An Investigation of Dalcroze-Inspired Embodied Movement

AN INVESTIGATION OF DALCROZE-INSPIRED EMBODIED MOVEMENT

WITHIN UNDERGRADUATE CONDUCTING COURSEWORK

by

NICHOLAS J. MARZUOLA

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Dissertation Advisor: Dr. Nathan B. Kruse

Department of Music

CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY

May, 2019

CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

We hereby approve the dissertation of Nicholas J. Marzuola, candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy*.

(signed) Dr. Nathan B. Kruse (chair of the committee)

Dr. Lisa Huisman Koops

Dr. Matthew L. Garrett

Dr. Anthony Jack

(date) March 25, 2019

*We also certify that written approval has been obtained for any proprietary material contained therein.

2

Copyright © 2019 by Nicholas J. Marzuola All rights reserved

3 DEDICATION

To Allison, my loving wife and best friend.

4 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... 5

LIST OF FIGURES ...... 10

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 11

ABSTRACT ...... 13

CHAPTER ONE, INTRODUCTION ...... 15

History of Conducting ...... 16

Ensemble Participation in the United States ...... 23

Community Music ...... 24

Singing Schools and Vocal Music ...... 24

Brass Bands and Orchestras ...... 25

Instrumental Music in the Schools ...... 27

Conducting Education in the United States...... 29

Contemporary Methods of Conducting Pedagogy ...... 30

Conducting Classes Today ...... 31

Embodiment and Disembodiment ...... 33

Embodiment in Music Education ...... 35

Chapter Summary ...... 37

Need for the Study...... 38

Purpose Statement ...... 40

Research Questions...... 40

Definitions ...... 41

CHAPTER TWO, RELATED LITERATURE ...... 43

5 The Mind-Body Problem ...... 44

The Historical Roots of Dualism ...... 45

Mind-Body Problem in Development and Learning ...... 49

Dalcroze Eurhythmics ...... 52

Eurhythmics as an Approach ...... 53

Emile Jaques-Dalcroze before Eurhythmics ...... 57

Eurhythmics in the United States ...... 63

Dalcroze Eurhythmics in Music Education Research ...... 67

Dalcroze in Beginning Conductor Research ...... 70

Chapter Summary ...... 74

CHAPTER THREE, METHODOLOGY ...... 76

Purpose Statement ...... 76

Research Questions...... 76

Qualitative Research ...... 77

Case Study ...... 77

Current Study Design ...... 80

Researcher Lens ...... 81

Personal Considerations ...... 81

Participant Selection ...... 84

Ethical Considerations ...... 85

Data Collection and Analysis ...... 87

Interviews ...... 88

Observation and Field Notes ...... 88

6 Course Documents ...... 89

Participant Journaling ...... 89

Email Communication ...... 89

Data Analysis ...... 89

Trustworthiness ...... 90

Methodological Limitations ...... 91

Reporting the Findings ...... 93

CHAPTER FOUR, FRONTIER STATE UNIVERSITY: MOVING THE BODY ...... 94

Plains, Prairies, and Badlands ...... 94

The Setting: Frontier State University ...... 97

Participants ...... 99

Conducting Class ...... 105

It is About the Body...... 112

Summary ...... 117

CHAPTER FIVE, RIVERS UNIVERSITY: AN EMBODIED PEDAGOGY IN

MOTION...... 119

A Campus, School, and Classroom in Motion ...... 119

The Setting: Rivers University ...... 121

Participants ...... 121

An Embodied Pedagogy in Action ...... 140

Summary ...... 149

CHAPTER SIX, CROSS-CASE ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ...... 150

A Holistic and Embodied Approach ...... 152

7 A Natural Fit for Conducting Education ...... 162

A Vehicle for Discovery ...... 169

Summary ...... 180

CHAPTER SEVEN, PRELIMINARY ASSERTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ...... 181

Preliminary Assertions about the Quintain ...... 181

Confident Conductors ...... 182

Students’ Sense of Body ...... 184

Student Musicality ...... 187

Ability to Gesture ...... 191

The Potential of Plastique Animée ...... 193

Implications for Music Education ...... 195

Implications for Conductor Educators ...... 196

Implications for Schools and Departments of Music ...... 198

Implications for Conductors ...... 199

Chapter Summary ...... 200

CHAPTER EIGHT, SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR

FUTURE RESEARCH ...... 202

Summary ...... 202

Research Questions...... 203

Conclusions ...... 205

Suggestions for Future Research ...... 206

Codetta: All Musical Truth Resides in the Body ...... 210

APPENDIX A, LIST OF SAMPLE CONDUCTING TEXTS ...... 212

8 APPENDIX B, LETTERS OF COOPERATION, IRB PROTOCALS, AND CONSENT

DOCUMENTS ...... 220

APPENDIX C, OPEN-ENDED SEMI-STRUCTURED QUESTIONS FOR

CONDUCTOR EDUCATORS ...... 246

APPENDIX D, OPEN-ENDED SEMI-STRUCTURED QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS

...... 247

APPENDIX E, WEEKLY JOURNAL PROMPTS ...... 248

APPENDIX F, OBSERVATION FIELD NOTES ...... 253

APPENDIX G, IN VIVO CODES WITH FOCUSED CODES ...... 255

REFERENCES ...... 258

9 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 A Hypermodern Conductor (1901) By Hans Schliessmann...... 20

Figure 2.1 The Dalcroze Institute in Geneva (Dalcroze Institute, n.d.) ...... 53

Figure 4.1 Frontier State University's Fine Arts Center ...... 93

Figure 4.2 The choir room at Frontier State University; classroom where the conducting class met ...... 96

Figure 4.3 Frontier State University Campus Map, with Fine Arts Building marked ...... 98

Figure 5.1 Classroom setup for Advanced Conducting at Rivers University ...... 116

Figure 5.2 Information about the Dalcroze method Dr. Hansen wrote on the board for students ...... 116

10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

There are many people who made this project possible and who have helped me immeasurably along the way. I am eternally and deeply grateful for all of you and your support throughout this entire process.

To my dissertation committee, Dr. Nathan B. Kruse, Dr. Lisa Huisman Koops,

Dr. Matthew L. Garrett, and Dr. Anthony Jack, thank you for your time, talents, effort, and insights that helped to strengthen my final manuscript. Your guidance and suggestions assisted me immensely throughout this project.

To my advisor and mentor, Dr. Kruse, your guidance and much-appreciated wit helped me keep going through both the easy and the tough times. You are the model of a wonderful advisor, colleague, and mentor, and I could not have asked for a better committee chair. I never thought that I could complete a research degree, but you have been the perfect guide since the first time I inquired about Case through the conclusion of my dissertation. For that, I will forever be grateful.

To Dr. Koops, thank you for cultivating my writing abilities both in class and within this project. Also, thank you for showing me that it is possible to be both a successful academic and maintain a work-life balance.

To Dr. Garrett, thank you for your insights, especially from the quantitative and choral perspective. Your expertise and perspective in this project really helped me to improve the final draft.

To Dr. Jack, thank you for sharing your vast philosophical and hard-sciences knowledge. I learned a lot from you and your suggestions.

11 To “Dr. Williams,” “Dr. Hansen,” and the students at “Frontier State University” and “Rivers University” who participated in this research. I sincerely want to thank you for your time, energy, and openness. I am in your debt, and am so glad I could explore this topic though meeting and conversing with you.

To my Masters’ advisor, mentor, and friend Dr. Stephen Gage. You both revived my career and inspired this project. I am thankful and honored that you entered my life in more ways than I can ever express.

To my former teachers, John Lenzo, Scott Johnston, Bob Jorgensen, and Dr.

Brandt Payne. You continually inspire me to be a better teacher and musician by the examples you set for me. To my former students, especially in Marietta, Columbus, and

Youngstown, I miss you and always think of you, even if we have fallen out of touch.

Thank you for teaching me how to teach.

To my grandmother Elaine Marzuola, who entered her eternal rest halfway through this degree. I will never forget her kindness, fierce love, or support for her children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren. I know that she is smiling right now, and I hope to live up to her example.

To Mom, Dad, Jason, John, Kim, Andrew, Carrie, Anderson, Ruby, Phoebe, and all of my family and friends. Your love and support has been invaluable and appreciated.

To my wife Allison, who has endured and supported me through five years of my enrollment in graduate school. I look forward to spending more time with you and raising

Bambina together now that I am finished.

12 An Investigation of Dalcroze-Inspired Embodied Movement within Undergraduate

Conducting Coursework

ABSTRACT

by

NICHOLAS J. MARZUOLA

The practice of conducting requires one to take abstract musical ideas and translate them into embodied physical expression to communicate with an ensemble.

Many colleges and universities include conducting in their sequences of study for undergraduate music majors. Often, undergraduate conductors feel like they are uncomfortable with their gestures, even after completing conducting courses (Silvey,

2011). One possible solution for helping students’ self-confidence while conducting is to incorporate embodied methodologies into conductor education. Dalcroze Eurhythmics is one promising option for making conductor education more embodied (Meints, 2014).

The purpose of this adapted multiple instrumental case study was to examine the incorporation of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in undergraduate-level conducting classes. A specific focus was placed on the perspectives of conductor educators who employ

Dalcroze Eurhythmics in their conducting classes and on the perceptions of their students. The following questions guided this research: (a) How do conductor educators incorporate Dalcroze Eurhythmics into their conducting curriculum?, (b) What specific aspects of Dalcroze Eurhythmics systems do conductor educators incorporate into their conducting curriculum?, (c) What benefits and challenges of incorporating Dalcroze

13 Eurhythmics do conductor educators and students identify?, and (d) How do conducting students describe their experience learning conducting through Dalcroze Eurhythmics?

I spent three days each at two universities in the United States and collected data through observation, interviews with faculty and students, participant journaling, email communication, and acquiring class-related documents. My data analysis included transcribing recorded interviews and classroom observations, generating and applying codes, and identifying themes that emerged from the data. Themes that emerged in cross- case analysis included (a) a holistic and embodied approach, (b) a natural fit for conducting education, and (c) a vehicle for discovery. Within the theme of a vehicle for discovery, four sub-themes emerged which were (a) confidence, (b) bodily awareness, (c) musicality, and (d) gesture. I asserted that Dalcroze Eurhythmics can help students develop various aspects of conducting skills and students’ self-efficacy. More research is needed to determine the long-term impact of Eurhythmics on conducting abilities. Future research should also consider the impact of other embodied pedagogies on conductor education.

14 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION Conducting is a skill that requires one to embody musical thought through physical movement. Conductors must take aural and musical ideas and translate them to physical ones. They then must use physical gestures to communicate music to performers through indicating time, style, dynamics, phrasing, balance, articulations, and other assorted components of musical performance. Ensembles typically rely on conductors to provide ensemble cohesion and musical direction. Yet, how do conductors learn to show music through their bodies? To what degree do novice conductors automatically know how to represent music through their bodies from the beginning? In what ways do musical embodiment and gesture develop? Is it possible for conducting teachers to introduce and nurture embodied musical skills through instruction? To what extent can university and college conducting instructors encourage students to demonstrate music through their bodies in beginning conducting courses?

With the intent of understanding practices of teaching and conducting in modern university classrooms, this dissertation focuses on movement that conducting educators have used to teach students through embodied means. Embodied practices and understandings involve the body as part of the learning process. Movement systems are embodied because they are predicated on the notion of teaching information through bodily movement. One such movement system is Dalcroze Eurhythmics. In this dissertation, I will explore Dalcroze Eurhythmics within the domain of conductor education, including definitions and explanations of the system, historical information about the approach, and existing research regarding the use of Eurhythmics in the classroom.

15 In this chapter, I will discuss the development of the act of conducting, the historical incorporation of ensembles in the schools, and how the music education profession has infused conducting and conductor education into its practices. There is also an exploration of embodiment, considerations about conducting, and how learning to conduct can be an embodied process. Finally, I will discuss the need for the study and the research questions that will guide this project.

History of Conducting

Humans have expressed and shared music through gestural communication for many centuries. Historical reference to music gesture dates back to Antiquity (Gerson-

Kiwi & Hiley, 2001; Hickman, 1949; Randhofer, 2004). The earliest recorded form of rudimentary conducting occurred in Babylonian Jewish and ancient Egyptian communities, where people would lead others in musical performance through cheironomy (Randhofer, 2004). Cheironomy is a practice of dictating pitch and rhythm through gesturing of the arms and hands. In ancient Egypt, cheironomy was a system of teaching and communicating music rather than a system of what current musicians consider to be modern conducting (Gerson-Kiwi & Hiley, 2001; Hickmann, 1949). This system of representing music through gesture is still prevalent in societies that descended from the ancient Babylonians and Egyptians, including Coptic, Eastern Orthodox, Roman

Catholic, and Jewish communities around the Middle East and the Mediterranean

(Randhofer, 2004). Because of its survival in these communities today, scholars have suggested that cheironomy influenced gestural development in the Middle Ages, although there is little tangible evidence to support this claim (Gerson-Kiwi & Hiley, 2001).

16 Around the year 1110, Guido de Arezzo pioneered another major advancement in musical gesture through his invention of the “Guidonian Hand,” which incorporated hand gestures similar to cheironomy. De Arezzo’s system included using various parts of the hand to represent different pitches within a medieval hexachord (Palisca, 2013). By pointing to specific points on the hand, a single person could lead a group of people in chant. This system allowed the chant leader not only to indicate pitches to singers but also to specify and guide the chant’s performance tempo. Notably, these early conducting practices existed primarily to indicate pitch and melody instead of musical time (Wissner,

2018). Although current scholarship suggests that there was no explicit connection between cheironomy and the Guidonian Hand, the documented existence of both systems indicates that the use of musical gesture dates back over many centuries (Parrish, 1978;

Szendy 2016). Today, modern society typically considers that one of the main purposes of conducting is to establish time or to keep musicians together temporally (Spitzer et al.,

2001).

The concepts of conducting time and keeping a steady beat did not appear in scholarly writings until the end of the 15th century, four and a half centuries after the invention of the Guidonian Hand (Spitzer et al., 2001). The need for a group of musicians to establish a steady beat, either collectively or through a central authority figure, arose with the development of polyphonic music. Musicians needed a way to organize and keep independent musical lines together. Sixteenth-century treatises advocated that choristers give a visual beat called a “tactus” with their hand to help accomplish this task, whereas treatises on instrumental music proposed that performers tap their toes collectively to maintain a consistent pulse (Davidson, 2005). As choirs grew and practices of antiphonal

17 choral singing became prevalent over the 16th and 17th centuries, more choirs needed a central figure to give and keep musical time. Often, either the choirmaster or a designated singer would hold an implement, such as a small stick or a rolled up piece of paper, and gesture a tactus for a large choir or multiple choirs (Spitzer et al., 2001). Other time- beaters would use large staffs to keep time for choirs, church musicians, and noble court ensembles. One of the most famous users of this large staff was French court composer

Jean-Baptiste Lully (Anthony, 1989). Fatefully, Lully’s rudimentary conducting with his large staff would ultimately kill him, as he accidentally impaled himself with the device while leading a performance of his Te Deum in 1687 (Kropp & Jacobs, 1991). The injury resulted in gangrene, which progressed to a fatal infection that killed the composer 2 months later.

Other musicians found ways to gesture and organize time that were less detrimental to life and limb. With the development of basso continuo as well as larger instrumental ensembles in the 17th century, musicians increasingly needed someone to help facilitate ensemble cohesion and unity. Typically, an instrumentalist within the ensemble would assume these duties (Spitzer et al., 2001). Instead of showing a tactus as in choral settings, the leader often would guide the group by example, or by how they played. The instrumentalist who assumed these duties was usually either a keyboardist or the leading violinist, the predecessor to the modern concertmaster (Brown, 2001). In the case of the lead violinist, their bow movement became a visual representation for keeping the pulse among the orchestra. Eventually, this use of the bow led to the use of a formal wooden baton. One of the earliest adopters of the baton was composer Louis Spohr, who first used the implement in an engagement with the London Philharmonic in 1820,

18 though he only used the baton during rehearsal (Jacobs, 1950). Felix Mendelssohn was one of the first notable musicians to embrace using the baton regularly, making a habit of baton conducting in both rehearsals and performance (Todd, 2003). Mendelssohn not only solidified the use of baton conducting in large ensemble rehearsal and performance, but also introduced systematic rehearsal techniques and other aspects that would become defining characteristics of being a “conductor,” including rehearsal pacing, podium demeanor, and musical leadership (Todd, 2003).

After Mendelssohn, Berlioz furthered the art of baton conducting and described conducting as an expressive and interpretive art rather than one of simple time beating in his seminal conducting treatise in 1856 (Spitzer et al., 2001). Wagner and Mahler broadened the notion that a conductor was to be expressive and interpretive, each known for his distinct and dramatic interpretations of other composer’s works in addition to their own. There were numerous accounts and writings about their expressivity, and how they used physical gesture to encourage musicians to play emotionally (Mauceri, 2017).

Dozens of contemporary newspapers and other publications featured caricatures that depicted (and often mocked) the extremely large and grandiose gestures for which

Mahler would become infamous (Figure 1) (van der Wall van Dijk, 2017).

19

Figure 1.1 A Hypermodern Conductor (1901) By Hans Schliessmann (1852-1920) from (van der Wall van

Dijk, 2017).

Simultaneous to Wagner’s and Mahler’s development of expressive gesturing from the podium, conducting was becoming its distinct part separate from the role of the concertmaster. Although most conductors through the 19th century were also composers, conductors began to emerge whose primary role was to conduct and lead an ensemble.

While not the first of these specialized conductors, the person who was perhaps the most influential in the development of conducting as a profession was Hans von Bülow

(Birkin, 2013; Spitzer et al., 2001).

Bülow began his musical career as a concert pianist and remained popular throughout Europe as a performer during his entire professional career. Bülow changed both the status and responsibilities of the conductor when he assumed the position of director and conductor of the Meiningen Court Orchestra in the 1880s (Walker, 2010).

20 Known for their precision and performance excellence, the Meiningen Court Orchestra became the standard by which other orchestras, especially in Berlin and Vienna, would try to emulate. Bülow’s work with the ensemble both in rehearsal practice and in performance directly resulted in a high standard of musical achievement; Bülow’s appointment and innovations in rehearsal technique as a conductor marked a watershed moment in the conductor’s role in preparing and leading ensembles (Spitzer et al., 2001).

Contemporaries such as Mahler, Damrosch, Bruno Walter, and Tchaikovsky admired

Bülow’s abilities as both conductor and rehearser (Walker, 2010).

Because of his cachet as a respected conductor, Bülow needed a conducting protégé to teach the art of conducting. Apprenticeships were one of the dominant models of learning and education in late 19th century Europe (Berryman, 1991). If one were to become a competent baker, artisan, performance artist, or any other specially-trained professional, they learned from a reputable expert in that field. Bülow eventually found his apprentice in composer Richard Strauss (Kennedy, 1999). After hearing and programming his work Serenade for Winds, op. 7 in 1884, Bülow became interested in the work and future of the 17-year-old Strauss. Bülow was so enamored with the piece that he commissioned the young Strauss to write another work for Meiningen’s players, which would become the Suite for 13 Winds. At the première of his work, Bülow asked

Strauss to conduct but provided little rehearsal time for the young composer. Despite this challenge, the premiere and Strauss’ conducting abilities were a success, and Bülow offered Strauss an assistant conducting position with the Meiningen Orchestra the next day (Linn, 2009). Although most modern classical music connoisseurs know Strauss for his compositions, he first became known around Europe for his work as Bülow’s assistant

21 conductor, and then as a conductor in his own right. Strauss learned the art and practice of conducting by serving as Bülow’s apprentice, immersed in one-on-one interactions and hands-on experiences. This master-apprentice model of teaching and learning conducting was the mode by which many conductors at the turn of the 20th century learned the practice. When one perspective conductor asked Strauss to teach him the art of conducting as an apprentice, Strauss responded that he could teach the student everything he needed to know in only a few minutes; the rest had to come from experience

(Dollman, 2012). Strauss’ attitudes toward learning conducting mirrored those held across many contemporary musical circles throughout Europe.

Contrary to belief in the hands-on and master-apprentice approaches, some conservatories introduced group conducting classes early in the 20th century. One of the earliest schools to introduce conducting classes was the Rimsky-Korsakov Conservatory in St. Petersburg, which began to offer conducting in 1905 (The St. Petersburg State

Conservatory, n.d.). Nevertheless, many European musicians’ sentiments regarding conductor education was that conducting could only be learned through hands-on experience; subsequently, most institutions were slow to introduce conducting classes during the next few decades. The latest of the major European music schools to introduce conducting classes was The Paris Conservatory in 1929 (Galkin, 1989). According to conducting historian Elliot Galkin (1989), conducting was the final course added to the standard music school and conservatory curricula (e.g., theory, ear training, lessons, orchestration) in the majority of American and European music schools. Galkin asserted that early-century conducting paragons such as Furtwangler and Toscanini never taught conducting because they were enculturated in the Straussian master-apprentice attitude

22 that many of the musical elite held. Later, maestros Bernstein and von Karajan taught many students individually, hearkening back to the master-apprentice model that Bülow and Strauss demonstrated many decades earlier. However, the majority of these students studied conducting while attending school or conservatory (Galkin, 1989).

By the middle of the 20th century, virtually every conductor participated in music school or conservatory-level conductor training before matriculating to experience in the field (Galkin, 1989). These conductors ranged from conductors of major orchestras in

Europe and America; to band, choir, and orchestra directors at colleges and universities; to music educators working with middle school and high school music programs.

However, it is unclear how these conductors learned to use gesture and body movement in their conducting. For American conductors, some of the solutions to these questions were found in the evolution of music education in the United States, including the sudden need to prepare conductors for school and community music programs.

Ensemble Participation in the United States

Music has been an integral part of community and public school culture in the

United States since the 18th century (Colwell et al., 2013; Keene, 2009). A large part of

American musical culture has included participation in and performances of large conducted ensembles. Americans first embraced community music, which then led to promoting choir, band, and orchestra offerings in public schools by the 1930s; with the popularity of ensembles in the schools came the need to prepare music educators who could conduct these groups. In the following section, I will briefly trace the history of how music became a part of the American educational system, including its origins in community music, how vocal music entered the classroom, the history of American

23 instrumental music, and finally, how instrumental music became a standard part of most schools’ curriculum.

Community Music

Community music has been a hallmark of American music and musical expression from the landing of European immigrants on Plymouth Rock through the New

Immigration of the 19th and 20th centuries (Roediger, 2005). Beginning with the earliest

Anglo European settlers, Americans lived and congregated in groups of similar ethnic origin and cultural background (Walzer, 1980). The cultural aspects shared among these pluralistic groups of people included religion, culinary taste, and fine art. As America grew, this trend of settling and living in ethnic communities continued through the arrival of Eastern and Central Europeans in the New Immigration period of the late 19th and early 20th centuries (Roediger, 2005). Anglo and Germanic migrants brought with them aspects of Western European art and culture, including art music and large ensembles

(Dinnerstein & Reimers, 2009). As settlers formed communities and began to interact with one another, these musics eventually combined and evolved into distinctly American iterations of musical expression; however, this music largely retained much of the

European character that immigrants brought across the Atlantic. One of the forms of music that was part of the development of American music culture was vocal music, particularly because it was integral to the faith-based aspects of the American ethos.

Singing Schools and Vocal Music

Vocal music was the first widespread musical offering available to students in the

United States. The American singing school movement began in New England in the latter decades of the 18th century as a place for children to learn how to read music and

24 sing, especially for religious purposes in various American Protestant churches (Birge,

1937). Singing schools were the foremost places for teaching music to large numbers of people in early American cities. Lowell Mason (1792-1872) founded a particularly successful singing school in Boston in 1833, which became incredibly popular within its first two years of existence (Eskew et al., 2001). Because of the singing school’s success, the Boston Public Schools requested that Mason introduce his singing school method into their classrooms in 1837. This event was a turning point in American music education, as it marked the first time that a school system implemented an organized method of music education as a part of its curriculum. Over the proceeding decades, many other American schools introduced oratorio-singing ensembles, glee clubs, and other forms of vocal music (Keene, 2009). In a rapid surge of popularity, school choirs emerged in schools around the United States in the late 1920s and early 1930s. The American school was a place where people could learn about and perform vocal music in addition to churches and other faith-based organizations. While vocal music established itself in the schools, instrumental music was taking shape in the community, and eventually, became part of the schools as well.

Brass Bands and Orchestras

One of the earliest community performance groups that flourished in America was the local brass band. These ensembles were descendants of British bands formed in the early 19th century (Newsome, 1979). Employees at various factories and corporations in Britain formed these ensembles for morale and musical enjoyment, and immigrants to

America brought the practice with them. A musician within the group typically led the others; often the lead or melody playing soprano cornetist or saxhornist assumed this role.

25 This tradition was quite similar to the one found in European orchestras at the time, in which the leading violinist or concertmaster gave musical direction. The popularity of the

American brass band continued into the American Civil War, where many regiments on both sides of the Mason-Dixon utilized brass ensembles for musical entertainment as well as to signal military commands. After the war, these musicians formed community-based civic bands that adorned town squares and gazebos throughout the United States for the rest of the 19th and into the early 20th century.

Orchestral music also gained immense popularity in America during the 19th century, but its trajectory of development was different from that of the community band.

Moravian immigrants formed the first known string ensembles in the United States in the late 18th century in North Carolina and Pennsylvania (McCorkle, 1956). These ensembles existed to accompany religious ceremonies rather than as a concert ensemble (Elson,

1915). Americans initially heard orchestras outside of religious contexts as accompaniment for plays and public dances, performances in public parks, and entertainment in restaurants (Spitzer, 2012). As the 19th century progressed, immigrants

(mainly Germanic) formed societies and institutions in part for promoting the orchestral music of their homeland (Root, 2012). However, these societies also symbolized a desire for some Americans to elevate certain aspects of musical performance and culture over other forms of music by the end of the century. To that end, orchestras became an allegory for social status; the orchestra represented aristocratic attitudes through the medium of art music (Root, 2012).

Lawrence Levine described this phenomenon in his seminal book,

Highbrow/Lowbrow (1988), as the sacralization of culture in America. To assert their

26 cultural superiority over other groups, wealthy native-born and German-American immigrants sought to make certain aspects of art and culture “sacred” or considered of a higher nature than that of the cultural other (Taylor, 2007). According to Levine, the orchestra represented a form of highbrow music, resulting in the formation of orchestras and philharmonic societies in almost every major American metropolis during the latter half of the 19th century that promoted the orchestra as the epitome of artistic integrity.

Whereas the band was popular in small towns, the orchestra was popular among the well- to-do in large American cities. Although orchestras in many American cities have attempted to reach a wider audience in recent years through events such as free community performances and playing movie soundtracks while simulcasting the film, societal perceptions about the orchestra representing the socio-economically advantaged continued into the 20th century and remain today (Chang, 2017).

Instrumental Music in the Schools

The popularity of the band and orchestra in the United States eventually led to the incorporation of instrumental music into American public schools. The first instrumental music offering that gained widespread traction in the schools was the school orchestra. In the mid-19th century, some schools in cities such as Chicago, Cincinnati, and suburbs on the east coast offered orchestra as an extracurricular activity outside of the school day

(Clague, 2012; Humphreys, 1995). During the American Reconstruction after the Civil

War, bandmaster Patrick Gilmore and the Handel and Haydn Society organized musical festivals across the nation that featured adolescent ensembles. These adolescent musicians frequently performed successful concerts, which inspired school leaders to incorporate ensembles into their curricula (Colwell et al., 2013). As a result, various

27 schools began to offer instrumental ensembles by the turn of the 20th century. The most popular of these ensembles was the school orchestra, which experienced a golden age in the period between 1900 and the 1920s (Humphreys, 1989). The school orchestra was so prolific by the 1920s that national orchestra contests emerged, which were both well attended and highly competitive (Hash, 2016).

Around 1920, changes in American values and societal development prompted a shift to the school band as the most popular instrumental ensemble in American schools.

