernmost limit of the Young hatch at the end of fall and early proposed rule corrects the ‘‘Historic distribution of the broad-snouted winter (February–April) (Micucci and Range’’ entry to include Bolivia. In caiman is northern Argentina (Jenkins et Waller 1995, p. 81). addition, we propose to correct errors in al. 2006), where it is found in the This species is an opportunistic the entries for three other caiman provinces of Chaco, Corrientes, Entre feeder. The young feed on insects and species: brown caiman, common Rı´os, Formosa, Jujuy, Misiones, Salta, small arthropods. As hatchlings grow, caiman, and yacare caiman. The entries Santa Fe, and Santiago del Estero. In their diet becomes primarily aquatic for these species in the ‘‘Special Rules’’ Argentina, 80 percent of the Argentine mollusks and crustaceans, and then

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adults primarily feed on fish (Micucci incentives for landowners and by between 250,000 and 500,000 and Waller 1995, pp. 81–112). increasing public awareness in the local individuals (http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/ communities to encourage the increase cnhc/csp_clat.htm, accessed January 18, CITES of caiman populations. Another 2011). The broad-snouted caiman was listed objective was to conserve natural It is difficult to accurately obtain in Appendix I of CITES on July 1, 1975. wetlands on which caimans depend population numbers for crocodiles due CITES Appendix I includes species that (Larriera et al. 2008a, pp. 143–145). As to variables such as water temperature, are ‘‘threatened with extinction which of 2008, four ranching programs were the nature of their behavior of are or may be affected by trade.’’ Species operating in Argentina (Larriera et al. disappearing underwater in response to listed under Appendix I may not be 2008), producing a total of certain types of disturbance, their traded for primarily commercial approximately 12,000 skins per year respective visibility based on water purposes. These protections were put in (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 19). As of 2010, depths, and their ability to migrate place because the species had suffered there were seven ranching programs based on drought or flooding substantial population declines registered with the government of (Magnusson 1980, pp. 393–394; Bayliss throughout its range due to habitat Argentina. These programs also 1987, p. 158; Graham 1988, p. 74; destruction and overexploitation reintroduce captive-raised individuals Pacheco 1996, p. 44). An early journal through the commercial crocodilian to the wild. Three of the programs article described ‘‘night counts’’ as a skin trade. function on an educational basis, with mechanism for surveying American The Argentine population was no commercial production. These alligators, which live in habitat similar transferred to Appendix II (which educational ranching operations are in to that of broad-snouted caiman (Wood allows for commercial trade) in 1997. Entre Rı´os, Chaco, and Corrientes et al. 1986, p. 263) and exhibit similar CITES Appendix II includes species that Provinces. Two of the commercial characteristics. This paper indicated are less vulnerable to extinction and ranching programs are in Formosa; the that ‘‘the accuracy of night count that ‘‘although not necessarily now other two are in Corrientes and Santa Fe indices is only 20–25 percent of true threatened with extinction may become Provinces. In 2010, there were 7,768 population means’’ and referred to so unless trade in specimens of such hatchlings produced in Argentina previous research conducted by Taylor species is subject to strict regulation in (Larriera 2010b, p. 1). and Neal (1984, pp. 316–317). Night order to avoid utilization incompatible count surveys use spotlights to detect with their survival.’’ Management Conservation Status caiman eyes. Although night counts are activities in Argentina were reviewed by The broad-snouted caiman is not entirely precise, they are very often the CITES Parties prior to transferring currently listed as endangered used as a method of surveying crocodile this population from Appendix I to throughout its range under the ESA and species. Appendix II. The review included received protections under the ESA on As an example of the difficulty in assessments of population status, June 14, 1976 (41 FR 24062). With accurately obtaining population determination of sustainable harvest respect to CITES, this species was numbers for crocodiles, a review of quotas (and approval of ranching placed in Appendix I of CITES due to crocodile ranching programs conducted programs), and the control of the illegal severe exploitation for international for CITES by the IUCN Crocodile harvest. Management regulations trade and habitat destruction. Because Specialist Group (CSG) in 2004 found imposed after harvest included the the Argentine broad-snouted caiman that only three Parties (one of which tagging of skins and issuance of permits population was moved to Appendix II of was Argentina) to CITES attempted to to satisfy the requirements for CITES in 1997, commercial estimate what proportion of the total Appendix-II species. For a more in- international trade is allowed, subject to wild production was being harvested depth discussion on CITES, please see several restrictions, for specimens, under their ranching programs (Jenkins the International Trade and Regulation parts, and products originating in et al. 2006, p. 35). These estimates were under CITES section under Factor B. Argentina. The broad-snouted caiman is based on production estimates which Overutilization for Commercial, presently listed as endangered in its have wide variances and largely Recreational, Scientific, or Educational entirety under the Act (41 FR 24062; unknown accuracy. However, this Purposes. June 14, 1976), and importation into the report indicated that the easiest data to United States of endangered species is obtain and report to track population Trade prohibited under the Act with certain trends are those linked to the operation Beginning in the 1940s, the broad- exceptions. IUCN classifies this species of the ranching programs (the method snouted caiman was hunted as ‘‘least concern’’ (http:// used by Argentina), data such as commercially for its leather, which is www.iucnredlist.org, accessed numbers of eggs collected from the wild. considered to be higher quality than that November 8, 2010). However, IUCN The eggs in Argentina’s program are of other caiman species (Verdade et al. rankings do not confer any actual collected from known nest locations in 2010, p. 19). Prior to being protected by protection or management. the wild and are an indication of caiman CITES, thousands of broad-snouted density. This is why we use the caiman skins were exported from its Status in Range Countries and information reported from Argentina’s range countries, which led to the listing Population Estimates egg harvest as the best available of the species in Appendix I of CITES In part because broad-snouted caiman information of population trend. The in 1975 (Verdade 1998, pp. 18–19, habitat tends to be heavily vegetated IUCN–CSG report also indicated that Larriera 2003, unpaginated). In 1990, and is difficult to access for humans, results probably indicate deficiencies in ‘‘Projecto Yacare´’’ (‘‘Caiman Project’’) actual numbers of the species have been reporting rather than any declines of was implemented in Argentina based on difficult to document; some researchers conservation significance in wild a concept of conservation through believe that the size of the population populations. The CSG recommended sustainable use of broad-snouted has historically been underestimated field data to verify this assertion, some caiman. The objective of the program (Larriera and Imhof 2000, pp. 311–313). of which has been collected over the was to improve the status of the The imprecision is reflected in the past few years. However, recent surveys population in two ways: by creating global wild population estimate of (Siroski 2004, 2006; Micucci et al. 2007;

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Pin˜ a et al. 2008) have found broad- densities of broad-snouted caiman The map below illustrates the snouted caiman in sampled populations ranged between 5 and 238 caiman per distribution of the species. Below is the at densities comparable to the non- kilometer (km), and almost 70 sites were best available information regarding the threatened American alligator (Wood et surveyed. status of the species in each country. al. 1985, p. 271). In Argentina, recent

Argentina increased to between 20 and 120 caiman lagoons, still and slow-moving waters in per km in 2009; up from 2 to 8 caiman rivers and channels, artificial ponds, In Argentina, the broad-snouted and on small hills in wetlands (Larriera caiman is found in nine provinces per km in 1990 when Argentina’s 1995, pp. 221–230). Nests have also (Formosa, Santa Fe, Misiones, management program of broad-snouted been found in mature chaco forests of Corrientes, Entre Rios, Chaco, Santiago caiman first began (Siroski and Larriera open or closed canopy as far as 300– del Estero, Salta, and Jujuy). According 2010, pers. comm.). These densities are to Imhof (unpublished 2006), within the normal range for crocodile 2,000 m (984–6,562 ft) from water approximately 30 percent of the species’ species. In Argentina, this species has (Larriera 1995, pp. 221–230; Larriera et range is in Argentina. Argentina has been observed in a variety of habitats al. 2008, p. 151). large areas of intact, although altered and waterways, including rivers near Since management and monitoring of habitat with healthy populations waterfalls such as Iguazu´ , and the Argentine population began, (Verdade 1998, pp. 18–19; Pin˜ a et al. freshwater creeks with rocky bottoms population estimates for Argentina have 2009). For example, broad-snouted (Micucci and Waller 1995, pp. 81–110). indicated an upward trend. This has caiman is thought to inhabit 2,400 of In the Province of Santa Fe, the species been achieved through an organized 2,700 water bodies (Pin˜ a et al, 2008, p. is found primarily in the floodplain ranching program and reintroduction of 4) in the Salta Province in Argentina. along the Parana´ River, the Salado river hatchlings into the wild (See Factors B Surveys conducted in 2007 and 2008 watershed, and the Saladillos watershed and D discussion below). Through this indicated that broad-snouted caiman (Larriera 1995). Its nesting areas reflect program, a significant increase in egg habitat in Salta Province is about 3,650 the adaptability of this species to a collection and harvest has occurred in km2 (1,409 mi2). These surveys found variety of habitats. Nests have been the wild; over 30,000 hatchlings from broad-snouted caiman densities had found along dikes or levees, shallow eggs collected have been released into

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the wild since the program began. 2000, and over 4 caiman per kilometer conditions but readily respond to wetter Surveys conducted between 1991 and in 2006 and 2007 (Larriera 2008c, p. 2). conditions. Overall, egg harvest 1992 indicated an average density of This decrease in density during 2006– increased 750 percent between 1992 and 12.2 individuals per km. Later surveys 2007 was attributed to drought (Larriera 2007 (Larriera 2008c, p. 2). This conducted during the 1999–2000 season 2008c, p. 3); however, natural increase in egg production was indicated that in the Ibera´ Reserve, fluctuations such as this often occur in attributed in part to caiman being Corrientes Province, the density had wild populations (Woodward 2010, p. released through this program and increased to 32.4 individuals per km 2). Caiman populations, like most other reaching sexual maturity (Larriera (Waller 2003 in Pin˜ a et al. 2010, p. 4). crocodilian populations, can be 2008c, p. 3). Additional surveys Night counts found an increase of less adversely affected by droughts. Most revealed densities found within its than 1 caiman per km when the program crocodilians and prey species suffer range recorded in Table 1. began, to almost 10 caiman per km in short term declines during these

TABLE 1—DENSITIES OF BROAD-SNOUTED CAIMAN OBSERVED DURING POPULATION COUNTS

Number of Country/province Years localities Range of caiman densities Source

Argentina/Formosa ...... 2007–2008 11 22 to 238 per km ...... Pin˜a et al. (2008). Argentina/Corrientes ...... 2007–2008 10 5 to 125 per km ...... Pin˜a et al. (2008). Argentina/Salta ...... 2007–2008 39 3 to 5 caiman per lagoon ...... Pin˜a et al. (2008). Argentina/Sante Fe ...... 2007–2008 * * 4 per km * ...... Larriera et al. (2008). Argentina/Santa Fe ...... 2002 7 6 to 200 per km ...... Larriera and Imhoff (2004). Bolivia/Pilcomayo River Basin, Tarija .. 1998 6 3 to 58 per km ...... Llobet-Querejazu (1998). Bolivia/Tarija Department ...... 2004–2005 54 6.17 per km ...... Aparicio and Rios (2008). Uruguay ...... 2001–2004 36 3.5 per km ...... Borteiro et al. (2008). Brazil/Sa˜o Francisco River Basin ...... 2006–2007 64 Presence in 44 percent of areas sur- Filogonio et al. (2009). veyed. * Recent caiman counts suggest that populations declined somewhat during 2002–2003 and 2007–2008 (Micucci et al. 2007; Larriera et al. 2008). This has been attributed to cyclic drought conditions during the early 2000s (Micucci et al. 2007; Larriera et al. 2008). * * Not available.

Bolivia During a survey conducted in 2003 suggesting an increasing trend in the The population of broad-snouted and 2004, 6.2 individuals per km were Bolivian population, populations of caiman in Bolivia is at the far western observed (Aparicio and Rios 2008, p. broad-snouted caiman are still edge of the species’ range. According to 104). The survey was conducted in 54 considered to be severely depleted in Imhof (unpublished 2006), water bodies; 42 of which are part of the Bolivia (Aparicio and Rı´os 2008, p. 104; approximately three percent of the Pilcomayo River sub-basin, 12 water Verdade et al. 2010, p. 19). species’ range is in Bolivia. In 1983, bodies were in the sub-basin of the Brazil broad-snouted caiman was found in the Bermejo River (Aparicio and Rios 2008, Pando Department (departments in p. 110). The highest abundance values Brazil has the largest range for this South America are comparable to state were recorded in ‘‘atajados’’ (dikes) and species; approximately 60 percent of the jurisdictions in the United States) of artificial ponds. Broad-snouted caiman species’ range is in Brazil (Imhof Bolivia, which is at the northwestern tip here exhibit preferences for inhabiting unpublished 2006). In 2003, Brazil of Bolivia (Medem 1983). In 1989, shallow temporary water bodies that established a nationwide research and broad-snouted caiman was only found have abundant vegetation cover. The development program, called in the Pilcomayo River area, a tributary population of broad-snouted caiman for Programme for Biology, Conservation of the Paraguay River (King and Videz- this area was calculated on the basis of and Management of Brazilian Roca 1989). The Paraguay River, also 135 individuals. In 1998, an abundance Crocodilians (Coutinho and Luz 2008 in known as Rio Paraguay, is 2,621 km of 3.3 individuals per km was reported Velasco et al. 2008 p. 80). The broad- (1,629 miles (mi)) in length and runs (Pacheco and Llobet 1998). The 1998 snouted caiman was listed as an through Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and data indicated that the population was endangered species in Brazil until 2003, Argentina, joining the broad-snouted dominated by young individuals at which time the species was caiman populations in these countries. (Aparicio and Rios 2008, p. 110). A high withdrawn from the Brazilian List of Surveys in the late 1990s considered the level of young may indicate that the Endangered Fauna (The Brazilian Bolivian population of this species to be population is growing. Although Institute of Environment and Renewable severely depleted (Verdade 1998, pp. different survey methods and timing Natural Resources [IBAMA] 2003). In 18–19). Anecdotal reports indicate that were employed in the 1998 and 2003– 2006, it was reported that in southeast the abundance of broad-snouted caiman 2004 surveys, the population estimates Brazil there were four farms involved in in the Pilcomayo River region may have suggest an increase in density of almost breeding this species. There were a total increased over the past 10 years, but in 3 individuals per km from 1998 to of 354 caiman in the farms, and in 2006, the Bermejo River region, populations 2003–2004. A further observation of the 719 hatchlings had been produced (CSG may have declined (Aparicio and Rı´os survey found that broad-snouted caiman Steering Committee Meeting 2006, p. 6). 2008, pp. 111, 122). It is unclear exist in areas previously unknown to be We have no other information about the whether the population change is public inhabited. It is found in the Gran Chaco, status of this program. perception or whether the perception Arce, and O’Connor Provinces (sub- Although there is still a lack of represents an actual change in broad- basins Pilcomayo and Bermejo) in the population data and monitoring, the snouted caiman population numbers Tarija Department, which is in the south surveys conducted indicate that broad- within Bolivia. of Bolivia. Despite information snouted caiman is present (confirmed in

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44 percent of 64 areas surveyed) management of Brazilian crocodilians, and Brazilian populations through the throughout the Sa˜o Francisco River data are lacking for this species. Uruguay River basin (Borteiro et al. basin, its primary habitat. A 2006–2007 2006, p. 103). Paraguay survey conducted in the Sa˜o Francisco Previous local reports about the River basin found the occurrence of No recent survey data are available for population status of broad-snouted crocodilians in 61 percent of 64 Paraguay, however, according to Imhof caiman in Uruguay published since the surveyed localities, in which the (unpublished 2006); approximately mid 1950s suggested that this species presence of broad-snouted caiman was seven percent of the species’ range is in was subject to extinction due to habitat confirmed in 44 percent of the surveyed Paraguay. The latest data available destruction and poaching (Vaz-Ferreira sites. This was a survey conducted indicate that the population of broad- 1956; Orejas-Miranda 1969; Talice 1971; primarily to detect presence and snouted caiman is naturally low and Vaz-Ferreira 1971; Achaval 1977); absence, rather than an estimate of the scattered throughout eastern Paraguay however, no discussion of survey data population (Filogonio et al. 2009, p. and the southern half of the Chaco and methods was made to support these 961). Caiman occurred in both lentic region, western Paraguay, possibly conclusions (Borteiro et al. 2008, p. (still water) and lotic (moving water) because other potential habitat in 247). During surveys conducted habitats, although caiman preferred western Paraguay is ephemeral between 1981 and 2003, the species was water bodies consisting of small dams, (seasonal, not permanent) (Scott et al. found in both the Cebollatı´ and Tacuarı´ 1990, pp. 43–49). The Paraguayan oxbow lakes, and wetlands. Despite the Rivers, as well as in the Pelotas, India population is found in seasonal marshes hunting pressure and human impact on Muerta, and San Miguel stream basins and livestock ponds, and has colonized natural habitats, results indicated that (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 97). In the manmade water bodies (Scott et al. the populations of broad-snouted Department of Artigas (northern tip of 1990). There is no known conservation caiman in the Sa˜o Francisco basin are Uruguay), broad-snouted caiman was program for broad-snouted caiman in found to be present in 29 out of 36 broadly distributed and not fragmented Paraguay. (Filogonio et al. 2009, p. 961). surveyed areas (Borteiro et al. 2008, pp. Uruguay 246). The area studied consisted of No other recent survey data are approximately 400 km2 (154 mi2) of known in Brazil other than in the The broad-snouted caiman is the only fluvial plains in the Uruguay River northwest portion of Santa Catarina caiman species found in Uruguay basin, in Artigas Department, Island, in the Ratones River plain. In (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 98); the northwestern Uruguay. The caiman this area surveyed, a density of 0.25 percentage of this species’ range in observed were predominantly sub- caiman per km was encountered (Fusco- Uruguay is unknown (Imhof adults. A total of 462 individuals were Costa et al. 2008, p. 185). Based on their unpublished 2006). There were little located during these surveys, and the size, these caiman were generally data available regarding this species’ density was determined to be 3.5 considered to be adults. The purpose of population numbers until recently. New individuals per km. study was to primarily confirm the information available to the Service presence of this species in this location. updates the density estimates of broad- Although comparisons with these snouted caiman in Uruguay. The previous surveys are difficult based on Preliminary data indicate that this population of broad-snouted caiman in unknown methodologies used in the species is more widespread and Uruguay is more widespread and past, the 2008 data, along with the prevalent in Brazil than previously appears larger than previously believed population age structure of caiman, believed. The main concern for this (Borteiro et al. 2006, pp. 97–108; suggests that the population may be species in Brazil appears to be dams that Borteiro et al. 2008, pp. 244–250), but it increasing (Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 248). have been constructed for hydroelectric is unclear whether population growth The researcher noted that the observed stations that block water flow to has occurred or whether earlier surveys caiman were predominantly subadults wetlands. Both drainage of land for were inaccurate. In the past, it was and, thus, had the potential to recruit agriculture and river pollution have also suggested that a decline in population into adult size classes (as opposed to reduced the availability of broad- had occurred in Uruguay, but no strong very young hatchlings which have a snouted caiman habitat in Brazil basis for this existed (Verdade 1998, p. significantly higher mortality rate). This (Verdade 1998, pp. 18–19). Hunting 20). Recent observations and field observation may be due to an increase pressure is another factor that affects surveys indicate that broad-snouted in agricultural and livestock activities broad-snouted caiman in Brazil. It is caiman is fairly common in northern that inadvertently had a positive effect hunted for several reasons: Because Uruguay, and is also widely distributed on broad-snouted caiman. These caiman feed on the fish attached to in central and western Uruguay previous reports about the population fishing nets; because caiman destroy (Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 248). This status of broad-snouted caiman in fishing nets; and because caiman are a species is adaptable to a wide range of Uruguay may have been due to source of food. Although Brazil has water sources and habitats (Borteiro et inadequate surveys or survey established a research and development al. 2006, p. 102, Borteiro et al. 2008, p. methodology, or the population may program for the conservation and 244) and is connected to the Argentina have grown.

