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— CCoontactntact ScenaScenarriosios inin thethe AnglophoneAnglophone WorldWorld — Divisions by region

The British Isles United States Historical contact African England Wales German-influenced English Scotland Cajun English (Lower South of US) Ireland Canada (dialect contact) Europe English in Quebec (contact with French) Malta

South Africa South Asia Afrikaans English Pakistan English South African Indian English South-East Asia Singapore, Malaysia Hong Kong Australia The Philippines AborginalEnglish New Zealand Maori English GeneralGeneral remarksremarks onon LangLanguuageage ccoontactntact Contact: Some preliminary distinctions

1)Language contact is really contact between speakers of different languages.

2)The term language is an abstraction from a certain type of human behaviourinvolving sounds in specific sequences

3)Contact can be motivated by necessity (filling of lexical gaps, new terms for new phenomena, e.g. scientific inventions) but can also be the result of prestige, or just a passing fashion, as with the many borrowings from English which are not strictly speaking needed by the modern European languages which have them. Contact situations

One-way borrowing Receiving language < Donor language Language shift Original language abandoned > All speakers shift to new language Language convergence One or more languages become more similar through borrowing in both directions Linguistic levels and contact Linguistic levels and contact

Levels most affected Vocabulary (loanwords, phrases) Sentence structure, word-order Speech habits (general pronunciation, Suprasegmentals[stress, intonation]) Sounds (present in loan-words) Grammar (morphology: inflections) Levels least affected

HistorHistoriicalcal ccoontactntact sscenarcenariios,os, 11 HistorHistoriicalcal ccoontactntact sscenarcenariios,os, 22 SomeSome tentativetentative cconclusionsonclusions

Language contact can cause considerable structural change if it is very intense. Language shift is a special situation which leads to the transfer of speech habits from the source to the target language. Such features can remain in the target language forming a variety which is seen by later generations as part of their identity. Contacts scenarios with relatively stable bilingualism

n English in Quebec n Chicano English n Maltese English Contacts scenarios with language shift

n Irish English n

n South African Indian English n AborginalEnglish n Maori English Contact scenarios where the outset language is no longer present

n German-influenced English in the US n Other minor varieties where the original language from a shift situation is no longer present (in Cornwall or on the Isle of Man) or whether previous generations of immigrants abandoned their background language entirely. England: contact throughout history England: contact throughout history

Pre-Old English Before the English came to England in the mid 5th century there had been contact with other languages on the continent.

Several words were borrowed from Latin, e.g. cheese, street, wine. These indicate that the Germanic peoples were involved in trade the Romans at the time. England: contact throughout history

Old English When the Germanic tribes came to England in the 5th century they came into contact the British Celtic tribes who were already living in the country. However, few words were borrowed from these groups. With the Christianisation of England in the 7th century (after 597) many words related to church matters were taken from Latin. The Viking invasions, mainly in the 9th century, led to everyday words Old Norse entering northern dialects of English and then spreading to the south. England: contact throughout history

Middle English This period opens with the Norman invasion of England in 1066. With that the French influence on the began. First with words from Anglo-Norman (spoken by the invaders), later one from Central French (the form of language found in writing). French loanwords are still obvious today and occupy a stylistically higher register than inherited Germanic words. England: contact throughout history

Early This begins around 1500 and continues until about 1800 after which one has the Late Modern English period. Many loanwords were taken from the classical languages Latin and Greek (from their written forms, of course) to render terms for all the new developments in science. Furthermore, many words were created to fill lexical gaps, i.e. points in the vocabulary of the language where words were missing or the existing ones inappropriate. Examples are marine, aquatic, equestrian, pedestrian, etc. All these were formed by used classical stems. There are still found today, e.g. marine life, pedestrian zone, etc. England: contact throughout history

Present-day English Although English is the chief donor of words to all the world‘s languages, it still continues to borrow words from others. There are some 20th century loans from German, e.g. Schadenfreude, Ersatz or the loan translation an own goal from Eigentor. From words came via Yiddish, e.g. schmooze `chat, gossip´or schlock `trash´. Words from French continue to enter the language, especially in certain areas such as fashion or cuisine. Wales Wales