Accompanying the United States’ involvement in World War I was an intense explosion in patriotism, and with it, an instillation of American militaristic values in the nation’s public schools (Whitehill, 1969). Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (R.O.T.C.) programs became ever more popular, and with them, R.O.T.C. associated bands. These school bands became the predominant choice to play for community events, and eventually, as stand-alone concert ensembles in the following decades. Additionally, school administrators increasingly added extracurricular sports activities into their schools in the early 20th century, initiating the boon of marching and pep bands that soon followed

(Colwell et al., 2013). Because of their popularity as an ensemble that represented both patriotic and athletic sentiments of early 20th century Americana, the band quickly became the most popular ensemble in American schools, effectively replacing the school orchestra as the instrumental ensemble of choice by the end of the 1930s (Keene, 2009).

Due to financial unsustainability in the professional and community concert bands, the propagation of school bands also effectively replaced the American community-based band with the school-based model in communities across the nation during this same period (Rhodes, 2007).

28 With the popularity of music ensembles in schools across the nation, music teachers had to have some conducting knowledge and ability to lead a band, choir, or orchestra program effectively. As these three types of ensemble were included more and more in local school curricula, schools needed to find teachers who possessed knowledge related to teaching ensemble classes, including the ability to conduct. By the middle of the 1930s, almost every school system in the United States offered large ensembles as part of their secondary school curriculum (Keene, 2009). Because of the nature of music education and large ensemble participation in American schools, college music teacher education programs in the United States found it necessary to prepare teachers for conducting and rehearsing ensembles in the schools.

Conducting Education in the United States

By the 1930s, the meteoric rise of ensemble popularity in the schools facilitated the need for music schools, especially music teacher preparation programs, to include conducting in their curriculum (Keene, 2009). American music schools did just that, albeit not consistently. Elizabeth A. H. Green, considered one of the world’s most important conducting pedagogues, lamented this aspect of conductor education in a 1961 article in the Music Educators Journal (Green, 1961a). Green stated that she observed students who possessed adequate baton technique, yet many others were unprepared to conduct, especially before entering the field as music educators. She asserted that this disparity occurred because various schools offered a varying range of conducting educational experiences. Some institutions offered two or more semesters of conducting.

Other institutions folded conducting into the curriculum in other courses, such as part of an instrumental methods course, rather than offering a standalone conducting class.

29 Because conducting was a skill that music educators often used in the classroom, Green recommended that music education programs should include more conducting education to prepare preservice music teachers for their duties as ensemble teachers.

Coinciding with her call in the article for a change in the way that American music schools taught conducting, Green also released the first edition of her now ubiquitous book, The Modern Conductor (1961b). Within the text are exercises that are designed to help develop gestural clarity as well as right and left-hand independence; much of its content is rooted in the conducting practices of Russian conductor Nikolai

Malko. Her suggestions for change appear to have altered the trajectory of conducting courses, as her text has become a standard conducting method, especially regarding gestural ideas in conducting classes across the United States (Hannah-Weir, 2013).

Contemporary Methods of Conducting Pedagogy

Green’s (1961a, 1961b) work, along with the efforts of conducting educators at various universities, helped to establish a somewhat standard method of teaching conducting across the country. The Modern Conductor (Green, 1961b) is a popular book that is used in conducting courses, especially within second or third-semester undergraduate classes and with conducting graduate students (various personal communications, 2014-2018). Green included physical movement discussions in the text to facilitate students’ gestural and conducting pattern development. The movements that

Green incorporated were exercises for left-right hand independence, examples of metric patterns, and descriptions of different gestures.

Conductor educators typically incorporate a variety of other texts and methods into undergraduate conducting curricula, aside from Green (1961b). One such work is On

30 Becoming a Conductor by Frank Battisti (2007). The work contains exercises for pattern and gestural development, as well as advice on administering music programs. Another text is Hunsberger’s and Ernst’s The Art of Conducting (1992), which contains basic elements of conducting patterns, as well as exercises meant for learning conducting in group settings, such as a conducting classroom.

The Green (1961b), Battisti (2007), and Hunsberger (1992) textbooks, and others like them, contain valuable information about pattern, gesture, podium presence, score study, and other aspects necessary for being a conductor. (A sample list of conducting textbooks can be found in Appendix A.) While these texts can be beneficial for teaching multiple, introductory facets associated with conducting and basic gesturing, they do not contain information that guides beginning conductors in learning how to connect musical ideas and elements of a score to their embodied physical movements. The most valuable combination of time keeping, musical understandings, and body movement in conducting education is unknown. An exploration of embodied movement in conducting coursework might be a way to explore how these elements are connected.

Conducting Classes Today

Instructors at various colleges and universities teach conducting in disparate ways, and institutions vary in the number of required semesters or hours of study that they offer (Manfredo, 2008). The National Association of Schools of Music (NASM) requires that accredited institutions provide conducting instruction for all undergraduate music students (2017). The organization also states in their official accreditation requirements that rehearsal and conducting techniques are important for music majors to acquire during their undergraduate studies (NASM, 2017). Yet, the guidelines that

31 NASM lists are vague regarding how many semesters or hours of experience satisfy this requirement. For music education programs, NASM’s official accreditation document simply states that music education majors must be “competent” in their conducting abilities (NASM, 2017, p. 117). This ambiguity in requirements translates to a large variance in both the way that conducting is taught and the amount of conducting experience that colleges and universities offer (Boardman, 2000; Manfredo, 2008;

Runnels, 1992).

The broad scope of NASM’s requirements for the implementation of conducting education has led to a disparity in the way that conducting is taught in various institutions. This variety in conducting education has possibly led to a variety of undergraduate experiences. In one study about the undergraduate conducting education,

Silvey (2011) examined the perceptions and attitudes of 173 undergraduate preservice music teachers from a wide variety of NASM-accredited institutions regarding their conducting class experiences. Silvey determined that preservice music teachers indicated various levels of comfort in conducting ability and acquired skills during their undergraduate conducting experience; participants reported that they regularly felt a lack of security with gestures and using gestural communication. Additionally, the participants also reported the need for more podium time during their conducting education. Silvey suggested that conducting faculty should spend more time teaching expressivity and elements of gesture to help students become more comfortable with those aspects of conducting. Regardless of how an institution incorporates conductor education into its curriculum, conductor education could potentially include methods that help undergraduate conductors develop gestures and expressive communication. Gestures and

32 physical communication are integral to conducting efficacy, and because preservice teachers have reported a lack of comfort in gesturing, conducting educators could seek out ways to help preservice music teachers improve their gestural comfort and knowledge. Teaching through embodied means, or in a way that incorporates students’ physical movements, might hold promise for such endeavors.

Embodiment and Disembodiment

Embodiment refers to the act of representing or understanding a concept through physical means using the human body (Leman, 2007). Demonstrating and signaling music through physical gesture is an embodied process (Leman & Maes, 2014).

Embodiment is a broad topic, but at its core is the notion that human beings learn, communicate, understand, exhibit, operate, and engage in other activities through the body (Csordas, 1994). From the embodied viewpoint, the mind and the body are inextricably connected, working as a congruous whole to take in stimuli and to execute functions. Pedagogues who teach movement within their respective fields, such as acting, dance, and athletics (Stucky & Tomell-Presto, 2004) typically teach using embodied techniques and methodologies.

Conversely, when one treats a process or activity performed by someone as happening separately through either the mind or the body, they are treating the activity as disembodied. In the disembodied view, the mind affects actions in the body and, likewise, the body affects thoughts in the mind. People who possess disembodied thought maintain that the mind and body are separate, disconnected systems that influence one another.

33 The debate surrounding the level of connectedness between the mind and the body has endured for centuries (Csordas, 1994). During Greek Antiquity, Plato described aspects of thought, or the mind, and the physical world, including our bodies, as two distinct individual aspects of the existing world. In the 16th century Enlightenment,

Descartes furthered these notions by proposing that the mind is separate from and in control of the body, resulting in what philosophy now refers to as mind-body dualism.

Many of today’s Western scientists, philosophers, researchers, and teachers tend to fall into the disembodied camp, the result of years of philosophical Cartesian mind-body dualism that has dominated common philosophical thought since the Enlightenment

(Columbetti, 2010). Applied to education, an instructor’s personal view of whether knowledge is embodied or disembodied can affect what they teach in their classes (Latta

& Buck, 2007). Music educators are likely prone to teach influenced by their embodied or disembodied interpretations.

However, a disembodied approach seems to run counter to musical experiences, and, specifically, to the act of conducting. Because musical gesture involves the demonstration of a musical concept formed in the mind through physical means in the body, conducting is an embodied activity. Yet, many conducting educators could hold a disembodied view, and a disembodied perspective inadvertently might influence the way that they teach conducting and musical gesture. From a disembodied perspective, musical gesture results from one forcing the body to demonstrate a musical idea in the mind.

Someone who holds the embodied view, in contrast, would consider the gesture an integral part of the music itself, demonstrated through a specific movement. Belief in either of these two perspectives would impact conducting instructors’ teaching of musical

34 gesture. A complete discussion of embodied and disembodied approaches, and their relevance to conducting, can be found in Chapter 2.

Embodiment in Music Education

The concept of embodiment has become a topic of discussion in music education research in recent decades (Fortuna, 2017; Juntunen, 2002; Juntunen & Hyvonen, 2004).

Typically, music training in America and Europe adheres to a conservatory approach, which focuses on the cerebral aspects of musicianship such as musical theory, part- writing, ear-training, memorization of historical facts, and other aspects (Jones, 2009).

Students within this model learn by analyzing scores and sheet music in music theory classes, memorizing facts and data in music history classes, performing in various ensembles, and spending time weekly with master teachers on their particular instrument or music-making endeavor. The majority of these music teaching and learning techniques focus on mental knowledge and performance training, and rarely involve physicality or kinesthetic learning (Jones, 2006). However, researchers and scholars within music education, musical movement, and cognition have explored the mind-body connection in an effort to make music learning more embodied.

Musical movement can be useful in developing music cognition. Recent research has indicated that movement exercises and training, such as those found in Dalcroze

Eurhythmics, Orff-Schulwerk, and Kodály, can have a positive affect both musically and extra musically on the human brain (Ahokas, 2015; Gerson, Schiavio, Timmers, &

Hunnius, 2015; Janzen, 2014; Kozak, 2015; Toiviainen, Luck, & Johnson, 2010;

Venetsanou, Donti, & Koutsouba, 2014; Wang, 2008; Zachopoulou, Derri, Chatzopoulos,

& Ellinoudis, 2003). Research also has shown that musical movement activities are

35 useful for developing musicianship at all ages (Toiviainen, Luck, & Johnson, 2010;

Zachopoulou, Derri, Chatzopoulos, & Ellinoudis, 2003). Specifically, music educators have used Dalcroze Eurhythmics at all levels from elementary to university as a way to incorporate movement-based activities into the music classroom (Gambetta, 2005;

Juntunen, 2002; Juntunen & Hyvönen, 2004; Neidlinger, 2003; van der Merwe, 2015).

Because of their embodied natures and their potential for encouraging students to learn through movement, these two systems have been used to teach conducting.

Discourse surrounding the body’s connection to music learning began well over a century ago, despite the fact that embodiment only became a popular paradigm within discussions in most other fields in the last few decades (Juntunen, 2002). In the late 19th century, Swiss pedagogue Emile Jacques-Dalcroze (1865-1950) perceived a lack of musicality in his students, and identified a lack of physical connection to the music as a hindrance in their ability to be musically expressive and accurate. Students were proficient technically, but they needed to develop both rhythmic and pitch-matching accuracy. It was in these solfège courses that Dalcroze began to experiment with and develop what he eventually called the Eurhythmics system. (Dalcorze, 1921). Dalcroze described musicians at the turn of the 20th century as “automatons,” who learned technical movement and facility in robotic fashion, but as a result, had no exposure or training in musical expressivity (Dalcroze, 1921, p. 16). To combat this notion of automaton-like musicality, Dalcroze developed Eurhythmics as a system that imparted musicality through physical gesture and expression. Dalcroze recognized the limitations of Cartesian mind-body separation expressed within music instruction at the time, and developed a pedagogical system that attempted to rectify that problem.

36 Dalcroze Eurhythmics has been a popular system for teaching musical concepts through movement in the 20th and 21st centuries (Butke & Frego, 2017; Carnegie Melon

University, n.d.; Dalcroze Society of America, n.d.; Juntunen, 2002; Spector, 1990; van der Merwe, 2015). Although Eurhythmics is used in the realm of elementary general music (Butke & Frego, 2017; Juntunen, 2004; Liao, 2002), music educators have used it in classrooms with students of all ages and in different situations (O’Leary, 2010; van der

Merwe, 2015; Walker, 2007). Chapter 2 includes a full discussion of Eurhythmics in music education research. Despite the prevalence of the system in classrooms with students of all ages, no known empirical studies have documented the use of Eurhythmics within university-level conducting courses (Meints, 2014).

Chapter Summary

Music leaders have been communicating though physical action for centuries, but the art of conducting itself has become important in the last few centuries as music has become increasingly complex (Spitzer, et al, 2001). With the development of Western art music, music simultaneously became more emotive and expressive in nature, especially during the Romantic era. Because music contained more expressive elements, conductors needed to incorporate more expressive gestures into their conducting in addition to the basic principles of time, beat, pattern, and shape. Due to conducting’s development into a prominent role, music conservatories and music schools in America and Europe began to incorporate conducting courses into their regular curricula at the turn of the 20th century.

Specifically in America, choral, orchestral, and concert band ensembles have served religious, civic, and military functions throughout the nation’s history. Because of the importance of music within American society, ensembles gradually became part of the

37 curricula within American schools. As a result, ensembles became a staple of American music education. Because preservice teachers are likely going to conduct after graduation, they need to develop gestures and expressive conducting abilities that go beyond the scope of traditional conducting textbooks. Learning through the body and creating musical mind-body connections might help preservice teachers cultivate their gestural and expressive conducting capabilities before entering the music classroom.

Need for the Study

Conducting is an activity that requires a music leader, director, or teacher to provide physical and gestural communicative ideas to a group of performing musicians.

Musicians must watch and receive communication and information from conductors, and translate those ideas into sound. Because secondary music teachers rehearse and conduct ensembles, music teacher preparation programs at conservatories and schools of music teach preservice music teachers how to conduct and rehearse an ensemble. Although preservice teachers typically receive two to three semesters of conducting and rehearsal technique development (Manfredo, 2008; NASM, 2017), most in-service teachers continue to develop gestural clarity and effectiveness after entering the field as full-time teachers. However, the way that conducting educators teach conducting varies from institution to institution because of differences in instructor philosophies, time allotted for conducting instruction, specific course content, and other factors. One of the most influential factors that can affect how students learn to conduct may be their conducting instructor’s individual beliefs about the connection of body and mind.

Additionally, Western society has struggled with the concept of the mind-body relationship, and how they are interconnected with one another. Some music teachers,

38 including those who teach conducting, likely teach in ways that are disembodied, or that discount the role of the body in understanding and demonstrating musical thought.

Knowledge is often disseminated through verbal communication, written work, or musical performance from sheet music in music courses. A number of conducting teachers might teach concepts and ideas in an exclusively cerebral fashion, such as through reading, writing, and class discussion, but might not teach using methods that incorporate mind-body connections. Pedagogues in other movement-heavy disciplines such as acting (Stucky & Tomell-Presto, 2004), have circumvented the mind-body problem by extensively incorporating movement into their courses and training programs.

The conservatory model that many higher-education music programs utilize might prevent incorporation of teaching techniques that include the body. Conversely, some music educators, including conducting teachers, have found ways to incorporate movement into their courses (Aubin, 2010; Meints, 2014; Neidlinger, 2003). These educators successfully found ways to encourage students to construct meaningful connections between their minds and bodies.

To help develop students’ gestures as well as expressive conducting, some conductor educators have incorporated movement in their conducting classes, including exercises from Dalcroze Eurhythmics. Scholarship in practitioner-level journals has addressed the use of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in conductor education (Dickson, 1992;

McCoy, 1994) as well as basic examinations of Eurhythmics in various schools’ conducting classes (Meints, 2014). However, there is no known research regarding the use of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in conducting classes from an empirical or investigatory perspective. This study will address the lack of research by describing the use of

39 Dalcroze Eurhythmics in conducting classes, including perspectives of teachers who incorporate these movement systems, as well as their respective students.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this adapted multiple instrumental case study was to examine the incorporation of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in undergraduate-level conducting classes. A specific focus was placed on the perspectives of conductor educators who employ

Dalcroze Eurhythmics in their conducting classes, and on the perceptions of students who are enrolled in these classes. The following questions guided this research:

Research Questions

1. How do conductor educators incorporate Dalcroze Eurhythmics into their

conducting curriculum?

2. What specific aspects of Dalcroze Eurhythmics systems do conductor educators

incorporate into their conducting curriculum?

3. What benefits and challenges of incorporating Dalcroze Eurhythmics do

conductor educators and students identify?

4. How do conducting students describe their experience learning conducting

through Dalcroze Eurhythmics?

In this dissertation, I will explore the perceived disconnect between knowledge learned in the classroom and expressive physical and gestural communication on the podium. I will present evidence that much of the learning and teaching that we experience in music education is disembodied in nature, and that this disembodiment contributes to the initial struggle of learning to communicate musical ideas and musicality through physical conducting gesture. I will then explore the practices of

40 conductor educators who employ embodied means of teaching in their own classrooms.

These conductor educators use specific body movement systems such as Dalcroze

Eurhythmics to encourage students to think and communicate musical ideas through embodied means. I will explore the perceptions of these educator participants and their students about the benefits and drawbacks of teaching conducting through specific movement systems. My intention is to discover the perceptions and attitudes of conducting faculty and their students regarding the use of Eurhythmics in the conducting classroom. Chapter 2 continues this line of discussion and includes additional details related to the mind-body problem and Dalcroze Eurhythmics.

Definitions

Cartesian. From the ideas, writings, and philosophies of Descartes. “Descartes’.”

Cheironomy. A practice dating back to Antiquity of dictating pitch and rhythm through gesturing of the arms and hands

Conducting educator. A university individual faculty member who teaches conducting to students at the college or university level.

Descartes. Enlightenment era philosopher (1596-1650) who, among many other philosophic, scientific, and mathematic advancements, proposed that the mind and body are two separate but connected entities. Famously stated, “I think, therefore, I am,” signaling an attitude of the mind being the most important aspect of humanity, as well as exuding control over the body.

Disembodied. Antonym of Embodied. A notion, philosophy, or belief that the body is not explicitly connected to the human mind.

41 Disembodiment. The notion that a concept, typically the mind or soul, is separate from the physical body.

Embodied. Including the body. Within philosophy and cognition, considering the body and the mind as an inseparable and congruous system.

Embodiment. The act notion of representing or understanding a concept through physical means using the human body (Leman, 2007).

Emile Jacques-Dalcroze. Music pedagogue (1865-1950) who invented Eurhythmics as a way to help conservatory students develop musical expression.

Eurhythmics. A system invented by Emile Jaques-Dalcroze that uses movement to facilitate acquisition of musical knowledge in learners (Juntunen, 2002). Also referred to as “Dalcroze Eurhythmics,” The “Dalcroze method,” and the “Dalcroze approach.” The method has four distinct branches: eurhythmics (lowercase e), solfège, improvisation and plastique animée.

Gesture. In conducting, a physical act to demonstrate musical characteristics such as style, volume, tempo, and phrasing to an ensemble.

Master-apprentice model. A system of education featuring an experienced professional teaching a skill, trade, or knowledge to a less- or non-experienced person, typically in one-on-one settings. The dominant models of learning and education in late 19th century

Europe (Berryman, 1991).

Mind-body dualism. The philosophical notion that the mind and body are two distinct and separate entities that communicate with one another.

Mind-body problem. Questions about how the mind and body interact with one another.

Tactus. Visual representation of steady beat.

42 CHAPTER TWO

RELATED LITERATURE The previous chapter provided an overview of the history of conducting and music education in America. Following that was a discussion on how these histories influenced the role of American music teachers, who eventually needed to learn how to conduct as part of their teaching responsibilities. Chapter 1 also outlined the development of conductor education, and how conflicting attitudes toward mind-body dualism may have influenced the ways in which conducting educators approached conducting with undergraduate students for a large part of the 20th and 21st centuries. Conducting educators who include movement systems in their coursework could help conducting students gain a stronger connection between mind and body while learning how to conduct, especially in students’ gestural and expressive choices on the podium.

This chapter provides further context for what philosophers call the mind-body problem. The mind-body problem will then be related to dualism and embodiment, which have been sources of debate within music education and conducting research. The chapter then details historical background of the embodied pedagogical systems of

Dalcroze Eurhythmics and how it incorporates the body related to musical concepts.

Finally, this chapter discusses research regarding the incorporation of Eurhythmics into conducting education curricula.

43 The Mind-Body Problem

How do scientists, philosophers, researchers, and educators reconcile, or at the very least, explain how the conscious mind and physical body interact with one another?

According to Putnam (2000), this question has been at the center of countless debates for millennia in various cultures around the globe. Questions regarding how the mind and body interact with one another created what scholars called the mind-body problem

(McGinn 1989; Nagel, 1998, Putnam, 2000). Specifically in Western thought and philosophy, Rene Descartes (1596-1650) explored and changed the debate during The

Enlightenment (1620-1789), when he espoused that a division exists between the mind and the body (Skirry, 2016). In doing so, Descartes established the notion that humans are firmly dualistic in nature, or in other words, that people exist as two distinct entities: mind and body. Cartesian (Descartes’) dualism influenced philosophers, scholars, and society in general for centuries after The Enlightenment into modern thought (Alsop,

2005). In recent decades, scholars in fields such as anthropology (Csordas, 1994), philosophy (Robinson, 2003), sociology (Bendelow & Williams, 1995), feminist theory

(Bickford, 1997), health sciences (Mehta, 2011), and education (Bereiter, 2005) have sought ways to reject dualism, and to explore how the mind-body problem can be rectified in each of their respective fields. By practicing strict dualism and eliminating the body from considerations about how humans think, learn, and interact, the resulting description of the human mind is incomplete, because human beings learn through and use the physical body in conjunction with the mind.

44 The Historical Roots of Dualism

The concept of mind-body separation implies that human beings exist in binary, or are dualistic in nature. Historically, scholars considered Classic Greek philosopher

Plato (428-348 BC) as the first philosopher who described humans as existing as two divided entities (Robinson, 2016). Plato’s philosophy of “dualism” posited that humans exist as the soul (which included the intellect), and as a physical body. However, Plato was not the only philosopher who described the world as existing in pairs. For centuries,

Western thought has defined much of the human perception of the world in two natures.

Civilizations have developed such binaries as good and evil, God and Satan, life and afterlife, male and female, Occident and Orient, and so on (Benson, 2002). Plato’s dualism dominated the philosophical notions of Western thinkers for the next few centuries, including early Christendom and the Middle Ages (Robinson, 2016). Later,

Descartes and Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) reconsidered the works of Plato, and furthered the notion that human beings existed in a dualistic nature of soul (later called the mind), and body. The following sections detail the ideas of each philosopher and a discussion of how mind-body dualism has influenced music education and conducting education.

Descartes and The Enlightenment. The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a period of philosophical evolution and scientific advancement in 18th century Europe (Roberson, 2016). One of the central tenets of the Enlightenment was that people should define and construct all knowledge through objective reason. Descartes was one of the chief philosophers during this period, and espoused that thoughts and ideas could only be true if they could be logically rationalized (Lacey, 1996). As part of

45 his philosophy, Descartes described a new way of justifying the human experience and existence, inspired partly by Platonic dualism. Cartesian (Descartes’) philosophy suggested that humans exist as two substances: mind and matter (Hatfield, 2016).

Descartes proposed this notion in his text, Meditations (1641). Famously, this discourse produced a philosophy that would sway the development of Western society for the next few centuries: the idea of mind-body dualism.

Descartes described how each of the two parts made up the human being. He believed that the mind was not only separate from the body, but also that it indeed controlled the body and was the primary agent in the existence of humanity (Kim, 2000).

This mode of thinking initiated a string of events that affected Western society in various forms, including strong implications in medicine, philosophy, psychology, and the humanities (Vertinsky & Hargreaves, 2006). Cartesian dualism influenced considerations of physicality, which in turn disembodied Western thought, and, perhaps most detrimental, discounted human emotions and feeling as not only unimportant, but rather something to be rejected from rational thought (Calhoun, 2001). As renowned feminist and prominent New Musicologist Susan McClary, whose expertise includes musicology related to the body, once stated, “the body has been despised by the West for a long time”

(personal communication, September, 2016). Beginning with Descartes’ philosophical influence during the Enlightenment, Western society has avoided considering physicality and has discounted the role the body plays in the way that we think as human beings

(Calhoun, 2001). Plato’s dualism influenced Western ideas about the mind and body that

Descartes later considered and expanded in his own discourse of the mind and body.

46 After Descartes, Immanuel Kant considered new ways of defining the connection between body and mind.

Kant. Immanuel Kant codified and expanded upon Descartes’ beliefs in his writings about dualism. Kant advocated that human thought was inexorably separated from the nature of physical existence (Ameriks, 2000). According to Kant, the human mind creates thoughts and defines the way phenomena are or exist through sensory experience. Kant posited that for humans to process any thought, including feeling, emotion, or sense, they first experience a stimulus from something, and then conceptualize or perceive it through mental rationalization. All external stimuli, therefore, are synthesized by the human mind, which then organizes these stimuli into thoughts, concepts, and perceptions (Brook, 2016). Meanwhile, Kant advocated that the mind is not only above all else, but is central to the ways in which humans experience the world around them. Although this philosophy did not call for as stark a separation between mind and body as Descartes championed, the philosophy was still dualistic in nature and considered the body and the mind separate by nature instead of one contiguous system. The dualistic view of a division between mind and body began with Plato’s definition of the soul and physical world; and then Descartes wrote that the mind (which replaced the soul) was central to human nature and had complete agency over the body.

Finally, Kant believed that the body influenced the mind, but the mind controlled the body, although the body could send the mind information (Ameriks, 2002; Lacey, 1996).

A critique of dualism. In his book, Descartes’ Error (1994), neuroscientist

Antonio Damasio distilled the problems associated with Descartes’, Kant’s, and others’ reflections concerning mind and body. In Descartes’ Error, Damasio framed his analysis

47 through the story of Phineas P. Gage, a railroad supervisor who sustained a railroad spike impalement in the early 19th c. during a blasting accident. The spike entered Gage’s cheek and exited through his left frontal lobe, damaging the emotional processing center of his brain. In chronicling Gage’s story, Damasio discussed how Gage’s brain damage and recovery changed his capacity for emotion and how those variations influenced

Gage’s logic and reasoning faculties. Through his examination, Damasio argued that emotional states directly influence human beings’ reasoning and social behaviors. When someone experiences an emotion, it is a response to an accompanying physiological change, such as increased heart rate, sweating, and pupil dilation. Because emotions are directly influenced by bodily states, Damasio concluded that conscious and rational choices are impacted directly by our feelings, or in other words, that physical sensation directly affects logic and reasoning. Through Descartes’ Error and other work in his lab,

Damasio formulated a theory called “somatic marker hypothesis” (Damasio, Tranel, &

Damasio, 1991), which simply states that emotional processes guide decision-making.

Damasio’s work attempted to dismantle the notion of mind-body dualism by suggesting a strong, inseparable link between body and mind.

Dualism in the arts. Mind-body dualism likely has influenced both the arts and the ways in which pedagogues teach in artistic disciplines (Powell, 2009). In recent years, pedagogues in movement-based disciplines have begun to rectify the division of mind and body that has dominated Western philosophy within their own classrooms. For example, in theater, teachers have used models and exercises that incorporate the body into actor training (Riley, 2004). Similarly, dance teachers and choreographers have sought to help students make better connections between mental concepts and how they

48 demonstrate those concepts through physical movement (Fraleigh, 1996). Mind-body dualism also has influenced the ways in which music educators teach music to their students. The next section outlines discuss the mind-body problem and dualism within learning and development with a focus on music education. Descriptions of how music educators have attempted to solve the mind-body problem when teaching music are included.

Mind-Body Problem in Development and Learning

Effects of the mind-body divide are present in the way that human beings learn as they age. As people get older, they progress through different stages of development both related to and facilitated by movement. Notably, researchers have studied this concept within early childhood, where changes in embodied knowledge are most pronounced.