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In 2008, the number of caiman located species into the wild. The goal of this other endangered or threatened species in each area surveyed ranged between Government-sanctioned farm was to or subspecies. The term ‘‘distinct one and 31. The average abundance was produce skins and meat commercially. population segment’’ is part of the between 1.3 and 3.4 per km (Borteiro et In 2008, there were 20 adult caiman in statutory definition of a ‘‘species’’ and is al. 2008, p. 246). Research conducted the farm, yet they had reintroduced 100 significant for listing, delisting, and recently regarding the population age caiman back into the wild (Velasco et al. reclassification purposes under section structure of caiman in Uruguay 2008, p. 82). The Service knows of no 4 of the Act. indicates that the population is additional information regarding this increasing (Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 248). private farm. To interpret and implement the DPS provisions of the ESA and This may be due to an increase in In summary, the population of broad- agricultural impoundments that have snouted caiman in Uruguay appears to Congressional guidance, the Service and been constructed in the past few be larger than previously believed, but the National Marine Fisheries Service decades which have unintentionally differences in survey methodologies jointly published the DPS Policy (see created suitable habitat for caiman. Each used make it difficult to assess the Policy regarding the recognition of department in which broad-snouted population trends. The percentage of the distinct vertebrate population segments caiman has recently been documented broad-snouted caiman population that under the Act (61 FR 4722; February 7, and the most recent date observed is exists in Uruguay has still not been 1996). Congress included the DPS below (Borteiro et al. 2008, pp. 244– estimated. concept in the ESA, recognizing that a 250). listing, reclassification, or delisting Distinct Population Segment Analysis Dept. of Artigas (Northern Uruguay; action may, in some circumstances, be caiman commonly found) As indicated previously in this more appropriately applied over • Yacuy stream (2002) document, the Government of Argentina something less than the entire area in • Mandiyu stream (2003) requested that we review the status of which a species or subspecies is found Dept. of Cerro Largo (eastern Uruguay) the species in Argentina in order to or was known to occur in order to • Fraile Muerto stream (2005) determine whether or not the species protect and recover organisms in a more Dept. of Lavelleja warrants reclassification to threatened timely and cost-effective manner. A DPS • Jose´ Pedro Varela (2003) status under the Act. Section 3(16) of is a listable entity that is usually Dept. of Paysandu´ (1997) the Act defines ‘‘species’’ to include described geographically rather than Dept. of Rocha ‘‘any species or subspecies of fish and • biologically. By using international San Luis (2001) wildlife or plants, and any distinct boundaries, we are able to clearly • San Miguel River stream (2003) population segment (DPS) of any identify the geographic extent of the Dept. of Rivera (1992) species of vertebrate fish or wildlife DPS listing and thereby facilitate law Dept. of Tacuarembo´ which interbreeds when mature’’ (16 enforcement and promote public • Paso Bonilla (2003) U.S.C. 1532(16)). In evaluating whether Dept. of Salto (Northwestern Uruguay, the action petitioned by Argentina is understanding of the listing. Under this no current reports; historical warranted, we first must analyze Policy, we evaluate a set of elements in accounts only, whether this population constitutes a a three–step process in order to make Borteiro et al. 2006, pp. 98–100) ‘‘species’’ as defined under the Act. our decision concerning the Dept. of Treinta y Tres Thus, we begin our analysis with a establishment and classification of a • Merin Lake; Tacuari River (2002) determination of whether the possible DPS. These elements are • Paso del Dragon (2002) population in Argentina represents a applied similarly for both additions to, • Kiosco Tacuari (2003) DPS. A DPS is a listable entity under the reclassifications under, and removals Additionally, in Uruguay, a private Act, and is treated the same as a listed from the Federal Lists of Endangered farm began in 2002 that involved species or subspecies. It is listed, and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. reproduction and reintroduction of this protected, and recovered just as any These elements include:

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(1) The discreteness of a population in A population segment needs to satisfy above under Distinct Population relation to the remainder of the taxon to only one of these conditions to be Segment Analysis. Recognition of which it belongs; considered significant. Evidence with international boundaries when they (2) The significance of the population respect to any one of these scenarios coincide with differences in the segment to the taxon to which it may allow the Service to conclude that management, status, or exploitation of belongs; and a population segment can be significant the species under the Act is consistent (3) The population segment’s to the taxon to which it belongs. with CITES, which recognizes conservation status in relation to the Furthermore, the Service may consider international boundaries for these same Act’s standards for listing (addition to other information relevant to the reasons. the list), delisting (removal from the question of significance, as appropriate. Lastly, if we determine that the Physical, Physiological, Ecological, or list), or reclassification (i.e., is the Behavioral Factors population segment endangered or population is both discrete and threatened). significant, then the DPS Policy requires There are no studies or information The Policy first requires the Service to an analysis of the population segment’s that indicate there are physical, determine that a vertebrate population conservation status in relation to the physiological, ecological, or behavioral is discrete in relation to the remainder Act’s standards for listing (addition to characteristics that would contribute to of the taxon to which it belongs. the list), delisting (removal from the separateness between the Argentine Discreteness refers to the ability to list), or reclassification (i.e., is the population and the population in delineate a population segment from population segment endangered or Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. The Paraguay River joins the broad- other members of a taxon based on threatened). A detailed discussion is snouted caiman populations in either (1) Physical, physiological, then presented for the five listing factors Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay. ecological, or behavioral factors for each DPS as required by the Act. We The Uruguay population of the broad- (quantitative measures of genetic or analyze these factors in response to the snouted caiman is connected to the morphological discontinuity may current status of the species, which Argentine and Brazilian populations provide evidence of this separation), or encompasses present and future threats through the Uruguay River basin (2) international governmental and conservation efforts. The broad-snouted caiman has a (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 103). Broad- boundaries that result in significant continuous range from Argentina to snouted caiman populations are also differences in control of exploitation, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay (see connected through the Parana´ and Sa˜o management, or habitat conservation Figure 1). We evaluated the status of Francisco River systems of northeast status, or regulatory mechanisms that this species to determine if two distinct Argentina, southeast Bolivia, Paraguay, are significant in light of section population segments exist (one in and northeast Uruguay. This is a wide- 4(a)(1)(D) of the Act—the inadequacy of Argentina, and the other in Bolivia, ranging species that occurs primarily in existing regulatory mechanisms. Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay) under freshwater environments such as lakes, Second, if we determine that the this Policy because its range spans swamps, and slow-moving rivers. population is discrete under one or several countries and its conservation Because it is connected via the major more of the discreteness conditions, status varies by country. We evaluated river systems that flow through the then a determination is made as to the species in this manner specifically species’ range and we have found no whether the population is significant to for two reasons. First, the Government information indicating separateness the larger taxon to which it belongs in of Argentina petitioned us to reclassify between the Argentine population and light of Congressional guidance (see the species in Argentina to threatened, the population occurring in the Senate Report 151, 96th Congress, 1st and second, in Argentina, this species is remainder of the species’ range due to Session) that the authority to list DPS’s listed in Appendix II of CITES, and in physical, physiological, ecological, or be used ‘‘sparingly and only when the the rest of its range: Bolivia, Brazil, behavioral factors,, we did not find biological evidence indicates that such Paraguay, and Uruguay, it is listed in either population segment is discrete action is warranted.’’ In carrying out Appendix I of CITES. The significance based on this factor. this examination, we consider available of this distinction is that these two Moreover, we are not aware of any scientific evidence of the population’s populations may be subject to different quantitative data of genetic or importance to the taxon to which it management regimes and may have morphological discontinuity to indicate belongs. This consideration may different conservation statuses. Thus, separateness between the two include, but is not limited to the we considered whether these two populations. Because of their following: populations meet the discreteness and interactions through interconnected (1) The persistence of the population significance criteria under our DPS river systems and a current range that segment in an ecological setting that is policy, and then whether these two mirrors their historical range, we find unique or unusual for the taxon; potential DPSs of the broad-snouted that the two populations overlap, (2) Evidence that loss of the caiman still meet the definition of allowing for genetic intermixing. population segment would result in a endangered, should be reclassified to Therefore, these two population significant gap in the range of the taxon; threatened, or whether either segments cannot be delineated based on (3) Evidence that the population population segment has recovered and physical, physiological, ecological, or segment represents the only surviving is no longer either endangered or behavioral factors. natural occurrence of a taxon that may threatened. be more abundant elsewhere as an International Differences in Species’ introduced population outside of its Discreteness Conservation Status historic range; and In the first step in our DPS analysis, Under our DPS policy, consideration (4) Evidence that the discrete we determine whether there are any may be given to utilizing international population segment differs markedly populations that are discrete in relation boundaries in establishing discreteness from other populations of the species in to the remainder of the taxon to which when differences in management, its genetic characteristics from other it belongs. A DPS may be considered conservation status, or control of populations of the species. discrete if it meets the criteria described exploitation of the species exist between

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these population segments as a Argentina’s caiman egg harvesting status of this species under CITES to the consequence of national legislation. program began creating incentives for less restrictive Appendix II listing Thus, we analyze below whether any of locals to protect and conserve habitat for (www.cites.org, accessed July 7, 2011). these differences exist that are the broad-snouted caiman (see Factor Although this international trade significant in light of section 4(a)(1)(D) D). restriction is in place for range countries of the Act. This species is also protected through other than Argentina, we remain legislation (Law 22.421 and Decree 691/ concerned about habitat loss, the status Argentina 81), administered by the Direccio´n and management of wild populations in Two clear differences in the Nacional de Fauna y Flora Silvestres. those countries. exploitation, management, habitat The Government of Argentina is In the remainder of this species’ range conservation status, or regulatory adequately enforcing its legal (Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and mechanisms of this species exist frameworks, both at the national and Uruguay), these governments either between Argentina and the remainder of international levels. The best available have not demonstrated an ability to its range. This species is intensely information strongly suggests that the adequately enforce their legal managed in Argentina, and due to its caiman population in Argentina is framework, or there is no population improved status in the wild, is listed in increasing, while the population trend trend or monitoring data about the Appendix II of CITES. In contrast, this in the other range countries is unclear species to indicate the status of the species is not intensively managed in (Verdade et al. 2010, pp. 18–19). The species in these countries is improving. the remainder of its range, and it species has significantly increased in We found little to no information about continues to be listed in Appendix I density since the caiman ranching the status of the species in these under CITES due to its unimproved program began in 1990, and its range countries. This was supported by the status in the range countries outside of has expanded into areas where it had most recent report on the status of the Argentina. The primary reason this not been seen prior to 1990. In the Santa species prepared by the IUCN’s species was protected by the ESA and Fe Province, for example, the number of Crocodile Specialist Group (Verdade et CITES was because of the decrease in nests identified increased from 14 in al. 2010, pp. 18–19). The best available population numbers due to 1990 to 304 nests in 2002 (Jenkins et al. information indicates that this species overutilization (see discussion under 2004, p. 27). The monitoring reports in these countries is still subject to Factor B in the Evaluation of Factors indicate that Argentina’s management of unmitigated pressures such as Affecting the Species section below). the species is resulting in an upward destruction of habitat due to human Argentina’s management regime has trend in this species’ population. encroachment, construction of dams, resulted in an increase in this species’ Argentina submits reports in accordance and conversion of habitat to agriculture, population such that harvest for with CITES and is an active participant and, in some cases, illegal hunting. international trade may be conducted in the IUCN’s Crocodile Specialist Conservation actions for this species sustainably under proper management. Group, particularly for this species. The may not be a priority in these other Although all of this species’ range management of this species has led to range countries, and these countries countries have national protected- significant improvement in the status of may be facing economic issues, high species and protected-areas legislation the species in Argentina, which has levels of poverty, hunting pressure, and under the jurisdiction of specific been demonstrated through monitoring conversion of caiman habitat to other ministries or departments that control and reporting (Jenkins et al. 2004, pp. uses. The lack of funding and personnel activities that impact the broad-snouted 25–28; Verdade et al. 2010, pp. 18–20). often makes enforcement of their legal caiman and its habitat, Argentina’s Due to Argentina’s management, the frameworks challenging. As a result of national legal framework is particularly population of broad-snouted caiman is differences in exploitation, robust (See Factor D). In 1990, now widespread and abundant management, habitat conservation Argentina began a joint government- throughout its range in Argentina. It is status, or regulatory mechanisms, the private initiative to recover this species relatively common in suitable habitat in broad-snouted caiman in Bolivia, Brazil, in the Santa Fe Province (Jenkins et al. the provinces of Formosa, Santa Fe, Paraguay, and Uruguay remains in 2004, pp. 25–28; Verdade 2010, pp. 18– Corrientes, and Salta. While some CITES Appendix I. Based on these 20). This program was ratified by habitat loss and degradation remain in differences in the control and Provincial Law 4830, Articles 22 and 37 Argentina, these threats have been management of habitat and exploitation (CITES CoP 10, Proposal 10.1) and reduced, as explained in our five-factor as delineated by international subsequently expanded in scope. Now analysis below. boundaries, we consider the population there are seven government-approved in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay broad-snouted ranching programs Uruguay to be a separate discrete within four provinces. This initiative Within each of these countries, not population. began in order to increase this species’ only is there a wide variability in the population size and to be able to sustain amount of information available about Conclusion on Discreteness commercial harvest. In the proposal to the species, but also about the level of We have determined, based on the transfer this species from CITES management and monitoring of the best available information, that the Appendix I to Appendix II, the proposal species (Borteiro et al. 2006; Larriera et population of broad-snouted caiman in noted that although the primary threat al. 2008, p. 152; Verdade et al. 2010, p. Argentina is discrete from the was initially overutilization, the more 20). This species is listed in Appendix population in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, recent and significant threat was habitat I of CITES in these range countries, and Uruguay due to the significant loss (CITES Cop 10, Proposal 10.1). The which means that international trade difference in the control of exploitation, proposal indicated that a method to originating from these countries of management of habitat, conservation reduce the threat of habitat loss is to put broad-snouted caiman including its status, and regulatory mechanisms an economic value on the species’ parts and products, for primarily between international boundaries. We habitat, so that the local communities commercial purposes is prohibited. To conclude that these two populations (1) and farmers would not drain the land our knowledge, none of these countries the population in Argentina and (2), the (degrade the species’ habitat). Thus, have submitted proposals to change the population in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay,

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and Uruguay, of the broad-snouted population of the broad-snouted caiman represents a significant resource caiman meet the requirements of our occurs in habitat that includes unique warranting conservation under the Act DPS Policy for discreteness. features not used by the taxon elsewhere (61 FR 4724). The Ninth Circuit Court in its range. Therefore, we conclude that stated ‘‘[t]he plain language of the Significance neither the discrete population of broad- second significance factor does not limit If a distinct population segment is snouted caiman in Argentina nor the how a gap could be important,’’ considered discrete under one or more discrete population in Bolivia, Brazil, National Association of Home Builders of the conditions described in the DPS Paraguay, and Uruguay are ‘‘significant’’ v. Norton, 340 F.3d 835, 846 (9th Cir. policy, its biological and ecological as a result of persistence in a unique or 2003). Thus, we consider ways in which significance will be considered in light unusual ecological setting. the loss of each discrete population of of Congressional guidance (see Senate the broad-snouted caiman might result Differences in Genetic Characteristics Report 151, 96th Congress, 1st Session). in a significant gap in the range of In making this determination, we No data have been located that species. Its range is estimated as consider available scientific evidence of indicate that the Argentine population follows: 28 percent in Argentina, and 72 each discrete population segment’s and the population in the remaining percent in the remainder of its range: 4 importance to the taxon to which it range countries are each significant percent in Bolivia, 58 percent in Brazil, belongs. Since precise circumstances based on genetics (Villela et al. 2008, 8 percent in Paraguay, and 2 percent in vary considerably from case to case, the pp. 628–635). Our knowledge across the Uruguay (Larriera pers. comm. 2011). DPS policy does not describe all ways range countries is sparse with respect to that might be used in determining the genetic diversity and integrity on the Argentina biological and ecological importance of broad-snouted caiman. However, a 2008 We considered whether the Argentine a discrete population. However, the DPS study indicates that genetic flux (genetic DPS constitutes a significant gap in the policy describes four possible scenarios flow between members of a species) range of the species. In 2006, the that provide evidence of a population occurs; the species remains fairly population of broad-snouted caiman in segment’s biological and ecological connected through the major waterways Argentina was estimated to be 13 importance to the taxon to which it within its range. River channels are percent of the potential global belongs (see additional discussion above important routes to crocodilian population. The species is distributed in under Distinct Population Segment dispersal. The Paraguay River joins nine provinces in the northern part of Analysis). Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina, Argentina. It is increasing within its A population segment needs to satisfy and the populations of this species are range within Argentina into habitat only one of these conditions to be connected in part through this river. where it had not been seen since the considered significant. Furthermore, The populations of this species are also caiman ranching program began. It has other information may be used as connected between Uruguay and been observed in a variety of habitats appropriate to provide evidence for Argentina via the Uruguay River, which and waterways including rivers near significance. Having determined that the is the border between these two waterfalls, freshwater creeks with rocky population of broad-snouted caiman in countries. bottoms, and in agriculture and cattle Argentina is discrete from the Additionally, a 2006–2007 survey in impoundments. population in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Brazil found that C. latirostris is widely In Argentina, human impact on the and Uruguay, we then determine the distributed throughout the Sa˜o species has been reduced since 1990 significance of these two discrete Francisco River basin, and its through educational programs and populations to the taxon. We evaluate distribution pattern indicates that the incentives which have served to the biological and ecological populations within the river basin are minimize habitat loss. The caiman significance based on the available not fragmented (Filogonio et al. 2010, p. ranching program (see discussion under scientific evidence of each population 964). The genetic variations of broad- Factor A below) has resulted in segment’s importance to the taxon to snouted caiman were found to be improvements in the quality of the which it belongs. A population’s closely related to patterns of these river species’ habitat (such as the decrease in biological significance is evaluated basins, and indicated that there was no draining of wetlands), thereby based on the principles of conservation significant correlation between genetic increasing the range and population size biology using the concepts of variation and genetic distance (Villela et of the species. Its rate of survival in redundancy, resiliency, and al. 2008, p. 6). This species is not only Argentina far surpasses the normal representation (see Redford et al. 2011 a mobile species but is also flexible in survival rate of this species in the for additional information on these its habitat preferences. The river basins remainder of its range due to the concepts). These concepts also can be within its range appear to be sufficiently ranching program (described below). expressed in terms of four viability connected, despite any habitat Reports indicate that the Argentine characteristics: Abundance, spatial modifications. There is no other population of this species is increasing. distribution, productivity, and diversity information available that indicates The captive-held stock reported in 2010 of the species. there are significant differences in the was 39,624 (Larriera et al. 2010, p. 1), populations. Based on the best available and the density of caiman surveyed in Persistence in a Unique Ecological information, we have determined that the wild has increased substantially Setting the Argentine population of the broad- (Pin˜ a et al. 2009, pp. 1–5) since The broad-snouted caiman is a wide- snouted caiman does not have any surveying began in 1990. ranging species that occurs primarily in genetic characteristics that are markedly Argentina is the only range country freshwater environments such as lakes, different from the population in Bolivia, that actively manages and conserves the swamps, and slow-moving rivers. Its Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. broad-snouted caiman and its habitat by habitat in Argentina is typical of the harvesting eggs, hatching the young, species’ habitat throughout its range Gap in the Taxon’s Range raising them to an age where they are (including Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and The loss of a DPS could result in a more able to escape predators and other Uruguay). We do not have any evidence significant gap in the range of a taxon, threats, and returning between five and to indicate that the Argentine indicating that a population segment ten percent of those hatchlings to the

