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Thesis Final STATE POWER AND THE REGULATION OF NON-CITIZENS: IMMIGRATION LAWS, POLICIES, AND PRACTICES IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA ALICE MARIA NAH HAN YUONG NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2011 STATE POWER AND THE REGULATION OF NON-CITIZENS: IMMIGRATION LAWS, POLICIES, AND PRACTICES IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA ALICE MARIA NAH HAN YUONG B.A. (Hons), University of Leeds M.Soc.Sci., National University of Singapore A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2011 DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis is my original work and it has been written by me in its entirety. I have duly acknowledged all the sources of information that have been used in this thesis. This thesis has not been submitted for any degree in any university previously. Alice M. Nah 14 July 2012 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am greatly indebted to my supervisor, A/P Roxana Waterson, for her moral and intellectual support during the completion of this research. I am particularly thankful for her constant encouragement and her sensitivity in understanding how personal life sometimes ‘takes over’ during research projects. I would not have completed this work if not for her. I am grateful to the Asia Research Institute for the Research Scholarship that made this dissertation possible. At the Department of Sociology, I enjoyed learning from Professor Bryan Turner, A/P Tong Chee Kiong, and A/P Maribeth Erb, as well as tutoring for A/P Syed Farid Alatas and A/P Vineeta Sinha. I am also thankful to Dr. Nirmala PuruShotam who started me on the path of sociological research exactly a decade ago. I am indebted to Dr. Mizanur Rahman, a friend and colleague in my postgraduate years, who kindly helped me with the submission of this thesis. I am thankful to the members of the Migration Working Group in Malaysia who have been my teachers and colleagues in migration work. In particular, I am thankful to Ivy Josiah, Sharuna Verghis, Renuka Balasubramaniam, Bina Ramanand, Josie Tey, Joachim Xavier, Temme Lee, Daniel Lo, and Gloria Bon for their wisdom and friendship. I also enjoyed many conversations with Dr Patrick Pillai, whose intellectual curiosity and encouragement stirred me on. I thank the Economic Planning Unit for granting me a Research Pass for this project. I also thank the Australian government for the Endeavour Australia Cheung Kong Award that funded a period of research and writing at Monash University, Melbourne, i in 2009. I thank Professor Susan Kneebone for being a warm and engaging supervisor during this period. I thank the Centre for Applied Human Rights at the University of York for hosting me during the final phase of this project. I am thankful to my husband, Martin David Jones, for bringing laughter and companionship to my life. Our daughter, Marianne Immanuelle Jones, arrived as I was completing this thesis, bringing another dimension of joy and light to my life. Finally, I thank my parents, Dr. Nah Seang Hoo and Dr. Chiam Yoke Choo, who raised me to value scholarship, hard work, and perseverance. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements i! Table of Contents iii! Summary vii! Map of Southeast Asia Showing the Location of Malaysia ix! List of Acronyms x! List of Tables xi! List of Figures xi! CHAPTER ONE: STATE POWER, CITIZENSHIP AND POPULATIONS 1! Introduction 1! Non-citizens in Malaysia 4! The Aims of this Research 8! An Overview of Malaysia 9! Theoretical Framework 12! Sovereignty and the State 12! From Sovereign Power to Disciplinary Power and Biopower 13! Government and Governmentality 15! Governmentality: The Mentalities and Techniques of Government 18! Methodological Issues 19! Methodological Approach 19! A Foucauldian Approach to Analysing Laws, Policies and Practices? 22! The Choice of Non-citizen Categories for Analysis 25! Gaps in the Research 26! Research Methods 35! Challenges in Research 39! The Structure of the Thesis 42! CHAPTER 2: CITIZENSHIP AND MIGRATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND MALAYSIA 45! Modernity, Postcolonialism and the Rise of Nation-States 45! Citizenship and Statelessness: Defining Those Who Belong 48! Crossing Borders: Migration and Asylum 52! Regionalism, Human Rights and Migration Policies 58! State Formation and Nation-Building in Malaysia 62! Immigration Before and During British Colonial Administration 63! The Malayan Communist Emergency Period (1948-1960) 67! The Formation of Malaya and Malaysia 69! The Political and Economic Development of Malay(si)a: 1957 to present 72! The Citizenship Laws of Malaysia 76! Citizenship by Operation of Law 77! Citizenship by Registration and Naturalisation 79! The Termination of Citizenship and Dual Citizenship 82! The Legacy of the Emergency for Citizenship and State Power 83! Negotiating Belonging: Contemporary Issues in Citizenship and Migration in Malaysia 85! iii Equal Rights or Bumiputra Special Position 85! The Emigration of Malaysians: A Problem of Disloyalty or Brain Drain? 