Children learn to move based on several factors including physiological development, behavioral characteristics, and the building of movement experiences over time (Malina,

2004). These factors contribute to how children learn to move within their specific environment and context. Music can have a direct impact on motor development during early childhood. For example, mothers introduce music early into a child’s life by singing lullabies, soothing them through rocking, and bouncing them to the tempo of music, which ultimately influences their motor skills (Trehub & Trainor, 1998). Young children frequently demonstrate their learned connection between music and movement. Often, children outwardly exhibit high levels of engagement with music through large body movements (Koops, 2017). Research in sociology and anthropology suggests that music- related movement influences early childhood learning in almost every culture on Earth

(Philips-Silver, 2009).

49 Although not as prominent as studies in early childhood, researchers have also examined movement in adult education, especially within the context of embodied or somatic experiences (Batson, 2009; Bennet, 2012; Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner,

2007). Despite the existence of these studies, the role that movement has in affecting adults has only recently been examined, meaning that the full impact of embodied learning on adults is still unknown (Barndt, 2018; Yorks & Kasl, 2002). Yet, acquiring embodied knowledge is clearly important for some adults, such as people who study movement-based disciplines, such as theatre, dance, music, physical education, and conducting. Specifically in the field of music education, researchers have examined the roll that movement can play in helping students of various ages learn about music while overcoming the mind-body problem.

Researchers in music and music education have examined mind-body dualism in a variety of ways. Music education scholars have proposed that learning through the body might provide music learners a more comprehensive and beneficial music learning experience (Juntunen & Hyvönen, 2004; Leman, 2007; Paparo, 2016). By teaching through movement, music educators could teach musical knowledge and musicality to students in a way that connects mind and body rather than dividing the two in dualistic fashion (Leman & Maes, 2015). Movement has been shown to help music students from elementary school age (Liao, 2002) through university age (van der Merwe, 2015;

Walker, 2007) improve musical competency. For example, Liao (2002) examined whether movement training enhanced elementary students’ relationship between voice and gesture. Liao examined 53 fifth graders, divided into three groups, two treatment groups that received different types of movement training and two control groups. Using

50 pretests and posttests rated by nine different experts, Liao discovered that movement training significantly increased students intonation and tone quality while singing (p

<.05). There was no significant difference in types of movement used in this specific experiment.

Walker (2007) performed a content analysis and investigation of movement within music theory programs in the United States, and stated that music theory professors who incorporated movement into their undergraduate teaching reported that their students made better connections to concepts compared to when they did not teach using movement. Similarly, van der Merwe (2015) examined undergraduate music students’ perceptions about learning music through movement, and her participants reported that they felt like they had stronger musical knowledge after learning music using movement (this study is detailed further in the following pages). Additionally, pedagogues have examined the role that students’ bodies and their own bodily self- awareness have on their learning of musical knowledge (e.g., Leman, 2007; Liao, 2002;

Paparo, 2016). Researchers determined that involving and knowing about the body positively affected students’ acquisition of musical knowledge (Bowman, 2004; Conable,

2002; Paparo, 2016; Woodward, 2009). These studies indicated that learning music through movement could be beneficial for music learners of all ages and with varying levels of musical experience.

By using movement systems in their classrooms, music educators might seek to make their lessons more embodied, or by teaching in a manner that encourages the body and the mind to perform and act as one musical and connected entity (Juntunen &

Hyvönen, 2004). One movement-related music teaching system is Dalcroze Eurhythmics,

51 which uses movement to facilitate acquisition of musical knowledge in learners

(Juntunen, 2002). Music educators who teach students at all ages, including elementary general music, secondary level ensembles, and in various courses in higher education, have utilized the system within their own teaching practices.

The mind-body problem is reflected in beginning conducting classes. Within conducting courses at the undergraduate level, many students learn to embody music and connect movement to music for the first time (Neidlinger, 2003). Given that the domain of conducting is a highly physical endeavor, learning to comprehend music through the body could be beneficial for developing gestural understanding and comprehension of musical movement. Similar to other music teachers, conducting educators utilize

Eurhythmics within their undergraduate conducting classes to rectify the mind-body problem. The following sections outlines Dalcroze Eurhythmics, and include details regarding how the system works, historical background, and research about it.

Dalcroze Eurhythmics

Dalcroze Eurhythmics is a system that teaches students about music through movement. In the late 19th century, composer and music educator Emile Jaques-Dalcroze recognized that the way students in his conservatory classes had previously learned music discounted the body and musical feel entirely (Dalcroze, 1921). Dalcroze believed that the way students learned prior to enrollment in conservatory harmony and ear-training courses, which primarily consisted of pen-and-paper style of learning music and music theory, caused students to lack practical musicality and awareness. To rectify these issues, Dalcroze eventually developed a way of teaching music that incorporated the

52 body extensively, and that became a popular system of music instruction used in 20th and

21st century Europe, America, and Australia: Dalcroze Eurhythmics.

Eurhythmics is an art and a practice that has stood at the center of some schools of musical instruction since Emile Jaques-Dalcroze first introduced the method. For well over a century, various practitioners in Western music pedagogy incorporated the use of

Eurhythmics as a tool for teaching rhythmic competency and developing musicality in elementary-aged students through conservatory graduate students. The following section contains descriptions about the Eurhythmics system, and provides basic information about its methodology. After that is the chronology of Eurhythmics and a discussion of its historical backgrounds, as well as how the system spread through Europe to America.

Current applications of Eurhythmics instruction are included, with a particular focus on the college/university and conservatory levels. Finally, there will be discussion regarding the influence of Eurhythmics on music learning previously documented within related research.

Eurhythmics as an Approach

Dalcroze Eurhythmics (also called the Dalcroze approach or the Dalcroze method) is a system of music instruction that utilizes rhythmic movement, ear training, and improvisation to develop and refine a person’s inherent musical abilities (Carnegie

Melon University, n.d.). The system uses human movement including swaying of the body, bipedal (using both legs) movement, movement of the extremities including the head and face, and other motions to conceptualize and embody different musical ideas and styles. The Dalcroze method contains four main branches or areas: eurhythmics, solfège, improvisation, and plastique animée.

53 Eurhythmics. When people engage in eurhythmics (lowercase e), they are purposefully moving their bodies with the rhythm of music (Dalcroze Society of

America, 2019). Eurhythmics is also the part of the method with which most people likely are familiar. Within the act or concept of eurhythmics, practitioners complete activities, often called “games,” where they step to a steady pulse, use props to show a steady beat, and execute movements to embody beat patterns, meters, and rhythms. The purpose of the eurhythmics branch of Dalcroze is to engrain rhythm to the point of being natural or second nature within students’ musical thought (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1921).

People often can misconstrue eurhythmics as the only part of the method, as most people call the entire Dalcroze approach “Dalcroze Eurhythmics.” However, the entire Dalcroze approach or system of “Dalcroze Eurhythmics” (uppercase E) is comprised of all four branches.

Solfège. American solfège is typically moveable-Do and designed so that students can find scalar patterns in all twelve keys interchangeable. Dalcroze solfège is different, in that it is fixed-Do. The entire Dalcroze solfège technique is predicated on the notion of tuning students’ ears to the pitch C so that they develop relative pitch. By learning through fixed-Do solfège, Dalcroze practitioners believe that students develop relative pitch, create a personal tonal context, better recognize melodic motion, and improve sensitivity to harmony and modulation (Ristow, Thomsen & Urista, 2014).

Improvisation. Dalcroze practitioners believe that students must be able to change and adapt along with changing musical styles (Daley, 2012). Improvisation occurs in multiple facets of the Dalcroze method. For example, while engaging students in eurhythmics exercises and games, teachers will suddenly vary the style, tempo,

54 harmony, or rhythm of the music to which the game is set, forcing students to make a change based on the alteration in the music. Dalcroze practitioners believe that this sense of improvisation helps students to develop a better sensitivity to music and be able to better recognize variations within it.

Plastique animée. A plastique animée is a choreographed movement to music. It is more connected to the music than simple dance, because practitioners focus on certain elements of music, such as harmony, melodic contour, energy, rhythm, tempo, rhythm, style, and any other musical elements, and represent one or more of those elements in movement. For example, a Eurhythmics practitioner might embody a lyrical piece of music during a plastique by floating or gliding across a floor and using large but direct body movement in the arms and torso. Conversely, a person performing a plastique to a marcato piece might demonstrate this by stomping or moving the extremities and torso in direct, jabbing motions. The possibilities of what a person can demonstrate through plastique are limited by only the music itself. Notably, some practitioners consider plastique animée as its own distinct activity that encompasses all parts of the method

(Dalcroze Society of America, 2019), whereas others define it as a fourth, coequal branch of the method (Juntunen, 2016). This manuscript considers plastique animée as a fourth branch equivalent to the other three.

The holistic method. People who teach and use the Dalcroze method often combine all four branches to provide students a holistic approach to music education focused on learning music through the body. No matter what activity or branch that

Eurhythmics practitioners incorporate into lessons, they encourage students to use gestures and movements that are musical and instinctive to the natural way in which a

55 human body moves (Dalcroze Society of America, 2019). This concept is crucial for engaging in Dalcroze; all movements must be simultaneously natural and musical. The goal of the system is to encourage musical development, including knowledge of basic music ear training and musical expressivity.

Dalcroze educators’ views of Eurhythmics. Eurhythmics proponents and educators believe that the system helps students to develop and refine their awareness and execution of tempo, style, dynamics, texture, phrasing, and structure (Dalcroze Society of

America, 2019). Dalcroze himself admitted that it is difficult for someone to grasp the concept of what the system means without experiencing it first-hand (Carnegie Melon

University, n.d.). Many contemporary Dalcroze educators maintain that people can fully understand the method and all of its benefits and implications only through experience and immersion (Carnegie Melon University, n.d.; Dalcroze Society of America, 2019). In its online literature, the Dalcroze Society of America (2019) stated, “Students cannot expect to gain a Dalcroze Education from a book or video alone; they must experience this type of education in the classroom.” Similarly, the Marta Sanchez Dalcroze Training

Center at Carnegie Melon (n.d.) stipulated, “to obtain a better understanding of the method, personal experience was essential.” From the Dalcroze expert’s perspective, a person must seek out official Dalcroze training through workshops or other means in order to understand completely the ways that the method affects and retrains musical faculties. Ultimately, the system involves learning about and demonstrating different aspects of musical construction and performance through different, natural motions that the human body executes. Dalcroze’s experiences in witnessing non-European culture

56 and teaching students at the Geneva Conservatoire prompted Dalcroze to develop a way to teach students music and expressivity through movement.

Emile Jaques-Dalcroze before Eurhythmics

Emile Jaques-Dalcroze was born in Switzerland in 1865 (Haward & Ring, 2001).

As a young adult, Dalcroze attended the Geneva Conservatoire, where he was an excellent student, receiving first prize for music and poetry. After completing his conservatory studies in Geneva in 1886, Dalcroze became the assistant director of the

Algiers Municipal Theater in the French-occupied African nation of Algeria (Bauer,

2012). For many years, many Dalcroze scholars believed that Dalcroze first conceptualized Eurhythmics while looking for a better way to teach musicality and musical expression to his students after an appointment to the Geneva Conservatoire.

Dalcroze expressed this thought himself because he discussed his desires to teach students how to feel music better in his own writings (Dalcroze 1916; 1921). However, recent research (Bauer, 2012) has unearthed Dalcroze’s time in Algiers, some 6 years prior to teaching harmony classes at the Conservatoire, as providing the seed that eventually helped to germinate his now renowned method.

Dalcroze in Algeria. Bauer (2012) proposed that Dalcroze was particularly inspired by the asymmetric meters of the Sufi music that Dalcroze heard during his appointment in Algiers, and Sufi performers’ ability to perform and produce this music with such ease. The manner in which Algerian musicians could improvise music quickly and adeptly, particularly in the religious Sufi rituals, inspired Dalcroze. Although

Dalcroze showed an intense curiosity in these musics, he was by no means a scholar of them, nor did he study them in any depth. Rather, Dalcroze was motivated by the

57 performances he attended, the culture that he witnessed, and through the way that dancers moved effortlessly and accurately with the music that accompanied their routines. These events would later become important in the development of his Eurhythmic system.

Dalcroze returns to Europe. Following the completion of his theater conducting contract in Algiers, Dalcroze returned to Europe, and headed to Paris to study at the Paris

Conservatoire (Spector, 1990). In Paris, Dalcroze studied with Faure, Delibes, Bruckner, and Fuchs, but it was his friendship and interactions with fellow Swiss national Mathis

Lussy that would have a lasting impact on his development of Eurhythmics. Lussy’s first book Exercises de mecanisme (1863) was highly regarded by piano teachers, including

Liszt. However, his follow-up, Traite de l’expression musical (1873), was the book that predominantly inspired Dalcroze. Lussy included methods in the work that were designed to teach students about musical expression and ways of incorporating expressivity training into musical teaching. Dalcroze used descriptions in Traite de l’expression musical regarding physical manifestation of rhythm, the treatment of metrical and rhythmic accents, and the use of music terms derived from the use of meter in classical poetry in Eurhythmics (Haward & Ring, 2001).

Teaching at the Geneva Conservatoire. After his training in Paris, the Geneva

Conservatoire hired Dalcroze as professor of harmony in 1892 (Haward & Ring, 2001).

While teaching solfège courses there, Dalcroze became increasingly unsatisfied with the musical training and skills that his students exhibited in class. He found that students were technically proficient, but lacked both rhythmic and pitch-matching accuracy. It was in these solfège courses that Dalcroze began to experiment with and develop the

Eurhythmic system (Dalcroze, 1921). Within these classes, Dalcroze combined the

58 aspects of Algerian rhythm and dance he witnessed a few years prior with the ideas regarding rhythm that he developed while working with Mathis Lussy. By using elements from each of these aspects of his experience, Dalcroze developed a system of movement that encouraged students to embody different aspects of music, including variations in style, rhythm, tempo, and beat. For example, Dalcroze would play the piano and have his students change their movements to match what he was playing. A shift in tempo indicated a change in students’ movement speed. Changes in style also indicated changes in movement direction and movement choice, such as flowing movements for legato, and short, pointed movements for staccato. Eurhythmics exercises have taken many different forms over the years, especially in its modern practice, but the act of matching physical movement to varying types of music has remained central to its practice (Butke & Frego,

2017).

The primary issue that Dalcroze perceived in the training of musical students was a disconnection between musical output and the use of self-expression (Dalcroze, 1915).

In his observations, Dalcroze noted that student musicians could have many years of training on an instrument or on their voices, but believed that they were unable to be rhythmically precise and were deficient in their ability to match pitch because of a lack of emotional self-expression. An analogy that Dalcroze wrote in The Eurhythmics of Emile

Jaques-Dalcroze (1915) likened this musical disconnection to language. To paraphrase,

Dalcroze compared the inability of a musician to emote expressively to someone who possesses an immense vocabulary, yet is unable to verbalize or write his or her own thoughts and expressions.

59 Disconnection from expression, the musical automaton. Dalcroze traced the genesis of music students’ disconnection between musical knowledge and musical expression to multiple sources. A discussion that he offered in The Eurhythmics of Emile

Jaques-Dalcroze focused on the historical transition from music instruction for the gifted and the musically endowed to music instruction for everyone (Dalcroze, 1915, p. 16).

According to Dalcroze, the performers of the late 18th and early 19th centuries were complete musicians who were able to improvise, compose, and perform adeptly and with musical expression. Comparatively, Dalcroze described musicians at the turn of the 20th century like “automatons,” who learned technical movement and facility in robotic fashion, but as a result, had no exposure or training of musical expressivity (Dalcroze,

1921, p. 28). Therefore, students may have been technically skilled, but lacked the ability to turn played or sung notes into an expressive performance. Dalcroze’s specific use of the word “automatons” was important here, because it highlighted a specific Western attitude of over-mechanization instituted by the industrial revolution (Carlopio, 1988).

Dalcroze was part of a group of people who wanted to resist mechanization of humanity, which they believed would lead to the loss of expression, and arguably, characteristics of being human. Attitudes about mechanization affecting society continued through the early 20th century, and other artists created discourse and works centered on them. One of the most famous examples is Charlie Chaplin’s 1936 epic video, Modern Times, a socio- political commentary on mechanization and industrialization (Chaplin, 1936). Dalcroze wanted to create in his system a way for movements to become “subconscious,” so that the student (Dalcroze, 1915, p. 20) controlled motor habits and means of expression.

60 Because of these considerations, Dalcroze discussed how people could use his system for overall physical health benefits.

Dalcroze’s mention of mechanization in his writings seems appropriate because of the attitudes he held concerning the modern mechanical ways of teaching music.

Dalcroze believed that his system was not only a process to teach students ways of being musically expressive, but that it also could help their overall neurological health. To him,

Eurhythmics was not simply a music education system meant to develop expressivity, but rather a means to healthy living. In further discussion about the human nervous system,

Dalcroze stated, “the body can become a marvelous instrument of and harmony when it vibrates in tune with artistic imagination and collaborates with creative thought”

(Dalcroze, 1915, p. 21). Eventually, Dalcroze’s system rooted in bodily movement would attract the attention of pedagogues, musicians, and dancers around Europe.

Eurhythmics garners attention. Soon after developing his Eurhythmics system at Geneva, Dalcroze began holding demonstrations and public performances of his students engaged in the system, the first of which occurring at the conference of the

Swiss Musicians Association in 1905 (Haward & Ring, 2001). It was at these demonstrations that many people from all over Europe and abroad witnessed

Eurhythmics in action, and some were so impressed that they instituted their own

“Rhythmique” (the original name for Eurhythmics) schools in major population centers around Europe (Dalcroze, 1915; Spector, 1990). Due to Eurhythmics’ newfound popularity, entrepreneur Wolf Dorn invited Dalcroze to establish a school to teach his

Eurhythmics in a newly-conceptualized community called Hellerau in 1910 (Spector,

1990). As part of the package, Dalcroze designed a state-of-the-art theatre that featured

61 mobile elements so that the school could create a large space for instruction when not being used for performances. Within the facility, Dalcroze had the space, staff, and funding necessary for a vibrant and popular Eurhythmics program. News about the success of the newly formed “Dalcroze Cultural Institute” at Hellerau quickly spread across of Europe. Periodically, the school would feature demonstrations of Eurhythmics.

These demonstrations featured such luminaries as George Bernard Shaw; Ernest Read, who conducted children’s concerts in London; and Ethel Driver, who would become a leader in the English Dalcroze movement (Odom & Pope, 2013). These exhibitions furthered the popularity of Eurhythmics, including its spread throughout Europe and to

Australia. At the outset of World War I, Dalcroze fled Hellerau in October 1914. With the help of three friends, Dalcroze financed a new Dalcroze Institute a year later at 44 rue de la Terrassière in Geneva, where it still stands today (Institute Jaques-Dalcroze, 2017).

Figure 2.1 The Dalcroze Institute in Geneva (Dalcroze Institute, n.d.)

62 Eurhythmics in the United States

Considering that Eurhythmics was primarily available only to young European adults at the conservatory level until World War I, the manner in which Eurhythmics first made its way on to American soil was unexpected. Jacobi (2012) detailed this story in her paper, The First Formal Dalcroze Instruction in the United States: Placido de Montoliu and His Work at the Phebe Anna Thorne Model School. American educators first imported Eurhythmics from Europe via the Phebe Anna Thorne Model School, an open- air, all girls grammar school founded as a laboratory for education graduate students at

Bryn Mawr College in 1913. Planning and implementation of The Thorne School began under the tutelage of Bryn Mawr’s second president, M. Carey Thomas. Thomas wanted to develop the school using the most advanced and progressive teaching methods, and hired Dr. Matilde Castro to direct the school and to find these methods. Upon her tour of

Europe in 1912, Castro made a stop in Hellerau at the Dalcroze Institute. Being eminently impressed with the system, she contacted Thomas, and Thomas subsequently offered

Dalcroze’s assistant, Placido de Montoliu, a position at The Thorne School (Jacobi,

2012). After 9 years at Thorne, de Montoliu left Bryn Mawr to choreograph ballets for the Paris Opera in 1922, and returned to the United States to become the Dalcroze instructor at the Curtis Institute of Music in 1925, where he remained until he retired in

1940 (Spector, 1990). The impact of having Dalcroze’s personal assistant teach at an academic institution in the United States was arguably key in the spread of Eurhythmics in the country. De Montoliu not only had the opportunity to spread Dalcroze’s system as an expert directly to students, but also accelerated the adoption of Eurhythmics on the east coast of the nation.

63 New York City. After Thomas and de Montoliu brought Eurhythmics to eastern

Pennsylvania, Marguerite Heaton and Suzanna Ferriere established a Dalcroze School in

New York in 1915 (Spector, 1990). The school did not experience immediate success, but gained traction in 1926 after it hired former director of Dalcroze’s Geneva Institute, Paul

Boepple, and numerous other Eurhythmics certificate and diploma holders, as instructors.

The school continued to grow, and as a result, major arts institutions in New York followed suit in offering Eurhythmics instruction. These institutions included Damrosch

(later renamed Julliard,) New York University, Columbia, and the Denishawn School of

Dance. Subsequently, the New York School appointed Hilda Shuster as its director in

1945. Shuster eventually became a founder and one of the most important figures of the

Dalcroze Society of America, being the nation’s oldest certified active instructor from the

1950s to the 1970s, and long-time editor of the Society’s American Dalcroze Journal

(Dalcroze Society of America, 2019). The adoption of Eurhythmics at Damrosch

(Julliard), Columbia, New York University, and Denishawn, as well as the founding of the Dalcroze Society, were was instrumental in spreading Eurhythmics in other from

New York to the rest of the United States.

Cleveland and beyond. Another major music school to adopt Dalcroze

Eurhythmics early in the 20th century was the Cleveland Institute of Music, which hired composer Earnest Bloch as its first Eurhythmics instructor (Cleveland Institute of Music, n.d.; Spector, 1990). The school was the first American institution to offer Eurhythmics as a degree program, and each student in every degree program eventually was required to take 2 years of Eurhythmics instruction before graduation, a requirement that still exists today (Cleveland Institute of Music, 2016). More institutions continued to adopt

64 Eurhythmics in their courses of study from the 1920s to the early 1960s, including the

Carnegie institute of Technology (later Carnegie-Mellon University), Cornell, The New

York Institute for the Blind, The Toronto Conservatory, the Cincinnati Conservatory-

College of Music, Ithaca College, the University of Southern California, the Hartford

Conservatory, and the New England Conservatory (Spector, 1990). By 1930, there were numerous non-academic Dalcroze schools that were established in American cities including New York and Denver. Considering the establishment of these Dalcroze programs with the development of organizations such as the Dalcroze Society of America

(Dalcroze Society, n.d.), and the increasing pervasiveness of Eurhythmics instruction in

American elementary classrooms, Dalcroze Eurhythmics became an integral part of

American music instruction during the first half of the 20th century (Keene, 2009).

Eurhythmics in higher education today. Various colleges and universities in the

United States currently either offer or require Eurhythmics in their courses of study

(Meints, 2014). One conservatory that includes Eurhythmics in their courses of study is

The Cleveland Institute of Music (CIM). CIM requires all students to enroll in courses in

Dalcroze Eurhythmics, and offers a Eurhythmics track within their Bachelor of Music

Degree course program (Cleveland Institute of Music, 2017). Therefore, a student can graduate with a Bachelor of Music with a concentration in Dalcroze Eurhythmics. Most remaining undergraduate degree programs at CIM require 4 semesters of Eurhythmics study, with an option for three more elective credits. The school also offers 4 years of

Eurhythmics pedagogy; however, neither these courses nor the undergraduate degree is applicable to Dalcroze Eurhythmics Certification from the Dalcroze Institute. A cursory analysis of course offerings at other major American conservatories reveals that CIM is

65 the only conservatory to either require or offer Dalcroze Eurhythmics within their courses of study. Neither The Julliard School, The Cincinnati Conservatory-College of Music,

The New England Conservatory, The Hartt School, The Curtis Institute, The Peabody

Institute, nor the San Francisco Conservatory offers Dalcroze training. (Curtis Institute of

Music, 2017; The Julliard School, 2015; The New England Conservatory, 2017; The San

Francisco Conservatory of Music, 2017; The University of Cincinnati, 2015; The

University of Hartford, 2017). A school that stands out in this list is the Curtis Institute, as it was pivotal in the adoption of Eurhythmics in America a century ago through de

Montoliu’s instruction there.

Other American college and university music programs offer Eurhythmics in their required coursework, such as the Baldwin-Wallace Conservatory and Oberlin College

(Meints, 2014), or through stand-alone training workshops. In addition, many institutions that teach Eurhythmics include certification programs and diploma training for those who wish to be certified Dalcroze Eurhythmics instructors (Dalcroze Society of America,

2019). Some of these institutions include The Dalcroze School of the Rockies in Denver,

The Dalcroze School at the Kauffman Center in New York, Bard College, and Carnegie

Mellon University. If musicians want to learn Eurhythmics or desire certification as a

Eurhythmics instructor, enrolling in one of these schools or certification workshops could help them to learn about the system. Additionally, stand-alone workshops could be beneficial for musicians who currently attend or have graduated from music schools that do not include Eurhythmics in their course offerings. Because Eurhythmics has gained traction as a method in many music classrooms, music education researchers have explored various aspects of the approach.

66 Dalcroze Eurhythmics in Music Education Research

Music education researchers have examined the relationship between

Eurhythmics and musical development. Various investigations have indicated that

Dalcroze Eurhythmics is potentially beneficial for developing musical ability in learners of all ages (Liao, 2002; Paparo, 2016; van der Merwe, 2015; Walker, 2007). The most common musical aspect that researchers have examined in these studies has been the development of music students’ knowledge of rhythm and beat (Venetsanou, Donti, &

Koutsouba, 2014; Zachopoulou, Derri, Chatzopoulos, & Ellinoudis 2003). To a lesser extent, researchers have documented ways in which Eurhythmics can foster overall musical development (Alperson, 1995; O’Leary, 2010).

Eurhythmics has been shown to be particularly helpful in assisting music learners’ development of rhythmic and beat competencies (Rose, 1995). In one of the first studies of its kind, Zachopoulou, Derri, Chatzopoulos, and Ellinoudis (2003) measured the effect that Eurhythmics training exercises had on the rhythmic abilities of preschool-aged children. In their experiment, 34 children, ages 4 to 6, participated in Eurhythmics and

Orff activities, while 34 other children, also ages 4 to 6, learned various songs and simple rhythms through free play as the control group. The researchers used the High/Scope

Beat Competence Analysis Test (Weikart, Schweihart, & Larner, 1987) to measure participants’ rhythmic ability. Using multivariate analysis on both groups and univariate analysis on each group, Zachopoulou et al. discovered that the movement training had a significant impact on the participants’ rhythmic development compared to students who did not participate in training exercises (p < .001).

67 In a similar study conducted a decade later, Venetsanou, Donti, and Koutsouba

(2014) found comparable results. In this study, the researchers observed 70 children who were 48-72 months old. Thirty-six children received a 20-week movement program that used Eurhythmics and Orff techniques, and 34 children were part of the control group.

Using the Democritus-Psychomotor Assessment Tool for Preschool Children (Kambas,

Venetsanou, & Aggeloussis. 2006), the researchers discovered that participants in the experimental group performed significantly higher on rhythmic competence diagnostics after participation in movement and music activities as compared to the control group (p

< .001).

Other researchers have examined older students’ experience with Eurhythmics. In one qualitative study, Alperson (1995) documented the experiences of college-aged learners’ Eurhythmics classes. Alperson observed the lessons of four university-level

Eurhythmics teachers of stand-alone Eurhythmics courses. As part of the data collection,

Alperson interviewed the instructors and students in each class, and observed classroom events. Student participants in this research reported that learning Eurhythmics made them better musicians, and that they had stronger connections to music when they moved along with it. Faculty participants felt like they were teaching how to be musical and expressive and more than just the basic elements of music. Alperson concluded that

Eurhythmics classes at the participating colleges and universities were student-centered in nature, and that students improved their aesthetic musical values and abilities through participation.

In another qualitative study regarding Eurhythmics at the college or university level, van der Merwe (2015) documented the experiences of undergraduate music majors

68 who participated in Eurhythmics as first-year music majors. Van der Merwe interviewed students and collected students’ reflective essays regarding their experiences. The themes that van der Merwe found included social integration, joyful experience, bodily experience, easier understanding, and musical expression. Van der Merwe’s participants reported that Eurhythmics helped them to become better musicians, especially in the domains of rhythmic competency and musical expression. Student participants also reported that experiencing Eurhythmics helped them to understand music more fully, make meaningful musical decisions, especially within group settings like performing in ensembles, and that learning through Eurhythmics was a positive experience.