Contact with English in Wales goes back to the Old English period when the Germanic tribes were in contact with the Celtic tribes living in the west of Britain. This contact continues to this day in many parts of Wales, in rural areas, but also cities like Swansea in the south. Many Welsh are bilingual, using Welsh in a domestic or familiar context and English on more official occasions. This situation is known as diglossia. Scotland Scotland

The English language in Scotland was brought to the Lowlands as the Anglian dialect in the Old English period. In the course of time this developed into Scots which still exists and which is quite different from forms of English further south. To the north, in the highlands, and in the west, on the islands, Scottish Gaelic was and is spoken. Here English is in contact with the Celtic language and the latter has influenced the type of English spoken there. English was also in contact with forms of Old Norse, especially on the Orkney and Shetland Islands in the far north. Ireland Ireland

English language was brought to Ireland, to the east of the country, in the late 12th century. From the beginning it was in competition with both Norman French and Irish. In the course of the following centuries it retreated and it was not until the 17th century that it came to dominate the entire country. In addition, Scots settled in Ulster and a form of their language, Ulster Scots, developed there. The later history of Ireland is characterised by the shift from Irish to English and the forms of the latter language have been influenced by the Celtic language. Malta Maltese English

The small island of Malta in the central-east Mediterranean Sea was a British colony for a considerable time and the English language managed to catch a foothold there. In addition there is Maltese, a form of Arabic which has been strongly influenced by Italian. Today, English is used widely on Malta, along with Maltese, which has influenced it on all levels of language. The United States The United States: African American English

English came to North America in the 17th century, first to the north-east of the later United States and later spread to the south and east. During the period of slavery (17th to mid 19th century) many Africans were brought via the Caribbean or directly from Africa. The forms of English they acquired on the cotton plantations led to pidgins and later possibly a creole (the native language of later generations). The input of English dialects to African American English in its formative period should not be estimated. The United States: Chicano English

The immigrants from Mexico and other parts of Central America settled largely in the south-west of the United States. The form of English they came to speak is called Chicano English and clearly shows the influence of Spanish. Many other Spanish immigrants also came from other countries, from Puerto Rico (a Caribbean island) and from parts of South America. These people are known collectively as Hispanics. The United States: German-influenced English

Many of the millions of 18th and 19th century European immigrants to the United States were from Germany. Some emigrated for religious reasons, e.g. the Amish of Pennsylvania who formed their own communities in this state. Germans settled throughout the entire country, e.g. in the Mid-West, in states like Wisconsin. Recent work has shown that there are traces of German pronunciation in the English spoken there, for instance in the devoicing of final consonsants. The United States: Cajun English The United States: Cajun English The United States: Cajun English

The are the descendents of French-speaking from New Brunswick in Canada. There were expelled by the British in 1755 after refusing to swear allegiance to the English crown. A few thousand left Canada settling in southern Louisana. The Cajuns community has both French and English speakers. The forms of English have been influence by French which has survived to this day. Apart from Cajun French there is also a variety called Louisana French Creole Canada in Quebec

The French-language in Canada is nowadays spoken chiefly in Quebec where it is the majority language. Quebecois, as the variety is known, is quite removed from standard European French, given its archaic nature and the fact that it has been influenced by English over time. In the opposite direction, the English language in Quebec has undergone change due to prolonged contact with Quebecois. Pronunciation and vocabulary have been influenced and code-switching is common with bilinguals. Newfoundland English in Newfoundland

Newfoundland is actually the oldest New World colony founded by English speakers. In the course of the 18th and early 19th century people who went there founded permanent settlements on the Ireland. The two main groups from the British Isles were from the south-west of England and the south-east of Ireland. These people brought their respective forms of English to the island. Given the remoteness of Newfoundland far out in eastern Canada both dialectal and Irish English survived and mixed in many cases to form a unique dialect of . South Africa Afrikaans English

The Dutch were the first to settle in the cape region of later South Africa after they arrived in 1652. It was not until the end of the 18th century that the English arrived. Later in the 19th centy larger groups came to the Eastern Cape region (in the 1820s) and to the region of present-day KwaZulu-Natal (in the 1840s).