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wild (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 20). Argentina’s active management efforts would create a significant gap in the Experts indicate that returning at least affect the quality of the species’ habitat current range of the species. Based on five percent of the hatchlings to the wild which subsequently contributes to the this evaluation of each population increases the species’ survivability, as it species’ resiliency. Based on the segment’s significance, we found that mitigates for the high incidence of increase in density as evidenced by the each is significant to the species as a mortality that occurs in the wild even population counts, the significant whole. increase of hatchlings reared in prior to hatching (Bolton 1989, Ch. 4, p. Conclusion of DPS Analysis 1). Most caiman mortalities occur either captivity and subsequently released, before hatching or during the first few and the expansion in range, we find that Under the DPS policy, once we have months after hatching due to factors the population of the broad-snouted found that a population segment is such as flooding or nest predation caiman in Argentina significantly discrete and significant, we then (Bolton 1989, Ch. 4, p. 1). The release contributes to the resiliency of the evaluate whether the potential DPS of these animals at a later age species. warrants endangered or threatened significantly increases their chances of We found that the success of the status under the Act, considering the survival, primarily due to the caiman ranching program has created a factors enumerated under section 4(a)(1) hatchlings’ increased ability to escape robust, healthy, sustainable, increasing and the statutory definitions for an predators and their ability to survive population in Argentina. This ‘‘endangered species’’ and ‘‘threatened other factors such as nest flooding, fire distinguishes the Argentine population species.’’ Based on our evaluation under ants, and exposure to pesticides. from rest of the species’ range where it the DPS Policy, we propose to establish Because Argentina releases hatchlings is not being intensely monitored and two distinct population segments of the into the wild after an age they are most managed to the point where it is self- broad-snouted caiman. The first is the susceptible to predators and flooding sustaining. The factors in Argentina population in Argentina, and the second events, the population has a greater including: The increase in density and is the population in the remainder of its chance of survival in the wild than population counts; large numbers of range: Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and broad-snouted caiman hatchlings in the caiman collected from the wild, reared Uruguay. We will refer to this second other range countries. This increase in in captivity and subsequently released; population as the ‘‘Northern DPS.’’ On survivability further distinguishes the and expansion in range, all contribute to the basis of the best available Argentine population from rest of the the resiliency, representation, and information, we conclude that each of these two population segments meet the species’ range and greatly contributes to redundancy of the species and its requirements of our DPS Policy for the resiliency (abundance, spatial overall viability. discreteness and significance. These two distribution, and productivity) to the Thus, the loss of the Argentine DPSs are each discrete due to the species as a whole. population would create a significant gap in the current range of the species. significant differences in the Argentina’s wild caiman population is Based on this evaluation of this management of habitat, conservation also well distributed. The Argentine population’s biological significance, we status, exploitation, and regulatory population is considered healthy and found that the broad-snouted caiman in mechanisms between the international increasing as opposed to the Argentina is significant to the species as boundaries of Argentina and the species populations in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, a whole. We, therefore, conclude that in the rest of its range: Bolivia, Brazil, and Uruguay. This species is moving the population of broad-snouted caiman Paraguay, and Uruguay. These two into habitat where it had not been seen in Argentina is significant under the discrete population segments are clearly in many years, which increases the DPS policy because it contributes to the defined by international governmental potential environmental variability redundancy, resilience, and boundaries and these other differences. within the range of the species. representation of the species such that The robustness of the population in Argentina’s broad-snouted caiman the loss of this DPS would result in a Argentina significantly contributes to population helps contribute to the significant gap in the range of this the biological and ecological health and viability of the species overall; and it is taxon. viability of the species as a whole. providing a margin of safety for the Argentina is the only country actively species to withstand catastrophic Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay managing the broad-snouted caiman. It events, strengthening the redundancy of Because the species is widely also is the only country actively the species. This expansion allows for distributed within these countries and working with local people to create adaptations in response to variations in constitutes 72 percent of its range, the financial incentives to protect caiman the environment. The abundance of this Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay and its habitat. Argentina’s species in Argentina contributes to the population is significant under the DPS implementation of its ranching program potential diversity of the species, policy because it also contributes to the increases the species’ survivability particularly since Argentina constitutes redundancy, resilience, and success, which further distinguishes the the southernmost part of its range. representation of the species such that Argentine population from the rest of Because it is at the edge of its range, this the loss of this population would result the species’ range. It was reclassified to population may add to its adaptive in a significant gap in the range of this Appendix II in Argentina, allowing for capabilities, particularly if there is a taxon. commercial trade in accordance with significant gradient in temperature the provisions of CITES. Due to within the range of the species. Because Conclusion on Significance Argentina’s intense management of this the Argentine population is more robust We have determined, based on the species, the survivability rate of the than the other range countries, the loss best available information, that the Argentine population is far higher than of the Argentine population would population of broad-snouted caiman in in the other countries within this result in a significant gap in the range Argentina is significant to the taxon and species’ range. This difference is further of the species, particularly because it is the population in Bolivia, Brazil, supported by the fact that broad-snouted believed to consist of over a quarter Paraguay, and Uruguay is also caiman in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and (approximately 28 percent) of the significant to the taxon because the loss Uruguay remains listed in Appendix I of species’ range. of each discrete population segment CITES as a species threatened with

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extinction which is or may be affected includes any subspecies or, for 10 years, Argentina has undergone by trade, while the population in vertebrates, distinct population significant changes in land use. Argentina no longer meets the criteria segments. The world market for soy is causing for an Appendix I listing. Following is a range wide threats the conversion of pastures to soy We find that these two population analysis in which we evaluate whether monocultures. Soy is now Argentina’s segments meet our DPS policy for the broad-snouted caiman is endangered main export crop, and Argentina is the significance because the loss of either or threatened in the Argentine DPS and world’s third largest producer of this population (28 percent of its range in the DPS which consists of Bolivia, commodity (USDA, Foreign Agricultural Argentina and 72 percent of its range in Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, which we Service (FAS) 2010a, p. 11). Argentina’s Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay) will refer to as the Northern DPS. shift toward soy has displaced would result in a significant gap in the cultivation of many grains and Factor A. The Present or Threatened range of the taxon. Based on our vegetables as well as beef production. Destruction, Modification, or analysis, we find that these two Many established cattle ranches are Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range populations meet the criteria for being sold to soy investors. For discreteness and significance under the Habitat destruction and modification example, in Salta Province, potential DPS Policy due to (a) differences in has increased throughout the species’ conversion to soy cropland in Northern management delineated by international range and is now likely the greatest Argentina could exceed over one boundaries, and (b) a loss of either threat to the survival of the broad- million hectares (USDA FAS 2010b, population segment (28 percent of its snouted caiman (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 1). Cattle feed mostly on established range in Argentina and 72 percent of its pp. 18–19). The overharvest for introduced grasses but native grasslands range in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and commercial purposes, rather than also persist in pastures, especially along Uruguay) would result in a significant habitat destruction or modification, was wetlands edges. Soy now covers gap in the range of the taxon. the primary reason for the broad- approximately 16.6 million hectares, snouted caiman’s inclusion in CITES more than half the country’s cultivated Evaluation of Factors Affecting the and subsequently being listed under the land (USDA FAS 2010b, p. 10). The Species Act. The analysis of the five factors large scale production of soy requires Section 4(b) of the Act and regulations under the Act requires an investigation the application of fertilizers and promulgated to implement the listing of both current and future potential pesticides. As a result of this change in provisions of the Act (50 CFR part 424) factors that may impact the species, habitat use from traditional cattle set forth the procedures for listing, including the present or threatened grazing to primarily soy production in reclassifying, or removing species from destruction, modification, or many areas, significant changes in the listed status. We may determine a curtailment of its habitat or range. We habitat and landscape occur which species to be an endangered or found that data on habitat destruction affect this species to the point that its threatened species because of one or were generally presented separately for former habitat is no longer suitable. more of the five factors described in each individual country. Therefore, the Adding to this problem of habitat section 4(a)(1) of the Act; we must following analysis of the potential conversion is that Argentina’s consider these same five factors in threats to the species from habitat management of its resources is delisting species. Revisions to the list destruction or modification generally decentralized. Provincial and municipal (adding, removing, or reclassifying a first presents the specific information governments have great autonomy, species) must reflect determinations available for broad-snouted caiman in property rights are respected, and made in accordance with these same each country, and then summarizes the federal authority is relatively limited. five factors and the Act’s definitions for information that was available for the This is particularly evident in control endangered and threatened species two DPSs. over property with respect to the Section 4(b) requires the determination conservation of natural resources, land Argentine DPS of whether a species is threatened or use, and protection of the environment. endangered to be based on the best In some areas in Argentina, habitat In this decentralized system, there is available science. We are to make this destruction has significantly increased very little comprehensive land use determination after conducting a review in recent years (Verdade et al. 2010, p. planning at all levels of government. of the status of the species and taking 19). Argentina has lost substantial Regulatory mechanisms that exist at the into account any efforts being made by forested areas, and conversion of caiman national and provincial levels are foreign governments to protect the habitat to other uses is likely to further seldom coordinated and are sometimes species. affect the broad-snouted caiman’s contradictory and inefficient. For species that are already listed as habitat in Argentina. In some cases, Although habitat conversion is threatened or endangered, this analysis habitat modification actually has currently impacting the species, suitable of threats is an evaluation of both the positive effects on the caiman (such as broad-snouted caiman appears to exist, threats currently facing the species and the creation of water impoundments, for and the species is expanding into new the threats that are reasonably likely to example), and in other cases the habitat sites, in part due to intense management affect the species in the foreseeable modifications may have a negative of this species through Argentina’s future following the delisting or effect. The practice of drying swamps caiman ranching programs. For downlisting and the removal or (potential caiman habitat) through example, as of 2004, surveys indicated reduction of the Act’s protections. channeling occurs in its habitat, that the broad-snouted caiman Under section 3 of the Act, a species is particularly for producing soybeans population in Santa Fe Province ‘‘endangered’’ if it is in danger of (Larriera et al. 2008, p. 152). increased 320 percent since the project extinction throughout all or a significant Landowners also commonly channelize began (Larriera and Imhof 2006). portion of its range and is ‘‘threatened’’ wetlands to increase grazing land for Observed wild population densities if it is likely to become an endangered cattle (which may have a positive increased from an average of between species within the foreseeable future effect). Since the early 1800s, 2 and 8 individuals per km in 1990, to throughout all or a significant portion of Argentina’s economy greatly depended between 20 and 120 individuals per km its range. The word ‘‘species’’ also on cattle grazing; however, over the past during the 2008–2009 survey period

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(Larriera and Siroski 2010, p. 2). The Province, Argentina, increased 320 plantations and soybean production distribution of the wild population has percent since the project began (Larriera (Aide and Grau 2004, p. 1915; Pacheco expanded into areas from which the and Imhof 2006). Observed wild 2004, pp. 205–225). The highest species had formerly disappeared population densities here increased abundance values of this species were (Larriera et al. 2005). from an average of 2 to 8 individuals per recorded in ‘‘atajados’’ (dikes) and With respect to habitat modification, km in 1990, to 20 to 120 individuals per artificial ponds. The tropical forests of some changes have positive effects and km in 2008–2009 (Larriera and Siroski Bolivia are found in the departments of some have negative effects. Although 2010; p. 2). The distribution of the wild Santa Cruz, Beni, and Pando, and this species has been shown to occupy population has also expanded into areas northern areas of La Paz and disturbed habitat, much of the species’ from which the species had formerly Cochabamba. The deforestation to the original range in Argentina has been disappeared (Larriera et al. 2005). north and east of Santa Cruz is primarily altered, and significant alteration is However, the degradation and due to large-scale agro-industry, expected to occur in the future due to destruction of this species’ habitat whereas the areas of deforestation the conversion of cattle pastures to continues to occur in Argentina. around Pando and Beni tend to be monocultures such as soy, which is not Therefore, based on the best available mainly a result of small-scale desirable habitat. Increases have been information, we find that the population colonization and clearing. Large-scale observed in the relative abundance of in Argentina continues to be threatened agriculture responds mainly to external the species in Argentina due in part to by the destruction, modification, or market demands (e.g., biofuels, active management programs (see Factor curtailment of its habitat now and in the sugarcane, soy; principally from the D). These caiman conservation and future. United States, Brazil, and Argentina), public awareness programs have while smaller farmers respond mainly to Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay DPS resulted in less habitat alteration (e.g. the domestic market. burned grass) and less drained (Northern DPS) The government actively promotes the marshland for cattle production in the In Bolivia, the broad-snouted caiman development of infrastructure projects nesting areas (Larriera and Imhof 2006). is on the edge of its range. Broad- in the Bolivian lowlands, in particular While these programs are helping, snouted caiman has been found in the extensive road construction and increases in habitat conversion to Pando Department, the Pilcomayo River improvement (Byers et al. 2008 p. 22). agriculture, roads and transportation, area, a tributary of the Paraguay River, Road projects in northwest Bolivia are infrastructure to transport crops such as and in the Tarija department. Here, key being considered, including paving of soy continue (USDA FAS 2010b, p. 2). threats, particularly in broad-snouted the ‘‘Northern Corridor,’’ which is part Without additional incentives and caiman habitat, include loss, of the Peru-Brazil-Bolivia hub of the intervention, suitable habitat for this conversion, and degradation of forests Initiative for Integration of Regional species will decrease. Although it is and other natural habitats and pollution Infrastructure in South America (IIRSA, mitigated by provincial governments of aquatic ecosystems (Byers et al. 2006, http://www.iirsa.org). through the caiman ranching program, p. vi). Particular to this species, both Contamination of water bodies due to habitat destruction and modification in agriculture and pollution have been sugar mills, which empty their waste Argentina is likely to continue in the indicated to be significant threats. In into the Rio Grande (Aparicio and Rios foreseeable future. Despite the intense Bolivia, vast areas have been drained for 2008, p. 114), also occurs. Sugar mills management of this species in agricultural purposes (also see the are commonly known to produce high Argentina, we conclude that the present discussion under Factor E). levels of air and solid waste pollutants or threatened destruction, modification, Deforestation in lowland Bolivia as byproducts (U.S. Environmental or curtailment of its habitat or range exceeded 1,500 km2 (579 mi2) per year Protection Agency [EPA] 1997, 26 pp). continues to be a threat to the broad- during the 1980s and early 1990s Waste water from sugar mills can snouted caiman. (Steininger et al. 2001, pp. 856–866). rapidly deplete available oxygen in Currently, about 300,000 ha (741,316 ac) water creating an inhospitable Summary of Factor A for the Argentine of forest is lost each year for a variety environment for aquatic life and for DPS of reasons including expanding species that depend on aquatic In most of the range of this species, agriculture, due both to large-scale environments. In the Bermejo River sub- the habitat threats are very similar; industrial agriculture and to small-scale basin in Tarija, Bolivia, based on the however, a country’s management colonization and cultivation; large-scale absence of nests and the low number of actions (refer to factor D) affect the infrastructure projects (roads, dams, individuals recorded during nest status of the species. In Argentina, energy infrastructure); expanding coca counts, researchers believe that this habitat conversion to agriculture production; forest fires; illegal logging; population of broad-snouted caiman is continues to cause habitat degradation and climate change causing changes in probably not reproductively active due within the broad-snouted caiman range, geographical and altitudinal distribution to water pollution (Aparicio and Rios although this is being mitigated through of species and ecosystems (Byers et al. 2008, p. 115). This particular area the caiman ranching program. Habitat 2006, p. vi). borders wetlands and estuaries in conversion is expected to increase and Factors such as low land prices and Argentina, where higher quality suitable further degrade this species’ habitat. economic policies promoting an export habitat is available (OSDE 2005b, p. 2) The population numbers in the wild economy have led to a rapid increase in for the species and is likely less have significantly increased since this the growth of the private agricultural disturbed and polluted by humans. species was listed. Data collected on the sector (Pacheco 1998). Both large-scale Because the Bermejo River sub-basin in distribution and abundance of the and small-scale farmers contribute to Bolivia faces threats due to sugarcane species indicate that the species’ range the expansion of the agriculture and plantations and contamination from has expanded and overall population livestock frontier, and both thrive in the sugar mill activities, it is not likely to numbers appear to be increasing near absence of regulatory oversight and sustain a healthy population of broad- (Larriera and Imhof 2006). As of 2004, control (Byers et al. 2008, p. 22). In snouted caiman. surveys indicate that the broad-snouted Bolivia, large tracts of land have been Although natural resource managers caiman population in Santa Fe cleared particularly for sugarcane recognize the importance of wetlands