Other researchers considered Dalcroze within the context of an ensemble setting, particularly in the choral classroom. Frego and Reams (2003) presented at the 2003

American Choral Director’s Association regarding the incorporation of Dalcroze into choral rehearsal. During their presentation, they highlighted benefits for students and demonstrated movement activities related to specific choral repertoire (Daley, 2013).

Frego, along with Leck (2005), also released a DVD geared toward teaching choral conductors about Dalcroze-based activities that they could use in their classrooms. In this video, Frego demonstrated games and activities that he suggested would benefit choral students’ musicianship and reaction to gesture.

In one qualitative study that featured choral conductors’ use of Eurhythmics,

Daley (2013) interviewed two groups of choral teachers. One group included Dalcroze master-teachers with choral conducting training and experience, and the second group included Dalcroze-trained choral conductors. Daley’s analysis revealed that participants incorporated Dalcroze into their classrooms because they believed that students

69 developed a wide range of musical, vocal, ensemble, and musical skills; prepared their bodies for accurate and expressive performance; and other non-musical outcomes such as mental acuity, creativity, and enjoyment in music making. Daley’s findings indicated that choral conductors who incorporated Dalcroze Eurhythmics into their classrooms saw numerous benefits in their students.

Collectively, the findings in these studies indicated that music and movement pedagogies, like those found in Dalcroze Eurhythmics, helped students to become more competent musicians, especially in the domains of rhythm and beat. Eurhythmics also assisted students in improving musical expression and connect music to physical feeling.

It appears that Eurhythmics is a methodology that can help students to make improved musical associations between mind and body, and, therefore, may be a way to counteract the mind-body problem so often encountered in music learning.

Dalcroze in Beginning Conductor Research

Because conducting is a physical act that requires one to make movement choices related to music, it is beneficial to explore how a movement system like Eurhythmics can influence conducting. However, although the previously discussed researchers have observed the impact that Eurhythmics can have on music learning (Alperson, 1995;

Daley, 2013; van der Merwe, 2015; Zachopoulou, Derri, Chatzopoulos, & Ellinoudis,

2003), there are not many available studies about Eurhythmics related to the act of conducting. Currently, few pieces of literature have discussed the use of Eurhythmics in the conducting classroom, and these articles primarily contain observed pedagogical information instead of empirical evidence (Dickson, 1992; McCoy, 1994; Meints, 2014).

Dickson (1992) was one of the first authors and teachers who proposed that Eurhythmics

70 could be beneficial in assisting conducting students’ gestural development. Dickson believed that Eurhythmics helped novice conductors, especially conducting students, to feel music and experience a better physical connection to musical concepts and executing gestures that accurately expressed musical ideas. In Dickson’s 1992 Choral Journal article, the author recounted using Eurhythmics in his undergraduate conducting classes, and stated that the process worked because it encouraged students to formulate musical ideas and communicate gesturally from internal musical interpretations rather than using gesture from pre-programmed responses. However, Dickson provided no investigatory or empirical evidence to support how including Eurhythmics helped his students to improve.

Rather, the evidence Dickson presented in his article was anecdotal.

In another Choral Journal article, McCoy (1994) discussed the use of

Eurhythmics in conducting courses, and suggested that the system helped her conducting students become better at gesturing and expressivity. Particularly, McCoy details the use of Eurhythmics inspired warm-up exercises that she believes help her students make better physical and mental connections to music. In one exercise, students imagine pulling the rope of a bell, and the imaginary bell increases in size and lowers in pitch on each pull. This exercise helps students to gain better control of time, energy, and space within their movements (Meints, 2014). By developing better bodily control related to musical actions, McCoy believed that students develop more fine control of their gestural choices. Although McCoy’s article contained valuable descriptive information such as the bell ringing exercise, like Dickson (1992), McCoy also presented anecdotal observational evidence to support the use of Eurhythmics in conducting courses rather than empirical evidence.

71 In each article, Dickson (1992) and McCoy (1994) offered insightful practices that each author utilized by incorporating Eurhythmics into their undergraduate level conducting courses. They both believed that using Eurhythmics helped students make better gestural choices that stemmed from musical intuition rather than from pre-learned or practiced gestures. However, neither article contained data collected through quantitative or in-depth qualitative methods. Although the evidence and discussion in each article was valuable for indicating potential benefits regarding teaching conducting through Eurhythmics, empirically-based investigations could reveal more robust implications of teaching conducting using Eurhythmics.

In a more recent study, Meints (2014) explored the usage of different movement systems in conducting instruction. The document itself was an extended literature review and application paper that distilled many common conducting textbooks and pedagogies.

Meints also examined different movement pedagogies including Eurhythmics, Laban

Movement Analysis, Alexander Technique, and Delsarte. Meints determined that

Dalcroze Eurhythmics was a method that might be helpful for assisting conducting students’ development. In addition, Meints reviewed the curricular offerings of colleges and universities that offer or require Eurhythmics, and the way each institution incorporated Eurhythmics into their sequences of study. In his analysis, Meints discovered that few schools include Eurhythmics within their courses of study and those that do offer it in stand-alone classes or as part of the theory and musicianship sequence.

Meints’ concluding remarks included ways he could incorporate Eurhythmics into undergraduate conducting curricula at the institution where he taught, Peru State College, based on the practices at the schools that he investigated. The suggestions that Meints

72 provided regarding Eurhythmics at Peru State included incorporating Eurhythmics into theory and musicianship classes, offering stand-alone Eurhythmics courses, expanding the current curricular offerings in conducting from one semester to two, and incorporating Eurhythmics into the conducting coursework over the two-semester sequence. Meints concluded that including Eurhythmics into a conducting course would be appropriate, especially in an institution that does not offer Eurhythmics as a stand- alone course, or within a school’s theory and musicianship sequence. Meints provided practical suggestions for ways of including Eurhythmics into undergraduate conducting courses at his institution. In suggesting further research, Meints referred to Dickson

(1992) and McCoy (1994) as the only previously existing literature regarding the use of

Eurhythmics within conducting courses and suggested a need for empirical research examining conducting teachers who use the system (Meints, 2014, p. 90).

There is a lack of empirical investigations on the use of Eurhythmics in conducting classes, even though the system has been studied in music education

(Alperson, 1995; O’Leary, 2010; Venetsanou, Donti, & Koutsouba, 2014; Zachopoulou,

Derri, Chatzopoulos, & Ellinoudis 2003). The absence of research regarding Eurhythmics in conducting courses may have created an incorrect perception that conducting teachers do not incorporate Eurhythmics into their teaching. One of the nation’s foremost experts on Eurhythmics, Dr. Marla Butke, professor at Otterbein University and President of the

American Eurhythmics Society, indicated that she does not know of many conducting teachers who use Eurhythmics as a pedagogical tool within conducting courses (personal communication, May, 2018). However, a number of conducting teachers claim to integrate Eurhythmics exercises in their undergraduate conducting classes (various

73 personal communications, May-July, 2018). Given some conducting teachers might use

Eurhythmics in various conducting classes, researchers have conducted little research on its implementation. Therefore, a gap exists in conducting and music education literature.

Additionally, because Eurhythmics blends music learning with movement, it also could combat the mind-body problem within the domain of music and music education.

Because conducting is a physical endeavor, Eurhythmics might be especially beneficial in students’ transfer of learned written and aural skills to using those skills to make physical gestures that embody the music that they conduct. Therefore, researchers may find it worthy to investigate Eurhythmics in the conducting classroom, and how various conducting educators use the system in their own teaching.

Chapter Summary

Since the times of the ancient Greeks, the mind-body problem and dualism have affected numerous aspects of Western culture. Societally, the West has struggled with defining how the mind and body interact, and typically has considered the mind and body as two distinct and separate entities. Descartes complicated the notion further when he wrote in Meditations that the mind and the body are two independent objects. Many scientists, anthropologists, philosophers, and educators considered this notion as truth through the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. However, recent advances in these fields have countered strict dualism, especially in cognitive science, through the concept of embodied cognition, or the belief that the entire body is necessary for humans to perceive, interact with, and learn from the environment around them (Colombetti, 2010;

Juntunen, 2002; Juntunen & Hyvonen, 2004; Leman, 2007).

74 In music education, an effort to counteract strict dualism has existed since the late-19th century in the writings and philosophies of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze and his system of Eurhythmics. Dalcroze designed Eurhythmics to teach music and musicianship using the entire body; it is an embodied means of teaching and learning music in which body and mind are joined. Because the system fuses music and movement, some conducting instructors have incorporated this system into their undergraduate-level conducting courses; however, little research exists on the use of Eurhythmics in conductor education.

Given the previously stated gaps within the literature, this dissertation serves as an attempt to address these disparities. This dissertation will focus this task through the observation and documentation of the perceptions of conducting teachers and their students engaged in conducting courses that incorporate Eurhythmics, through qualitative research methods. Examining any movement system that conducting teachers use would be beneficial, as teaching through movement could help students become more comfortable in gesturing and conducting with musical expressivity.

75 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY The aim of the present study was to explore the incorporation of embodied movement learning practices through either Dalcroze Eurhythmics within an undergraduate conducting course. Specifically, I examined the perspectives, attitudes, and practices of conductor educators who teach the class and students who were enrolled in the course. To ascertain the data needed to explore these phenomena in multiple classrooms, I used a multiple case study methodology. The data I collect included in- depth teacher and student interviews, observation field notes, course syllabi and handouts, and teacher and student journal entries. This chapter outlines the methodological protocols that I used in this study, and includes the following sections: (a) purpose statement, (b) research questions, (c) qualitative case study design, (d) research lens, (e) data collection and analysis, (f) trustworthiness, (g) methodological limitations, and (h) reporting the findings.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this adapted multiple instrumental case study was to examine the incorporation of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in undergraduate-level conducting classes. A specific focus was placed on the perspectives of conductor educators who employ

Eurhythmics in their conducting classes, and on the perceptions of students who are enrolled in these classes. The following questions guided this research:

Research Questions

1. What aspects of Dalcroze Eurhythmics do conductor educators choose to

incorporate into their conducting curriculum?

76 2. How do conductor educators incorporate Eurhythmics into their conducting

courses?

3. Why do conductor educators choose to incorporate Eurhythmics into their

conducting curriculum?

4. What are conducting students’ perceptions of learning conducting through

Eurhythmics?

Qualitative Research

The goal of qualitative inquiry is to gain a better understanding of a phenomenon or phenomena by observing and collecting multiple types of data in a real-world environment, and finding patterns or themes in that data (Creswell & Poth, 2017, Denzin

& Lincoln, 2008; Stake, 2008; Stake, 2010). Qualitative studies occur within the natural setting(s) of studied phenomena for authenticity and accuracy of data. Because qualitative inquiry requires the collection of multiple kinds of data and information, it is a useful tool for exploring distinctive or specialized situations to gain a better understanding of them.

In education, researchers can gain an in-depth understanding of classrooms, courses, or teachers through qualitative approaches (Hatch, 2002).

Case Study

One particular type of qualitative research is the case study. By studying one particular situation or “case,” a researcher can explore phenomena to gain a better understanding of how these phenomena occur in one specific location (Stake, 1995).

Cases are considered bounded, as they occur within a situation that has clear boundaries including a defined period of time. An example in education research would be the observation of a classroom, as researchers consider a single class or course bounded by

77 the solitary teacher, the students within the class, and the classroom as a single unit within a single school. A researcher may collect data regarding various aspects of the class, including interviewing the teacher, interviewing the students, collecting handouts, interviewing administrators, and observing instruction during the class. Although these are different tasks that a researcher can perform, each task would occur within the confines of the class or school being studied. Therefore, all of these collected pieces of evidence would be part of the bounded case. In education, researchers have used case studies to explore teaching and learning techniques, including case studies of individual teachers and the classrooms in which they teach (Hatch, 2002). Generally, there are several types of case study design. Intrinsic and instrumental case studies, and single and multiple case studies, are common design choices.

Intrinsic and instrumental case studies. Case studies can be either intrinsic or instrumental in nature (Creswell & Poth, 2017; Patton, 2005; Stake 1995, Yin, 2017).

Researchers use intrinsic case studies to observe remarkable individual cases (Stake,

1995). Typically, there is something specific or individually exceptional about the case that the researcher believes is worth investigating. For example, if colleagues, teachers, and administrators praise the efforts and outcomes of a specific teacher and want to know what makes the teacher so successful, an education researcher might adopt an intrinsic case study to explore that teacher’s classroom. The researcher would examine various aspects about the teacher, their practices, the classroom, the school, students in the classroom, and other factors related to the individual case. The researcher would collect and analyze various kinds of data to determine themes and aspects of the case that result in the teacher’s perceived successful outcomes.

78 Another type of case study is the instrumental case. Researchers who perform instrumental case studies seek to understand a specific issue, problem, or concern. A researcher observes one specific case that represents something that may be happening in a larger number of locations or situations (Taber, 2014). For example, a researcher might want to investigate the practices of a math instructor that implements a specific system of math instruction that many other teachers use as well. The researcher would observe the teacher’s practices, classroom, students, and the school to determine how the teacher approaches the math system in their own classroom setting. The goal of the instrumental case is to gain more knowledge about how the specific phenomenon (the math system in the previous example) might occur in a typical or similar situation. A researcher who engages in instrumental case studies should take care in collecting data and reporting results, because the method does not bear results that are necessarily generalizable to all similar situations (Taber, 2014). However, the data are still valuable for explaining how the phenomenon or phenomena occurred in a specific context, and others may find value in knowing about it.

Single vs. multiple case. In case study design, researchers can examine either single cases or multiple cases. Researchers use single case studies to explore the factors regarding one bounded case (e.g., Cheng & Durrant, 2007; King, 1998; Searby & Ewers,

1997). To gain understanding of a phenomenon or phenomena, researchers examine the aspects of a single location, person, or entity within the particular case. In contrast, a multiple case study is a collection of multiple bounded cases (e.g., Barry & Henry, 2014;

Emmons, 1998; Hartz, 2015). Within multiple case study designs, researchers collect similar data from all cases involved. Researchers analyze data from each case

79 individually, and then data are compared between each of the cases (Stake, 2013). The benefit of analyzing multiple cases over individual cases is that researchers can discover themes or ideas present in different bounded cases and situations. In addition, because researchers amass more data through a multiple case study design, the collected data usually is considered more robust than data from a single bounded case (Yin, 2017).

Researchers must consider the implications of choosing between intrinsic and instrumental case design, as well as between single case and multiple case design. Each option has its own advantages and drawbacks, and must be weighed against the purpose of each study (Stake, 1995: Taber, 2014; Yin, 2017).

Current Study Design

In this study, I observed the practices of conducting educators who incorporated

Dalcroze Eurhythmics into their conducting classes and explored the experiences of the students who participated in them. The current study was driven by a modified multiple instrumental case study design, based on the traditional multiple case study design as outlined by Stake (2006). This study detailed the practices and methods of only two conducting educators who integrated Eurhythmics into their courses, and cannot be considered a full-scale multiple case study due to the limited number of available cases.

The adapted multiple case study design was used to collect data from two Eurhythmics- based conducting classes.

Furthermore, this study was instrumental in nature, as I observed a specific topic of interest: the incorporation of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in conducting curricula. This research included the perspectives of undergraduate conducting students and their respective conductor educators. I selected participants and collected data using Stake’s

80 (2006) methods for designing and performing a multiple case study. Before outlining the case design in more detail, a discussion of personal bias and motivation for undertaking the present study might be fruitful for understanding why I was drawn to this topic.

Researcher Lens

Any researcher who undertakes a study will have bias, as researcher bias is inevitable within qualitative inquiry (Mehra, 2002). The researcher’s thoughts, experiences, opinions, and beliefs can, and often will, have some impact on the findings within a qualitative study. To counteract this tendency, qualitative researchers enact procedures intended to minimize bias as much as possible. However, no matter how much a researcher safeguards the authenticity and accuracy of their data, biases can affect the study in some way. The present study is no different, and I possess biases that certainly might have influenced the study. To that end, I will address my own biases in the next section through explaining my own experiences and reasoning for undertaking the current study.

Personal Considerations

As I have navigated my own development and education as a conductor, I have examined my experience in learning how to communicate musically through physical means. For me, when I was a novice conductor with little to no training in body awareness, learning to communicate physically was a lengthy process. Eventually, I developed these skills with the help of experienced conducting mentors. Moreover, I have observed numerous beginning undergraduate conductors who appear to exhibit the same lack of body awareness and control in their own conducting episodes. Many conducting students and novice conductors are able to communicate verbally while conducting and

81 rehearsing, but rarely are able to convey musical knowledge, physically or gesturally

(Baumgartner, 2016; Goolsby, 1996, 1997). My observations prompted me to start asking certain questions about conductor education: Is there a way to make this process more natural? Can conductor educators foster competent physical and gestural communication abilities in their students within the confines of an undergraduate conducting sequence?

Before enrolling in my first conducting course, I had learned most of my acquired musical knowledge in disembodied musical environments. Many of my music teachers disseminated information and knowledge through what is widely considered the banking model of education, where a teacher deposits knowledge into students (Alam, 2013).

Much of what I learned about music reflected this banking system. A teacher would play the recording of a piece or tell us historical or theoretical information, and as students, we completed part-writing and identification exercises to demonstrate knowledge mastery.

Although this type of learning is beneficial and arguably crucial for learning facts about music history, or for learning the construction and identification of, for example, a

German Augmented Sixth chord, I struggled in transferring cerebral musical understanding to conducting and rehearsing. This disconnect between what I learned and its application to gestural communication became more pronounced as I taught and conducted students as a novice in-service music teacher. In one study that reflected these views, Silvey (2011) discovered that undergraduate conductors also expressed similar discomfort in their inability to perform expressive physical communication and gesturing in the beginning stages of learning how to conduct. It is likely, then, that many music teachers in the field might struggle with physical and gestural development, given that as

82 preservice music educators, they learned how to conduct for the first time mid-way through their degree program.

The first time that I encountered movement training in relation to conducting gesture was during my first semester of graduate school. As a master’s student in

Instrumental Conducting, my teacher, Dr. Stephen Gage, instructed me to move freely with different styles of music. Before engaging in these movement episodes, I was slightly disconnected in terms of my own motion and gestural association to the music.

My conducting gestures were musically sound, but there was a discrepancy between intended musical emotions to the movements that I executed on the podium. Most of my gestures were based on beating time, giving cues, and showing syncopation; rarely did I gesture emotive or stylistic aspects of while conducting. The simple act of moving with music in the background made me more aware of the possibility of making better connections to emotion and expressivity in gesture compared to what many of my colleagues and I experienced early in our careers. Silvey (2014) completed a study that documented other conductors in the field also describing these sentiments. Although the free movement process was not specifically related to Eurhythmics, Dr. Gage was an advocate for Eurhythmics in the collegiate curriculum, and his method of incorporating movement into conductor education was partly inspired by his positive opinion of

Eurhythmics (personal communication, May 2016). These discussions gave me the idea that including Eurhythmics in a college conducting class might be a way to encourage undergraduate conducting students to understand the connection between music and gesture more quickly than I did in my own conducting development. In discussions with colleagues from around the nation, I have learned that some conductors already

83 incorporate aspects of Eurhythmics into their undergraduate conducting classes.

However, there is no known research that has considered or explored this phenomenon. I hope to explore how different conducting educators incorporate Eurhythmics into their coursework, and discover the perceptions and attitudes of their conducting students.

Participant Selection

To find participants for this study, I employed a type of purposeful sampling called critical case sampling (Patton, 2002). Critical case sampling is a type of sampling that identifies a single case or a small number of cases where a particular subject or practice happens. The sampling method can be used with the reasoning that “if it happens there, it will happen anywhere” (Patton, 2002, p. 236). The sampling strategy is implemented for unique cases (as in this study), or when there are limits to resources and the researcher selects the cases that would provide the most knowledge. Suri (2011) suggested that this type of sampling is particularly useful in determining the “viability of an educational program” or method (p. 6), which was the aim of the current study.

This research included two participant groups – faculty members and students – at two separate institutions. First, faculty participants were conducting faculty who taught undergraduate-level conducting classes at 4-year institutions. Faculty participants also needed to incorporate Dalcroze Eurhythmics into their undergraduate-level conducting courses. Second, student participants were undergraduate music students enrolled in the conducting course. Student participants were sophomores or juniors who completed or are nearing completion of other music major course sequences, which include music theory, music history, applied lessons, and music education methods.

84 Although Creswell and Poth (2017) suggested that four to five cases are appropriate for a multiple case study, and Stake (2006) recommended at least four cases,

I collected data from two cases for this study. The study was limited to two critical cases because the use of Eurhythmics in conducting classes appears to be a rare occurrence, as extensive research and conversation only yielded two conductor educator participants.

However, individual cases can differ widely, and, as Yin (2017) noted, an analysis of two cases still has the potential to yield compelling information. Regarding the use of two cases, Stake (2006) also wrote, “Two or three cases do not show enough of the interactivity between programs and their situations… But for good reason, many multicase studies have fewer than 4 or more than 15 cases.” (section 2.2). Given the scarcity of conducting programs that incorporate Eurhythmics and the research questions that guided this study, this topic was explored through two bounded critical cases.

Therefore, this study was limited in scope and served as a modified form of Stake’s

(2006) traditional multiple case study model. Subsequent analysis and reporting of findings were framed within this adapted case study model. In summary, participants from each case included members of the university’s conducting faculty member and undergraduate preservice teachers enrolled in their conducting class.

Ethical Considerations

Ethics are an essential part of the research process, as the researcher must collect, analyze, and report data in an unbiased and equitable manner. According to Stake (2010), undertaking rigorous ethical treatment of the entire process of a study is important for maintaining and defending the privacy and dignity of all participating members of a study. The following section details the steps and procedures that I took to address any

85 potential ethical concerns, discussion of recruitment and informed consent, considerations during data collection, and considerations regarding anonymity.

Recruiting and informed consent. Recruiting participants and obtaining their informed consent are a crucial part of beginning any study that examines the practices of human beings. There are potential issues that can occur in the recruitment stage of any study (Berg & Lune, 2004; Yin, 2017). Before undertaking recruitment and data collection, I completed an application for study with Case Western Reserve University’s

Institutional Review Board (IRB). During this process, I submitted consent documents, interview questions, interview protocols, letters of cooperation from institutions that house research sites, and other study procedures to IRB (see Appendix B). Once approved, I contacted the participating conductor educators through their publically- available email addresses. I distributed consent forms to students during my first visit to each institution. Consent forms explained the study, outlined participants’ rights, and provided information about myself the researcher. Each participant completed a consent document and handed the document to me before I collected any data.

Considerations during data collection. Researchers must collect data in a manner that does not obtrude, interfere, or disrespect the environment of a study

(Creswell & Poth, 2017). For the current study, all participants were aware of my objectives for the research, as well as the procedures that I undertook during it. While observing conducting classrooms, I observed in a manner that was inconspicuous, and that minimized my interference with the classroom environment. To do so, I sat somewhere in the periphery of the physical room, and did not interact with the teacher or students. I conducted interviews in a private setting away from distractions and other

86 participants in the study. In addition, I informed students that I would not share their answers and perceptions with their conductor educator, so that they did not feel that their answers would affect their grade or their teacher’s opinion of them.

Considerations regarding anonymity. Stake (2010) recommended that researchers maintain a “zone of privacy” (p. 205) around their participating study members. He continued by stating that each individual case is different, and that this zone might have different boundaries for each study. In this study, each participating conductor educator and student likely had a different standard for defining what is private or not to them. Participants are not identified in my data reporting, and were assigned pseudonyms to protect their anonymity. I consistently contacted and shared data, emergent themes, and other study-related items with participants. This procedure helped to maintain a level of trust and collegiality between the participants and myself. In addition, deidentifying participants might have encouraged them to be open, frank, and direct in their responses, without fear of embarrassment or potentially offending their corresponding conducting educators or peers. Potentially, they may have been more comfortable sharing both positive and negative feedback regarding their experiences knowing that I reported their responses anonymously.

Data Collection and Analysis

In qualitative research, researchers must collect data from a variety of sources to acquire multiple layers of information and meaning from the study (Creswell & Poth,

2017; Yin, 2017). With the intent of compiling as much information available from each bounded case, I collected varying data throughout the duration of the study. The sources

87 that I collected included (a) individual interviews, (b) observation field notes, (c) course documents, (d) participant journals, and (e) email communications.

Interviews

For the current study, I interviewed conductor educators and their respective students. Each interview lasted between 20-60 minutes. I recorded each interview on both a Samsung Galaxy S8 phone and a Zoom H1 digital recorder. I took notes by hand during each interview, and then transferred handwritten notes to a Windows 10 based laptop in the hours following the interview. I used Temi AI cloud-based transcription software for interview transcription. During the interviews, I asked open-ended, semi-structured questions to conductor educators about how the incorporate Dalcroze Eurhythmics, the ways in which they do so, and the impact they perceive that Eurhythmics has on their students’ development (see Appendix C). The questions that I asked students were also open-ended and semi-structured. The questions pertained to how students felt when engaged in Dalcroze Eurhythmics, their comfort with conducting gestures and movement, and how they perceived Eurhythmics transferred to their conducting (see Appendix D).

Observation and Field Notes

I observed two classes within each bounded case during instruction using

Eurhythmics. During the class period, I recorded notes by hand, and typed them later on a

Windows 10 based laptop. My note taking procedure was based on Creswell and Poth’s

(2017) recommended observation protocol, and included jottings and formal descriptions as Yin (2017) described (see Appendix E). I provided detailed observations in my descriptions and jottings (Emmerson, Fretz, & Shaw, 2011). To ensure that notes were

88 accurate and detailed, I read my notes and added additional information following each observation.

Course Documents

I collected course syllabi and any conducting course handouts from each location.

These items provided additional information beyond the observations and interviews.

These items also helped to corroborate data that emerged in interviews and field observations (Bowen, 2009).

Participant Journaling

Student participants completed three journal entries during data collection (see

Appendix F). I asked participants to complete a journal entry once per week for 3 weeks.

The journals prompts were open-ended to elicit a variety of responses from participants.

These prompts took each student roughly 10-15 minutes each to answer.

Email Communication

Each participant received emails throughout the process. These emails included communication regarding observation and interview schedules, general discussions, clarification, and communication regarding trustworthiness and other study-related concerns. Email communication from participants provided additional information and insights from participants that might not emerge in interviews, observations, or journals.

Data Analysis

Before I began data analysis, I converted all recorded audio to text through Temi

AI cloud-based transcription service. All collected data was then organized and converted into .docx format in Word 2016. I then transferred all data to NVivo 12 software. Within

NVivo, I analyzed and coded all data from interviews, observations, handouts, journal

89 entries, and emails. From this data, I found emergent codes that applied to one bounded case or that applied to both cases (Saldaña, 2016). The coding process that I used began with initial coding using In Vivo codes. In Vivo codes are codes based on the actual words and responses that participants provide in interviews, observations, documents, and correspondences (Saldaña, 2016). Following the initial round of coding, I then recoded the data using focused coding, a process that identifies the most “frequent or significant codes” from the data (Saldaña, 2016, p. 240). The goal of both rounds of coding was to find themes within the data (Ryan & Bernard, 2003).

The data in this study were analyzed within each bounded case first and then analyzed as a whole across all cases. After analyzing each bounded case individually using the previously described coding procedure, I employed Stake’s (2006) cross-case analysis process to ascertain themes that applied to both cases. The goal of cross-case analysis was to find themes or ideas that were present in both cases. Although the themes found from each individual case can be useful for understanding a studied phenomenon, determining themes across multiple cases can reveal information that may be applicable to other similar cases. In the present study, a cross-case analysis yielded useful information for conductor educators regarding the incorporation of Dalcroze Eurhythmics into their classrooms. However, the limited scope of this study in both timeframe and number of cases means that findings may not be generalizable to all conducting classrooms, and that applications to other settings must be considered carefully.

Trustworthiness

I addressed trustworthiness by performing frequent member checks with all participants throughout the data collection and recording process. These communications

90 were in the form of emails sent to individual participants as well as in-person discussions.

Emails asked participants if everything that I have found is true or accurate in their opinion, and I adjusted data accordingly. Member checks helped to ensure that the data that I found was accurate according to participants and that it portrayed what participants truly perceive or think.