90! The Marginalisation of (Stateless) Malaysians and Perceptions of the Preferential Treatment of Immigrants 94! Conclusion 95! CHAPTER 3: NON-CITIZENS AND THE MALAYSIAN LEGAL SYSTEM 98! Introduction 98! The Access to Justice Approach 99! The Malaysian Legal System: An Overview 101! The Status and Rights of Non-Citizens in the Law 103! Status and Rights of Non-Citizens as a ‘Person’, ‘Non-Citizen’ and ‘Alien’ 104! Status and Rights as a Worker and Employee 110! Status and Rights as a Trafficked Person or a Smuggled Migrant 116! Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Processes 119! The Department of Labour and the Labour Court 119! The Department of Industrial Relations and Industrial Relations Court 121! Types of Grievances 126! Access to Justice for Non-Citizens 132! Sources of Legal Aid for Non-Citizens 134! Access to Legal Counsel and Representation 137! Economic Barriers to Justice 138! The Relevance and Significance of Legal Status in Accessing Mechanisms for Adjudication 139! Challenges in Enforcement 142! Limitations in the Judiciary 145! Conclusion 146! CHAPTER 4: AUTHORISED MIGRANT WORKERS 147! Ismail: Working For a Brighter Future 147! Introduction 148! Immigration Control of Authorised Migrant Workers 154! Expatriates and Professionals with Temporary Contracts 155! Foreign Workers 159! Foreign Domestic Workers 166! Employer Responsibilities for Foreign Workers and Foreign Domestic Workers168! Employment Agencies for Domestic Workers 170! Outsourcing Companies for Foreign Workers 171! The ‘Absence’ of Agents 174! The Significance of the Immigration Control Regime 176! The Perspectives of Employers 182! The Perspectives of Authorised Migrant Workers 186! Case Law on Authorised Migrant Workers 190! Government Objectives Concerning Authorised Migrant Workers 195! iv Ensuring sufficient labour supply for economic growth while protecting the rights of citizens to employment 196! Reducing dependence on foreign labour 199! Ensuring national security 204! Preserving the ethnic/racial composition of the Malaysian nation 206! Preventing the exploitation of authorised migrant workers 207! Conclusion 208! CHAPTER 5: MIGRANTS WITH IRREGULAR STATUS 211! Titi: Living Invisibly 211! Introduction 212! Immigration Control of Migrants with Irregular Status 215! Amnesties and National Crackdowns 215! Punishment for Immigration Offences: Imprisonment and Whipping 220! The Significance of the Immigration Control Regime 222! The Perspectives of Migrants with Irregular Status 226! Case Law on Migrants with Irregular Status 228! Government Objectives Concerning Migrants with Irregular Status 231! Reducing the numbers of migrants with irregular status 231! Conclusion 233! CHAPTER 6: FOREIGN SPOUSES OF MALAYSIAN CITIZENS 235! Peter: In Pursuit of Love 235! Introduction 236! The Problem of ‘Mixed Marriages’ 236! The Malaysian Government’s Approach to Foreign Spouses: 1980s to Present 238! Immigration Control of Foreign Spouses 242! Permission to Reside and Work as a Foreign Spouse 243! Seeking Permanent Residence Status 246! Prospects for Citizenship 249! The Significance of the Immigration Control Regime 251! The Perspectives of Foreign Spouses 254! Case Law on Foreign Spouses 264! Government Objectives Concerning Foreign Spouses 268! Limiting access to citizenship because of ‘national security’ 269! Attracting ‘talented’ and ‘skilled’ individuals 273! Conclusion 273! CHAPTER 7: ASYLUM SEEKERS, REFUGEES, AND STATELESS PERSONS 275! Aini: Seeking Asylum 275! Introduction 276! Immigration Control and Asylum Seekers, Refugees, and Stateless Persons 284! v Practices of Identification: UNHCR Registration and Refugee Status Determination 285! Practices of Intervention: UNHCR Outreach Protection Intervention 287! The Significance of the Immigration Control Regime 290! The Perspectives of Asylum Seekers, Refugees, and Stateless Persons 293! Case Law on Asylum Seekers, Refugees, and Stateless Persons 298! Government Objectives Concerning Asylum Seekers, Refugees, and Stateless Persons 302! Protecting Malaysia’s international image 302! Demonstrating international solidarity and humanitarian support for Muslim refugees in need 305! Maintaining maximum discretion in decision-making concerning asylum-seeking populations 306! Conclusion 307! CHAPTER 8: ANALYSING STATE POWER 310! Introduction 310! The Limits of State Power 312! Balancing and Aligning Population, Economy and Territory 313! The ‘Globalisation of Political Life’: Global Governance and Diplomacy 317! Managing Citizens’ Expectations and Opinions 322! The Power of Bureaucracy 323! Malaysia’s Mentalities of Government toward Non-Citizens
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