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(Byers et al. 2008, p. 14), economic March 2001. The purpose of the 1995 four issues to be addressed: (1) River considerations usually outweigh survey was to determine what species basin and coastal zone environmental concerns regarding habitat loss and would be affected by the construction. analysis; (2) public and stakeholder destruction in Bolivia. The activities The survey was done in the Parana´ participation; (3) organizational described under this factor, such as River basin between Sa˜o Paulo and structure development; and (4) agricultural production and expansion, Mato Grosso do Sul states. The number watershed management program sugar mill activities, roads, and other of caiman nests found during the survey formulation. As of 2005, the studies and infrastructure development, affect indicated that at least 630 reproductive projects had all been completed broad-snouted caiman habitat. Its females were present at that time. The (www.oas.org/osde, accessed March 9, habitat is primarily being affected due to presence of so many nests suggested a 2011). However, the implementation agriculture and pollution. Based on the large total population (Moura˜o and process is still underway above factors, we find that the present Campos 1995, pp. 27–29) in that area. (www.ana.gov.br/gefsf, accessed March or threatened destruction, modification, After the study was completed, a 9, 2011). or curtailment of its habitat or range recommendation was made to create a Caiman habitat is still severely continues to be a threat to this species reserve to protect habitat downstream of degraded in Brazil. Broad-snouted in Bolivia. the dam; however, it is unclear whether caiman in the Sa˜o Francisco River basin In Brazil, agriculture, pollution, and a reserve was established as a result of occurred not only in preserved habitats hydroelectric dams have been indicated the dam being constructed. but also in habitats affected strongly by to be significant threats to the species With the construction of Porto human occupation. This attests to the (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 1). In this Primavera Dam, the last floodplains of species’ highly flexible nature. country, vast areas have been drained the Parana´ River within the state of Sa˜o Researchers even found broad-snouted for agricultural purposes. The effects Paulo disappeared, and with them, caiman in sewage and urbanized areas, from agricultural activities on the those populations of wild animals showing that the species is fairly species can be either consumptive (for dependent on wetlands for survival also resistant to human impacts and that example, destruction of nests and eggs disappeared. Lakes, swamps, and habitat modification has varied effects by machinery) or nonconsumptive (for seasonally flooded areas contribute to on the species’ distribution. The data example, loss of access to traditional hydrological ecosystem processes by indicated that habitat modification may nesting or feeding sites), and these retaining water and mitigating flooding. be a variable in determining the small effects are generally attributed to habitat These wetlands and lakes are important size of these natural populations, rather loss or fragmentation. Pollution has ecosystem components and are than affecting the species’ distribution been a considerable problem in rivers particularly important to the broad- pattern, at least in Brazil (Filogonio et that flow through Brazil’s large cities. snouted caiman. When altered, they no al. 2010, p. 964). A 2006–2007 survey Sa˜o Paulo, Brazil’s largest city, is in the longer are capable of supporting their found that most of the surveyed sites center of the species’ range in Brazil. unique assemblages of species and presented some degree of human impact The species exists here in artificial maintaining important ecological (Filogonio et al. 2010, p. 962). Habitat reservoirs, ponds, marshes, and small processes and functions, upon which modification included: Conversion to wetlands. Construction of large the caiman relies. Caiman use the Sa˜o pasture in 46 surveyed localities (72 hydroelectric dams (Verdade et al. 2010, Francisco River main channel and its percent), roads (25 localities; 39 p. 19) to support Brazil’s human tributaries as dispersion routes; percent), urbanization (23 localities; 36 population has been indicated to be one however, populations of individuals of percent) and monocultures (Filogonio et of the primary threats here to broad- all age and sizes occur mainly in lentic al. 2010, p. 962). Of the areas surveyed, snouted caiman. Most of the natural (still water such as lakes, ponds, or broad-snouted caiman was present wetlands of the Parana´ and Sa˜o swamps) environments. Studies on the (positively identified as broad-snouted Francisco River systems in Brazil have impact of the construction of large caiman rather than a different caiman been dammed for these large hydroelectric stations and how they species or unknown caiman species), in hydroelectric stations. Construction of affect the density and reproduction of 39 localities surveyed (61 percent), and dams can have severe impacts on broad-snouted caiman populations were was widely distributed along the river ecosystems (McCartney et al. 2001, p. conducted using aerial surveys (Moura˜o basin. Its presence was detected in all v). For example, a dam blocks the flow and Campos 1995, pp. 27–29). The lentic water body types, in the three of sediment downstream. During surveys indicate major damage of the biomes: Cerrado, Caatinga, and Atlantic construction of dams, disturbance to habitat due to these dams. An unusual Forest (Filogonio et al. 2010, pp. 963– soils at the construction site is one of finding with respect to caiman was that 964). However, the researchers did not the largest concerns. This leads to researchers found that the destruction of attempt to estimate population size. downstream erosion and increased floating vegetation is particularly They observed a number of populations sediment buildup in a reservoir. destructive. This is likely because with low numbers of individuals, which Because the construction of the Jupifi floating vegetation is used by caiman for were scattered throughout the survey and Ilha Solteira Dams in the 1970s nest construction. sites. During 2006 and 2007 surveys, caused the loss of a significant amount In 2001, the government of Brazil researchers found the presence of of floodplains of the Parana´ River, a launched a plan for the Sa˜o Francisco caiman species in only 17 survey was conducted prior to River basin in order to minimize human municipalities in 64 locations along the construction of the Porto Primavera impacts and implement restoration Sa˜o Francisco River basin in Brazil. Dam (also known as the Engineer Se´rgio efforts (Andrade 2002 in Filogonio et al. The density data found in Brazil were Motta Dam). The Porto Primavera Dam 2010, p. 962). This was a huge similar to that found by Borteiro (2006, is 28 km (17 mi) upstream from the undertaking involving federal and local 2008), who also found broad-snouted confluence of the Paranapanema and governments, nongovernmental caiman widespread in Uruguay, Parana´ Rivers. This dam created the organizations (NGOs), universities, and occurring in 29 of the 36 localities Porto Primavera Reservoir and was the public. An initial report was issued surveyed (81 percent of the sampled filled in two stages: The first in in 2005 that indicated that progress had areas). Caiman in Brazil were observed December 1998 and the second in been made in terms of identifying these in lotic (actively moving water) habitats,

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and considering that river channels are Paraguay. Within Paraguay, the Atlantic that the present and threatened important routes to crocodilian Forest has been under increasing destruction, modification, or dispersal, it is logical to predict not only pressure from development. In curtailment of its habitat in Paraguay physical movement of C. latirostris Paraguay, the Atlantic Forest is reduced continues to be a threat to broad- throughout its range, but also genetic to one large tract, San Rafael, and snouted caiman. However, we will flux within the river basin. The increasingly numerous scattered and review the information we receive distribution pattern in Brazil indicates fragmented small patches. More than during the comment period on this that the populations within the river half of the original area of the Atlantic proposed rule. basin are not fragmented, but seem to rainforests had been degraded by the In Uruguay, very little information exist in low numbers. Despite this data, turn of the last century, and more has been collected about how habitat trend data are lacking regarding the recently only one percent was found to degradation affects the broad-snouted population in Brazil and the health of be still in its original state (Wilson 1988, caiman. Based on available information, the species overall. The construction of in Rivas et al. 1999, chapter 5). current threats to this species’ habitat in hydroelectric dams and associated Conservative estimates have placed the Uruguay are likely due to agriculture habitat degradation such as pollution remaining forest cover in Paraguay at and cattle ranching which occur within and environmental degradation is approximately 6 percent of the original this species’ range. Cattle and sheep currently affecting broad-snouted cover (IUCN 1988a). Threats to this farming in Uruguay occupy 60 percent caiman and its habitat. Pollution is a remaining forest cover include of its land (Food and Agriculture severe problem—caiman habitat fragmentation and acceleration of large- Organization of the United Nations overlaps Sa˜o Paulo, Brazil’s largest city, scale agriculture and ranching projects, [FAO], p. 4). Other agricultural activities and these polluted rivers that flow commercial logging, and the such as production for dairy, fodder for through Brazil’s large cities. construction of hydroelectric dams cattle, and crops such as rice consist of Although a plan was initiated in 2001 (Rivas et al. 1999, ch. 5) such as the approximately 20 percent. Secondary, to address issues associated with the Itaipu hydroelectric dam on the borders related effects related to agriculture are construction of the dam in central of Paraguay and Brazil. habitat degradation and pollution due to caiman habitat, 10 years later, there is pesticide use, erosion, and altered Habitat destruction has increased no evidence that caiman habitat has ecosystems. The surveys conducted in throughout the species’ range in improved in Brazil, nor does it appear the early 2000s indicate that caiman do Paraguay, and is believed to be one of that caiman are a main concern of the exist in manmade habitats in plan. The conservation of broad-snouted the greatest threats to its survival in northwestern Uruguay. However, the caiman in Brazil does not appear to be Paraguay (Verdade 1998, pp. 18–19). current amount of suitable habitat for a priority, and there is very little current Approximately 98 percent of Paraguay’s this species in Uruguay is unknown. information available regarding this population lives in Paraguay’s eastern Researchers suggest that the apparent region, with a population density of species in Brazil. Based on the best 2 increase in this species’ population may available scientific and commercial 18.6 per km , compared with 0.2 per be due to the construction of agriculture 2 information available, we find that the km in the western, or Chaco, region. A impoundments, which provide habitat present or threatened destruction, contributing factor is that in the eastern for broad-snouted caiman in recent modification, or curtailment of this region, the soil is more suitable for decades (Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 248). In species’ habitat is a threat to the species cultivating crops; therefore, cattle the area surveyed to determine caiman and is likely to continue in the future in production, forestry products, and presence and abundance, Brazil. agricultural crops are widespread in the impoundments were being used mainly In Paraguay, no recent data are range of this species in Paraguay. for irrigation of rice (69 percent) and available specifically for this species. Paraguay’s main agricultural exports are sugar cane crops (31 percent) in the However, we do know that over the past soybeans and cotton (Harcourt and N˜ aquin˜ a´ stream basin. In the Lenguazo 60 years, widespread and uncontrolled Sayer 1996; USDA FAS 2010, p. 2). stream basin, 80 percent was used for deforestation practices have continued Although the overharvest for irrigation of sugar cane and 20 percent throughout Paraguay, particularly in the commercial purposes, rather than was used for other food crops. eastern region (World Land Trust 2009, habitat destruction or modification, was Two other factors that likely affect p. 1). In 1945, 8.8 million ha (21,745,273 the primary reason for this species being caiman habitat here are drought and ac) of forest covered this region, but listed under the Act, threats have hydroelectric dams (United Nations currently it is estimated that less than changed. Now, the largest threat seems Environment Programme [UNEP] 2004, 1.6 million ha (3,953,686 ac) remain to be habitat destruction or modification pp. 78–85; Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 248; (Huerta 2011, p. 1). Most of Paraguay’s due to agriculture and development of Verdade et al. 2010, p. 20). Uruguay has tropical moist forests are in the eastern urban infrastructure, which still occur experienced severe drought in the past region of the country near the Parana´ to a large extent in Paraguay, few years (IPS NEWS 2011), which has River. This river is 4,880 km (3,032 mi) particularly within the range of broad- had a significant effect on agricultural in length and extends from the snouted caiman. Paraguay implemented and cattle production, and this very confluence of the Grande and Paranaı´ba a Zero Deforestation Law as of 2004; likely affects caiman habitat. The rivers in southern Brazil. It runs through however prior to that law, its rate of construction and existence of the Atlantic rainforest, also known as deforestation was the second highest in hydroelectric dams to generate Mata Atlaˆntica. The Atlantic Forest the world (WWF 2006, p. 1). Despite the electricity may be an additional threat to stretches from northeast Brazil along the enactment of this law, the best available the broad-snouted caiman (UNEP 2004, Brazilian Atlantic coastline into information indicates that this habitat pp. 78–85). Uruguay is highly Uruguay, inland into the northeast destruction and modification still dependent on hydroelectricity, and portion of Argentina and eastern significantly affect this species. We have these hydroelectric dams are within Paraguay; and partially overlaps the no indication that conditions have broad-snouted caiman habitat. Although range of the broad-snouted caiman. improved in Paraguay since this species we know these activities occur within Imhof (unpubl. 2006) estimated that 7 was listed under the Act; rather, habitat the range of the broad-snouted caiman percent of the species’ range is in loss has increased. Therefore, we find in Uruguay, there is very little

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information regarding the status of the Factor B. Overutilization for management of its population of the species in Uruguay. We have no Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or broad-snouted caiman, particularly evidence that there has been any change Educational Purposes since 1990. Currently, there are seven to the status of the species in Uruguay. The overharvest for commercial ranching programs registered with the We do not know population trends in purposes was the primary reason for the Federal government in Argentina. Three Uruguay, and threats to the species’ broad-snouted caiman’s inclusion in of them function as educational habitat such as agricultural activities, Appendix I of CITES and subsequent programs, with no commercial drought, and hydroelectric dams exist. listing under the Act. The species exploitation. The non-commercial ´ There is no information to indicate that suffered due to effects of unregulated ranching operations are in Entre Rıos, Chaco, and Corrientes Provinces. There habitat modification or destruction has exploitation between 1930 and 1980. are four commercial ranching programs: decreased such that the population Protections were put in place because two in Formosa Province, one in trend is stable or increasing. Researchers the species had suffered substantial Corrientes Province, and one in Santa population declines throughout its here recommend more surveys of broad- Fe Province. The ranching programs in range due to overexploitation through snouted caiman at a larger scale in Formosa, Corrientes, and Chaco are for the commercial crocodilian skin trade. northern Uruguay to assess the usage of both the broad-snouted caiman and Under this factor, we examine how manmade habitats by caiman in order to yacare caiman. The programs in Entre overutilization within each country has apply this knowledge to caiman Rı´os and Santa Fe are for only broad- changed since the species was listed conservation and management snouted caiman. Each ranching program strategies. Given the lack of evidence under the Act, and then we discuss this showed an increase in the number of that indicates that Uruguay’s population factor with respect to international trade eggs collected since the program began. of broad-snouted caiman has either and its regulation through CITES. This indicates an upward trend in increased or has stabilized since its Argentine DPS population numbers. inclusion under the Act, we find that In Argentina, illegal hunting was Ranching Programs in Argentina the present or threatened destruction, widespread through the late 1980s, but On cattle ranches in Argentina, modification, or curtailment of its decreased in the early 1990s (Micucci habitat or range continues to be a threat landowners commonly channelize the and Waller 1995, pp. 81–108) due to the wetlands to increase grazing land for to the species in Uruguay. proliferation of caiman ranching cattle; this subsequently provides Summary of Factor A for Bolivia, Brazil, programs and the enforcement of suitable caiman habitat. Most habitat Paraguay and Uruguay (Northern) DPS national and provincial regulations (see preferred by the caiman (swamps with Factor D). Between the 1940s and early heavy vegetation) are considered In most of the range of this species, 1990s, reports indicate that more than unproductive agricultural land. In the the habitat threats are very similar; 700,000 caiman skins were produced past, the swampy areas have been however, a country’s management from Corrientes Province in Argentina drained for conversion to agricultural actions (refer to factor D) may affect the (estimated in Micucci and Waller (1995) lands. However, by placing an economic status of the species. In Bolivia, Brazil, in Pin˜ a et al. 2010, p. 4). Some of these value on preserving caiman habitat Paraguay, and Uruguay, although these skins were illegally obtained; however, through compensation from the countries are making progress with there has been no report of illegal ranching program, habitat destruction respect to habitat modification and hunting since 1998 (Larriera et al. 2008, can be reduced. Additionally, by p. 143). Since the species was listed destruction and some have adopted providing monetary compensation to both under CITES and the Act, a relevant conservation laws (see Factor ranch employees for each nest they significant change in public perception D), habitat loss continues to occur. locate, there is incentive for ranch and awareness regarding this species Increasing human populations, owners and employees to protect the has occurred. Now, the species is wetlands and caiman nesting areas. As development of hydroelectric projects, thought to be managed sustainably in of 2006, there had been a 30 percent and draining of wetlands also have Argentina (Jelden 2010, pers. comm.; increase in the caiman nesting areas on caused habitat degradation. Conversion Verdade et al. 2010, p. 19; Woodward cattle ranches where caiman egg harvest of broad-snouted caiman habitat to 2010, p. 3). Local people participate in occurs (Larriera et al. 2006). For agricultural plantations occurs caiman ranching programs in which example, the caiman nesting area of the commonly in these countries, and they locate nests and harvest eggs from Lucero Ranch (Estancia) in Santa Fe adequate management plans in these these nests (Larriera et al. 2008; Verdade Province was 830 ha (2,051 ac) in 1990, countries for this species are not in et al. 2010, p. 19) and take them to and increased to 1,060 ha (2,619 ac) in place. We seek information on the status captive-rearing facilities. These 2004. Larriera suggests that one reason of the species, particularly in Bolivia, individuals, primarily cattle-ranchers, for the increased population density Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, as part are compensated for the eggs. The may be due to a decline in the practice of this proposed rule. Although the communities within the range of the of burning and drying wetlands for species is widespread, we have no broad-snouted caiman have an economic reasons, in addition to the information to indicate that the status of understanding of the caiman ranching dispersion of female broad-snouted the species has changed in these four program, and they no longer have a caiman into new habitat due to the countries, and there is little to no need or desire to illegally hunt these caiman ranching program. population trend information available animals because individuals earn an In the wild, as many as 60 to 70 in these countries. Based on a review of income from harvesting eggs. This is percent of the eggs do not hatch (Smith the best available information, we find due in part to a long-standing public and Webb 1985; Woodward et al. 1989, the destruction, modification, or awareness program and significant p. 124). Estimated survival of hatchlings in the wild has been as low as 10 to 20 curtailment of its habitat or range in community involvement in protecting this species (Larriera et al. 2008, p. 145). percent, depending on environmental these four countries is a continued The Government of Argentina has had conditions (e.g., frost and predation can threat to the species. a long history of research and active alter survival (Aparicio and Rios 2008,