Additionally, I requested the assistance of two peer reviewers who teach music education and conduct research to check deidentified coded data and provide feedback regarding assigned codes, emergent themes, and findings. Peer reviewers were music education doctoral students who have experience in qualitative data analysis. The process of member checking and peer review helped assure that data and findings are trustworthy for reporting (Cho & Trent, 2006; Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

Another procedure for addressing trustworthiness is triangulation, which is a process by which the researcher employs multiple methods, people, or theories when collecting data (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). A researcher can achieve triangulation through the collection of multiple sources of data, the use of different researchers, use of different theoretical frameworks, or variation in the time and space of data collection. This study employed triangulation through the collection of multiple data sources, which consisted of observations, interviews, journal entries, course documents, and email correspondence.

Methodological Limitations

Generally speaking, there are limitations to any research study. One of the limitations of this study was the timeframe in which the study occurred. Although I observed conducting students in the class as participants, I only collected a brief, chronological snapshot of each participant’s gestural development. A longitudinal study

91 that documents the process from conducting student, to novice teacher, to expert teacher, would be an appropriate manner to document the true arc of learning to use gesture through movement. However, a longitudinal collection of data was beyond the scope of the current study.

A second limitation was the number of individuals who participated in the study.

Four participating conducting faculty would be appropriate for this type of multiple case study, but I only observed two conductor educators for this research. The select number of participants limited my findings because of a lack of generalizability. According to

Yin (2017), case study findings are generalizable to theoretical propositions, but are not generalizable to entire populations or on a large scale. Although the data I collected and the themes that emerged might be useful for readers to transfer to their own teaching practice, the findings of the present study may not necessarily apply to all undergraduate- level conducting classes. Still, the data could be valuable for those who want to know how conducting educators incorporate Dalcroze Eurhythmics into conducting courses, and how students navigate the method’s principles. The limited amount of data that I collected in this study, therefore, restricts generalizability to broader settings.

A third limitation is that of teacher philosophy and teaching style. Both conducting educator participants had two distinct teaching styles and philosophies.

Additionally, the courses that I examined in each individual case were organized in different ways. For example, one conductor educator taught Eurhythmics as part of the larger structure of the course, while the other conductor educator’s entire teaching philosophy and class design revolved around Dalcroze philosophy. In addition, students and instructors held varying backgrounds, experiences, and other aspects related to their

92 individual human nature. Therefore, not only was each bounded case different, but each participant represented an individual perspective. The findings of this dissertation may only apply to these specific individuals. However, these differences do not detract from the findings of this study, as the composite information could be valuable in describing how Dalcroze Eurhythmics could work within the conducting classroom.

Reporting the Findings

The reporting of findings within this dissertation focus on both individual cases and themes within the data. The report is organized around each case and themes found in the cross-case analysis. In qualitative research, it is important to provide a thick description in case study research, providing as much detail as possible about each case

(Geertz, 1973; Mills, Durepos & Wiebe, 2010). In the following chapters of this dissertation, chapters 4 and 5 each detail a specific case. I present findings in these chapters through thick descriptions of each bounded case, including reports of the participants, their perceptions and attitudes, details of classroom environments, and presentations of other study-related data. Chapter 6 contains a cross-case analysis and a discussion of four themes and four sub-themes that emerged from both cases. In chapter

7, I provide preliminary assertions and implications based on the themes that emerged, and in chapter 8, I present a summary, conclusions, and suggestions for future research.

93 CHAPTER FOUR

FRONTIER STATE UNIVERSITY: MOVING THE BODY

“I think a lot of students are just uncomfortable moving their body in front of other

people… Just to have more opportunity to move the body and then to move it in time or

really feel the pulse, that’s a huge first step.”

-Dr. Williams, Conductor Educator

Plains, Prairies, and Badlands

1 My time at Frontier State University0F coincided with the end of winter break at my own institution. Therefore, I made a working-vacation of it. Frontier is located in a region of the United States that I had never visited: the Great Plains. Being that it was only a long day’s drive from Frontier State University, I decided to visit Mount Rushmore and the Black Hills before making the long journey to the school. On my seemingly endless drive from Rapid City to Frontier across badlands, pine forests, and gullies, I realized how isolated the small towns were in relation to their nearest neighbors. I was even fortunate enough to pass within 3 feet of a bald eagle during my trip, ostensibly guarding the splendid and untouched land against passersbys driving along the two-lane highway. On its website and in other promotional materials, Frontier alludes to their relative isolation. The institution boasts that part of its approximate 130-year history and continual success exists because it is the only higher-education institution within a 300- mile-wide area.

When I exited the interstate, I drove into town to observe the area, and grasped a sense of what life in the municipality is like. Immediately, I could see the remnants of life

1 The names of all institutions and participants in this study have been changed to protect their identity.

94 on the frontier during the American Westward Expansion. Littered among newer steel buildings and 20th century storefronts were buildings that reminded me of the old west architecture that I had only seen in movies, television, and video games. Much of the town featured restaurants, attractions, and other facilities outfitted with bison, frontier, or Native American themes. Leaving downtown and heading toward the university, mid-

20th century bungalows that separated downtown from campus greeted me along the way.

As soon as I entered campus, I saw facilities and signage built from red brick.

One of the largest structures on campus is the fine arts center, which houses all of the music classes for the university. After exploring the town a bit further, I realized that the fine arts center was not only the cultural hub of the university but served as one of the cultural epicenters of the town. Advertisements for fundraisers, cocktail hours, and performances of various kinds to be held in the fine arts center were hung in coffee shops and were advertised on the local radio stations. I quickly learned that the university was not only part of the town, but was integral to the day-to-day happenings of the surrounding region. I asked one of the student participants, April, who grew up in the town, if my observations about the area were correct. She told me that most events related to the arts in the area occur in the university’s fine arts center.

As I entered the facility, I walked into an expansive lobby outside of the auditorium where the university holds concerts, plays, musicals, and community events.

The music wing around the corner featured prominent signs with biographies of all of the students and faculty proudly displayed on the walls. As I later came to know the participants, I perceived a real sense of close-knit community within the band and music education program, a sentiment that participant Josh relayed to me in our conversations.

95 This sense of community appeared to translate to an air of comfort between Dr. Williams and her students, which I observed in the classes that I visited.

Figure 4.1 Frontier State University's Fine Arts Center

Figure 4.2 The choir room at Frontier State University; classroom where the conducting class met

96 The Setting: Frontier State University

In early January 2019, I spent 3 days at Frontier State University, observing the advanced conducting course at the school and interviewing the instructor and students.

There was a sense of familiarity between the instructor and all of the students who I met.

During my visit to Frontier, I met Dr. Williams, the faculty member who teaches advanced instrumental conducting. I also met the three students enrolled in Dr. Williams’ conducting course, including two students, April and Josh, who elected to participate in this research. Before describing aspects of the advanced conducting course at Frontier

State University, the first portion of this chapter describes Frontier’s setting and participants.

Frontier State University is a liberal arts-based university located in the Great

Plains region of the Upper Midwest. The university maintains an enrollment of around

1,000 undergraduate students and about 100 graduate students. Founded in the 1880s in an isolated farming community, Frontier State University is currently the only higher- education institution within about a 300-mile stretch between two metropolitan areas.

School historians believe that the university’s position as the only college or university in a large area contributed to its steady enrollment and relative success during the 20th century. In recent years, the school consistently ranked in the top tier of both the U.S.

News & World Report and Princeton Review rankings (Princeton Review, 2019; US

News and World Report, 2019).

The department of music and performing arts at Frontier State University employs three full-time faculty and a number of adjunct faculty. Full-time faculty members include the department chair, the director of choirs, and Dr. Williams, the Director of

97 Bands. Students can major in Applied Music, Fine Arts with a Music concentration, and

Music Education. All students enrolled at Frontier State University must take courses in ethics, history, writing, oral communication, literature, social sciences, natural sciences, mathematics, and physical education. Music majors must complete courses in music theory, ear training, history, applied lessons, and introduction to conducting. In addition, music majors take concentration-specific courses, which includes a course in advanced conducting for music education majors. The advanced conducting course was the course that I observed for this research. The next few pages profile Dr. Williams and the two student participants, April and Josh.

Figure 4.3 Frontier State University Campus Map, with Fine Arts Building marked

98 Participants

Dr. Williams, conductor educator. Dr. Williams has been the Director of Bands at Frontier State University since 2013. She holds a doctorate in conducting, a master of music in instrumental performance, and a bachelor of music education. Her teaching duties include conducting Frontier’s Wind Ensemble, Jazz Band, and Pep Band. She also teaches courses in music education and conducting. Additionally, Dr. Williams is a professional instrumental musician in the region and serves on her state music education association board.

From the moment I met Dr. Williams through my time visiting Frontier State

University, I immediately recognized her passion for teaching as well as her desire to deliver positive experiences for her students. Dr. Williams wants to provide her students with an education focused on more than just their musical abilities, but one focused on their entire well-being. Her classrooms are rooted in encouraging students to develop self-awareness and fostering a positive classroom environment. During interviews, Dr.

Williams made clear that she is “really about creating a good positive environment.” The theme of a positive environment transcends the conducting course I observed at Frontier

State University and underpins Dr. Williams’ instrumental music education program. By providing a safe atmosphere and cultivating a sense of community among her students,

Dr. Williams aims to aid her students in becoming comfortable performing classroom tasks. Dr. Williams stated that students’ comfort helped them to express themselves freely, including the ability to move their bodies with music without fear of ridicule from classmates.

99 Early on in my contacts with Dr. Williams, she made it clear that she was neither formally trained in Dalcroze Eurhythmics nor considered herself a Dalcroze expert.

Rather, she experienced parts of the method and decided to incorporate what she perceived as valuable into her teaching. Her first experience with the system came when she was employed at another institution.

At my last job, my choral colleague was really interested in Dalcroze. So, he

brought in an expert and she did one class with us. That’s where I learned a lot of

these, just kind of small games, exercises I suppose. It was really through him and

that just kind of stuck with me (interview, January 9, 2019).

Although Dr. Williams had that one experience with Dalcroze, that event provided an impact on how she teaches in both ensemble and conducting settings. Her brief exposure to the method allowed her to identify the potential that it held for aiding her students’ musicality. For example, Dr. Williams incorporates Eurhythmics games into marching band.

I use them in marching band, and this is one I use in [concert] band, which I

won’t use in conducting as we don’t have enough people to get them in rows.

They have to connect arms and march different beats. You march whole notes,

you march half notes, quarter notes, eighth notes, and it’s all about keeping the

lines. That was really good for marching band and it’s a really fun way to kind of

bond a little bit and it’s challenging (interview, January 9, 2019).

Regarding her conducting course, Dr. Williams incorporates specific activities and Dalcroze games. The first of which is what Dr. Williams described as free movement exercises.

100 I usually start with free movements. We put on a couple of different kinds of

pieces of music in different styles, tempos. At first, I usually just have them move

freely to it any way they want. And then, I usually focus their listening into

dynamics, timbre, melody. I tell them to “trace the melody with your body, to the

time.” So kind of focusing in on various elements of the music. So they really pay

attention to those, but it’s all response with their body (interview, January 9,

2019).

Dr. Williams’ decision to incorporate elements of Dalcroze Eurhythmics into her conducting courses came, in part, from her observations while teaching undergraduate conducting students earlier in her career.

It really started as just a way to kind of get the body moving. I think a lot of

students are just uncomfortable moving their body in front of other people and

you see so many conductors who are so scared, so intimidated. They don’t feel

free to express themselves, especially at the undergraduate level. They get up in

front of a band, and they’re just looking at their score, and they’re waving their

arms just as they practice and they’re not listening. They’re so focused on what

they’re doing. It’s limiting their freedom a little bit, I think. They’re not having an

experience that they could. And then they go out into a band or a choir for the first

time scared (interview, January 9, 2019).

Dr. Williams also drew on her own experience as a conductor in deciding to incorporate

Eurhythmics into her classes.

I’ve learned through my former poor conducting technique. I used to get bad back

pain because of my technique. And so there are just a few things I’ve changed

101 with my posture. All of a sudden now, I can conduct all day just fine. So, I think it

comes down to body health too, which is really important (interview, January 9,

2019).

One of Dr. Williams’ goals as a conductor educator is to prevent similar problems with her students. She sometimes sees students who are “very tense” or whose bodies are

“crunched in,” and wants them to relax and expand their body awareness to avoid these issues. Subsequently, Dr. Williams has established a manner of teaching that is centered on the notion of students’ bodily awareness. The eurhythmics exercises that Dr. Williams incorporates are part of a holistic system of involving students’ whole bodies while conducting. In addition to Eurhythmics, Dr. Williams asks her students perform Malko-

Green exercises (Green, 1961b), yoga, and other exercises designed to assist the students in exploring the space available to them for conducting and gesture. Dr. Williams combines different methods to aid her students in gaining a sense of bodily awareness.

Eurhythmics exercises are an integral component of the overall conducting experience in

Dr. Williams’ classroom. Dr. Williams also commented on the specific aspects of conducting and musical awareness Eurhythmics helped her students accomplish, stating,

“I really think it’s everything” (interview, January 9, 2019). In Dr. Williams’ opinion, the

Dalcroze-inspired activities that she uses in class develops many aspects of her students’ musicianship, especially while learning to embody music from the podium.

Therefore, for Dr. Williams, Eurhythmics are strands of the larger tapestry of her conducting curriculum. The eurhythmics exercises she incorporates into her courses are one tool that she uses to encourage her students to gain comfort and awareness in their bodies. Combined with Malko-Green exercises, free movement, and other activities,

102 Eurhythmics is a means for cultivating students’ overall maturation while enrolled in Dr.

Williams’ conducting courses.

Josh, music education major. Josh is a junior at Frontier State who is majoring in Music Education. He is a percussionist in the band program and sings in the choir. Josh is a bright and energetic undergraduate student, whom I could immediately tell was enthusiastic about music and performing. He is a native of the state and grew up about 3 hours north of the university.

In our interviews, Josh relayed his feelings about movement and his personal experience with it. Josh described himself as hyperactive, and that motion is a part of his being. Extraneous movement affected Josh’s childhood, as he reported that he often got into trouble because of fidgeting. This personal relationship with movement has translated to Josh’s current musical life. As a percussionist, his relationship with movement manifests when he performs. He also has considered how his relationship with movement affects his conducting.

I tend to shift weight, like move my feet a lot. Whereas I’ve been instructed to

plant my feet, be strong and firm. I constantly want to move. I want to add

something more than I need. So, I’ve seen that come through my conducting. I do

enjoy just the whole thing (interview, January 8, 2019).

When discussing how Eurhythmics-inspired activities might improve his conducting, Josh focused on how feeling and understanding the music would influence how he was going to conduct. Josh’s feelings were especially prevalent regarding beat and rhythm. “So then it’s like, put [the pulse] somewhere else. Kind of like, how else can

I feel this beat, how else can I feel the music?” (interview, January 8, 2019). Josh also

103 talked about how Eurhythmics could help him devise a clear image and interpretation of the score. “It can kind of create a mental image of where a piece is going, what’s coming up for your conducting, and what you need to be doing” (interview, January 9, 2019). In addition, Josh discussed how he believed Eurhythmics could improve his gestures and make them more natural than planned or scripted gestures.

I think it will take a lot off my brain to like thinking about [them] specifically.

Like, here comes the loud part. It’ll take pressure off my brain, which will allow

me to focus on other parts of my conducting (interview, January 9, 2019).

April, music education major. April is a junior at Frontier State who plays the alto saxophone. She is an enthusiastic student who wants to become a better conductor.

April grew up in the same town where Frontier State is located.

In my discussions with April, she conveyed that she appreciated the influence that

Eurhythmics has had on her conducting and overall musicianship. Specifically, April discussed how Eurhythmics prompted her to “focus on” different aspects of music and a score. “It makes you more aware; you have to be more focused on where the beat is”

(interview, January 9, 2019). April also talked about how Eurhythmics assisted her in finding a steady beat and translating that beat into her conducting movement.

I feel like it would help you focus more and you’d be more locked in I guess.

Because you’d be thinking about the beat and then you’re also moving at the same

time. It’d be really helpful. The beat in my mind is a separate thing from my

movements… with the beat exercises, you have to be focused on both at the same

time (interview, January 9, 2019).

104 April also reported that Eurhythmics made her more aware of her movements and the space around her while conducting. “I was able to get a feel for how much space I can use with my body and how I can apply that to my conducting to show various things.” In addition, she stated that she became more confident with her conducting as the semester progressed. “My confidence is growing. I think it’s going well and it’s getting better... I definitely feel more fluid and expressive than before” (journal entry, February 10, 2019).

Conducting Class

The first Advanced Conducting class of the Spring 2019 semester at Frontier

State University met at 7:00 PM in the evening to accommodate all of the students’ busy schedules. The class took place in the choir room, a large space with 20-foot ceilings and a floor plan with ample room for three tiers of chair-width choral risers, and an open space in the front and middle. This open space provided more than enough room for students in the class to conduct and perform movement exercises. Before the start of class, Dr. Williams set the room up with her laptop connected to a speaker system. In addition to her audio set up, Dr. Williams had items that she would later use during the class meeting.

As the students came into the room, Dr. Williams greeted them each warmly.

Because she taught the students in rehearsals previously throughout the day, the greeting was brief but inviting. The class roster consisted of three students, including the two participants Josh and April. Immediately, I perceived the sense of community and familiarity in these interactions that Dr. Williams, Josh, and April had conveyed to me in interviews. There was an apparent respect between Dr. Williams and her students. The students sat in the front row of chairs on the choral risers. As this was the first class of

105 the semester, Dr. Williams began by explaining the syllabus and completing other typical first class of the semester tasks.

After a brief period of discussion regarding the syllabus and class, the conversation shifted toward the students, and, specifically, concerns with their physical positioning. This was an advanced conducting course, so students already established habits related to conducting in a previous semester. However, Dr. Williams’ colleague taught the introductory course at the university, so Dr. Williams needed to learn about her students’ previously formed conducting knowledge. To do so, Dr. Williams asked the students spread out so each one stood in their own conducting “space.” The space that

Dr. Williams described included all of the possible conducting area in front of the students on the X (up and down), Y (left and right), and Z (distance from the body outward)-axes. Dr. Williams informed the students, “Let’s start with a spatial exercise...it’s kind of just adjusting, getting used to using all of your space.” Consistent with what she revealed in her interview, Dr. Williams immediately framed the exercise in terms of students’ comfort level. “Something that we really struggle with as young conductors is feeling comfortable using your space. Right? So just do this…” Dr.

Williams proceeded to demonstrate what she defined as correct spatial usage, shifting into an overly large use of the three conducting planes. “Do I want to conduct with this much space? Why not?” A student pointed out that the space was too large to communicate effectively with the ensemble. Dr. Williams confirmed the student’s answer and provided more examples of different uses of space, including the height of the conducting plane. Dr. Williams then went on to share with the students her mistakes in conducting in the past. “I’ve struggled in the past where I thought I need to out here

106 because I’m short. That’s why I’ve got two feet of podium in the band room: so that I can be comfortable.”

After the conversation about spatial awareness, Dr. Williams had the students perform spatial exercises. These exercises were part of the Malko-Green exercises made popular by Elizabeth Green in her conducting texts (1961b). Students performed movement on the conducting planes in different derivations of eight to a metronome set at

100 BPM. For example, students would move their hands out for four, then back for four, then out for six, back for two, then seven and one. Dr. Williams asked the class, “What is that helping us with?” Josh responded, “Using your space.” Dr. Williams confirmed his answer,

Yeah. Just feel what is available to you. We’ve already talked about that using the

max space is ridiculous and not useful. We have to feel comfortable reaching. We

have to feel comfortable inviting that person in. You have to feel comfortable

shifting from your waist to your feet. You have to feel comfortable utilizing it

when we want. You have to feel free to do those kinds of things.

After exploring the Z-axis with this exercise, Dr. Williams then had her students repeat the movements on the Y-axis. As students were completing this task, Dr. Williams changed the conversation to the fluidity of the motion. As part of this discussion, Dr.

Williams started moving her arms in a jerking manner. “What am I denying my students?” Josh replied, “Expressivity?” Dr. Williams explained, “Yes. You want to think about what our players are doing, what do they need from us? And that should always be the first question in your mind: what do they need from me?”

107 The class conversation turned to conducting posture, and, specifically, how students should position their entire bodies in conducting. Dr. Williams began at the feet and encouraged students to align their body up through their head.

We’re going to go through our bodies and determine where all of our body parts

are, where they need to be, where they should be to be comfortable. And this is

where it does get a little bit different for everyone, too. But, we’re basically going

to make ourselves aware of what is happening here and find a position that works

us for each of us.

Dr. Williams had the students align their bodies from their feet to their hips, upward and through the head. “Think about someone putting their hand in your head and pulling on your spine.” Dr. Williams then diagnosed each student’s individual posture.

See already we’ve got some differences; Josh is going forward. We all carry

tension differently. So, what our shoulder is doing affects our head. If you’re

coming forward, what’s happening in your head? Just go ahead and hunch your

shoulders. There it goes to the head, right? And then, all of a sudden, your head is

pointing that way. We know we’re not talking marching band statue either here.

“Pressbox!” right? We don’t necessarily want to be doing that, but we should be

having that relaxation of the shoulders… These are things I want you, before

Monday, to be aware of how you’re moving. Go through your body. Maybe three

or four times a day. It might help with some stress, too, because we all carry

stress in our bodies. Mind and body are connected.

Dr. Williams then analyzed each student’s baton grip and hand position.

Following these discussions, Dr. Williams then guided the class to perform specific

108 Dalcroze Eurhythmics exercises. “Now the fun begins: Dalcroze!” Dr. Williams directed the students to find some open space in the room, and told them that they would need

“quite a bit of space.” The first exercise that students performed was what Dr. Williams referred to as a “free movement” with the right hand. “I just want you to respond naturally to what you’re doing. But, just with your right hand. I just want your movement to be natural.” Dr. Williams proceeded to play Courtyard Apocalypse from the soundtrack to Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Part 2. As she played the piece, students freely moved their right arm to demonstrate, or as Dr. Williams directly stated,

“embody” the music that they hear. At this moment, I observed what appeared to be students’ varying levels of comfort with the activity. Josh’s body language and facial affect indicated that he was much more comfortable with the activity than April or the third student in the class. Josh was moving freely without hesitation, while the other two students appeared to be timid and not quite sure of themselves. In addition, Josh held relaxed facial features, while the other students furrowed their brows in frustration at times. Throughout the activity, he seemed to be not only embodying what he heard but enjoying the activity as well.

After moving with their right hands, Dr. Williams then asked the students to move their left hands. As the students performed the free movement exercise, Dr. Williams instructed them to move just their hand, then expand to their elbow, shoulder, and clavicle. As students were performing this exercise, Dr. Williams explained to them why they are doing it. At this moment, Dr. Williams relayed to the students one of her reasons for incorporating Eurhythmics: for students to feel comfortable while conducting.

109 Okay, so what’s the purpose of this? Why are we doing these movements in

conducting class? You just did it here in front of each other, right? So we can feel

comfortable expressing physically. We can do it in front of your ensembles too in

your classroom. You have to be comfortable. I feel like we can get more

comfortable with our bodies... how can my body show what I want?

Dr. Williams demonstrated to her students an example of incorrect gesturing by referencing a staccato gesture when a piece is actually lyrical. She then explained to the students that they could use their body movements in different ways to demonstrate or indicate various elements of a score to the ensemble, including changes in harmony, melody, dynamics, and timbre. Dr. Williams played the piece from Harry Potter once more and encouraged the students to focus on the harmony. She told them that their emotional interpretation based on the harmony could affect their bodily response to the music. When asked what emotions or thoughts the music evoked in the students, April answered, “Lush…or trudge.” Josh responded, “It reminds me of a war hero.” Dr.

Williams affirmed their feelings about the piece.

Oh, that’s awesome. I know exactly what this is from, and I’m really depressed

when I hear it. A lot of bad stuff happens during the music. So, it’s really

interesting how you hear and interpret. We can project that out to our ensemble.

And those emotions can be in our face. They can be in our prep. They can be the

way that we talk about the music.

Immediately following this discussion about the free movement exercise, Dr.

Williams then asked the students to form a three-person circle and perform a Dalcroze game, “pass the beat.” During this exercise, the students clapped the hand of the student

110 next to them on either the downbeat or another beat within the meter. The students were used to participating in this exercise, as it was one of the Dalcroze games that Dr.

Williams regularly incorporates into her band rehearsals. Dr. Williams first played a piece that could be considered either in a fast three or in a lilting 6/8, and then one in

4/4. During the piece in 4/4, Dr. Williams asked students to change when they clapped within the meter and shifted from the downbeat to students moving on four, three, and then two. After completing the exercise, Dr. Williams questioned the students: “Now when you’re passing the beat, do you on the beat or do you move before it?” Josh answered “Before.” Dr. Williams acknowledged Josh’s answer and explained,

Yes. Why do we move before the beat as conductors? It’s about determining how

long it’s going to take. Same thing when you’re doing this. If I am doing a soft

piano, I don’t have to go very far. I take my time, relaxed. That’s what you’re

doing, you’re determining how far you have to go in that time. It’s also about

knowing where the pulse is, the feeling. You’ve got movement going on in your

body. That pulse. As conductors, we need to be able to keep that steady. We need

to notice when someone is behind or ahead, we need to be able to reign that in

when we have problems. We need to be able to embody beat. Sometimes, it’s all

about feeling the big downbeat of a piece. A piece could be a slower 6/8 or a fast

3/4. As long as you’re feeling that big downbeat, which could be indicated by

harmony.

After the beat passing exercise, Dr. Williams had the students perform one more

Dalcroze game. Dr. Williams and the students sat in pairs across from each other and rolled a ball to their partner in time with the music that Dr. Williams played on the

111 speaker system. “So we’re going to be passing the ball. It needs to reach your neighbor on the downbeat. So you need to catch it on the downbeat.” Much like the beat passing exercise, Dr. Williams instructed students to switch when they rolled the balls in the meter. After completing the exercise, Dr. Williams explained to the students that it could improve their preparatory and cueing gestures while conducting.

You have preparation. You have to have movement. You have to communicate

with the cue, with the prep beat. How fast do I need to do it? What should my

velocity be in my hand? Am I going to get all my hand on it and maybe just do this

much? We also have rebounds right? It could also be about the way we release

the ball too. What are you going to communicate with your rebound? I want you

to take these with you and practice. It’s fun. It helps you feel time. It helps you get

that preparation.

The ball-rolling exercise was the final activity of the class.

It is About the Body

Through my conversations with Dr. Williams and her students, April and Josh, it was clear that one of the most important aspects of conductor education at Frontier State

University was students’ awareness and feeling within their bodies. Dalcroze

Eurhythmics was one aspect of a comprehensive, whole-body education that Dr.

Williams implemented while teaching conducting. Dr. Williams first decided to incorporate elements of Eurhythmics into her class as a way to get students out of their seats and to involve their bodies in music making. “It started as just a fun way to kind of get the body moving” (interview, January 9, 2019). In addition to Eurhythmics, Dr.

Williams incorporates other movement activities and pedagogies into her teaching,

112 including yoga and body-mapping exercises. Dr. Williams’ students commented on this focus on the body as well. Both April and Josh talked about how their bodies and how they thought about their bodies were affected by the activities that they experienced in class. When asked about how Eurhythmics influenced her conducting, April responded,

“I was able to get a feel for how much space I can use with my body” (journal entry,

February 10, 2019). When discussing the passing the ball exercise, Josh affirmed that the exercise helped him to feel in his body the preparatory gesture. “You have to come in as if saying, ‘Hey now’” (class observation, January 9, 2019). Many of the activities in the class were both Dalcrozian in nature and held the potential to assist students’ conducting development. Specifically, elements of the class included (a) the free movement exercise,

(b) the use of Dalcroze games, and (c) the Dalcroze-like adaptation of typical conducting class activities. The next few pages discuss each of these three aspects of Dr. Williams’ advanced conducting class.

Free movement. One of the first exercises that Dr. Williams incorporated into the class was what she referred to as a “free movement” exercise. During this exercise, students embodied music within certain parts of their body. In the class that I observed, students started by showing the music in their hands, then wrists, forearms, and shoulders, until they utilized their entire arm from fingertip to clavicle. Dr. Williams instructed the students to “embody” the music in their hands and arms. Students mainly focused on the phrasing and energy of the piece while performing the free movement.