Because of the considerable English presence, the Dutch came to speak English as well. This they spoke with much transfer from Afrikaans, the colonial form of Dutch in South Africa. South African Indian English

Because of the abolition of slavery in the British Empire in 1834, a labour shortage arose in many places. A solution to this difficulty, which the English struck on, was to transport people from South Asia (mostly from India) to other parts of the Empire to fill this labour shortage. Such transportation took place to the Fiji Islands, to the Caribbean and also, between 1860 to1911, to eastern South Africa. Over time, a new variety of English arose which was and is still spoken by the Indian population of South Africa. This shows many traces of the background Indian languages which the first settlers spoke. India English in India

Although India was a British colony for about two centuries there is no settler English there. This is because the English did not send out thousands of people to settle and populate the country as they did in Australia or Canada, for example. English is spoken as a second language by a large section of the Indian population. The degree of competence varies considerably depending on education and social grouping. English in India shows a definite influence from background languages, e.g. in the retroflexion of consonants. The language is also curiously `old-fashioned´ due to the manner in which it has been taught. Pakistan English in Pakistan

Pakistan came into existence as an independent country in 1947 when India gained its independence and two countries arose out of the former British colony. One was Hindi in orientation (India) and one Islamis (Pakistan). The forms of English spoken there show the same type of influence of background Indic languages as do those in India. Australia: Aboriginal English Australia: Aboriginal English

There is a large number of native languages in Australia which are spoken over vast distances. Nowadays the numbers of speakers are very small. In fact, it has been estimated that when the British first came at the end of the 18th century the total number of native inhabitants was around 300,000 in a country which is larger than Europe. Most aborigines (the native people of Australia) are also speakers of English and, depending on what their background language is, this shows interference on different levels, e.g. in pronunciation and phraesology. New Zealand: Maori English New Zealand: Maori English

The Maori are the native people of New Zealand and of Polynesian stock. The British began to settle the two main islands in earnest after the Treaty of Waitangi of 1840 which was very much to the disadvantage of the Maori. As in Australia, the native people of New Zealand are also speakers of English. Those who still speak the language of their ancestors may show traces of this in the form of English they speak. in Singapore

Singapore is a city state at the tip of the Malay Pensinula which was a parts of former British crown colony, the Straits Settlements. The city was founded by Stamford Raffles in 1819 and in the course of the 19th century many Chinese and south Indians settled there along with the native Malay. The English language is officially favoured by the government of Singapore and attempts are being made to foster native speakers of English by exposing children to English from their early childhood and sending them to English-only schools. Nonetheless, vernacular forms of English in the city show the influence of the other languages spoken there. Malaysia English in Malaysia

Similar to Singapore, Malaysia has a colonial background. However, the English language has had a more precarious existence in the country, especially since independence after which the government encouraged the use of Malay to the detriment of English. The Philippines English in the Philippines

The Philippines were originally a Spanish colony and it was not until 1898 that the country passed into American hands. From this time until the 1940s the English language was officially promoted and a section of the native population also learned the language. Forms of English have been and are influenced by the Austronesian languages of the Philippines, notably Tagalog. in Hong Kong

After leasing the New Territories and Hong Kong Island from the Chinese government for 99 years in 1898 the British established their presence in the region and promoted the use of the English language. Since the Handover in 1897 English has receded as a language of everyday communication but retained its functions in business and higher education. Forms of English in Hong Kong have been influenced by Cantonese, the Chinese language spoken in the hinterland of Hong Kong. Literature on language contact

There is a comprehensive set of references for all the anglophone urban scenarios discussed in this presentation. This is available on the same part of the ELE website from which you loaded the presentation.