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p. 109); see discussion under Factors C produced 100 percent females, while at Natural Resources, Corrientes Province). and D below). In Woodward, researchers 33 °C (91 °F) 100 percent males were The experimental program initially explained that in order to increase produced. Incubation at a higher conducted surveys and included a survival rate of American alligators, the temperature (34.5 °C; 94 °F) induced small-scale collection of eggs. practice of egg collection has been production of both sexes (Simoncini et Population surveys for yacare and implemented to preclude embryo al. 2008, p. 231). broad-snouted caiman in the province mortality due to factors such as Young are marked by removing were conducted to determine the depredation, flooding, and desiccation. selected caudal scutes corresponding to feasibility and biological sustainability In the Argentina ranching program, to hatch year and nest origin. Hatchlings of a commercial ranching program increase survivability, young caiman are are raised for nine months in concrete (Micucci and Waller 2005) and now this reintroduced to their former nesting site pools until November, when some are is a commercial operation. In after they have passed critical life stages removed for reintroduction to the preparation for the experimental in which they are more susceptible to original nest site. The decision on how ranching program in the Province of factors such as predation and nest many young will be retained in Corrientes, the numbers of broad- flooding (Larriera 2003). Removal and captivity for commercial production; as snouted caiman nests in three study incubation of eggs taken from the wild well as how many will be reintroduced areas were surveyed. In nesting seasons increases hatchling survivability to the wild depends on the status of the 2004–2005 and 2005–2006, one area because the larger the caiman is, the wild population in the area from which maintained its number of nests and the greater likelihood it has of long-term the eggs were harvested. Argentina other two areas showed increases survival in the wild (Woodward et al. provides reports to the CITES resulting in a total of 165 nests observed 1989, p. 124). Secretariat in accordance with CITES in the first season; and 265 nests High mortality can occur during the Resolution Conf. 11.16. If there is a high observed in the second season (Larriera first few weeks of incubation in the population density in the wild, more et al. 2008). The first egg collection was wild; one study found that highest young are retained and raised for conducted in 2005 (Jenkins et al. 2006, embryo mortality of alligator eggs commercial purposes. p. 27). In late 2010, 500 hatchlings were occurred between days 7 and 16 of Chaco Province released. As of 2010, there were 4,736 incubation (Joanen and McNease 1987 hatchlings and 12,793 individuals over in Woodward et al. 1989, p. 124). In the El Cachape´ Wildlife Refuge (Refugio one year in age in captivity (Larriera caiman ranching programs in Argentina, de Vida Silvestre El Cachape´) is a 2010, p. 1). the practice is to remove all eggs from conservation and sustainable-use project all the nests in collection areas that are developed through an agreement Formosa Province accessible and not flooded, burned, between a private landowner and The program in Formosa Province (in depredated, or necessary for survival Fundacio´n Vida Silvestre Argentina in the most northern part of the species studies (Larriera 1995). Between the Chaco Province. The project was range in Argentina) was established in months of December and January, eggs established in 1996 for the ranching of 2001, based on an agreement between a are collected soon after laying. Caiman both yacare and broad-snouted caiman company called Caimanes de Formosa ranch project managers pay cattle ranch (Cossu et al. 2007, p. 330), and it also S.R.L. and the Direccio´n de Fauna y employees for each located nest, and conducts ecotourism activities. El Parques de Formosa (Directorate of each nest is assigned a number. The Cachape´ is in the center of the harvest Wildlife and Parks of Formosa) under nests are marked so that young hatched area, and encompasses 1,760 hectares the Ministry of Production (Jenkins et and reared in captivity can be returned (ha) (4,349 acres (ac)). Between 1998 al. 2006). The first egg collection in to the same area. Each ranching program and 2004, the Chaco program collected Formosa Province was in 2002. The maintains records of how many are 4,867 eggs and released 1,236 yearlings Formosa program collected 13,050 eggs collected, how many are reared, and (Larriera and Imhof 2006) within the between 2002 and 2004, and released how many individuals are later released Chaco Province. A population survey 1,265 young (Larriera and Imhof 2006). back into the wild. conducted over 60,000 ha (148,263 ac) Surveys of the combined yacare caiman Artificial incubation has been of the harvest area in Chaco Province and broad-snouted caiman populations demonstrated to enhance hatch success indicates that there was an average in Formosa have indicated that the wild in addition to early development of density of 4.0 individuals of C. population densities have increased hatchlings (Ferguson 1985, Joanen and latirostris per km during the 1999–2000 from a range of 2.3 to 66 individuals per McNease 1987 in Woodward et al. 1989, study period (Prado 2005), but we are km in 2002 (Siroski 2003; Siroski and p. 124). Caiman ranching programs in unaware of any additional data Pin˜ a 2006), to 22 to 238 individuals per Argentina use various methods in collected since that time. This km in 2008 (Pin˜ a et al. 2008). artificial incubation to increase the conservation ranching program is Santa Fe Province success rate. For example, small working towards increasing population temperature variances can be used to numbers of this species in the Chaco The Santa Fe program (in the accelerate the growth of hatchlings. Province (Verdade 2010, pp. 18–22). We southernmost part of the species’ range Animals reared at a slightly higher are requesting additional information in Argentina) is the largest of the temperature (22.4 °C; 72.3 °F) grow pertaining to population data for all approved programs; this province has faster than those maintained at a lower provinces, including the Chaco the largest population of broad-snouted temperature (18.2 °C; 65 °F) (Pin˜ a and Province, as part of this proposed rule. caiman in the wild in Argentina. Larriera 2002, pp. 387–391). Hatching Proyecto Yacare´, in the province of success and survival are not negatively Corrientes Province Santa Fe, Argentina, was established in affected by artificial incubation An experimental program in 1990, with an agreement between the temperature, as long as it is within the Corrientes Province was established in Ministry of Agriculture of the Province appropriate temperature range for this 2004, based on an agreement between a of Santa Fe and a non-governmental species (Pin˜ a et al. 2003, pp. 199–201). company called Yacare´ Pora´ S.A. and organization called Mutual del Personal For broad-snouted caiman, eggs the Direccio´n Provincial de Recursos Civil de la Nacio´n (Benefit of Civil incubated at 29 or 31 °C (84–88 °F) Naturales (Provincial Directorate of Personnel of the Nation) to improve the

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conservation status of the broad-snouted certificates that are issued by the Argentina to the United States would be caiman and its wetland ecosystem designated CITES Management and allowed, provided that certain (Larriera and Imhof 2000). The northern Scientific Authorities of each CITES conditions are met. We do not believe part of the Province of Santa Fe contains Party (http://www.cites.org). In the this potential increase in international 80 percent of the wild broad-snouted United States, the Scientific and trade is likely to threaten or endanger caiman population in Argentina. Early Management Authorities reside in the wild broad-snouted caiman based on on, the Caiman Specialist Group (CSG) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Argentina’s management and identified ranching programs in Under CITES, a species is listed in monitoring of the caiman ranching Argentina as a high priority for species one of three appendices; listing in each program. However, exports of broad- conservation (Verdade 1998, pp. 18–19). Appendix has a corresponding level of snouted caiman and its parts and It described the program in Santa Fe protection (i.e., regulation of products from the rest of the range Province as a model for other Argentine international trade), and different countries would still be regulated under provinces where habitat still remains permit requirements (CITES 2007). CITES Appendix I and as endangered and the wild population is large. In Appendix II allows for commercial trade under the Act. 1999, the management for sustainable and includes species requiring Summary of Factor B for Argentine DPS use of broad-snouted caiman reached a regulation of international trade in order commercial scale (Verdade 1998, pp. to ensure that trade of the species is In Argentina, the legal harvest does 18–19). compatible with the species’ survival. not appear to have negative impacts on Between 1990 and 2004, the Santa Fe At times a species may be listed as the species based on reported harvest, program harvested 1,410 of 1,945 endangered under the U.S. Endangered nest counts, and egg harvest trends identified nests and produced 35,197 Species Act, and concurrently listed (Larriera et al. 2010, pp. 1–2; Larriera hatchlings from 47,948 eggs (Larriera under Appendix II of CITES, rather than and Siroski 2010, pp. 1–5). We believe and Imhof 2006). Of the hatchlings that the more restrictive Appendix I, which that adequate protections are in place survived, 15,120 yearlings were does not allow commercial trade of wild under Federal and provincial law and returned to the wild and 14,046 were specimens, except under limited regulations in Argentina. Broad-snouted retained for commercial use (Larriera circumstances. Although CITES caiman that hatched in captivity and and Imhof 2006). The number of nests Appendix II allows for commercial were released near their former nesting found in the collection area increased trade, in order for specimens of this site have successfully matured and from 14 (1990–1991) to 439 (2003– species to be traded internationally, a reproduced in the wild (Larriera et al. 2004), resulting in an increase from 372 determination must be made that the 2006). For example, during the summers to 12,031 eggs collected per year during specimens were legally obtained; and of 2001 and 2002, seven females the same time period (Larriera and that the export will not be detrimental released as part of Proyecto Yacare´ were Imhof 2006). Mean clutch size in Santa to the survival of the species in the recaptured while attending their nests. Fe Province has been reported to be 35 wild. CITES Appendix I includes The females were between 9 and 10 eggs per nest, and the natural incubation species that are ‘‘threatened with years old at the time of capture. Their period is around 70 days (Larriera and extinction which are or may be affected clutch sizes and hatching success were Imhof 2000). by trade.’’ Appendix I has a further similar to those of wild females of As of 2004, monitoring the wild restriction that a CITES import permit unknown age also captured during the population in the collection areas must be issued by the importing country season. Mortality of eggs and hatchlings indicated that the broad-snouted caiman after finding that the specimen will not in the wild can exceed 95 percent population in Santa Fe increased 320 be used for primarily commercial (Hutton 1984 in Larriera et al. 2008, p. percent since the project began (Larriera purposes. 154). This indicates that released and Imhof 2006). Observed wild The World Conservation Monitoring ranched yearlings can survive and population densities increased from an Centre (WCMC) at UNEP manages a reproduce at least as successfully as average of 2 to 8 individuals per km in CITES Trade Database on behalf of the their wild counterparts, and may have a 1990, to 20 to 120 individuals per km CITES Secretariat. Each Party to CITES greater rate of survival. in 2008–2009 (Larriera and Siroski is responsible for compiling and Research also indicates that this 2010, p. 2). This program has resulted submitting annual reports to the CITES practice of releasing a percentage of in increased numbers of broad-snouted Secretariat regarding their country’s captive-hatched juveniles is a valuable caiman in the wild in areas surveyed international trade in species protected management tool for crocodilian and expansion of nesting areas (Larriera under CITES. The trade database species. This is because releasing them and Imhof 2000, 2006; Larriera et al. (www.unep-wcmc.org/citestrade) into the wild at an age of 8–10 months, 2006). The distribution of the wild indicates that between 2000 and 2009, rather than at hatching, has been shown population has expanded into areas 11,837 broad-snouted caiman parts and to enhance their chances of survival from which the species had formerly products (primarily leather and skins), (Elsey et al. 1992, p. 671). Survivorship disappeared (Larriera et al. 2005). plus an additional 1,210 kilograms in juvenile alligators has been shown to (2,662 pounds) of such parts and be a function of size, with survivorship International Trade and Regulation products were exported. The vast increasing as size increases (Woodward Under CITES majority of exports were from et al. 1989, p. 124). CITES provides varying degrees of Argentina, and the database did not Wild populations in the collection protection to more than 32,000 species indicate any trends in the trade data to areas are increasing based on egg of animals and plants that are traded as cause concern. There were very few collection and density surveys (Larriera whole specimens, parts, or products. exports from the other range countries et al. 2010). Despite the fact that all CITES regulates the import, export, and during the period reviewed. accessible nests are harvested in the reexport of specimens, parts, and If the proposed rule to reclassify the collection areas and the number of products of CITES-listed plant and Argentine population and yearlings returned to the wild is animal species (also see discussion accompanying Special Rule are variable, the Santa Fe program has under Factor D). Trade is managed finalized, then commercial exports of resulted in higher population densities. through a system of permits and broad-snouted caiman products from Increased reproduction in released

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animals, a greater number of nests monitoring. This may be indicative of a frequently. No other recent data are located and harvested, and the need for stronger involvement by the available in Bolivia for this species. observation of broad-snouted caiman in provincial and federal governments or In Brazil, small amounts of illegal areas where they had been extirpated the need for a stronger legal framework harvest are reported to still occur in (Larriera and Imhof 2006; Larriera et al. at the provincial level to regulate or some areas (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 19) 2008, pp. 143–172) have also been monitor these activities. However, and in Uruguay (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. observed. What may be most important despite these concerns, the reports on 102). In northeastern Brazil, illegal to the survival of the broad-snouted the broad-snouted caiman conservation hunting still supplies local markets for caiman, however, is that nesting areas program in Argentina do indicate that meat in small cities along the Sa˜o are now protected by local inhabitants the population is increasing, and the Francisco River basin. The meat is sold who have an economic interest in program is being actively monitored as salted carcasses like codfish, and is maintaining the wild populations. Due within the country. The government of actually called ‘‘Sa˜o Francisco codfish’’ to public awareness programs and Argentina oversees the ranching (Verdade 2001a). Hunting for meat also monetary incentives for locals who program in Santa Fe Province, and occurs in some parts of Uruguay collect eggs, there has been no report of Santa Fe contains the largest population (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 104). However, illegal harvest since 1998. of broad-snouted caiman in the wild. species experts concluded that illegal The information reported on ranching The species is not overutilized in hunting is no longer a major threat to programs indicate increased population Argentina and overutilization is the species due to improved protection, numbers in Argentina of this species unlikely to be a threat to the population costs and consequences of illegal based on nest counts and egg harvest in the future. Annual reporting under hunting, and the availability of legal reports (Jenkins et al. 2006, pp. 26–27). CITES may alert us to any new threat of skins (Verdade 1998, pp. 18–19). People For example, in the 1991 season in overutilization in Argentina. We are in the past justified hunting caiman Santa Fe, 10 nests were harvested; 14 seeking information on the status of the primarily for food. Many fishermen also nests were located, and 237 hatchlings species in Argentina as part of this killed caiman because caiman feed on were produced. In 2003, 228 nests were proposed rule. However, based on a the fish in their fishing nets, and caiman located, 304 were identified, and 5,638 review of the best available information, also destroy their nets (Filogonio et al. hatchlings were produced (p. 27). The and in the absence of conflicting new 2010, p. 964). Thus, current levels of current population survey methods used information, we find no evidence that hunting pressure may have only in Argentina are not entirely reliable as overutilization for commercial, localized impacts. a tool for establishing direct recreational, scientific, or educational In Paraguay, in the past, the broad- relationships with populations in the purposes is a threat to the broad- snouted caiman may have been subject wild, but they provide a general idea of snouted caiman throughout its range. to greater hunting pressure than C. the increase in caiman numbers. Prior yacare because the quality of its skin is Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay determination of density or absolute considered finer (Scott et al. 1990, pp. (Northern) DPS abundance of nests prior to the removal 45–46). Hunting was almost of eggs is a more reliable way of One of the primary threats to the uncontrolled through 1990, and some determining the population numbers. species before it was listed in CITES caiman populations almost disappeared. Although there is not accurate Appendix I in 1975 was uncontrolled However, small residual populations population trend data for this species in international trade. In Bolivia, Brazil, were increasing in size when last the wild (Micucci 2010 pers. comm.), Paraguay, and Uruguay, this species is surveyed in places where they and their we consider the egg harvest data to be listed in Appendix I of CITES. habitat were protected (Scott et al. 1990, the best available information. Micucci International trade primarily for pp. 45–46). points out that the information provided commercial purposes is restricted from In Uruguay, broad-snouted caiman directly by nest counts and night Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay was never legally hunted for surveys is more reliable and direct than due to the species’ Appendix I status commercial purposes (Verdade 1998, egg harvest counts, at least in under CITES. The UNEP–WCMC trade pp. 18–19), although illegal hunting has environments with large fluctuations in database did not indicate any unusual been observed (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. water mass, which is the case of this trends in the species’ trade with respect 97). Uruguay’s standard of living, species, particularly in Argentina (2010 to these countries. literacy rate, and large urban middle pers. comm.). We acknowledge that the Beginning in the 1940s, the broad- class (http://www.state.gov, accessed current population survey methods used snouted caiman was hunted March 14, 2011) are reported to be quite in Argentina are not the most reliable commercially for international trade in high compared with other countries means of providing population its leather, which is commonly reported within this species’ range, which may estimates of this species in the wild; to be of higher quality than that of other account for the lack of commercial however, the data collected indicate an caiman species (Brazaitis 1987 in hunting in this country. There is no upward trend in population numbers for Verdade et al. 2010, pp. 1–2). However, indication that overutilization occurs in this species. since the time the species has been Uruguay. A secondary concern in the protected by CITES and the Act, this management of this species in Argentina factor is no longer a threat to the species Summary of Factor B for the Bolivia, is there may be inadequate oversight by in these countries. Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay provincial governments when extracting In Bolivia, caiman is used for its fat, (Northern) DPS eggs from nests, movement of eggs, and meat, and leather products (Aparicio We are seeking information on the tracking the origin of these eggs (this and Rios 2008, p. 112). It is also killed status of the species in Bolivia, Brazil, also applies to Factor D, the Inadequacy out of fear by humans. In the Chaco Paraguay, and Uruguay as part of this of Regulatory Mechanisms). province of Bolivia, there were reports proposed rule. Domestic use still occurs, Additionally, the level of independent of the species attacking and killing pigs but levels remain low. Any incidence of or outside evaluation of the ranching and other small cattle (Pacheco in hunting or harvest that may occur does programs in Argentina is unclear and Embert 2007, p. 55), but these not significantly affect the species. there may be a lack of transparency in incidences do not seem to occur Based on a review of the best available

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information, and in the absence of when nests are depredated, females can began the management and monitoring conflicting new information, we find rebuild these nests (Larriera and Pin˜ a of the Argentine population of broad- that overutilization for commercial, 2000). Clutch sizes can be as high as 129 snouted caiman, population estimates recreational, scientific, or educational eggs in a good year (Larriera 2002, p. for Argentina have indicated an upward purposes is no longer a threat to the 202). Based on surveys conducted and trend. Through this program, a broad-snouted caiman in Bolivia, Brazil, numbers of eggs collected, it appears significant increase in egg collection Paraguay, and Uruguay. that caiman populations are continuing and harvest has occurred in the wild; to increase in Argentina. Although over 30,000 hatchlings from eggs Factor C. Disease or Predation disease and predation are sources of collected have been released into the Argentina mortality, it is not a limiting factor for wild since the program began. On September 18, 1997, at the 10th There is little information on diseases population growth. meeting of the Conference of the Parties that affect wild broad-snouted caiman Summary of Factor C for the Argentine (‘‘CoP10’’), the Argentine population of (Huchzermeyer 2003; Jacobson 2007). In DPS broad-snouted caiman was transferred 1999, the Field Veterinary Program of Disease and predation normally occur to Appendix II based on a proposal from the Wildlife Conservation Society and Argentina. The proposal described the ´ in populations, and the best available Fundacion Vida Silvestre Argentina increased population status of the studied the health of caiman scientific and commercial information does not indicate that either of these species in Argentina, and a ranching populations in the wild and in captivity program that had contributed to its ´ factors negatively affect the broad- at the El Cachape ranching operation in increase (CoP10 Doc. 10.86, CoP10 Prop. Chaco Province, Argentina. There was a snouted caiman here such that they rise to the level of threats to the species. 10.1, Government of Argentina 1997). very low incidence of pathogens and no Appendix II allows for regulated evidence of infectious disease in either Neither disease nor predation are a significant factor affecting this species. commercial trade as long as the population. Health conditions of exporting country finds that the ranched and wild animals continue to Therefore, we do not find that disease nor predation threatens this distinct specimens were legally acquired and be monitored in Argentina (Uhart and that the activity is not detrimental to the Moreno 2000; Uhart et al. 2000). population segment of the broad- snouted caiman, now or in the future. survival of the species. Exported skins There is naturally a high level of must be tagged according to the CITES predation on eggs and hatchlings. In the Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay Resolution on a universal tagging wild, an average of 60 to 70 percent of (Northern) DPS system for the identification of crocodile the eggs do not hatch, usually due to In the range countries of Bolivia, skins (Resolution Conf. 11.12 (Rev. nest flooding or predation (Hutton 1984; Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, there is CoP15)). Larriera 2003). One study found that the no indication that disease and predation A Resolution on a universal tagging rate of depredation in a low rainfall are affecting the broad-snouted caiman system for the identification of crocodile season was significantly higher than such that this factor threatens the skins was adopted by the Parties at normal seasons; resulting in over half of species. Therefore, we do not find that CoP9, held in 1994. At CoP10 (1997, the nests being depredated in some disease nor predation threatens this Harare, Zimbabwe), the CITES areas (Larriera and Pin˜ a 2000). During population segment of the broad- Secretariat reported that, to its particularly dry seasons, high predation snouted caiman. knowledge, all range countries were may occur due to easier access to nests, effectively implementing the Universal and the increased distance between the Factor D. The Inadequacy of Existing Tagging System Resolution. Caiman nest and the water. This may be in part Regulatory Mechanisms yacare skins and products originating in due to less maternal attention when the Argentine DPS Argentina have been imported into the mother is in the water. At such times, United States with the appropriate up to 50 percent of entire clutches in The broad-snouted caiman was listed CITES tags. This species was downlisted forest nests and 80 percent of clutches in Appendix I of CITES on July 1, 1975. under the Act in 2000 to threatened along levees and dykes can be This listing (also refer to the factor B status [65 FR 25867, May 4, 2000]. consumed by predators (Larriera and discussion) requires strict regulation of Adherence to the CITES tagging Imhof 2006). Predators of eggs and international movement of this species, requirements has reduced the potential hatchlings include herons (Ardea cocoi), which may only be authorized in for substitution of illegal skins, which storks (Ciconia ciconia), crested ‘‘exceptional circumstances,’’ and trade has reduced trade enforcement caracaras (Caracara plancus), iguanas for commercial purposes is generally problems involving the similarity of (Tupinambis merianae), and prohibited. In 1990, the ‘‘Projecto appearance of skins and products carnivorous mammals such as the South Yacare´’’ was implemented in Argentina among different species of crocodilians. American gray fox (Pseudalopex based on a concept of conservation According to CITES Resolution Conf. griseus) (Larriera and Imhof 2006). through sustainable use of broad- 11.16 (Rev. CoP15), for trade in ranched Other research found that no more than snouted caiman. The objective of the specimens of species transferred from 10 percent of the hatchlings typically program was to improve the status of Appendix I to Appendix II to occur, a survive to adulthood (Larriera and the population in two ways: by creating ranching program must: (1) Demonstrate Imhof 2006). This level of mortality incentives for landowners and by that the program is beneficial to the from predation is considered normal in increasing public awareness in the local conservation of the local population; (2) caiman populations. communities to encourage the increase identify and document all products to In Argentina, methods are taken to of caiman populations. Another ensure that they can be readily minimize the effects of predation. To objective was to conserve natural distinguished from products of decrease the death rate due to predation, wetlands on which caimans depend Appendix I populations; (3) maintain ranched young are returned to the wild (Larriera et al. 2008a, pp. 143–145). appropriate inventories and harvest- only after they are past the critical first These programs also reintroduce level controls and mechanisms in the year when the risk of predation is captive-raised individuals to the wild. program to monitor wild populations; greatest (Larriera and Imhof 2006). Even Since the government of Argentina and (4) establish sufficient safeguards in