Students’ arms would ascend as the piece became louder, and would speed up as more voices joined the texture or as the harmonic rhythm sped up. Students indicated their aural impression of the music through how their hands and arms moved throughout the

113 space in front of them. They were actively embodying the music based on their aural interpretation of it.

This free movement exercise resembled the Dalcrozian practice called plastique animée. Plastique animée is an exercise or practice where people use their bodies to represent what they hear within music through positioning various body parts. Dalcroze practitioners refer to the resulting performance as “a plastique.” Plastiques can be performed individually or within a group setting, where performers choreograph movements together. Dalcroze educators and learners use plastiques to broaden understanding of music through purposeful movement (Dalcroze School of the Rockies,

2017). There is no one correct way in which to perform a plastique, as one of the primary goals of the exercise is to encourage creative and individualistic thought about music.

Dalcroze believed that the use of plastique animée progressed individuals’ musical instincts and internal conceptualization of music (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1921). When people perform plastiques, they sometimes focus on one or a few aspects of the music, such as melodic contour, harmony, dynamics, or timbre. During the free movement exercise I observed at Frontier State University, Dr. Williams asked students to focus on one element of music at a time, which is consistent with how Dalcroze practitioners engage in plastique animée. Therefore, when Dr. Williams asked her students to perform free movement exercises, they were performing a Dalcroze-inspired exercise that was similar to a plastique.

Dalcroze games. Dr. Williams guided her students through Dalcroze games.

Dalcroze practitioners often refer to exercises or activities as “games,” which often can include elements of improvisation, storytelling, or the use of implements and props.

114 Dalcroze devised his original games with his friend, psychologist Édouard Claparède to help students react physically and quickly to elements and changes in music (Wong,

2013). Various Dalcroze practitioners and experts have adapted and invented new games based on Dalcroze’s original approach over the decades of the system’s existence (Butke

& Frego, 2017).

Dr. Williams specifically implemented two such games in the conducting class that I observed. The first game was “passing the beat.” During this exercise, students stood in a circle and clapped the hand of the person to their right on specific beats. Dr.

Williams played two different pieces of music, and students needed to adjust their clap speed and timing according to the tempo and meter of the songs. In addition, the students adjusted their timing when Dr. Williams called out different beats of the meter. For example, the students began the exercise clapping on the downbeat of every measure for a popular song in 4/4 time, but Dr. Williams then asked them to clap on the second, third, and fourth beats as the song progressed. This exercise not only held the potential to hone students gesturing speed and intensity while conducting, but also could enhance the students’ ability to cue and gesture throughout various beats within a piece’s meter. This specific exercise can improve multiple aspects of students’ conducting.

The second Dalcroze game that Dr. Williams incorporated into her conducting class was “roll the ball.” Dr. Williams played a recording, and students were required to roll a ball in tempo so that it reached their partner at specific beats within the meter of the piece. Similar to the pass the beat exercise, Dr. Williams instructed her students to roll the ball at different times and in multiple tempi. This Dalcroze game potentially could have aided students with the timing of their gestures and cues while conducting,

115 especially because April and Josh needed to time the roll to reach its destination at a certain point in the music. April alluded to this notion in one of her journal responses, specifically when rolling the ball for an arrival on a downbeat. “With the exercises where you have to pass a ball on beat one, it helped a lot with cues and prepping for the first measure. It also helped with emphasizing the downbeat as well” (journal entry, January

27, 2019). This exercise might be beneficial for assisting conducting students in developing their preparatory gestures, including elements of timing, weight, and precision of the gesture.

Adapting activities. Although Dalcroze himself and Dalcroze practitioners devised specific exercises and Dalcroze games, traditional conducting exercises can be adapted or approached in a manner that borrows elements of the Dalcroze approach. I observed this concept at Frontier State University. Before starting any specific exercises, including Eurhythmics, Dr. Williams first instructed students to focus on their space.

Although the exercises that Dr. Williams incorporated were not specifically Dalcrozian in nature, spatial awareness is one of the general tenets of Eurhythmics training (Dalcroze

School of the Rockies, 2017). Although not part of a specific game or exercise, the spatial exploration exercises that Dr. Williams asked her students to perform encouraged them to think in a manner consistent with Dalcroze training and education. These types of exercises undoubtedly exist in various conducting classrooms in colleges and universities across the United States. Consequently, conductor educators can approach many activities that they already incorporate into their coursework from a Dalcroze-inspired perspective. For example, The Malko-Green (Green, 1961b) exercises that Dr. Williams incorporated are pervasive in conducting curricula in the United States. Dr. Williams’

116 incorporation of these exercises can be considered Dalcroze-inspired, because the exercises prompted students to think about and move within the space around them from a musical perspective. Conductor educators can incorporate these exercises as a

Dalcrozian tactic for allowing students to explore their spatial awareness in a conducting context. Malko-Green exercises can be considered a Dalcrozian approach in the conducting classroom, especially if framed within the system.

Summary

The advanced conducting course at Frontier State University provides students with a conducting education that is focused on their bodies and how they use their bodies when conducting. Dr. Williams incorporates elements of Dalcroze Eurhythmics into her band rehearsals as well as in conducting classes. She teaches students to feel the music and to have a physical connection to music, both while performing in band and in her conducting courses. Students enrolled in Dr. Williams’ courses experience Dalcroze

Eurhythmics exercises throughout their time at Frontier State University; musical movement is woven throughout their instrumental learning experiences. Dalcroze

Eurhythmics is one piece of the larger body-centered program that Dr. Williams implements while teaching her students. Students enrolled in Dr. Williams’ class reported feeling more confident in their conducting and as having a better awareness of their body, movement, and gestures after participating in Dalcroze-based activities. The free movement exercises that Dr. Williams incorporated into the course encouraged the students to embody music and build a physical connection to aural stimulation. Dalcroze games helped students time their movements, especially within the context of steady beat and meter. Other exercises in the class, although not specifically Dalcroze in nature, can

117 be considered tangential or Dalcroze-inspired. In her introductory exposure to Dalcroze methodology, Dr. Williams recognized that Eurhythmics could help her students by exposing them to embodied activities that could transfer to their conducting. As Dr.

Williams reiterated throughout my correspondences with her, she is not a Dalcroze expert, but still acknowledged the potential that the method held for aiding her students’ sense of musicality and physical awareness. Although elements of Dalcroze-inspired activities are only one part of Dr. Williams’ teaching, they appeared to be vital in Frontier

State University students’ development of specific aspects of conducting including cues, preparatory movement, and gestures.

118 CHAPTER FIVE

RIVERS UNIVERSITY: AN EMBODIED PEDAGOGY IN MOTION It’s a natural fit. Jaques-Dalcroze knew about conducting, and he was a conductor. I’m

not drawing some magical connection here. It’s already right there.

–Dr. Hansen, Conductor Educator

A Campus, School, and Classroom in Motion

My travels to Rivers University in Industry City served as a change of scenery compared to my trip to Frontier State University. Instead of a serene, tranquil, and isolated drive, I was thrust into an epicenter of heavy traffic, surrounded by myriad vehicles making their way into a major downtown area during morning rush hour. As I navigated the lane changes and transitions between various highways, I could not help but wonder if the vibe on campus mirrored the fast pace that I experienced on the local roadways. After finally parking my car in perhaps the most expansive parking deck in which I had ever been, I made my way down 10 of the decks’ 15 floors to walk to the music building on campus.

As I entered the building, a cacophony of musical noises of all kinds washed over me. Students were practicing, applied teachers were giving lessons, and students and faculty were buzzing around all four floors of the building. The students and faculty always seemed to be in motion, both metaphorically and literally. Fittingly, this sense of movement mirrored the teaching philosophies and practices of Dr. Hansen, Director of

Choirs at Rivers University. Dr. Hansen is an internationally recognized Dalcroze researcher, teacher, and practitioner. As she told me in interviews, her instruction practices in both choral and conducting settings revolve around Dalcrozian principles.

“I have an embodied pedagogy” (interview, January 14, 2019). To me, her teaching

119 philosophies seemed to be a natural fit on a campus that always appeared to be in motion.

Figure 5.1 Classroom setup for Advanced Conducting at Rivers University

Figure 5.2 Information about the Dalcroze method Dr. Hansen wrote on the board for students

120

The Setting: Rivers University

Rivers University is a private, religious-affiliated institution located in a major

American metropolitan area, Industry City. Industry City is the urban center of one of the most populated regions of the United States and is located in the northern reaches of

Appalachia. A sect of French presbyters and immigrants founded Rivers in the late

1870s. Rivers’ campus is nestled against some of the most bustling parts of Industry City.

Looking in one direction, skyscrapers tower over the campus. One of the city’s major sports arenas is also visible from most of the campus.

The university enrolls about 10,000 students, 6,000 of which are undergraduates.

Rivers’ School of Music enrolls approximately 350 music majors and is NASM- accredited. Majors at the school include performance, music education, music technology, and music therapy. All music majors must complete courses in applied music, theory and musicianship, music literature, conducting, and general education.

Each program also requires specific classes, like music education methods, music therapy clinical experiences, and repertoire classes for performance majors. For this research, I observed a music education-specific course that is open to all majors, Advanced Choral

Conducting. The following pages profile Dr. Hansen, the conductor educator at Rivers, and five of her students, Rachel, Tara, Frankie, Felix, and Michael.

Participants

Dr. Hansen, conductor educator. I was excited to meet Dr. Hansen, whom I had heard many things about before traveling to Rivers. When I was in the process of searching for faculty participants for this study, Dr. Hansen’s name surfaced time and

121 time again from people suggesting I talk to her about incorporating Dalcroze

Eurhythmics into conducting. Dr. Hansen is both a recognized expert practitioner and published author regarding the application of Dalcroze to the choral classroom and conducting. Dr. Hansen’s passion for the system and its potential benefits for students was evident from the moment I first spoke with her. Our initial conversation, which typically might have lasted about 20-30 minutes, turned into an hour-long discussion. Dr.

Hansen conveyed to me that Dalcroze Eurhythmics was a driving force in not only her teaching style in conducting and in the choral classroom, but in the way she thinks about music in general. As she stated, “This is just my pedagogy; I have an embodied pedagogy. There are other embodied pedagogies, but none perhaps as specific, in my opinion, to making music as Dalcroze Eurhythmics” (interview, January 14, 2019). Dr.

Hansen believes it is present in every facet of her teaching. “I don’t even know how I teach this work because it’s embodied in me. It’s an embodied knowledge” (interview,

January 14, 2019). It was fascinating to hear the insights of someone who was so immersed and knowledgeable about Dalcroze Eurhythmics, especially given how much of a proponent Dr. Hansen is of the pedagogy.

One of the first topics Dr. Hansen discussed was why she decided to incorporate

Dalcroze Eurhythmics into her conducting courses. Dr. Hansen spoke about students using their bodies as instruments while conducting.

The first thing I’m hoping to teach the students is that their instrument is their

body. Dalcroze’s perhaps largest and most important contribution is thinking

about the body as an instrument of perception and as an instrument of

performance. And so, thinking about things from both sides of the spectrum, we

122 can teach the body to be expressive and accurate and efficient. And then we use

those efficiencies and expressivities to demonstrate the repertoire. So, sort of two

sides of the spectrum. I think many of these students haven’t actually thought

about their body as an instrument. They know they have to wave their hands, but

they don’t necessarily know the depth to which the conducting instrument is

rooted inside the body (interview, January 14, 2019).

One of Dr. Hansen’s goals is to develop her students’ musicianship. Because she is Dalcroze-trained, Dr. Hansen incorporates all facets of the Dalcroze pedagogy into her teaching, including eurhythmics, solfège, improvisation, and plastique animée to develop

2 a multitude of musical abilities in her students. 1F Each branch of the Dalcroze pedagogy develops various parts of musicianship. When considering the Dalcroze pedagogy, some might conflate the system with the eurhythmics branch solely, partly because many often refer to the pedagogy as “Dalcroze Eurhythmics” As mentioned in chapter 2,

“Eurhythmics” (uppercase E) refers to Dalcroze methodology and “eurhythmics”

(lowercase e) refers to that branch of the method. (Dalcroze Society of America, 2019).

However, the entire system encompasses all four branches listed above. By utilizing all aspects of the entire Dalcroze pedagogy, Dr. Hansen endeavors to develop several aspects of her students’ musicianship. “I’m thinking about Dalcroze Eurhythmics as a whole. It has four areas: eurhythmics, solfège, improvisation, and plastique animée” (interview,

January 14, 2019). In our conversations, Dr. Hansen discussed what she does to

2 Some consider Dalcroze pedagogy to have three main areas—eurhythmics, solfège, and improvisation— with plastique animée being its own separate but related activity or study (Juntunen, 2016). Other Dalcroze experts, including Dr. Hansen, consider plastique animée a fourth, coequal branch to the other three. This paper considers plastique animée to be the latter, as an equal fourth branch.

123 incorporate all four branches while teaching, and the benefits she perceives from each.

Regarding the use of solfège, Dr. Hansen said,

I’m thinking about their hearing, and I think about it in a Dalcroze way. Dalcroze

is fixed-Do solfège. The first exercise that we’re going to do is a Bach chorale

that happens to be in a minor/C Major, which is handy because then we can read

it. They’re using movable-Do, but I’m getting at fixed-Do by asking them to do it

in that key and thinking about the actual literal pitch or the absolute pitch of notes

as conductors. I think that’s critical for conductors, not only a movable solfège

system but an absolute solfège system (interview, January 14, 2019).

Dr. Hansen also conveyed her feelings about the importance of the di-chord in the

Dalcroze system and how focusing on that principle helps young conductors become better listeners. She also believes that hearing the di-chord is pivotal in understanding choral intonation, especially as a conductor.

If I go back to solfège for a moment, one of the big Dalcroze principles is

defining di-chords, the half step and the whole step, as the genesis of musical

movement. And so I focus a lot on that in the choral setting, but also for

conductors because they must learn to hear and to teach the half step and the

whole step as the rudimentary sounds. Choral intonation really depends on that

relationship. I work a lot on that in the choral setting, and I’m certain it carries

over to conductor education (interview, January 14, 2019).

Dr. Hansen considers the improvisation branch of Dalcroze “critical” for conductor education. Dr. Hansen believes that conductors must be able to change what they are doing on the fly, and adapt to what they are hearing to give students what they

124 need. She thinks that the improvisatory aspects of the Dalcroze pedagogy can help students develop this ability.

Improvisation is utterly critical for the conductor. How are you able to handle

scenarios that are changing? How can you both guide the music and respond to

the music? The conductor is a conduit. We’re guiding, and we’re responding, and

that relates to Dalcroze. Sound and gesture have a reciprocity. Gesture evokes

sound and sound causes gesture to occur. I think improvisation is absolutely

critical to that. Many young conductors particularly think that they’re going to

stand up there and plan their gesture and evoke music from their planned gestures.

That’s not what conducting really is (interview, January 14, 2019).

Dr. Hansen maintained that improvisation is an important ability for conductors to possess, especially as they have to adapt to what they hear from an ensemble.

Specifically, the Dalcroze concept of improvisation, or adapting to music stimulus instantaneously, is a vital skill for conductors.

Dr. Hansen also believes that plastique animée is an essential aspect of the

Dalcroze system for conductors, especially as it helps students find a way to put musical elements into physical representation.

We’re doing a plastique animée with Mozart’s Ave Verum Corpus. How can we

embody in our whole bodies a choreography of a score, in the sense that

conducting is a choreography in a way? I’m helping them explore that with their

whole bodies (interview, January 14, 2019).

The mention of Dalcroze Eurhythmics might make people think of Dalcroze games and other exercises seen in workshops and Dalcroze classes around the world.

125 Although Dr. Hansen uses some of these games in workshops or clinics that she teaches, she includes them less often into her conducting classes. Rather, she frames much of what she teaches in conducting in Dalcroze pedagogy. When she does include Dalcroze games, she has created them specifically to address a conducting challenge.

I don’t do a lot of the common eurhythmics games. I’m more interested in how to

adapt that material to the conducting setting. I want to get a little bit more specific

about it (interview, January 14, 2019).

Despite the prevalence of eurhythmics games in Dalcroze workshops and training, Dr.

Hansen does not purposefully incorporate them into her classes very often. Observers might view games as an integral part of the system, but Dr. Hansen weaves all aspects of the method throughout her teaching and class activities, including aspects of the eurhythmics branch without reliance on eurhythmics games.

I asked Dr. Hansen about her rationale for incorporating Eurhythmics into conducting, especially what prompted her to consider the system as a means for conductor education. Dr. Hansen responded by telling me about her personal experiences while conducting.

I first studied Dalcroze Eurhythmics in my master’s degree when I was 22, and

for me, it was a turning point because much of my education, like lots of other

people, was more conservatory-based. It seemed more analytical, visual, and

cognitive as if someone cut me off at the neck and it was just my head that was

working on the music. I also have a background in dance. So, I came to this

Dalcroze class, and I thought, “Oh my goodness, well this is what’s missing. I

mean, why did no one connect these dots for me before?” Because this is so

126 obvious. I really had so much joy and enjoyed it so much that the connections just

started right away. For one of the assignments in the class, I remember analyzing

a Bach motet and finding different movement gestures that would apply to the

articulations in the piece and thinking, “This is great.” Then, I went off to study

Dalcroze for maybe a decade. It took time; it takes a lot of time, I think,

integrating this work and trying different strategies. I had an educational setting

that allowed me to do that. I was just a choral conductor. I wasn’t teaching

practitioners until maybe the last eight years or so. But then it just became really

obvious to me that this is a great fit (interview, January 14, 2019).

Dr. Hansen continued by talking about how she saw changes in her students and other conductors when including Dalcroze in their conductor education. One aspect that she has observed is how Dalcroze has helped conductors talk to and communicate with other conductors.

Dalcroze is not only a great fit musically for conductors, but also it’s great for

helping conductors connect with other conductors. Conducting is a very isolated

profession. We spend 80-90% of our time with pieces of paper, with scores, and

then we go to rehearsal where we’re with people. I think that teaching

conducting in in team-based settings like in Dalcroze class is beneficial. People

come together and they do a dance together, they play a game together. There’s a

great sense of connection between them. And I think that conductors can benefit

from their sense of other people, their sense of team, their sense of interaction

from doing Dalcroze games. I’ve noticed that conductors benefit from it

(interview, January 14, 2019).

127 Regarding students’ growth, Dr. Hansen conveyed to me that one of the strongest benefits that she has observed in her students from learning Dalcroze-based conducting is their development of gestures. She said that the “strongest rationale” for teaching conducting with Dalcroze “is the gestural rationale.” She explained,

Many conductors feel stuck in their conducting, and I often see this, it’s kind of a

“one size fits all” conducting. They go from fast piece to slow piece or

renaissance piece to romantic piece and it all kind of looks the same. I don’t think

they think about it the same way, but it’s coming out physically the same.

Dalcroze talked a lot about developing a movement vocabulary, and he meant that

for the pianist; he meant that for the clarinetist. How do you change your sounds

and have a wider, richer palette of sound based on movement? For the conductor,

it’s utterly essential that we have ways in our body to show different sounds. If we

want our choirs or orchestras to be advanced musically, we have to be able to do

that (interview, January 14, 2019).

She went on to explain how this concept applies to score study and how students learn to embody or show aspects of the score through their movements.

I talk a lot about score study and Dalcroze. How do we find ways to get the music

inside our bodies? The Dalcroze thing is that we externalize it to internalize it. So,

I do a gesture so that I feel the music more strongly. And so if we think about

what score study that way, we could start with the gestural, we start with

movement to help us learn the music so that eventual eventually we can show the

music to someone else…what I notice is that my students seem to have more

128 gestural flexibility and fluidity. They seem to be able to embody the scores a little

bit more in terms of style (interview, January 14, 2019).

Finally, Dr. Hansen believes that Dalcroze helps her students become more

“opinionated” about the music. They develop an ability to dissect and analyze music and determine different things about it. Dr. Hansen also considers musical independence a trait that her students should possess.

What I notice about the conductors that have worked with me is that they seem to

have more opinions about the music. They seem to be more equipped to do the

music in different ways. And for me, that flexibility is utterly essential. I

definitely notice the “opinionated” thing; I’ve noticed that in my students for ages

ever since I started doing the Dalcroze work is that they have thoughts about the

music. Isn’t that kind of what we want, an independence in them? (interview,

January 14, 2019).

For Dr. Hansen, the incorporation of Dalcroze into her conducting classes is not a one-off event or a tangential addition to a conducting course. Every aspect of the class is rooted in a Dalcrozian philosophy in one way or another. As Dr. Hansen conveyed, it is just the way that she teaches; it is her pedagogy. Maybe more important, Dr. Hansen told me that she does not want to be “gimmicky” about the way that she incorporates

Dalcroze into her classroom. “I don’t want to be ‘the Dalcroze Conductor.’ This is just my pedagogy. I have an embodied pedagogy” (interview, January 14, 2019). With that notion in mind, it was still clear that the pedagogy had an impact on the way that she teaches, especially in the conducting classroom. Dr. Hansen imbues the spirit of her teaching and philosophy with a passion for and knowledge of Dalcroze.

129 Rachel, music education major. Rachel is a sophomore music education major at Rivers University. She is a vocalist and sings in RU’s choirs. Before enrolling in general music level eurhythmics class at Rivers, Rachel’s only prior experience with movement was through participation in high school show choir.

Regarding Eurhythmics in conducting class, Rachel conveyed that the system helped her to gain an awareness of her body and gesturing while conducting.

I think you have more of an awareness of the space and the energy that you’re

using whenever you’re conducting. I think it helps me to create a better picture of

what I want from the ensemble because you’re almost showing the music to them

and they’re responding to your movements… I think Eurhythmics will help me

feel more comfortable, especially in this course right now because we’re making a

clear connection between Eurhythmics and conducting (interview, January 16,

2019).

When discussing how Eurhythmics helped her understand elements of music better, Rachel noted that her sense of phrasing has improved. Specifically, Rachel mentioned a eurhythmics game that she experienced that required her to step along with a moving line of music.

[Stepping to our moving lines] was really helpful for us to show the phrasing of

the piece, I think and show the movement of the line in our singing. That helped a

lot. And then in conducting today, we were also showing the phrasing and the

melodic contour of the piece that we’re going to be conducting. So we’ll have a

clearer picture of how to show the movements (journal entry, January 23, 2019).

130 In addition, Rachel reported that Eurhythmics helped her to internalize music, which she believed could help her gesturing in the future.

I feel that Eurhythmics have helped me internalize the music I am conducting.

Because I can picture the movement of the music, Eurhythmics help me convey to

an ensemble how I imagine the music should sound. You have a better sense of

what you’re asking your ensemble to do whenever you are conducting (interview,

January 16, 2019).

Tara, music education major. Tara is a soprano and music education major at

Rivers University. She had movement experience in her childhood as both a softball player and as an Irish Dancer. Despite her experience in movement-based activities, she felt like Eurhythmics was still something that she needed to adjust to, especially in the choral and conducting classroom.

By far, the most substantial impact of Eurhythmics that Tara expressed was that it improved her ability to hear multiple parts of a score. She discussed this aspect of learning Eurhythmics both in our interviews and in class.

I find myself always just kind of listening to the melody or the soprano part

because I am a soprano. So an activity like doing the plastique that forced us to

listen to all of the music and know like what everyone was doing and how that all

fit together really helped, which is one of the most important things in conducting:

to make sure all of your ensemble members are with you and not just one specific

voice part (interview, January 16, 2019)… the plastique made us listen more to

the specific things going on and not just listening to the music as a whole. I

always just hear the melody, because I’m a soprano. But, the plastique made me

131 listen for all of the intricate things going on. And think about how those things

should stand out (class observation, January 23, 2019).

Tara also commented on how performing a plastique animée could directly influence her confidence while conducting.

I also think going from doing something like a plastique to then conducting would

help with confidence too because putting ourselves out there and then the

conducting doesn’t seem as intimidating because it’s a smaller version of it... I

feel more security and confidence in my conducting and my conducting choices

(interview, January 16, 2019).

Frankie, music education major. Frankie is a vocalist at Rivers University and is majoring in music education. Her previous movement experience includes participation in softball and performing in musicals in high school. One of the thoughts that Frankie shared was what she thought while performing her plastique, and how she had to adjust her movements to portray the piece accurately.

I’m thinking about like all the aspects that are going into like the music that we

were representing, like the melodic contour and the rhythmic contour. The

dynamics when it’s loud, when it’s soft; when it’s fast, when it’s slow. And then,

trying to differentiate those different things. We found that we were showing the

melodic contour and the volume with the same motions. So then we wanted to

find something to differentiate those different things. We started varying our

height too to show like the volume difference so that we weren’t showing the

same musical concepts with the same actions (interview, January 16, 2019).

132 Frankie also believed that Eurhythmics will help her ability to make gestural choices. She reported that Eurhythmics encouraged her to think about her movements in an artistic manner, and how that would help her to execute appropriate gestures.

I definitely think Eurhythmics will help my gestures. Conducting, in general, is

the movement of your whole body and you’re showing the music through all of

your movements. So, having a more artistic way to show that will really bring out

the different aspects of the music that are harder to show when just conducting the

beat. You have to show it some other way in your body, and the ensemble needs

to be able to recognize that and feel that too (interview, January 16, 2019).

Felix, composition major. Felix is a composition major at Rivers University. His primary instrument is guitar, but he also sings in the choirs. Felix’s previous background in movement came from his childhood playing baseball and participating in Scouts BSA activities. Felix reported that Eurhythmics helped him to develop expressivity while conducting.

I can see Dalcroze Eurhythmics helping with the expressive parts of my

conducting, and in interpreting music based on natural or intentional bodily

reactions. This would be because the techniques we used were purely based on

interpreting the movement of the music without emphasizing the pulse, which

made me focus on something besides the fundamentals I’m already comfortable

with. I think the technique will subtly help me learn conducting movement over

time, as I can apply it to my expression with the left and right hands and combine

it with other bodily movements to make my conducting more expressive (email

communication, February 7, 2019).

133 As a composition major, Felix did not foresee himself conducting as part of his career. However, he did believe that the skills that he acquired in class could apply to both his musicianship and how singers and conductors might perform his works. He stated that it helped him to internalize music after externalizing it first, which gave him insight into how conductors might interpret and shape his compositions. His perspective as a composer stood out compared to the other participants.

Michael, vocal performance major. Michael is a fourth-year transfer student at

Rivers University and is a vocal performance major who often sings in the school’s opera. At his previous institution, Michael completed multiple semesters of Eurhythmics training classes. Michael came to class with a great deal of experience with Eurhythmics already, but enrolled in an advanced conducting course for the first time.

Regarding Michael’s previous experience with Eurhythmics, he reported how enacting Eurhythmics at Rivers University in conducting class affected his conducting.

He said that Dr. Hansen’s class helped him to expand his boundaries while conducting as well as the connection he feels to Dr. Hansen’s teaching. Particularly, Michael focused on the Eurhythmics activities that Dr. Hansen incorporated into class.

[Dr. Hansen is] making us get out of our comfort zone, and I feel like I’m

comfortable getting out of the comfort zone doing these things and these new

ideas. I think the way she presents them to us is good for the entire class. I think

she knows how to talk to each of us as a group. That is what I’m getting out of it

so far. I don’t want to say [it’s] a weird thing, but you know, for me it, it’s weird.

I’m not used to that, but it’s helping me (interview, January 23, 2019).

The Conducting Class

134 Before the third advanced choral conducting class of the semester began, all seven students made their way into the room and to their seats. Desks were arranged in a half-circle with ample space between them and the front of the room. As students filtered into the room, Dr. Hansen held individual and small-group conversations with the students regarding textbook purchases and other items related to the class. Dr. Hansen’s

Bluetooth speaker, which she had already paired with her smartphone, sat on a desk in the front of the room. Dr. Hansen instructed the students to pull out a specific Bach

Chorale from their course materials. The class began with directions for using a tuning fork correctly to find the starting pitch of the chorale. Dr. Hansen then asked the students to find the starting pitch for the bass part of the chorale. Once students found the correct starting pitch, they hummed it all together. Then, Dr. Hansen had the class sing the bass line on “loo.” Following a run-through of singing the bass line, Dr. Hansen then asked students to add gestures to the exercise.

So now I’d like you to sing that bass line again and gesture freely showing the

shape of the line, the ups and the downs, where you’re going to lead to, dynamics,

stuff like that. But, you cannot conduct a beat pattern (class observation, January

23, 2019).

The students proceeded to sing the bass line again with free gesturing. Dr.

Hansen asked, “What happened to our tempo?” Tara responded, “It was slow” (class observation, January 23, 2019). Dr. Hansen confirmed the answer and explained that in the next week’s class, students were going to have to lead the class using free gestures alone without a conducting pattern. She informed them that this activity would help develop motion and gestures in their left hands. Dr. Hansen then had students perform

135 the exercise again but singing the soprano line. She also asked them to try something different with their hands than how they moved with the bass line. Afterward, Dr. Hansen discussed how the piece’s phrasing and energy might affect their conducting gestures.

I feel a sense of crescendo through that for not. Maybe you did too, right? So

again, we’re very used to conducting here. This is our conducting world, but

when you lead us in the class, feel free to kind of move out of that space. Almost

like the plastique animée, do some different things... This is ungraded. This is

more about you trying an expressive style that has nothing to do with beat pattern

(class observation, January 23, 2019).

After completing this exercise, Dr. Hansen instructed the students to practice a plastique animée that they prepared for class set to Mozart’s Ave Verum Corpus. The students performed their plastiques in two separate groups, one with three students and the other with four. Dr. Hansen gave the students 10 minutes to practice their plastiques before performing them. During this time, students discussed their choreography as a group. Students negotiated how they were going to arrange themselves in their groups and which moves they were going to perform. After rehearsing their plastiques, each group performed for the other students in the class.

The first group (“group 1”) to perform was composed of four students: Rachel,

Felix, Michael, and a non-participant student. Because the group had four members, the students decided that each person would represent one of the SATB parts of the piece. In the first phrase of the work, students faced each other in a diamond formation. Each student performed fluid arm movements that represented the contour of their respective voice part. As the tension and energy of the music increased, the group moved into a

136 straight line and moved toward the audience. As the tension and energy reduced in the next phrase, the group leaned back from the audience and knelt. In their final formation, the group positioned themselves in a slant that sloped upward from left to right.

After group 1 performed their plastique, Dr. Hansen asked the non-performing students (“group 2”) to comment on the performance. Frankie commented on how each group member mimicked one of the choral SATB parts. “It was interesting how they all were the different voice parts, but their movements went together, even though they were all doing something a little bit different.” Dr. Hansen indicated that she noticed that as well. She then discussed the students’ quality of motion.

At the beginning, I saw sustained motion. That is going to be handy when you go

to conduct this! If a conductor were conducting this, maybe the left hand would be

giving that sense of sustained motion. That’s one of the things the left hand does

very well (class observation, January 23, 2019).

Next, group 2 performed their plastique. Members of the group were Tara,

Frankie, and a non-participant student. The group started in a triangle formation, with

Tara and Frankie standing on the ends about 2 feet in front of the non-participant student, who was in the middle. In the second phrase of the work, the three students moved into a line across, held their arms out and upwards at about 195 degrees from their bodies, and bounced their hands with the pulse. The group then arranged themselves in a line from front to back, with Tara kneeling in the front, the non- participant halfway-kneeled in the middle, and Frankie standing in the back. The group then repeated their original two formations of a diamond and a then straight line across.

As energy and tension built in the music, the members of the group moved their arms and

137 used more motion and space. At the end of the work, the students kneeled as the piece reached its soft cadential repose.

Dr. Hansen asked the students from group 1 to comment on group 2’s plastique.

Rachel observed that the group changed formation at each phrase of the piece. “I liked that with each phrase of the piece, they went into a different formation” (class observation, January 23, 2019). Felix commented on how the group showed the music, even though they did not have enough people to perform for each SATB part. “It felt like each person wasn’t on a part, but as a group, each person worked to bring out the parts of the music. The main vocal parts were prominent. Like when Frankie stepped out for that one movement” (class observation, January 23, 2019). Michael observed how the group worked together as a contiguous whole.

As a group, it was well-choreographed in general. If anything was improv, it

didn’t feel like that. It felt like everything was super fluid. Everybody worked as a

team. I could see you making eye contact, but it wasn’t like, “Are you going to do

it? You’re going to do it?” No, it was just like, you were into it and then I thought

it went together really well (class observation, January 23, 2019).

Dr. Hansen confirmed and reinforced Michael’s observations.

Yes. It was focused, and it flowed well. As conductors, that’s something we need

to be able to do – be in the music as we conduct. Sometimes when we’re

rehearsing and we’re thinking, “I hear this, uh-oh, what’s happening here?”

instead of staying in the music. This is hard for us as conductors (class

observation, January 23, 2019).

138 Next, Dr. Hansen guided the conversation toward how the students thought the exercise affected their hearing of the music, and how it may have influenced how they thought about the piece. Frankie responded, “It made it a lot easier for me to hear the phrases in the music” (class observation, January 23, 2019). Tara responded,

It made us listen more to the specific things going on and not just listening to the

music as a whole. I always hear the melody because I’m a soprano. But, the

plastique made me listen for all of the intricate things going on. And think about

how those things should stand out (class observation, January 23, 2019).

Michael offered,

There’s something emotional about it; there was like an emotional attachment

with it. I don’t know a lot of you guys. So, but even then, as a group, I felt a bond

almost. If I was conducting, I think that I’d feel a bond with my choir as well. That

was something I’ve never felt that before. So, that was good (class observation,

January 23, 2019).

After this discussion, Tara commented on how using Eurhythmics in conducting class was much different from the experience she had taking Eurhythmics as part of a general music methods course.

I think doing the plastique was interesting; especially for us when we’ve taken

Eurhythmics class that it was geared towards children. It was interesting to take

that and make it more of a conducting focus, but without just doing conducting

gestures (class observation, January 23, 2019).

Dr. Hansen responded by telling the class that Eurhythmics was originally designed for adult students at the conservatory level, and gave a small history of

139 Dalcroze pedagogy. “What Jaques-Dalcroze found out was that natural movement like walking, breathing, and gesturing is really part of the musician’s experience” (class observation, January 23, 2019). She then proceeded to tell the students how Jaques-

Dalcroze’s principles could be related to conducting.

Dalcroze called the conductor the “archetypical Eurhythmician.” A

Eurhythmician is a person who connects sound and gesture. And, that’s what

really what we’re doing as conductors: eliciting sounds, creating sounds, and

responding to sounds with our bodies (class observation, January 23, 2019).

An Embodied Pedagogy in Action

As Dr. Hansen relayed in our conversations, she portrays “an embodied pedagogy” (interview, January 14, 2019). At Rivers embodied considerations and activities are present in every aspect of her teaching and classrooms. Almost every aspect of the program and classes I saw was rooted in some movement or physical activity.

Specifically, the method in which the classes were embodied was through the use of

Dalcroze pedagogy. Dr. Hansen incorporated specific Dalcroze activities into her courses but also adapted other aspects of her teaching to be Dalcrozian as well. The following subsections illustrate the activities that Dr. Hansen incorporated into her conducting class, including those that are directly from Dalcroze pedagogy, and other activities that she adapted to conform to Dalcroze or be more Dalcrozian in nature by incorporating elements of plastique animée, solfège, and improvisation. Finally, student reactions to these activities and the specific parts of the Dalcroze method that Dr. Hansen chooses to include in coursework is discussed.

140 Plastique animée. Dr. Hansen asked her students to choreograph a plastique to

Mozart’s Ave Verum Corpus. The act of performing a plastique animée requires a person to represent different aspects of music within their bodily movements. Performers execute this task through movement of the entire body, extremities, body positioning, movement weight, speed, and direction (see chapter 4 of this manuscript for a detailed description of this practice). Plastique animée is one of the pillars of Dalcrozian pedagogy. When applied in an educational setting, students learn to take different parts of the music and embody them somewhere in their movements. This process appears to help students listen more intently to all of the details and nuance of a work, rather than just hearing it merely as a congruous whole.

The student participants at Rivers University reported that they benefited from their participation in plastique animée. In the class meeting before the one featured in the vignette above, students had an opportunity to begin and work on their plastiques. After experiencing the practice for the first time, the students already were noticing aspects of the music that they could translate into gesture. Tara reported that she tried to capture the shape of the melody in her first plastique attempt. Dr. Hansen acknowledged this, stating,

“I saw when the music went high, the hands float high and low naturally” (class observation, January 16, 2019). Rachel reported that she was thinking about the melody as well, and was moving “like a paintbrush” (class observation, January 16, 2019). Felix stated that he “was showing the smooth motion” and “showed emotions with [his] head movement” (class observation, January 16, 2019).

Student participants also discussed how the plastique exercises affected them.

Tara reported that the plastique made her listen to all of the parts of the music rather than

141 the melody, or specifically, the soprano vocal part. Tara also revealed how the plastique could improve her confidence as a conductor.

I also think going from doing something like a plastique to then conducting would

help with confidence too, because we’re putting ourselves out there and then the

conducting doesn’t seem as intimidating because it’s like a smaller version of it

(interview January 16, 2019).

Frankie considered how the practice would help with her gesturing, especially performing expressive gestures. She also thought the practice could help her to conduct all parts of a score accurately.

I definitely think the plastiques will help me conduct. Because conducting, in

general, is the movement of your whole body and you’re showing the music

through all of your movements. So, having a more artistic way to show that will

really bring out the different aspects of the music that are harder to show just in

the beat…I feel like it’ll help me feel more confident in conducting all of the parts

of the score rather than just certain parts that I tend to focus on. It’ll make me

more aware of everything that’s going on within the music since we have to

represent everything in our movements (interview, January 16, 2019).

Michael reported that the plastiques helped him to build a bond with his group and the class and that it could maybe help him bond with a choir as a conductor in the future.

During the class meeting chronicled in the vignette above, students were visibly embodying various parts of the piece through moving with the phrasing of the piece, showing dynamics and energy thought standing, kneeling, and leaning, and performing arm movements to demonstrate melodic contour. Dr. Hansen and the other students in the

142 class recognized how students were actively demonstrating parts of the music while performing their plastiques.

Solfège. Another activity that students performed in class was singing solfège through various voice parts of a Bach Chorale. This activity was rooted in Dalcroze pedagogy. Solfège is one of the main branches of the Dalcroze method. However,

Dalcroze practitioners teach and utilize solfège in a manner very different from the way it is used typically in modern conservatory-model theory classes (Thomsen, 2011). Solfège in the Dalcroze method is fixed-Do rather than the moveable-Do typically seen in

American music theory classes (Ristow, Thomsen & Urista, 2014). The primary concept in Dalcroze solfège is the use of Do-to-Do scales, which are scales that start on the pitch

C and sung up an octave to the next C, and then down to the tonic of the key. For example, a Do-to-Do scale in Bb would be C-D-Eb-F-G-A-Bb-C up, and C-Bb-A-G-F-

Eb-D-C-Bb down. This exercise helps students to be more aware of the accidentals in each scale, focus on half and whole steps within the scale, create a personal tonal context, and ground students in the sound of C major which helps develop relative pitch (Ristow,

Thomsen & Urista, 2014). In addition, this system helps students emphasize concepts of melodic motion through the use of scalar fragments, reinforce a sense of harmony, and help students develop a sensitivity to modulation. Although Dr. Hansen did not use exercises such as singing Do-to-Do scales in the Dalcroze method, she purposefully chose a Bach Chorale in a minor/C Major for the exercise in class to begin to develop students’ sense of C and to think in fixed-Do. In the time that I was there collecting data, students reported that Eurhythmics concepts in class helped them to hear better, especially their ability to hear all parts of a score. The incorporation of solfège grounded

143 in the Dalcroze system may have influenced their reported improvement in listening ability.

Improvisation. Improvisation is one of the main branches of the Dalcroze method. Dalcroze practitioners believe that students should be able to adapt to musical and stylistic changes on the fly (Daley, 2012). Dr. Hansen believes that improvisation is crucial for conductors. “Improvisation is utterly critical for the conductor. How are you able to handle scenarios that are changing? How can you both guide the music and respond to the music?” (interview, January 14, 2019). Because she maintains that improvisation is vital, Dr. Hansen weaves it into her teaching of conducting regularly. In one class that I observed, Dr. Hansen had her students practice preparatory and downbeat gestures. Students were to execute a prep and downbeat using their right hand while the other students in the class responded by speaking the syllable “tah.” This exercise might be typical in many undergraduate level conducting course at American universities.

However, Dr. Hansen adapted this exercise to be Dalcrozian by asking students to try their gestures in three different ways. They had to improvise musical movement through changing their gestures on the spot in class, which made the exercise grounded in

Dalcroze improvisation. Dr. Hansen purported that conductors should be able to react to their choirs in real time as well, rather than simply conducting with practiced gestures and patterns.

We’re guiding and we’re responding, and that relates to Dalcroze, using the

reciprocal equation of sound and gesture. Gesture evokes sound and sound causes

gesture to occur, right? I think improvisation is absolutely critical to that. Many

young conductors particularly think that they’re going to stand up there and plan

144 their gesture and evoke music from that. And that’s not what conducting really is

(interview, January 14, 2019).

By having her students practice gestures in different ways and improvising gestures during an exercise, Dr. Hansen is preparing them to be able to adapt to music that an ensemble performs while they are conducting. Moreover, improvising in the manner in which Dr. Hansen has students perform in class including adapting and changing to musical style is rooted in Dalcroze methodology.

Student reaction. In general, students had positive reactions to learning conducting through Eurhythmics at Rivers University. In addition, they felt like activities in class would help them become better conductors over time. Rachel commented on how

Eurhythmics helped her to move more fluidly and how Eurhythmics encouraged her to think about the space around her while conducting.

My experience learning conducting through Dalcroze has been very successful. It

has helped me envision conducting with fluid motions rather than just keeping

time. I feel that Eurhythmics will help me develop conducting movements over

time because I am more aware of the space around me when conducting. I also

think more about timing in relation to the amount of space I am using… I hope to

conduct a choir at some level in my future teaching job. I hope that Eurhythmics

will help my conducting be more clear and fluid (journal entry, February 8, 2019).

Tara conveyed how Eurhythmics affected her gesturing, especially how she felt while gesturing. She believed that Eurhythmics made conducting more natural for her, and helped her gesturing to become second nature.

145 When approaching a piece to conduct, instead of just looking at the score or

listening to a recording, actually physically embodying the music and becoming

part of the music made for an easier transition between this initial first step and

conducting the piece. Gestures seemed to come more naturally, and I did not have

to think about what exactly to do with my hands as often as the gestures seemed

to just fit into place (journal entry, February 7, 2019).

In discussing how Eurhythmics could affect the quality of his gestures, Felix conveyed that what he learned could help the expressive pars of his conducting. “I can see Dalcroze Eurhythmics helping with the expressive parts of my conducting, and in interpreting music based on natural or intentional bodily reactions.”

Michael felt like Eurhythmics prompted him to be more connected to the music that he is conducting, as well as more relaxed about it. He discussed these feelings while talking about how Eurhythmics affected his conducting.

I’d say it’s helping me more because I feel like I’m connected more to the music.

You’re using your whole body, and it kind of teaches you to almost let go a bit.

So I felt that when I’m conducting, using Eurhythmics it I feel a little bit more

relaxed than normal versus getting up in front of the group and I’m going to try to

conduct them. It’s almost like there’s an artistry now to it and there’s a passion

with it as well (interview, January 23, 2019).

Frankie believed that she could hear music more completely after performing plastique animée. She expressed how the plastique helped her to better hear and understand music.

146 The plastique animée helped me delve into the music on a deeper level. Although

we did not conduct the piece we created movement for, the plastique helped me

recognize changes in tonality, phrasing, dynamics, melodic contour, and form.

The movements we used for the plastique helped me understand how I would

conduct the piece without showing beat patterns. This kind of conducting would

feel more musical and more reflective of how the music sounds (interview,

January 16, 2019).

Also, Frankie discussed how learning through Eurhythmics helped her make connections to the music that she felt were missing before. As she conveyed to me,

I just wish I had been able to start learning about it and implementing it sooner. In

our conducting class last semester, we didn’t really talk about movement at all.

We had a Eurhythmics class before, but this is the first time it’s been applied to

our conducting. Dr. Hansen uses it in choir, but we have never used it in our

conducting until now... I feel more security and confidence in my conducting and

my conducting choices.

What’s there, and what’s not. When most people hear the term “Eurhythmics,” they immediately think of exercises where people toss balls, dance or step to a piece or music, or perform some other activity to develop musicality through movement

(Juntunen, 2016). These activities are Dalcroze or eurhythmics games, and they are used in Dalcroze training centers, schools, and workshops around the world as part of

3 Eurhythmics training.2F However, Dr. Hansen rarely incorporates eurhythmics games into her conducting courses, if at all. She does teach and use them regularly in other contexts,

3 A complete description of Eurhythmics games can be found in chapter 4 of this manuscript.

147 however, such as when she is teaching workshops. Dr. Hansen wants to take the fundamental concepts of the Dalcroze method and adapt them to conducting technique in her advanced conducting course. Specifically, Dr. Hansen mentioned that she thinks about the Dalcroze principle of time, space, and energy relating to how the body moves with music (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1921). She plans and adapts the conducting activities in advanced choral conducting to focus on those parameters.

I’m interested in how [Dalcroze] relates to conducting technique. The speed of the

beats, the physics of conducting. I think about the time-space-energy Dalcroze

triangle. Time on one side, space on another and energy on another, and how all

musical motion is related to these three parameters. And I want to teach

conductors that. When you want a bigger sound, do you have to increase the size?

Well, if you increase the size, it’s going to increase the speed. Do you want to

also increase the energy or do you want a big gesture that’ light in energy?

Because lots of music is big and light too (interview, January 14, 2019).

All of the activities in Dr. Hansen’s class, whether taken directly from Dalcroze pedagogy such as plastique animée and Dalcroze-style solfège, or typical conducting activities such as practicing preparatory gestures, are guided Dalcroze methodology. In some activities, multiple branches of the Dalcroze method were apparent, as well. For example, when students freely gestured while singing various parts of the Bach Chorale, they were simultaneously engaging in three branches of the Dalcroze method: plastique animée, solfège, and improvisation. Dalcroze is the underpinning force for nearly everything that unfolds in the class. Dr. Hansen’s “embodied pedagogy” manifests itself throughout the course.

148 Summary

Almost every aspect of the advanced choral conducting course at Rivers

University is rooted in the Dalcroze method. Dr. Hansen teaches from an embodied perspective and desires for her students to become better conductors through activities that spark their innate musicality through their movement. To help students learn through embodied contexts, Dr. Hansen plans her conducting class with activities either directly from Dalcroze methodology or adapted to be Dalcrozian in nature. Students reported that using Dalcroze while conducting helped them to hear all parts of the score better, become more confident when conducting, gain an emotional connection to the music, and improve their gesturing. Both Dr. Hansen and the student participants conveyed their belief that learning through Dalcroze helped the class become better conductors.

149 CHAPTER SIX

CROSS-CASE ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION In multiple case study research, a researcher seeks to understand a certain phenomenon, coined by Stake (2006) as the “quintain.” Stake (2006) defined a quintain as the “object, phenomenon, or condition” that a researcher explores within a case study

(p. 6). The quintain of the present study is the use of Dalcroze Eurhythmics within undergraduate conducting coursework. The previous two chapters provided analysis of two separate cases in which the instructors incorporated elements of Dalcroze

Eurhythmics into their conducting classes. In each case, the ways in which the instructor included elements of Dalcroze Eurhythmics varied greatly. Each case provided insight as to how Dalcroze Eurhythmics occurred in practice at each location. According to Stake

(2006), some analysts might focus on commonalities between cases, but the uniqueness of each case, as well as their commonalities, are critical for understanding the quintain.

To highlight both the commonalities and distinctions of each case, Stake (2006) proposed that researchers use a “case-quintain dialectic” (p. 39). This dialectic aims to provide a complete understanding of the phenomenon in question. In the following pages, I will highlight patterns, themes, and findings that emerged from data collect in both sites.

Transferability, or the concept that the evidence presented in a study is applicable to other situations or people, is one of the primary goals of qualitative research (Lincoln

& Guba, 1985). According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), the process of determining a study’s transferability to other context is a cooperative effort between researcher and reader. Cross-case analysis allows for a more in-depth look at the quintain compared to observing it in a single case only (Miles & Huberman, 1994). For example, if this research only considered Dr. Hansen’s experience as a Dalcroze expert, the findings from

150 the exclusive context of Rivers University would be difficult to transfer to other situations. A reader may only be able to envision the quintain through the lens of incorporating Dalcroze by a Dalcroze expert. By analyzing multiple cases, this research can provide a richer understanding of Dalcroze Eurhythmics within undergraduate conducting courses. In addition, readers can determine the level of transferability through their own experiences and inferences related to the findings. However, due to both timeframe and limited available cases, this discussion does not reflect a standard cross- case format. Therefore, these results will not be generalizable to every setting, only transferrable at best, and the reader must decide an appropriate level of transferability

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

As outlined in chapter 3, I collected observation and interview data collected in the field and transcribed each within 24 hours of collection using Temi Ai-based transcription software. Then, I edited and fixed each file as necessary due to software- level errors. Before coding data, I analyzed each bounded case multiple times by reading and reviewing transcripts and other collected data (Creswell & Poth, 2107). I used

NVIVO 12 software to code each collected artifact, email, and transcript, first by highlighting In Vivo codes, and then coding a second round with focused coding

(Saldaña, 2016). I established trustworthiness measures through multiple strategies, which were data triangulation, member checking, peer debriefing, and thick description

(Creswell & Poth, 2017; Patton, 2015; Stake, 2006; Yin, 2017). Participants were sent transcripts and chapter drafts to provide clarity and given the opportunity to adjust any data. Two peer reviewers examined my coding to ensure that the codes were consistent and thorough.

151 In chapters 4 and 5, I presented data and topics based on individual analysis of each case that emerged from my observations and participants’ responses to interview questions. Although I asked the same questions in both locations, answers varied between participants within each case and between both case locations. The following cross-case analysis depicts three themes that emerged in my analysis of two Dalcroze-inspired conducting courses: (a) a holistic and embodied approach, (b) a natural fit for conducting education, and (c) a vehicle for discovery. Within the third theme of a vehicle for discovery, four sub-themes emerged which were (a) confidence, (b) bodily awareness, (c) musicality, and (d) gesture. This chapter addresses the similarities and difference between both cases through these themes and their sub-themes.

A Holistic and Embodied Approach

The Dalcroze method is a holistic system and an embodied approach to learning about music (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1921; Juntunen, 2016). When students learn music through the Dalcroze method, they engage in music learning that is focused on how the body responds and adapts to music. This process is embodied (Leman, 2007; Leman &

Maes, 2014) and stands in contrast to the typical conservatory approach (Jones, 2009) found in most American schools of music, which is usually predicated on cerebral types of activities and methods such as part-writing, theoretical analysis, and memorizing historical fact. It could serve as one possible solution for rectifying Descartes’ error

(Damasio, 1994) in consideration of mind-body relationships. As Dr. Hansen said in an interview, the system is a “reeducation.” In other words, when students learn through

Eurhythmics, they are learning to think about music differently than they did before.

Ultimately, the system encourages practitioners to understand music through the body

152 (Dalcroze Society of America, 2019) through purposeful, musical movement. The system is comprised of four major areas, including eurhythmics (or musical movement), solfège, improvisation, and plastique animée. Each conductor educator in this study adapted their coursework by incorporating different aspects of the method into their teaching and course design.

Impact of Dalcroze on the class. The amount of influence that Eurhythmics had on each teacher and their curriculum varied greatly. The main reason for this disparity was the background of each conductor educator. Dr. Williams at Frontier State University was not officially Dalcroze trained, but has included parts of the method in her teaching through more informal means. Dr. Williams attended a Dalcroze Eurhythmics workshop earlier in her career and became interested in the system. Over the next few years, Dr.

Williams incorporated some of the activities and Dalcroze games that she experienced at the workshop into her performing ensemble classes like marching band and concert band.

She then incorporated Dalcroze concepts into her advanced conducting course when she began teaching the class at Frontier State University. Dr. Williams weaved Dalcroze games and activities into advanced conducting as part of her overarching philosophy centered on students’ bodily awareness, comfort, and control. As such, Eurhythmics has been a tangential or small part of Dr. Williams’ overall advanced conducting course design. Dr. Williams purposefully included the eurhythmics branch of the Dalcroze method in her conducting course was eurhythmics, and specifically, the use of eurhythmics games. In addition, she included a plastique animée exercise that she referred to as “free movement.” Solfège and improvisation, however, were not expressed explicitly in Dr. Williams’ classes.

153 At Rivers University, Dalcroze Eurhythmics was the impetus that guided every aspect of the course. Dr. Hansen is an internationally recognized Dalcroze expert, and

Dalcroze is part of her teaching, lesson planning, and her worldview regarding music.

Due to her experience and expertise in Dalcroze Eurhythmics, Dr. Hansen incorporates elements of Dalcroze methodology into every aspect of her advanced conducting course.

Musical movement or eurhythmics were present in the majority of activities of the course. In addition, Dr. Hansen purposefully asked her students to perform plastiques, sing using fixed-Do solfège, and improvise regularly. Dalcroze methodology drove the course. For example, Dr. Hansen adapts a typical conducting exercise, such as working on preparatory gestures and cues, by having students try exercises in three different ways.

Dr. Hansen derived this concept directly from the improvisation branch of the Dalcroze method. Because Dr. Hansen is immersed in Dalcroze pedagogy, much of her teaching incorporates elements of Dalcroze in this manner.

Eurhythmics in the institution. Both Dr. Hansen and Dr. Williams taught ensembles at their respective institutions, Dr. Hansen as the Director of Choirs at Rivers and Dr. Williams as the Director of Bands at Frontier State University. In these capacities, each conductor educator also incorporated Eurhythmics into their ensemble classes outside of conducting. Dr. Williams has students in her bands engage in eurhythmics games regularly, such as pass the beat exercises, stepping in rhythm, and using implements to practice timing and rhythm. Dr. Hansen incorporates eurhythmics games into her choir rehearsals, as well, including eurhythmics movement with rhythm and body positioning exercises to mimic phrasing. Dr. Hansen also rehearses the ensemble from an embodied Dalcrozian perspective. Therefore, the students in each

154 location of this study experienced a more complete Dalcroze education than if they simply encountered the system in conducting class alone. The use of Eurhythmics in conducting class was only a part of students’ exposure to the system while attending

Rivers and Frontier State University; however, neither institution offered Eurhythmics as a standalone class outside of the context of elementary general music. Although the students experienced Dalcroze methodology through the lens of each conductor educators’ teaching in multiple courses, it still was not as complete of a Eurhythmics training that might be experienced at a school that required multiple semesters of study

(with the exception of Michael, who transferred to Rivers after enrollment at one such

Dalcroze-centered institution). However, the experiences that students had with Dalcroze pedagogy during conducting class in each location cannot be viewed as a one-off event, as students previously experienced Dalcroze activities in their ensemble courses with each conductor educator. Nevertheless, each conductor educator did incorporate elements of the method more fully in their conducting courses as compared to their ensembles. In addition, they implemented Dalcroze activities in their conducting courses that were more in-depth and explicitly related to conducting compared to what they included in ensembles settings.

Previous scholarship by Dickson (1992) and McCoy (1994) addressed the use of

Eurhythmics in conducting classes, but solely at the practitioner level using only anecdotal data. Both authors of those articles were conductor educators who decided to include Dalcroze Eurhythmics into their classrooms, based on their personal experiences with the method, and how they perceived it benefiting their students. Dickson and

McCoy each made mention of the activities they incorporated into their courses, the

155 Eurhythmics games they used, and how they used the improvisatory aspects of the method in their lessons.

The conductor educators in this study came from different backgrounds and experiences related to Dalcroze education. Similar to the authors listed above, each drew upon their experience to determine which aspects of the system to include in their classes.

Consequently, their individual backgrounds translated into a difference in the way that each integrated Dalcroze-based activities into their classes. Dr. Williams implemented eurhythmics games that she thought would improve her students’ conducting skills, while

Dr. Hansen designed her class to include all facets of the methodology holistically. The following analysis is divided into the four branches (Juntunen, 2016) of Dalcroze methodology: (a) eurhythmics, (b) solfège, (c) improvisation, and (d) plastique animée. I will discuss how each branch of the method was manifested in coursework at each location.