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the program to ensure that adequate which means they meet all the economic development, especially in numbers of animals are returned to the requirements to implement CITES. With the forestry sector, where it provided wild if necessary and where respect to CITES, based on the trade clearly defined roles for institutional appropriate. data (see Factor B discussion) and other oversight and control. To its credit, At the national level, Argentine Law data and information available to the Bolivia has become the world leader in 22.421 prohibits all use of fauna that is Service, the Argentina appears to be the area of certified production forests not specifically authorized (Micucci and adequately enforcing international trade (Byers et al. 2008, p. 31). Because there Waller 1995). In 2000, when the through its legal framework. has been a growing concern regarding experimental operations began indigenous people’s rights, workers’ Summary of Factor D for Argentine DPS commercial production of broad- rights, and reductions in the snouted caiman, Resolution 283/00 was Monitoring indicates that environmental impact of logging, there enacted by the Government of Argentina management efforts within Argentina has been an increase in third-party under Law 22.421. This law approves are working. The population in certifiers such as the Forest Stewardship the inter-province transit and export of Argentina, based on reports provided to Council (FSC) in the global wood trade caiman products from ranching the Service and the CITES Secretariat, (www.fsc.org, accessed March 14, 2011). operations that comply with CITES appears to be increasing. All Parties that FSC certification ensures that wood is Resolution 11.16, but trade in conduct ranching operations approved responsibly harvested. In Bolivia, most specimens from any other sources (i.e., in accordance with Resolution Conf. of the FSC certified operations are large- not from registered ranching operations) 11.16 are obligated to report to the scale private enterprises that are able to is illegal. Resolution 283/00 also CITES Secretariat (Jenkins et al. 2006, pay for audits and maintain access to establishes minimum requirements for p. 3). While some habitat loss and international markets for certified ranching operations. One of the degradation remain in Argentina, these products. However, management issues requirements is that there must be a threats have been reduced based on in Bolivia still remain. The ratification baseline population study covering at intensive management efforts of this of autonomy statutes by the least 40 percent of the province in species. These reports suggest that the Departments of Santa Cruz, Pando, Beni, which the operation is located. The populations of this species are and Tarija, and their conflict with the study must be conducted for at least increasing in Argentina. While we do National government is currently one of 2 years (Larriera and Imhof 2006). The not have complete population survey the more contentious issues (Byers et al. study results must be approved by the information in Argentina, all indications p. 33). The most important implications province and then submitted to the suggest that the wild population is well of this movement toward enhanced national authorities (Direccio´n de Fauna managed and is increasing. Wildlife departmental authority and y Flora Silvestres [Directorate of Wild such as the caiman can be responsibility relate to land-use Fauna and Flora]) for final approval. advantageously used in commerce if planning and authority over land tenure The Registro Nacional de Criaderos management is sufficient to maintain matters. This issue is still in flux and (National Registry of Breeding Centers, suitable habitats, and if harvest is at a this transfer towards decentralized Resolution 26/92) lists registered level that allows maintenance of healthy governance could have negative ranching operations. In provinces with and sustainable populations. Broad- repercussions on the broad-snouted nationally approved ranching programs, snouted caiman, under such conditions, caiman. the provincial government must can provide revenue to pay for its own With respect to caiman management conduct an annual evaluation of the management and stimulate local in Bolivia, a management plan for population status of the species in their economies. Therefore, we find that Caiman latirostris population recovery province and submit it to the Direccio´n although the strong management of the and conservation in Tarija department de Fauna y Flora Silvestres. According species through local programs was proposed for 2006–2009. It is to Larriera (pers. comm. 2006), all the promoting egg harvest and hatchling unclear whether the plan was surveys are conducted under the release has reduced threats to this implemented, and no updated data have supervision of members of the CSG. species and its habitat, threats (see been provided with respect to the Ranching operations and harvests of factor A) do still exist. With respect to species’ status in Bolivia (Aparicio and wildlife that are not transported across international trade of broad-snouted Rı´os 2008). The best available provincial boundaries or exported are caiman parts and products, we find that information does not indicate that the controlled through regulation at the CITES is an adequate regulatory regulatory mechanisms in place are provincial level (Larriera and Imhof mechanism throughout its range. We adequate to sufficiently protect this 2006). will continue to monitor the status of species. Populations of broad-snouted the species in Argentina; however, caiman are still considered to be National Legislation To Implement based on the best available information, severely depleted in Bolivia (Aparicio CITES we find that this factor is not a threat and Rı´os 2008, p. 104; Verdade et al. Information available to the Service to the species in Argentina. 2010, p. 19). Habitat loss, destruction, indicates that Argentina has protected- and modification (refer to Factor A Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay species and protected-areas legislation discussion) are still occurring and are (Northern) DPS under the jurisdiction of specific not expected to decrease in the future ministries or departments that control Bolivia’s current environmental (Anderson and Gibson 2006, p. 99), thus activities that impact the broad-snouted legislative framework represents a suggesting that existing regulatory caiman and its habitat. The Federal legal significant improvement since the 1992 mechanisms are insufficient to framework within the Government of World Summit on Sustainable ameliorate or remove the threat from Argentina is particularly robust. The Development in Rio de Janeiro began a habitat destruction. CITES National Legislation Project foundation for the sustainable and Brazil is faced with competing (www.cites.org, SC59 Document 11, equitable use of the country’s priorities of encouraging development Annex p. 1) deemed that the environmental resources and to control for economic growth and resource Government of Argentina has national destructive practices. This framework protection. In the past, the Brazilian legislation that is considered Category 1, has had a positive effect on Bolivia’s government, through various

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regulations, policies, incentives, and reform objectives (USAID 2004, p. 4). government promoted a waterway in the subsidies, has actively encouraged However, there are still concerns; land Paraguay–Parana´ Basin known as the development of previously undeveloped is still being converted to soybean Hidrovı´a development project, the Alto lands in southeastern Brazil, which plantations, and land ownership is still Paraguay forest became an area of land helped facilitate the large-scale habitat a concern in Paraguay (USAID 2004, speculation. It is unclear what is conversions that have occurred pp. 3, 8). Paraguay’s objectives are to occurring in this area now and how this throughout the Atlantic Forest (Ratter et work towards more effective regulation activity may affect the broad-snouted al. 1997, pp. 227–228; Saatchi et al. and utilization practices. Environmental caiman. 2001, p. 874; Brannstrom 2000, p. 326; laws, such as the ‘‘Zero Deforestation There is no evidence that effective Butler 2007, p. 3; Conservation Law’’ and ‘‘Valuation and Retribution of protective measures have been International 2007c, p. 1; Pivello 2007, Environmental Services Law’’ have had undertaken to conserve the broad- p. 2). These development projects the most significant impact during the snouted caiman. The existing regulatory include logging, housing and tourism past five years. These measures have mechanisms currently in place for developments, and expansion of declared wild areas be protected from broad-snouted caiman in Paraguay do plantations (Collar et al. 1992, p. 776; the private sector. not adequately address the factors Ratter et al. 1997, pp. 227–228; Barnett While we acknowledge that Paraguay threatening the species. We are seeking et al. 2000, pp. 377–378; Saatchi et al. is making significant progress in the information and data on the status of the 2001, p. 874; Butler 2007, p. 3). These conservation of its resources, existing species in Paraguay as part of this projects impact potentially important regulatory mechanisms are still proposed rule; however, in the absence sites for this species and would affect inadequate. For example, Paraguay of new information, we find that habitat within and adjacent to provides a legal framework for the regulatory mechanisms in Paraguay are established protection areas in Brazil forestry sector under the Forest Law of inadequate to protect broad-snouted (Collar et al. 1992, p. 776; Barnett et al. 1973. Some of the aspects of Paraguay’s caiman. 2000, p. 377–378). The Brazilian forest law are that it establishes Uruguay’s richest biodiversity is government has encouraged incentives for reforestation and defines found in its wetlands and its growing development of dams for hydroelectric forest land in categories such as practice of rice production. Its economy power, irrigation and expansion of reserves, production forests, or semi- is highly dependent on exports, and the agricultural practices, primarily for protected forests; and sets up agricultural sector contributes 11 soybean production (Braz et al. 2003, regulations and fines to protect the percent of its total gross domestic p. 70; Hughes et al. 2006, pp. 51–56; forest resources. The export of logs was product (GDP). One of Uruguay’s Verdade et al. 2010, pp. 18–19). Brazil’s prohibited in 1972, but illegal export environmental problems is that rice competing priorities make it difficult to was still occurring in the 1980s, paddies are replacing marshlands, and it enforce regulations that protect broad- especially from the northeastern part of is causing degradation of these snouted caiman habitat. the country (IIED and USAID 1985, in ecosystems. While some species are In 2003, Brazil established a Harcourt and Sayer 1996). In part, this capable of adapting to these human- nationwide research and development has been due to insufficient financial made ecosystems, environmental program, called Programme for Biology, resources. The 1973 Forest law was degradation is associated with the Conservation and Management of problematic in the sense that not only conversion of natural habitat to rice Brazilian Crocodilians (Coutinho and does it allow people to colonize forest paddies. Luz 2008 in Velasco et al. 2008 p. 80). reserves, but it also considers forested The government has taken steps to The broad-snouted caiman was listed as lands unproductive, and therefore little address the issue of wetland protection an endangered species in Brazil until attempt is made to prevent and biodiversity. Uruguay has 2003, at which time the species was deforestation. Agricultural land has a developed methods aimed at improving withdrawn from the Brazilian List of much higher economic value than issues associated with rice production Endangered Fauna (The Brazilian forested land (in some regions it can be such as harmful residue generated Institute of Environment and Renewable as high as $1,000 U.S. dollar (USD) per during processing and is working at Natural Resources [IBAMA] 2003). ha, compared with $400 USD per ha for methods of reducing the impact caused Despite these initiatives, we have no forested land), which represents an by residue accumulation. In the past, information to indicate that regulatory obvious economic incentive for the rice hulls were burned which mechanisms exist to effectively limit or deforestation. In 1991, Paraguay’s emitted toxic chemicals into the restrict habitat destruction for this annual deforestation rate was estimated atmosphere and contributed to air species. We do not have information to be 4.7 percent (WWF 1991, cited in pollution. Now, Uruguay is working indicating that impacts to this species Brooks et al. 1992), which at the time towards composting the rice hulls, (e.g., development of dams for was higher than that of any other South which has minimal environmental hydroelectric power, and expansion of American country. impact. Additionally, Uruguay became a agricultural practices, primarily for More recently, Paraguay enacted a member of the Ramsar Convention in soybean production) have been or will Forest Conversion Moratorium (also 1984 and a member of the Convention be adequately addressed through known as the Zero Deforestation Law) in on Biological Diversity in 1992 in order existing regulatory mechanisms at the 2004 which is still in place. The law to increase wetlands protection. sites where this species is found or in prohibits the conversion of forested Uruguay enacted law number 16.170 its habitat. Based on data and areas in Paraguay’s eastern regions. which directly addresses the information available to the Service, we Restrictions are difficult to implement conservation of wetlands, and believe that the existing regulatory and enforce. For example, the area in specifically mandates that the areas mechanisms in Brazil are inadequate to the northernmost part of Paraguay assigned for wetlands conservation must ameliorate the current threats to this known as the Alto Paraguay was once a be respected by rice farmers. species in Brazil. refuge for wildlife such as the caiman. Although Uruguay has made progress In Paraguay, the environmental This was primarily due to its isolation in improving its environmental laws situation has improved; Paraguay has and difficulty in accessing the habitat. and recognizes the importance of completed many of its governmental However, when the Paraguayan protecting its biodiversity, enforcement

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of its laws regulating protection of this be threatened by the inadequacy of the agriculture, particularly on soy species may still be insufficient in some existing regulatory mechanisms in plantations. Not only did the study areas (Brazaitis et al. 1996). This has Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay result in deformities of exposed caiman, primarily been due to the limited to ameliorate the effects of habitat loss but it also resulted in mortalities resources available to local enforcement and degradation. Management efforts (Poletta et al. 2009, p. 98). One form of agencies, as well as the remoteness and vary within the range of broad-snouted glyphosate, Cycloposphamide, in inaccessibility of much of the caiman caiman. Each country has both unique particular, caused malformations in the habitat. We have no information to and overlapping factors that affect the exposed caiman, causing 90 percent indicate that the existing regulatory species. In some cases, there was an embryo mortality (Poletta et al. 2009, p. mechanisms effectively limit or restrict abundance of information available 97). Another study found that exposure habitat destruction for this species. regarding potential threats to the to pesticides increases the egg weight Although Uruguay is making progress in species, and in other cases, there was loss and decreases hatchlings weight of its protection of natural resources, it is little to no information available, Caiman latirostris (Beldomenico et al. unclear how this species is being particularly regarding the adequacy of 2007, p. 246), which negatively affects monitored and managed in Uruguay. We regulatory mechanisms with respect to species’ fitness. This study evaluated do not have sufficient evidence that this species. responses based on exposure to atrazine impacts to this species (e.g., conversion In Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and and endosulfan, which are commonly of wetlands to rice paddies and Uruguay, the best available information used in agriculture. Egg weight loss was subsequent environmental degradation indicates that the primary threat to the significantly greater for those eggs that occurs) have been or will be species is habitat loss (Factor A). treated with an environmentally adequately addressed through existing Related to this factor is the inability of relevant dose of atrazine (0.2 parts per regulatory mechanisms at the sites the governments, at a national, million) (ppm) and relatively low doses where this species is found or in its provincial, or regional level, to of endosulfan (2 and 20 ppm) habitat. Based on the best available adequately enforce mechanisms to (Beldomenico et al. 2007, p. 249). The information, we find that the existing address threats. In these countries, there study was done on captive-held broad- regulatory mechanisms continue to be is little monitoring data on broad- snouted caiman; the impact of these inadequate to ameliorate the current snouted caiman. Based on a review of pesticides on natural caiman threats to this species in Uruguay. the information available, we were populations is unknown. However, unable to find that regulatory extrapolations can be made that exposed National Legislation To Implement mechanisms are adequate in Bolivia, smaller hatchlings would have less CITES in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay to protect chance of survival during their first Uruguay broad-snouted caiman from threats year, thus affecting the population The CITES National Legislation including habitat loss. dynamics of the species. Impaired Project (www.cites.org, SC59 Document Factor E. Other Natural or Manmade embryonic growth may also be 11, Annex p. 1) deemed that the occurring when exposed to Governments of Brazil and Uruguay Factors Affecting Its Continued Existence contaminated water and food have national legislation that is (Beldomenico et al. 2007, p. 250). considered Category 1, which means Following is a rangewide threats Potential effects from contamination they meet all the requirements to analysis in which we evaluate whether by commonly used pesticides such as implement CITES. Bolivia was other natural or manmade factors affect aldrin, chlordane, endrin, lindane, described as being in Category 2, both the continued existence of the broad- methoxyclor, toxaphene, DDT, with a CITES legislation plan and draft snouted caiman throughout its range parathion, endosulfan, malathion, and legislation, but not enacted, and because the information available is not carbaryl, similar to that found in the Paraguay was described as Category 2 specific to each DPS. This evaluation is studies conducted on captive broad- with no plan and only draft legislation. not specific to each country unless snouted caiman, are likely to occur and Overutilization (unsustainable trade in specified as such. affect this species in the wild. Farmers skins, parts, and products) was the Pesticides and Endocrine Disruptors are not well trained in proper primary reason that this species was application methods, often over- listed in CITES Appendix I and also Approximately 10 to 15 percent of applying agrochemicals, applying them listed as endangered under the ESA. pesticides applied in agricultural under inappropriate physical or However, now, overutilization is no activities actually reach target environmental conditions, and not longer a concern for this species. With organisms, and the remainder is following appropriate handling, respect to CITES, based on the trade dispersed into the atmosphere, soil, and washing, and storage protocols (Byers et data (see Factor B discussion), we find water (Poletta et al. 2009, p. 96). In al. 2008, p. 26). Despite regulations that the governments of Bolivia, Brazil, Argentina, soy, which requires the governing the use of these and other Paraguay, and Uruguay are adequately application of pesticides, occupies 16 pesticides, more oversight and resources enforcing international trade through million hectares, and land dedicated to are needed to monitor their use and their respective legal frameworks. soy plantations continues to expand effects on this species. Such pesticide (Larriera et al. 2008, p. 165). A study use is likely to occur throughout the Summary of Factor D for Bolivia, Brazil, regarding the genotoxicity of the species’ range. Paraguay, and Uruguay (Northern) DPS herbicide formulation Roundup® In Bolivia, contamination of aquatic With respect to international trade of (glyphosate) was conducted in systems from agrochemicals occurs in broad-snouted caiman parts and Argentina on broad-snouted caiman. some areas, particularly in Santa Cruz products, we find that CITES is an Glyophosate is a broad-spectrum and Cochabamba (Byers et al. 2008, p. adequate regulatory mechanism in herbicide used widely in weed control. 26). In the lowlands of Santa Cruz Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. In this study, specimens of broad- Department, for example, where broad- However, the best available scientific snouted caiman were exposed to various snouted caiman may exist, agro- and commercial information indicates concentrations and compounds of industrial development is leading to that broad-snouted caiman continues to glyphosate commonly used in increased use of agrochemicals. Soy,

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sunflower, cotton, and sugarcane are the benefit to remove them shortly after it rises to the level of a threat. main crops, and to a lesser extent coffee, females lay eggs to reduce or eliminate Throughout the rest of the species’ cacao, and rice are grown. Mechanized exposure to environmental contaminant. range, human conflict with broad- agriculture on large areas with poor soil Regardless of this aspect, based on the snouted caiman occurs sporadically and has led to the increased use of best available scientific and commercial may result in the death of some agrochemicals such as fertilizers and information available, we currently do individual caiman. However, the best pesticides that are often applied by not find that exposure to pesticides or available scientific and commercial aerial spraying. Despite increasing other environmental contaminants is a information does not indicate that oversight, 17 pesticides have been threat to the species. human conflict occurs to the extent that banned in Bolivia but are nevertheless it is a threat to the species. Therefore, Human Conflict freely sold in local markets and relative to the population size, human routinely used (Byers et al. 2008, p. 26). Although it is commonly known that conflict does not appear to be a threat Although we recognize that pesticides human conflict with caiman occurs, this to the species. will result in mortalities and decreased is not a significant factor affecting the The broad-snouted caiman, like other fitness in some individuals, the best species. The most recent status survey wildlife, is a victim of collisions with available information does not indicate of broad-snouted caiman by the motor vehicles while crossing roadways. that pesticides threaten this species. Crocodile Specialist Group indicates This results in the mortality of about Studies have been conducted in that the principal threats to this species 200 animals per year (Larriera, pers. Argentina, where similar pesticides are are habitat destruction, illegal hunting comm. 2006). Broad-snouted caiman used, and reproduction and survival in localized areas (in some states of often successfully cross roads in areas rates of broad-snouted caiman in Brazil, where caiman population is containing sparse human developments. Argentina appear to be currently robust. low), and construction of large Development of high volume Populations currently remain stable or hydroelectric dams (Verdade et al. 2010, transportation corridors in broad- are increasing in Argentina; and the p. 1). In Bolivia, a survey indicated that snouted caiman habitat may inhibit species has even expanded its range in 92 percent of individuals said that they their movements between habitat some areas (Borteiro et al. 2008, pp. hunted broad-snouted caiman to avoid patches, potentially reducing 244–249; Verdade et al. 2010, pp. 18– the danger of an attack. This was more connectivity among water bodies 22). This is an indication of the species’ common when caiman were found in generally inhabited by broad-snouted intrinsic resilience and adaptability. cattle watering areas such as ponds and caiman. However, these mortality events Although environmental contaminants agricultural impoundments near their do not occur to such an extent that they such as pesticides and herbicides likely homes. However, the actual impacts are are a significant factor affecting the affect individuals, there is no evidence unknown; the survey was anecdotal. species. that they currently pose a threat to the Most broad-snouted caiman populations Fire Ants species. in Argentina occur on privately owned Specifically, with respect to wetlands. In Chaco, Argentina, local The red fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, is endocrine disrupters, studies in other people have been known to kill caiman, an extremely aggressive species. It is crocodile species have been conducted not only for food, but out of fear that originally from central South America to examine their effects (Rainwater et al. these animals will attack them or their and is distributed throughout a large 2008, pp. 101–109). Vitellogenin livestock and poultry (Prado 2002, variety of habitats (Folgarait et al. 2005 induction is a useful biomarker to Aparicio and Rios 2008, p. 112). Based in Parachu´ -Marco´ et al. 2008, pp. 1–2). examine exposure and response to on interviews with ranchers, It completely occupies the area of endocrine disruptors, specifically landowners and police, it is estimated distribution of broad-snouted caiman. environmental estrogens. The that approximately 30 to 40 wild caiman This is an opportunistic, aggressive vitellogenin gene is a biomarker per year are killed for food, and about species and is able to reach high frequently used to detect estrogenic 50 per year are killed out of fear population densities. The fire ant effects in male fish. However, this study (Larriera 2006, pers. comm.). These prefers total or partial exposure to the concluded that endocrine disruptors do killings often occur during the dry sun, and apparently is attracted by not appear to have negative effects on season, when caiman move to ponds sources of protein, sugar, and lipids as crocodile species in the wild. To the that are closer to human-populated well as high levels of humidity. Because best of our knowledge, endocrine areas. To counter these fears, biologists broad-snouted caiman generally nest in disrupters are not a threat to broad- have been working with local fairly open habitats, and its nests are snouted caiman. communities through the caiman raised, they provide an ideal source of We recognize that environmental ranching project at the El Cachape´ protection for S. invicta colonies from contaminants may affect individuals, Wildlife Refuge in Argentina. One rains during the summer. Allen et al. especially given the potential for long- aspect of this program was that they (1997, pp. 318–320) showed that red fire term bioaccumulation of contaminants developed an educational campaign in ants affect the success of hatching, during the species’ life. However, we do local schools. The students also causing the death of unborn embryos in not have information or data on the participate in the ranching project on the nest, and possibly preventing the extent of the impact, if any, that the refuge. The project has produced female from opening the nest when her environmental contaminants currently two educational Web sites, hatchlings call. In Argentina, these ants have on the species. An inadvertent www.yacare.net and www.chicos.net, use broad-snouted caiman nests to set aspect of the research referenced above that describe the conservation and up their new colonies (Larriera 2006, indicated that the removal of eggs from ecology of caiman species in Argentina. personal communication), and have the wild and hatching in a captive In Argentina, because there is been documented to decrease hatching environment can actually have a incentive for local communities and success by 20 percent (Parachu´ -Marco´ et beneficial effect. If eggs are negatively villagers in the range of the species to al., 2005, pp. 1–2). The severity and affected by exposure to pesticides conserve broad-snouted caiman, conflict magnitude of long and short term effects through either a decrease in fitness or and killing of caiman for food, although of fire ants on broad-snouted caiman mortality in the wild, it would be of it occurs, do not occur to the extent that populations is currently unknown.

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Although fire ants have the potential of make projections of climate change reduced snowpacks, and increased fire being a localized threat, particularly in globally and for broad regions through frequency, or other changes occurring disturbed areas, the best available the 21st century (Meehl et al. 2007, p. individually or in combination, may information does not indicate that this 753; Randall et al. 2007, pp. 596–599). affect species and their habitats. The factor affects the species such that it is Highlights of these projections include: vulnerability of a species to climate a threat to the species throughout all or (1) It is virtually certain there will be change impacts is a function of the a significant part of its range. warmer and more frequent hot days and species’ sensitivity to those changes, its Drought and Flooding nights over most of the earth’s land exposure to those changes, and its areas; (2) it is very likely there will be adaptive capacity (IPCC 2007, p. 883). This species has survived large-scale increased frequency of warm spells and As described above, in evaluating the droughts and floods in the past (Larriera heat waves over most land areas, and status of a species the Service uses the 2003), but high rainfall can lead to the frequency of heavy precipitation best scientific and commercial data reduced hatching success from flooding events will increase over most areas; available, and this includes (Larriera and Pin˜ a 2000). Recent caiman and (3) it is likely that increases will consideration of direct and indirect counts suggest that populations occur in the incidence of extreme high effects of climate change. As is the case declined somewhat during 2002–2003 sea level (excludes tsunamis), intense with all other stressors we assess, if the and 2007–2008 (Micucci et al. 2007, tropical cyclone activity, and the area status of a species is expected to be Larriera et al. 2008). This was attributed affected by droughts in various regions affected that does not necessarily mean to cyclic drought conditions during the of the world (Solomon et al. 2007, p. 8). it is a threatened or endangered species early 2000s (Micucci et al. 2007, More recent analyses using a different as defined under the Act. Species that Larriera et al. 2008). The harvest of global model and comparing other are dependent on specialized habitat broad-snouted caiman eggs during the emissions scenarios resulted in similar types, limited in distribution, or 2009 season was drastically reduced in projections of global temperature change occurring already at the extreme Corrientes, Santa Fe, and Formosa (Prinn et al. 2011, pp. 527, 529). periphery of their range will be most Provinces also due to a severe drought. As is the case with all models, there susceptible to the impacts of climate However, in 2010, wetlands recovered is uncertainty associated with change; however, the broad-snouted due to heavy rains, and egg harvest in projections due to assumptions used, caiman has a wide distribution. 2010 was approximately 30 percent data available, and features of the The information currently available higher than the historical average models. Despite this, however, under all on the effects of climate change and the (Larriera and Siroski 2010, pp. 1–2). models and emissions scenarios the available climate change models do not However, drought and flooding does not overall surface air temperature trajectory make sufficiently accurate estimates of occur to such an extent that they are a is one of increased warming in location and magnitude of effects at a significant factor affecting the species. comparison to current conditions scale small enough to apply to the range Climate Change (Meehl et al. 2007, p. 762; Prinn et al. of the broad-snouted caiman. Below is The term ‘‘climate’’ refers to an area’s 2011, p. 527). Climate models and a discussion of data and research long-term average weather patterns, or associated assumptions, data, and available, with which we can make more specifically, the mean and analytical techniques continue to be inferences on the projected impacts to variation of surface variables such as refined, and thus projections are refined the broad-snouted caiman due to temperature, precipitation, and wind, as more information becomes available climate change, particularly the whereas ‘‘climate change’’ refers to any (e.g., Rahmstorf 2010 entire). For potential impacts of shifting global change in climate over time, whether instance, observed actual emissions of temperatures on sex ratios as well as the due to natural variability or human greenhouses gases, which are a key species’ distribution. activity (Intergovernmental Panel on influence on climate change, are A study conducted to determine Climate Change (IPCC) 2007, pp. 6, 871). tracking at the mid- to higher levels of climate change’s projected impacts to Although changes in climate occur the various scenarios used for making the American crocodile (Crocodylus continuously over geological time, projections, and some expected changes acutus) illustrates possible impacts to changes are now occurring at an in conditions (e.g. melting of Arctic sea the broad-snouted caiman (Escobedo- accelerated rate. For example, at ice) are occurring more rapidly than Galva´n 2006, p. 131). This is significant continental, regional and ocean basin initially projected (Raupach et al. 2007, because the sex of crocodiles is scales, recent observed changes in long- Figure 1, p. 10289; Comiso et al. 2008, determined during incubation and is term trends include: A substantial p. 1; Pielke et al. 2008, entire; LeQuere temperature-dependant. This study increase in precipitation in eastern parts et al. 2009, Figure 1a, p. 2; Manning et selected areas in Florida and western of North American and South America, al. 2010, Figure 1, p. 377; Polyak et al. Mexico that contain American northern Europe, and northern and 2010, p. 1,797). In short, the best crocodiles, and predicted how increased central Asia; declines in precipitation in scientific and commercial data available temperatures could affect the the Mediterranean, southern Africa, and indicates that increases in average geographical distribution and sex ratios parts of southern Asia; and an increase global surface air temperature and of the species in Florida, the Caribbean, in intense tropical cyclone activity in several other changes are occurring and and Central America. It focused on the the North Atlantic since about 1970 likely will continue for many decades geographic distribution and sex ratios of (IPCC 2007, p. 30). Examples of and in some cases for centuries (e.g. American crocodiles in the present observed changes in the physical Solomon et al. 2007, pp. 822–829; (2006), 2020, and 2050. It suggested that environment include an increase in Church 2010, p. 411). the geographic distribution and sex global average sea level and declines in Changes in climate can have a variety ratios of American crocodile mountain glaciers and average snow of direct and indirect impacts on populations in different parts of its cover in both the northern and southern species, and can exacerbate the effects range would change in response to hemispheres (IPCC 2007, p. 30). of other threats. For instance, climate- temperature and sea-level parameters. The IPCC used Atmosphere-Ocean associated environmental changes to the Optimal growth in crocodilians has General Circulation Models and various landscape, such as decreased stream been found to occur around 31 °C greenhouse gas emissions scenarios to flows, increased water temperatures,

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digestion diminishing below 29 °C while at 33 °C (91.4 °F) 100 percent developed for use at the local scale in (84 °F) (Coulson and Hernandez 1964, males were produced. Incubation at Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and pp. 2–33; Coulson and Coulson 1986, higher temperatures Uruguay, there is little certainty pp. 585–588), which correlates with (34.5 °C; 94.1 °F) induced production of regarding the timing, magnitude, and optimal temperatures for incubation. both sexes (Simoncini et al. 2008, p. net effect of climate change’s impacts. According to Escobedo-Galva´n et al. 231). Therefore, we find it is not possible at 2008, increased global temperatures and There is conflicting information on this time to make reliable predictions of sea level could in some ways benefit the how climate change could affect this climate change effects on the Argentine American crocodile by significantly species; it could benefit the species or population or the Bolivia, Brazil, increasing its potential habitat and have no significant impact. We are not Paraguay, Uruguay population due to distribution. Through this we could able to make inferences based on a the current limitations in available data infer that similar effects could occur in study on C. crocodilus in this case. and climate models. We found no the broad-snouted caiman species. The Based on the data available, we do not information that the other stressors study predicted that the distribution for currently have sufficient information to evaluated under this factor significantly the American crocodile would expand determine how changes in climate will affect the survival of the species. Based 69 percent in 2020 and 207 percent in affect this species at this time, on the best available information, we 2050. This is an 81 percent increase in particularly with respect to how it will find that there are no other natural or potential distribution from 2020 to 2050 affect the species’ sex determination and manmade factors are not threats to (Escobedo-Galva´n et al. 2008, pp. 9–10). distribution. either population segment. While the American crocodile is The broad-snouted caiman’s adapted to a narrow climate range geographic distribution is one of the Finding (Escobedo-Galva´n et al. 2008, p. 5), the largest latitudinal ranges among all We have carefully assessed the best broad-snouted caiman’s geographic crocodilians (Verdade and Pin˜ a 2006). available scientific and commercial distribution is one of the widest Due to its variability in use of habitat, information regarding the past, present, latitudinal ranges among all an expansion of the range of the broad- and future threats faced by the broad- crocodilians (Schmidt-Villela et al., snouted caiman may occur, as it is more snouted caiman throughout its range, 2008 p. 1). Broad-snouted caiman of a habitat generalist than other and we have separately evaluated the ° latitudinal range is between 5 S to crocodile species. population in Argentina (referred to as ° Based on scenarios that do not assume 32 S (Simoncini et al. 2009, p. 191). As a distinct population segment, or DPS) explicit climate policies to reduce global temperatures increase, areas that and the Northern DPS which consists of greenhouse gas emissions, global are currently too cool to support broad- Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. snouted caiman may become warm average temperature is projected to rise enough to support them in the future. by 2–11.5 °F by the end of this century Argentine DPS (relative to the 1980–1999 time period) The study also predicted that In Argentina, our status review found (USGCRP 2011, p. 9). Optimal growth in increased global temperatures could that, although some localized impacts to crocodilians has been found to occur have a negative impact on the sex ratios broad-snouted caiman still occur in around 88 °F (31 °C), with appetites and of the American crocodile. Like other Argentina, such as habitat modification, effective digestion diminishing below crocodilian species, both the American particularly due to agricultural crocodile and the broad-snouted caiman 84 °F (29 °C). Although climate change development, the Government of exhibit temperature-dependent sex may cause changes in the broad-snouted Argentina has reduced threats determination. Temperature determines caiman distribution, especially given associated with habitat loss and the proportion of males to females the crocodilian requirement for overutilization through its ranching produced in nests (Escobedo-Galva´n et temperature dependent sex program such that the species is not al. 2008, p. 4). In C. crocodilus, determination, we do not have any data currently in danger of extinction. incubation temperatures greater than to indicate that effects on the species Through the five-factor analysis, we about 34 °C (93 °F) or less than 32 °C due to climate change would have a considered the progress made by (90 °F) were found to produce females detrimental effect, nor is climate change Argentina towards addressing previous while temperatures between 32 and 34 likely to become a threat in the threats to this species. We took into °C (90 and 93 °F) generally produced foreseeable future. However, we are consideration the conservation actions males (Escobedo-Galva´n 2006, p. 133; seeking information and data on the that have occurred, are ongoing, and are Escobedo-Galva´n et al. 2008, p. 2). effects of climate change on the broad- planned. Since listing under the ESA, Thus, the production of males is snouted caiman as part of this proposed the species’ status has improved in entirely dependent upon a sustained rule. Argentina based on the following: incubation temperature range of only • three degrees. In this study, incubation Summary of Factor E National and international laws and temperatures greater than 36 °C (97 °F) Few, if any, other natural or manmade treaties have minimized the impacts of were found to be at the upper end of the factors are anticipated to significantly trade. tolerance range for these eggs and affect the continued existence of the • Effective community-based resulted in both death of embryos and broad-snouted caiman in either DPS. We ranching programs have been stress to the surviving hatchlings reviewed factors such as fire ants, established. (Escobedo-Galva´n et al. 2008, p. 2). human conflict, pesticides and • Population numbers appear to be Although the study with respect to C. endocrine disruptors, droughts and increasing in Argentina based on nest crocodilus predicted that by 2020, the flooding, and climate change. With counts and egg harvest data. sex ratio is expected to shift in favor of respect to climate change, we lack The primary factor that led to the males, this did not appear to be the case adequate local or regional models on listing of this species under the Act was for broad-snouted caiman. For broad- how climate change would specifically overutilization. In Argentina, we find snouted caiman, one study indicated affect the habitat in the broad-snouted few threats to the species in the wild, that eggs incubated at 29 °C or 31 °C (84 caiman’s range. Given that reliable, though we find the DPS is still or 88 °F) produced 100 percent females, predictive models have not been threatened by the present or threatened

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destruction, modification, or females previously released by the species remains currently in danger of curtailment of its habitat or range program, the expansion of the nesting extinction. Therefore, because this (Factor A). However, information areas, the increase in the quantity of population segment satisfies the regarding the caiman ranching program harvested nests, and the observation of discreteness and significance criteria in Argentina indicates that the caiman caiman in places where they had under the DPS policy, we find that the is increasing in the wild in Argentina disappeared (Larriera et al. 2008, p. distinct population segment of the such that it is no longer in danger of 172). Age classes reflect healthy broad-snouted caiman in Bolivia, Brazil, extinction. The information indicates reproduction and recruitment into a Paraguay, and Uruguay should remain that the broad-snouted caiman wild breeding population. endangered under the Act. We will population is now widespread We find that the impacts previously continue to monitor the status of the throughout its historic range in identified in Argentina when the species throughout its entire range. Argentina, and it is found in comparable species was listed under the Act no Additionally, the broad-snouted caiman densities relative to other species of longer are of sufficient magnitude such in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and crocodilians. Recent surveys (Siroski that it is endangered. Because the Uruguay will remain listed in Appendix 2004, 2006; Micucci et al. 2007; Pin˜ a et Argentine population of broad-snouted I of CITES. al. 2008) have found broad-snouted caiman satisfies both the discreteness Special Rule caiman in sampled populations at and significance criteria as defined by densities similar to the American the DPS Policy, we propose to reclassify Section 4(d) of the Act states that the alligator (Wood et al. 1985; Woodward the distinct population segment of the Secretary of the Interior (Secretary) may, 2008, p. 1). This supports our finding broad-snouted caiman (C. latirostris) in by regulation, extend to threatened that the broad-snouted caiman Argentina from its present endangered species prohibitions provided for populations are increasing in the wild. status under the Act to threatened endangered species under section 9. Our In the region that has had the oldest status. As identified above, only one of implementing regulations for threatened caiman ranching program (Santa Fe the five listing factors currently poses a wildlife (50 CFR 17.31) incorporate the province); population trend information known threat to the broad-snouted section 9 prohibitions for endangered based on night counts during 1990–2002 caiman, namely, Factor A—the present wildlife, except when a special rule is indicates five of six populations or threatened destruction, modification, promulgated. For threatened species, increased during that period (Larriera or curtailment of its habitat or range. section 4(d) of the Act gives the and Imhof 2004). Recent data tracking of Although not currently in danger of Secretary discretion to specify the the success of hatching shows the extinction due to the destruction, prohibitions and any exceptions to percentage of hatchlings born from the modification, or curtailment of its those prohibitions that are appropriate harvested eggs has been above 70 habitat, we find that it is likely to for the species, provided that those percent in recent years, sometimes become so with the continued prohibitions and exceptions are exceeding 80 percent (Larriera et al. destruction of habitat in the foreseeable necessary and advisable to provide for 2008, p. 158). future. We have seen substantial the conservation of the species. A As discussed under Factor B, progress in Argentina with respect to special rule allows us to include removing eggs from the wild, rearing the addressing threats to this species. In provisions that are tailored to the young, and releasing them at an age developing this proposed rule, we specific conservation needs of the where they can defend themselves more carefully assessed the best scientific and threatened species and which may be readily can be advantageous, because commercial data available regarding the more or less restrictive than the general larger size in young crocodilians threats facing this species, as well as the provisions at 50 CFR 17.31. improves survivorship. Survivorship in ongoing conservation efforts by In some cases, caiman skins and other juvenile crocodilians has been shown to Argentina. Consequently, we have parts are exported to another country, be a function of size, with survivorship determined that the Argentine DPS of usually for tanning and manufacturing increasing as size increases (Elsey et al. the broad-snouted caiman should be purposes. The processed skins and 1992). For crocodilians, supplementing reclassified to threatened. finished products are exported to the wild populations with captive-reared United States. The rule prohibits Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay juveniles taken from eggs collected in importation or re-exportation of such (Northern) DPS the wild is a valuable tool for skins, parts, and products if we crocodilian management, because In contrast, there is a lack of determine that either the country of mortality of juveniles in the wild information about the broad-snouted origin or re-export is engaging in decreases with age and size. caiman in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and practices that are detrimental to the Enforcement of existing national and Uruguay (Aparicio and Rı´os 2008; conservation of caiman populations. international laws and treaties has Borteiro et al. 2008; Verdade et al. 2010, The purpose of this rule is threefold. minimized the potential impact of trade p. 20). In Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and First, the rule accurately reflects the in Argentina, and available data strongly Uruguay, the best available information conservation status of the broad-snouted suggest that wild populations in indicates that threats remain such that caiman. Second, we wish to promote the Argentina are increasing (Pin˜ a et al. the species should retain its endangered conservation of the broad-snouted 2009). Exports from Argentina are status under the Act due to habitat caiman by ensuring proper management carefully managed and commercial degradation and the inadequacy of of commercially harvested caiman exports are limited to those caiman from regulatory mechanisms (Factors A and species in its range countries and, managed programs. All indications D, respectively). Although we have very through implementation of trade suggest that Argentina has been quite little data about the species in these controls (as described in the CITES successful in increasing its population countries and are unable to determine Universal Tagging System Resolution), of broad-snouted caiman through population numbers or trends, the best to reduce co-mingling of caiman intensive management efforts. The available information indicates that the specimens. Third, downlisting of the population has increased as evidenced species continues to face threats under broad-snouted caiman Argentine DPS to by an increase in population density, Factors A and D in Bolivia, Brazil, threatened reconciles listings of the the identification of reproductive Paraguay, and Uruguay such that the species in the Act and CITES.

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This special rule: (1) Recognizes the conservation regulatory requirements of snouted caiman in Argentina as positive recovery efforts and CITES as the appropriate regulatory threatened in the List of Endangered accomplishments of the government of provisions. It would also allow and Threatened Wildlife. This rule, if Argentina in recovering the broad- interstate or foreign commerce. The adopted, would also establish a special snouted caiman to the extent that the proposed special rule would, if adopted, rule for the broad-snouted caiman in species no longer meets the definition of allow import and export of broad- Argentina, which would allow the endangered; (2) Provides increased snouted caiman parts and products and importation into the United States of regulatory flexibility; and (3) Helps interstate or foreign commerce of this skins and other parts and products from streamline or eliminate review and species without a permit under the Act Argentina. This rule would also allow permitting requirements, thus providing as described at 50 CFR 17.42(c). the import of specimens originally from a net benefit to the broad-snouted Finally, this special rule does not Argentina reexported by other countries, caiman by providing incentives to cover the importation of viable caiman if certain conditions are met by those countries who are conducting eggs or live caimans into the United countries prior to exportation to the conservation efforts for the species. A States. Importation of these two types of United States. These conditions pertain special rule for this DPS allows U.S. specimens will require an Endangered to the implementation of a CITES commerce in their skins, other parts, Species Act import permit and the Resolution on a universal tagging and products from Argentina and appropriate CITES permit. This system for the identification of crocodile countries of re-export if certain requirement will allow scrutiny of skins as well as provisions intended to conditions are satisfied by those individual applications for importation support appropriate management for countries prior to exportation to the of live caimans or eggs so as to prevent sustainable use of wild populations of United States. Therefore, under section accidental introduction of these exotic C. latirostris. Thus, for specimens that 4(d) of the Act, we determine, through species into the United States, which do not qualify under the provisions of this special rule, that it is necessary and may have detrimental effects on U.S. the special rule, prohibited activities advisable to provide for the native wildlife or ecosystems. requiring a permit under 50 CFR 17.32 conservation of the broad-snouted Reexportation from the United States of would still include take; export or caiman in accordance with applicable caiman skins, other parts, and products reimport; delivery, receipt, carrying, laws. will continue to require CITES transport or shipment in interstate or Currently, the listing of the broad- documents. We find that it is not foreign commerce, in the course of a snouted caiman from Argentina in necessary or advisable for the commercial activity; or sale or offering Appendix II of CITES allows conservation of the broad-snouted for sale in interstate or foreign commercial trade under certain caiman to regulate interstate or foreign commerce live animals, eggs, or restrictions in the species, including commerce of this species. gametes. In addition, changing the parts and products. On May 4, 2000, the In addition, Argentina must continue species’ status under the Act will not Service reduced restrictions on a similar to effectively implement the CITES decrease the level of protection species, the yacare caiman (Caiman Resolution on a universal tagging provided by CITES. yacare), by reclassifying it from system for the identification of crocodile Consistent with the requirements of endangered to threatened under the Act skins and must have adequate national sections 3(3) and 4(d) of the Act, as (65 FR 25867). That final listing rule legislation for the implementation of described above, this proposed rule included a special rule that exempts the CITES. The special rule would also contains a special rule to amend 50 CFR commercial importation and re- allow trade in broad-snouted caiman part 17.42(c) to allow commercial exportation, under certain conditions, of parts and products through importation and reexportation, under yacare skins, parts, and products into intermediary countries only if the certain conditions, of whole and partial and out of the United States from the countries involved are effectively skins, other parts, and products from Act’s implementing regulatory implementing CITES. Both the country broad-snouted caiman from Argentina prohibitions for threatened species of origin and intermediary countries without a threatened species import under section 50 CFR 17.31. Our must be effectively implementing the permit otherwise required by 50 CFR regulations at 50 CFR 17.42(c) set forth CITES Universal Tagging System part 17, if all requirements of the special this special rule for threatened caiman, Resolution. The intent of this special rule and 50 CFR parts 13 (General including, among others, the yacare (C. rule is to enhance the conservation of Permit Procedures), 14 (Importation, yacare), common caiman (C. crocodilus the broad-snouted caiman in Argentina, Exportation, and Transportation of crocodilus), and brown caiman (C. which is properly managing its broad- Wildlife), and 23 (CITES) are met. crocodiles fuscus and C. crocodiles snouted caiman populations. By gaining The reclassification of the broad- chiapasius). Section 17.42(c) allows the access to commercial markets in the snouted caiman from Argentina to import, export, or re-export, or the United States for broad-snouted caiman threatened and the accompanying interstate or foreign commerce of products, Argentina will be encouraged special rule allowing commercial trade caiman skins, parts, and products to continue its sustainable-use into the United States without without a threatened species permit management programs. These programs threatened species import permits does otherwise required under 50 CFR 17.32, require annual surveys of wild not end protection for this species, provided the requirements of this populations to ensure biological which remains listed in Appendix II of Special Rule and parts 13, 14, and 23 of sustainability in participating provinces CITES. To the contrary, the special rule 50 CFR are met. and reintroduction of ranched offspring complements the CITES universal We propose to add the Argentine DPS to the wild. The programs also provide tagging resolution. A benefit of this of the broad-snouted caiman to the an economic incentive for local people special rule is that it would reconcile special rule at 50 CFR 17.42(c). This to protect and expand broad-snouted the Act’s requirements for the special rule allows import, re-export, caiman habitat. importation and exportation of and interstate commerce of specimens Argentine broad-snouted caiman parts and products originating only from Effects of This Rule and products shipments into and from Argentina. This proposed rule, in most This rule, if made final, would revise the United States with CITES instances, adopts the existing 50 CFR 17.11(h) to reclassify the broad- requirements.

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In summary, this special rule would from the United States of caiman skins, Section 8(a) of the Act authorizes the prohibit the importation, exportation, other parts, and products will continue provision of limited financial assistance and reexportation of specimens (skins, to require CITES documents. Interstate for the development and management of other parts, or products) of broad- commerce within the United States in programs that the Secretary of the snouted caiman originating from legally imported caiman skins, other Interior determines to be necessary or Argentina or imported from a country of parts, and products would not require useful for the conservation of manufacture or reexport unless the U.S. threatened species permits. endangered or threatened species in following conditions are met: This special rule would allow trade foreign countries. Sections 8(b) and 8(c) (1) Each Argentine broad-snouted through intermediary countries. of the Act authorize the Secretary to caiman skin or part imported, exported, Countries are not considered as encourage conservation programs for or reexported must be tagged or labeled intermediary countries or countries of foreign listed species, and to provide reexport if the specimens remain in in accordance with the CITES assistance for such programs, in the Resolution on a universal tagging Customs control while transiting or form of personnel and the training of system for the identification of crocodile being transshipped through the country, personnel. skins. This does not apply to meat, and provided those specimens have not skulls, scientific specimens, or entered into the commerce of that Section 9 of the Act and its products, or to the noncommercial country. However, the CITES Resolution implementing regulations at 50 CFR part import, export, or reexport of personal on a universal tagging system for the 17.31, set forth a series of general effects in accompanying baggage or identification of crocodile skins prohibitions and exceptions that apply household effects. presupposes that countries of reexport to all threatened wildlife. As such, these (2) Any countries reexporting have implemented a system for prohibitions are applicable to the broad- Argentine broad-snouted caiman skins monitoring skins. snouted caiman. These prohibitions, in or parts must have implemented an Available Conservation Measures part, make it illegal for any person administrative system for the effective subject to the jurisdiction of the United matching of imports and reexports. Conservation measures provided to States to ‘‘take’’ (includes harass, harm, (3) Argentina and any intermediary species listed as endangered or pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, country(s) must be effectively threatened under the Act include capture, or to attempt any of these) implementing CITES as described recognition of conservation status, within the United States or upon the above. If we receive persuasive requirements for Federal protection, and high seas; import or export; deliver, information from the CITES Secretariat prohibitions against certain practices. receive, carry, transport, or ship in Recognition through listing encourages or other reliable sources that a specific interstate commerce in the course of country is not effectively implementing and results in conservation actions by commercial activity; or sell or offer for CITES, we will prohibit or restrict Federal, State, and private agencies and sale in interstate or foreign commerce imports from such country(s) as groups, and individuals. The protection any threatened wildlife species. It also appropriate for the conservation of the required of Federal agencies and the species. prohibitions against take and harm are is illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, In a limited number of situations in discussed, in part, below. transport, or ship any such wildlife that which the original tags from the country Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, has been taken in violation of the Act. of export have been lost in processing and as implemented by regulations at 50 Certain exceptions apply to agents of the the skins, we will allow whole skins, CFR part 402, requires Federal agencies Service and State conservation agencies. flanks, and chalecos into the United to evaluate their actions that are to be Permits may be issued to carry out States if CITES-approved reexport tags conducted within the United States or otherwise prohibited activities have been attached in the same manner upon the high seas, with respect to any involving threatened wildlife species as the original tags and proper reexport species that is proposed to be listed or under certain circumstances. certificates accompany the shipment. If is listed as endangered or threatened Regulations governing such permits are a shipment contains more than 25 and with respect to its proposed or codified at 50 CFR part 17.32. Import percent replacement tags, the U.S. designated critical habitat, if any is into, export from, or reexport from the Management Authority will consult being designated. Because the broad- United States, as well as other with the Management Authority of the snouted caiman’s range does not prohibitions, including movement in reexporting country before clearing the include the United States, no critical the course of a commercial activity and shipment. Such shipments may be habitat is being proposed for sale in interstate or foreign commerce, seized if we determine that the designation with this rule. Regulations of threatened species and their parts and requirements of the Convention have implementing the interagency products, are currently prohibited under cooperation provision of the Act are not been met. the Act unless otherwise authorized. Finally, this special rule would not codified at 50 CFR part 402. Section Authorizations for species listed as cover the importation of viable caiman 7(a)(2) of the Act requires Federal threatened under the Act may be made eggs, gametes, or live caimans into the agencies to ensure that activities they for scientific purposes, to enhance the United States. Importation of these authorize, fund, or carry out are not propagation or survival of the species, specimens would require a threatened likely to jeopardize the continued species import permit and the existence of a listed species or to for economic hardship, for zoological appropriate CITES permit or certificate. destroy or adversely modify its critical exhibition, for educational purposes, for This requirement would allow scrutiny habitat. If a proposed Federal action incidental taking, or for other special of individual applications for may affect a listed species, the purposes consistent with the purposes importation of live caimans, eggs, or responsible Federal agency must enter of the Act. gametes so as to prevent accidental into formal consultation with the Monitoring introduction of this exotic species into Service. Currently, with respect to the United States, which may have broad-snouted caiman, no Federal We will continue to monitor the detrimental effects on U.S. native activities are known that would require status of this species in cooperation wildlife or ecosystems. Reexportation consultation. with the range countries.

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Peer Review summarize the opinions of these recordkeeping requirements, In accordance with our joint peer reviewers in the final decision Transportation. document, and we will consider their review policy with the National Marine Proposed Regulation Promulgation Fisheries Service, ‘‘Notice of input and any additional information Interagency Cooperative Policy for Peer we received as part of our process of For the reasons described in the Review in Endangered Species Act making a final decision on this preamble, we propose to amend part 17, proposal. Such communication may Activities,’’ that published in the subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the lead to a final decision that differs from Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR Code of Federal Regulations, as follows: 34270), and the Office of Management this proposal. and Budget’s Final Information Quality References Cited Part 17—[AMENDED] Bulletin for Peer Review, dated December 16, 2004, we will seek the A complete list of the references used 1. The authority citation for part 17 expert opinions of at least three to develop this proposed rule is continues to read as follows: appropriate independent specialists available upon request from the regarding the science in this proposed Endangered Species Program in our Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 16 U.S.C. rule. The purpose of peer review is to Headquarters office (see FOR FURTHER 1531–1544; 16 U.S.C. 4201–4245; Pub. L. 99– ensure that listing, downlisting, and INFORMATION CONTACT). 625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted. delisting decisions are based on Author 2. In § 17.11(h), the List of scientifically sound data, assumptions, Endangered and Threatened Wildlife, The primary author of this rule is and analyses. We will send copies of revise the entries for ‘‘Caiman, broad- this proposed rule to the peer reviewers Amy Brisendine, Branch of Foreign snouted,’’ ‘‘Caiman, brown,’’ ‘‘Caiman, immediately following publication in Species, Endangered Species Program, common,’’ and ‘‘Caiman, yacare’’ under the Federal Register. We will invite U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 4401 these peer reviewers to comment during North Fairfax Drive, Suite 400, REPTILES to read as follows: the public comment period, on the Arlington, Virginia 22203. § 17.11 Endangered and threatened specific assumptions and conclusions in List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 wildlife. this proposed downlisting of the * * * * * Argentine population (DPS) of the Endangered and threatened species, broad-snouted caiman. We will Exports, Imports, Reporting and (h) * * *

Species Vertebrate popu- Historic lation where endan- Status When Critical Special Common name Scientific name range gered or threatened listed habitat rules

******* REPTILES

******* Caiman, broad- Caiman latirostris ..... Argentina, Bolivia, Bolivia, Brazil, Para- E 15 NA NA snouted. Brazil, Paraguay, guay, Uruguay. Uruguay. Caiman, broad- Caiman latirostris ..... Argentina, Bolivia, Argentina ...... T 790 NA 17.42(c) snouted. Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay. Caiman, brown ...... Caiman crocodilus Mexico, Central Entire ...... T(S/A) 695 NA 17.42(c) fuscus (includes America, Colom- Caiman crocodilus bia, Ecuador, Ven- chiapasius ). ezuela, Peru. Caiman, common .... Caiman crocodilus Bolivia, Brazil, Co- Entire ...... T(S/A) 695 NA 17.42(c) crocodilus. lombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Ven- ezuela. Caiman, yacare ...... Caiman yacare ...... Argentina, Bolivia, Entire ...... T(S/A) 695 NA 17.42(c) Brazil, Paraguay.

*******

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3. Amend § 17.42 by revising (A) Broad-snouted caiman (Caiman (F) Saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus paragraph (c)(1)(i) to read as follows: latirostris) originating in Argentina; porosus) originating in Australia (also referred to as Australian saltwater § 17.42 Special rules—reptiles. (B) Brown caiman (Caiman crocodilus fuscus, including Caiman crocodilus crocodile). * * * * * chiapasius); * * * * * (c) * * * (C) Common caiman (Caiman Dated: December 16, 2011. (1) * * * crocodilus crocodilus); Gregory E. Siekaniec, (i) Threatened crocodilian means any (D) Yacare caiman (Caiman yacare); Acting Director, Fish and Wildlife Service. live or dead specimen of the following (E) Nile crocodile (Crocodylus [FR Doc. 2011–33602 Filed 1–4–12; 8:45 am] species: niloticus); and BILLING CODE 4310–55–P

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