Eurhythmics. The eurhythmics branch of the Dalcroze method is perhaps the one in which most people are familiar. Eurhythmics is the act of purposefully moving with the rhythm of music (Dalcroze Society, 2019). When people practice eurhythmics, they complete activities such as stepping with a steady pulse, using implements to demonstrate the steady beat such as throwing balls and waving scarves and using various parts of the body to move with different beat patterns, meters, and rhythms. The explicit goal of working on the eurhythmics branch of Dalcroze is to help students internalize rhythm so that it is almost second nature. Jaques-Dalcroze (1921) also designed Eurhythmics to encourage students to explore anacrusis, crusis, and metacrusis within the context of a phrase. By understanding all of the parts of phrasing and musical flow in this context,

156 students develop a sense of music’s energy and direction. These concepts are critical for any conductor, especially as they learn to prepare a score or conduct phrases in front of an ensemble. Each conductor educator in this study included activities in their classes that represented the eurhythmics branch of the Dalcroze method.

At Frontier State University, Dr. Williams included eurhythmics into her conducting classes. As previously discussed, her experience with the system came from attending a Dalcroze workshop. Dr. Williams participated in Eurhythmics games at this workshop, and, subsequently, the game segment of the methodology was what she folded into her advanced conducting course at Frontier. During my time at Frontier State

University, I witnessed the students participating in two separate Dalcroze games, “pass the beat” and a ball rolling exercise.

Dr. Williams first included games into her instrumental ensembles as a way to help students become more aware of rhythm, and as a way to break up the routine of class. She then started to incorporate them into her advanced conducting course. She believes that eurhythmics games aid her students in gaining an awareness of the feel of beat and meter. “It’s making sure they really understand accent and beat pattern. It’s really good to understand pulse and time” (interview, January 9, 2019). She also thinks that through the exercises her students internalize pulse, stating, “I think embodying time or feeling the pulse inside the body….it helps them have some experience with relation to the beat” (interview, January 9, 2019).

The first Eurhythmics game that Dr. Williams asked students perform in the class was what she called “pass the beat.” During this exercise, students stood in a circle and clapped the hand of the student next to them during certain beats of the meter while Dr.

157 Williams played a piece of music. This eurhythmics game developed students’ sense of feeling the pulse as well as different beats within the meter. Students were actively putting the rhythm and meter into physical action to improve feel and rhythmic awareness. Dr. Williams used this exercise to have students become aware of not only where they were within the meter of the music, but also how they timed their movement to be on the proper beat. “Do you move on the beat or do you move before it?”

(classroom observation, January 9, 2019). Dr. Williams explained to her students how this exercise would improve with their sense of preparatory gesture while conducting because it encouraged them to focus on how long their gesture would take when they moved, and how much energy and weight was needed for the gesture. She also thought that the exercise aided students’ sense of the downbeat of the meter, especially in the context of feeling a steady pulse.

Another Eurhythmics game that Dr. Williams planned in her conducting class was rolling a ball. During this game, students sat in pairs and rolled the ball to a partner across from them. Students needed to time the rolling of the ball to fit within the tempo of the music that Dr. Williams played, as well as considering the space between them and their partner. Students had to navigate these variables to time the rolling. The goal of the game was for students to roll the ball to reach their partner at the specific time. Dr. Williams reported that this game supported her students’ sense of preparatory gesture. Not only did students have to focus on the speed of the ball, but also the weight of the roll, the motion, and the timing within the meter of the piece being played. Dr. Williams equated this exercise to conducting during class to her students. “You have to communicate a lot with the cue, with the prep beat. We are working on preparatory beats. You have to think,

158 ‘What is the velocity of my hand?’” (classroom observation, January 9, 2019). By incorporating Eurhythmics games, Dr. Williams purposefully was trying to develop her students’ preparatory, cuing, and general conducting motion.

At Rivers University, Dr. Hansen neither incorporated eurhythmics games into her class while I was there, nor claimed to use games in conducting class with any frequency. Instead, each branch of the Dalcroze method was weaved into various activities throughout the semester, including the eurhythmics part of the method. Dr.

Hansen does incorporate, however, some games and game-like activities into her conducting class. She relayed in our initial interview that she designs activities that coordinate student conductors’ bodies. For example, she might have students complete activities that encourage them to focus on the breath and preparatory gesture, and how those two concepts are linked through musical movement. Dr. Hansen also mentioned that she sometimes included activities where students focus on time signatures, such as stepping in 7/8. Although Dr. Hansen does not use games in her conducting class often, she does include them in her choral classes more frequently. Therefore, students do experience this part of the Dalcroze method during their time at Rivers University, but as part of the overall music education experience they have as students. Music education student Rachel mentioned this in our correspondence, discussing how a eurhythmics game that involved stepping in time that she experienced in choir that week influenced how she thought about conducting. Even though the eurhythmics branch of the Dalcroze method has been woven into multiple aspects of conducting at Rivers, it is explicitly part of students’ experience in the program, and students are thinking about how it transfers to their conducting.

159 Solfège. Dalcroze solfège contrasts with typical solfège preparation found in

American schools of music. Dalcroze solfège is fixed-Do rather than moveable-Do and is predicated on the notion of cultivating students’ relative pitch grounded in the sound of the note C. (A more detailed description of Dalcroze solfège can be found in chapter 5).

During observations and interviews, Dr. Williams never mentioned using this aspect of

Dalcroze methodology, nor did she use it in any part of her advanced conducting course.

Given that she was teaching advanced instrumental conducting, she probably does not incorporate solfège in any form and may not use it while teaching her ensembles. Dr.

Hansen, on the other hand, did incorporate solfège into her advanced choral conducting class. Dr. Hansen conveyed that she believes this part of the Dalcroze method is crucial for young choral conductors because she surmises that student choral conductors must think in literal or actual pitch of a piece of music. Although this aspect of Dalcroze was not used extensively during my observations, students reported in general that they gained a better sense of hearing music after participation in advanced choral conducting.

The use of fixed-Do Dalcroze solfège may have contributed to these perceptions.

Improvisation. Improvisation is the ability to adapt and change to a situation quickly (Dalcroze Society of America, 2019). In the Dalcroze sense, it is changing to adapt to changes in musical style, timbre, dynamics, harmony, energy, flow, and melodic contour. Improvisation is considered an essential ability for students to possess in the

Dalcroze method. Students must be able to adapt to musical changes and ideas and be able to express those changes physically. Dr. Hansen described this aspect of Dalcroze as

“utterly critical” for conductors. Conductors must be able to adapt and change to scenarios from the podium as an ensemble performs. Being able to change in the moment

160 can help conductors demonstrate different gestural ideas to the ensemble, especially if the ensemble becomes errant in their playing or singing, or needs to be guided in a different direction. Dr. Hansen’s students worked on improvisation in her conducting classroom in multiple ways. For example, Dr. Hansen asked her students demonstrate a preparatory and cuing exercise in three distinct ways to develop the ability to improvise preparatory and cuing gestures.

Dr. Williams did not invoke Dalcrozian improvisation explicitly, but still had her students complete exercises that improved their improvisation abilities while conducting.

While engaged in Dalcroze games, students at Frontier State University were encouraged to adjust what they performed musically in the middle of an activity. For example, during the pass the beat exercise, Dr. Williams asked students change the beat of the meter on which they clapped mid-way through a phrase of the song. By adjusting when they clapped in the moment, students changed how they were thinking and executing musical movement in real time, which fits into the parameters and goals of Dalcroze improvisation. Similarly, students needed to alter their speed and direction when engaged in the ball rolling game. These improvisatory actions could transfer to students’ future conducting, as they might need to adapt the speed, direction, weight, and energy of their conducting gestures to communicate with their ensemble clearly.

Plastique animée. The fourth branch of Dalcroze education is plastique animée.

Dr. Williams and Dr. Hansen both had students engage in this practice but in different ways. Dr. Hansen asked students to prepare a group plastique throughout a week to

Mozart’s Ave Verum Corpus. Consistent with the Dalcroze practice of plastique animée serving as an open interpretation of music (Juntunen, 2016), students were given vague

161 parameters regarding their plastique assignment. In other words, they could demonstrate any part of the piece they wanted to through their plastiques, such as contour, harmony, phrasing, energy, or dynamics, but needed to embody the music in some way. Students at

Rivers reported that this activity provided numerous benefits, including the ability to hear all parts of the piece better than before, an increase in confidence and comfort in using gesture, and the sense of having a more direct connection to the music.

Although she never used the term plastique animée, Dr. Williams incorporated free movement exercises that resembled plastique animée into her conducting course, as well. Dr. Williams encouraged her students to perform this “free movement” exercise to demonstrate what they heard in a piece of music in their arm, starting with the fingertips and eventually involving the forearm, elbow, shoulder, and clavicle. Dr. Williams instructed the students to portray different parts of the music through this movement and discussed with students how they could show different musical elements in this way including melodic contour, dynamics, changes in harmony, and rhythm. Although it was not as purposeful or as intricately choreographed as the plastiques at Rivers, this activity resembled the Dalcroze practice of plastique animée. Therefore, incorporating aspects of plastique animée (partially at Frontier State University and fully at Rivers University) was a highly effective Dalcroze-inspired technique that both instructors utilized, albeit with different contexts, intensities, and nomenclatures.

A Natural Fit for Conducting Education

Both Eurhythmics and conducting encourage musicians to consider musical concepts and ideas and to demonstrate music though moving the body; because of this similarity, Eurhythmics appears to be a natural fit for conducting education. In class

162 observations, Dr. Hansen informed the students that she utilized Eurhythmics because

“Dalcroze himself said that the conductor is the archetypal Eurhythmitian” (class observation, January 23, 2019). Regarding basic music literacy, researchers have found that Dalcroze Eurhythmics can be beneficial for improving students’ various musical abilities (Alperson, 1995; Liao, 2002; Paparo, 2016; van der Merwe, 2015; Walker,

2007). Conductor educators can decide to incorporate Dalcroze Eurhythmics into their classes to advance students’ musical skills as demonstrated by this research. A primary goal of the present study was to discover why conductor educators decided to incorporate

Dalcroze Eurhythmics into their teaching of conducting. Conductor educators’ reasoning for incorporating Eurhythmics was a topic that I spent a great deal of time focusing on during my interviews with the participants. I discovered that Dr. Williams and Dr.

Hansen both reported different reasons for including elements of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in their conducting courses. In their responses, they both indicated that Eurhythmics seemed to be a natural fit for cultivating students’ musical skills related to conducting. In addition, each conveyed how their personal experience with the Dalcroze methodology seemed to be a natural fit for improving their own conducting and musical abilities. The following section will outline the responses that they provided through three distinct categories: (a) personal experiences with Eurhythmics, (b) perceived student struggles, and (c) observed student progress.

Personal experiences with Eurhythmics. Both conductor educators asserted that their personal experiences with Dalcroze Eurhythmics influenced their decision to include Eurhythmics in their teaching of conducting. Even though both instructors communicated this message consistently and independently, each of their experiences

163 was wholly different. As stated above, Dr. Williams first encountered Eurhythmics through a workshop that her choral colleague at a university she worked at before

Frontier State University organized. She conveyed that the games she experienced at the workshop “just kind of stuck with” her (interview, January 9, 2019). She first started to incorporate eurhythmics games and activities into her performance ensembles. Dr.

Williams noticed that the games encouraged her students to “bond a little bit” and that they “seemed to enjoy it” (interview, January 9, 2019). When Dr. Williams was hired at

Frontier State University and was assigned the advanced conducting course, she decided that the eurhythmics exercises that she was doing in her ensembles also might benefit her conducting students. For Dr. Williams, that one experience with Dalcroze was powerful enough to encourage her to try aspects of what she experienced with her students in both ensembles and conducting.

Dr. Hansen’s personal experiences with Eurhythmics was more involved than Dr.

Williams’ and occurred over an extended period. Dr. Hansen first encountered Dalcroze as a graduate conducting student. When she first engaged in the system, it suddenly inspired her and made her question whether the concept was something missing from her personal music education. Dr. Hansen’s realization about Dalcroze and her own conducting translated into a personal “embodied pedagogy” that influences the way that she teaches and thinks about music. “It is my pedagogy, I have an embodied pedagogy”

(interview, January 14, 2019). She has since grown an obvious passion for the method and believes that students become better musicians and conductors after experiencing it.

Her passion translated into a research line related to Dalcroze and conducting, and is the primary force in how she teaches and plans lessons. Dr. Hansen’s personal experience

164 with Dalcroze prompted her to want to teach her students through an embodied pedagogy.

Perceived student struggles. Both conductor educators discussed the struggles they have observed in young conductors, and how incorporating elements of the Dalcroze method might aid the process of learning how to conduct become more natural. In this context, Dr. Williams discussed how she has observed students who seem to be nervous conducting, especially as undergraduates and early in their teaching careers.

I think a lot of students are just uncomfortable moving their body in front of other

people and you see so many conductors who are so scared, so intimidated. They

don’t feel free to express themselves, especially at the undergraduate level. They

get up in front of a band, they just looking at their score, and they’re waving their

arms just as they practice and they’re not listening. It’s limiting their freedom a

little bit, I think. And they’re not having an experience that they could, and then

they go out into a band or a choir for the first time and they’re scared (interview,

January 9, 2019).

Dr. Williams considered that by incorporating elements of Dalcroze Eurhythmics, she is providing an avenue for her students to become more comfortable with moving and using their bodies. This comfort level then translates into better conducting, more appropriate gestural choices, and the ability to better hear and adjust to what an ensemble is playing.

She also maintained that Eurhythmics helps her students to better feel time and accent, which also increases their comfort level and struggle less while in front of an ensemble.

Dr. Hansen also discussed students’ comfort on the podium, focusing on the fact that conducting is a new and foreign skill at first.

165 For a lot of students, it’s just because no one’s ever asked them to do different

things with their body or to be as self-conscious. And for young conductors, self-

consciousness is a big deal. Not only because they’re 18, 19, 20 years old, but

because being a conductor is a very demonstrative thing to do (interview January

14, 2019).

For Dr. Hansen, Dalcroze Eurhythmics is something that can help students become more comfortable with their bodies and be less intimidated by conducting an ensemble.

However, she also maintained that becoming comfortable with conducting through

Dalcroze is a process, and develops over time while learning through Eurhythmics.

Because of this, she never forces students to do something that they might not want to do, especially given that the Dalcroze method requires students to move and strongly consider their body more than they may have done before. Students in Dr. Hansen’s class have the option to pass on participating in an activity if it makes them feel uncomfortable or if they are not quite ready to be actively engaged in moving their body.

In addition, Dr. Hansen discussed the fact that conducting is always a student’s

“second instrument.” This fact makes learning and practicing conducing seem uncomfortable, especially compared to the comfort level that students likely have playing or singing within their applied study area. She specified that this is also why “Dalcroze makes sense” as a tool for learning conducting, because learning to conduct is requires different skills and knowledge compared to students’ previous experiences. As Dr.

Hansen stated, “Dalcroze is a reeducation, so why not apply an education system that is about reeducating when you’re teaching conducting?” (interview, January 14, 2019). For

Dr. Hansen, teaching conducting through Dalcroze causes her students to become more

166 comfortable quickly, because it is allows them to be musical in a holistic way instead of trying to fit conductor education into another box, such as within the confines of a traditional conservatory approach or other methods the students have experienced.

Observed student progress. Each conductor educator in this study described students’ progress after learning through Dalcroze Eurhythmics. Dr. Williams has only just begun to incorporate Eurhythmics into her teaching of conducting, but still discussed ways that she has observed her students improve after learning through eurhythmics. One of the benefits of using eurhythmics that Dr. Williams conveyed was that she has observed her students become more comfortable with bodily motion. She first thought that the system was “just a fun way to get the body moving,” but has since witnessed her students becoming more adept at conducting after practicing free movement exercises and eurhythmics games. She maintains that it assists students “with getting comfortable, really forcing them to get out of their shell” (interview, January 9, 2019). She attributed the increase in students’ comfort to the idea that doing Eurhythmics activities is

“awkward” at first, but that sense of awkwardness causes them to relax their movmentand their bodies.

Dr. Williams also believes that Eurhythmics helps her students to gain a better sense of pulse and beat. She maintains that participating in eurhythmics games such as pass the beat and ball rolling solidifies students’ sense of meter, downbeat, pulse, and beat patterns. However, she also thinks that the games improve students’ entire corpus of musicianship in addition to concepts of beat and time. When discussing the aspects of musicianship that Dr. Williams thought that Eurhythmics developed, she said, “I think it’s everything” (interview January 9, 2019). So, in Dr. Williams’ view, not only does

167 Eurhythmics improve her students’ confidence and comfort on the podium, but it also improves students’ holistic musicianship as well.

Like Dr. Williams, Dr. Hansen also noted numerous benefits and changes in her students after teaching them conducting through Dalcroze. The first one that she mentioned was that “students seem to have more gestural flexibility and fluidity”

(interview, January 14, 2019). In other words, students gain the ability to perform different gestures and are able to adapt their gestures as necessary while conducting. The next benefit that she discussed was that students can “embody the scores a little bit more accurately in terms of style” (interview, January 14, 2019). Students, therefore, can chose movements and gestures that better reflect the music within a score after learning through

Eurhythmics. Dr. Hansen also related both of these concepts to improvisation and said that the activities rooted in Dalcroze improvisation helped students to be able to change and adapt their gestures as needed on the podium to reflect what the ensemble is doing as well as the score.

Another change that Dr. Hansen has observed in her students is that they create

“opinions” about the music that they are conducting. She said,

They seem to have more opinions about the music. I’ve noticed that in my

students for ages ever since I started doing the Dalcroze work is that they have

thoughts about the music and isn’t that kind of what we want: an independence in

them? (interview, January 14, 2019).

By demonstrating more opinions about the music, students likely have a deeper understanding of the music, and can better choose conducting movements or rehearsal strategies that reflect what they want from an ensemble. Dr. Hansen later discussed how

168 this process also could aid students in engaging in the music more fully and bring forth their personality and ideas about the music from the podium. She wants students’ personalities to “shine forth” in their conducting. By letting students discover their musical voice and drawing upon their “innate musicality” through the use of Dalcroze in the conducting classroom. Dr. Hansen considers that her students eventually become more comfortable with conducting and evoking musical ideas through their gestures in front of an ensemble.

A Vehicle for Discovery

According to the Dalcroze Society of America (2019), one of the primary tenets of Dalcroze education is to let students discover their capabilities through student- centered and discovery-driven experiences. One of the central aims of this research was to analyze and document the perceptions of students who were enrolled in these two conducting courses. The first three research questions focused on the perspectives and opinions of the conductor educators at each site. The final question focused on the perceptions and attitudes of conducting students themselves, and allowed me to consider the data from the students’ perspective. During correspondences and classroom interactions, students reported the discovery of new skills and ideas that they acquired through participation in Dalcroze-inspired activities. Through analyzing my observations and correspondences with these seven students, four sub-themes emerged regarding their discovered knowledge and capabilities in this cross-case analysis: (a) confidence, (b) bodily-awareness, (c) musicality, and (d) gesture. The following pages will frame students’ discovered perceptions and reported data through these four different sub- themes.

169 Confidence. Generally, undergraduate students can feel uncomfortable conducting, especially while enrolled in classes during the conducting course sequence

(Silvey, 2011). Researchers have explored this topic and have discovered that confidence with conducting is something that undergraduates typically develop over time and might not even reach before graduating and entering the field (Baumgartner & Silvey, 2014;

Hart, 2016; 2018; Silvey, 2011; Silvey & Major, 2014). However, multiple students in this study reported that learning conducting through eurhythmics improved their overall comfort and confidence while conducting.

The students at Frontier State University indicated their growth in their interviews and journal responses. Josh said that he had “definitely gotten more comfortable” and that he has been “building comfort” as he has been practicing conducting (interview, January

8, 2019). April stated that learning through Eurhythmics has made feel like a better conductor. One of the items she discussed was having control of her conducting: “I feel like I have more control over what’s going on with my arms, and I’m able to show the beats properly. I also feel better about showing different styles, like staccato and legato”

(journal entry, January 16, 2019). April also believed that Eurhythmics will assist her conducting during her career, maintaining that the exercises she learned while using

Eurhythmics will translate to communicating with her ensemble.

I do plan on conducting in the future as a music educator, either a choir or band.

[What I learned in Eurhythmics] will help me be comfortable with finding what’s

clear for the musicians to follow and how to show certain aspects of music in

different ways. With practicing the techniques learned in class, I [will] apply

170 those to pieces I choose to perform with my ensemble (journal entry, February 10,

2019).

The students at Rivers University also reported that learning conducting through

Dalcroze Eurhythmics made them more comfortable with their conducting. Rachel believed that Eurhythmics has aided her in becoming more confident in conducting and that the more she engages in Eurhythmics, the more confident she gets. “I feel that focusing on the space and energy around me has helped me become more confident as a conductor” (interview, January 16, 2019). Tara discussed how performing a plastique animée forced her to do something outside of what she is used to, and how that translated to more confidence while conducting.

I also think going from doing something like a plastique to then conducting would

help with confidence, too, because we’re putting ourselves out there and then the

conducting doesn’t seem as intimidating because it’s like a smaller version of it

(interview, January 16, 2019).

Michael referenced the “comfort zone,” and how he felt that using Eurhythmics in class encouraged him to go beyond that comfort zone. This, in turn, made him feel more self- assured while conducting.

[Dr. Hansen is] making us get out of our comfort zone… I think the way she

presents them to us is good for the entire class. (interview, January 23, 2019).

Frankie talked about how Eurhythmics made her more secure because it caused her to hear all parts of a score. Engaging in Eurhythmics made her more aware of the entirety of a piece of music, which in turn assisted her in being more self-assured while conducting.

171 I feel like it’ll help me feel more confident in conducting all of the parts of the

score rather than just certain parts that I tend to focus on. It’ll make me like more

aware of everything that’s going on within the music since we have to represent

everything in our movements (interview, January 16, 2019).

Students at both sites felt that Eurhythmics made them feel more comfortable while conducting. Some students described ways that the method assisted them in becoming more comfortable with controlling their movements. Other students reported that Eurhythmics forced them to go beyond their previous limits, or as Michael said, outside of their “comfort zone.” The conductor educators in each site also mentioned confidence as a reason that they decided to incorporate Eurhythmics into their conducting classes. Eurhythmics, therefore, might be an avenue for helping students to become more confident in their conducting, and avoid the issues that students typically encounter when learning to conduct as undergraduate students (Silvey, 2011).

Bodily awareness. One of the important aspects of conducting is how conductors move within the space around them (Green, 1961b). Conductors must know how their body moves and have an awareness of their body within the area around them. Participant students reported that by studying conducting through Eurhythmics, they gained a better sense of their bodily awareness because they became cognizant of how their body moved in the space around them as well as feeling where music manifested in their bodies.

At Frontier State University, Dr. Williams placed a strong focus on how students manage their conducting space and how they control their bodies while conducting. The students, as a result, revealed during observations and interviews that they regularly considered their space and body awareness. In discussing her bodily awareness, April

172 believed that the eurhythmics games aided her management of her personal conducting space. “I was able to get a feel for how much space I can use with my body and how I can apply that to my conducting to show various things” (journal entry, January 13, 2019).

April also conferred how Eurhythmics connected what was in her mind to her conducting movements. Josh conveyed how Eurhythmics affected his body and that it assisted him by “taking pressure off of [his] brain,” which let him focus on other parts of his conducting (interview, January 8, 2019).

Rachel at Rivers University thought that Eurhythmics caused her to sense different aspects of music in different parts of her body. She also mentioned that it helped her get a “better idea of the space” around her and how she uses it (interview, January 16,

2019). Tara and Frankie both mentioned how Eurhythmics made them notice where they felt different aspects of music within their bodies, and how they could use that to demonstrate musical ideas while conducing. Tara said,

[I felt the music] in my chest area. With the phrasing, like, I felt like, “oh we’re

getting there” and then it’s done. Also, in choir, Dr. Hansen will have us show

phrasing. We sit and lean forward towards the end of a phrase and then back up so

she can visually see where we all think it is (interview, January 16, 2019).

Frankie talked about feeling the music in her core area, and how feeling the music affects her listening.

I feel music in my core. I’ll feel the push and the pull in the music, and then I

guess in my ears, too, like a mainly like focusing on listening to everything. And

interpreting everything that’s happening and figuring out how to show everything

in different parts of my body (interview, January 16, 2019).

173 After each group performed their plastique animée during a class I observed, Rivers

University students also discussed how the exercise made them feel about their own body awareness, as well as what they observed in the body movements of other students. Felix commented after watching his classmates perform a plastique that they “worked to bring out parts of the music” in their movements and gestures (email communication, February

7, 2019). Michael described his experience as “using his whole body” and how

Eurhythmics encouraged him to “let go a bit” (interview, January 23, 2019). When learning through Eurhythmics, these students gained an awareness of their body and how they used it within space, as well as control over its function while conducting.

Musicality. One of the primary facets of Dalcroze education is that it draws upon students’ “innate musicality” (Dalcroze Society of America, 2019; Dr. Hansen, personal communication, 2019). Students already have musical abilities within them, and Dalcroze study draws those abilities out. In addition, students develop new and enhanced musical abilities. The students in this study indicated that they improved and enhanced their musicality, primarily related to the act of conducting.

The students at Frontier State University commented that the activities they experienced in class improved their musical understandings. April believed that

Eurhythmics reinforced her expressivity while conducting, as well as the musical fluidity of her motions. “I definitely feel more fluid and expressive than before” (journal entry,

February 10, 2019). April also discussed how Eurhythmics refined her sense of beat and time. Josh commented on how the Eurhythmics exercises encouraged him to feel time and the pulse better. “I think it definitely helped with feeling [time], definitely my

174 understanding it” (interview, January 8, 2019). Both students at Frontier State University felt that Eurhythmics positively influenced their abilities of time and rhythm.

At Rivers University, participant students discussed how Eurhythmics affected their hearing and response to music. Rachel reported that Eurhythmics prompted her to internalize the music, which in turn improved her conducting gestures and movement. “I think Eurhythmics helps internalize the music, and I think that then your movements in conducting are more clear” (journal entry, January 23, 2019). Rachel also thought that

Eurhythmics could benefit her sensitivity to the music because she could hear and respond to the music in the moment.

Other students discussed the impact Eurhythmics had on their listening skills, especially as it related to digesting all parts of a musical score. Frankie talked about how

Eurhythmics caused her to hear and understand multiple aspects of music more fully.

I’m thinking about all the aspects that are going into the music that we’re

representing, like the melodic contour, the rhythmic contour, the dynamics when

it’s loud, when it’s soft, when it’s fast, when it’s slow… because we’re listening

to everything that’s going on rather than just focusing on certain little things. I

marked a lot of crescendos and decrescendos [in the score] while I was just

listening to the piece. But then when we were actually showing those, I noticed

that it’s like constantly happening in every measure (journal entry, February 7,

2019).

Tara also expressed an improvement in her listening capability. Prior to engagement with

Eurhythmics, and specifically the plastique animée, Tara used to focus on the soprano

175 part of a choral score. However, after performing a plastique, Tara was suddenly able to hear all parts of the score better.

I find myself always just kind of listening to the melody or the soprano part

because I am a soprano. So an activity like [performing a plastique] forced us to

listen to all of the music (interview, January 16, 2019).

Other students revealed that they became more expressive while they conducted. Felix wrote that Eurhythmics improved the expressivity in his conducting.

I can see Dalcroze Eurhythmics helping with the expressive parts of my

conducting, and in interpreting music based on natural or intentional bodily

reactions. This would be because the techniques we used were purely based on

interpreting the movement of the music without emphasizing the pulse, which

made me focus on something besides the fundamentals I’m already comfortable

with (journal entry, February 14, 2019).

Michael also thought that Eurhythmics enhanced the expressive aspects of his conducting. He conveyed that the method prompted him to be more attuned to the music and to experience an artistic link that can transfer to his conducting. “I’d say it’s helping me because I feel like I’m connected more to the music. It’s almost like there’s an artistry now to it and there’s a passion with it as well. That’s why I’m taking out of it” (interview,

January 23, 2019).

Students at both institutions reported that learning conducting through

Eurhythmics enhanced their musicality. Some students reported that they experienced an increased sense of expressivity and fluidity in their conducting. Other students believed that Eurhythmics increased their capacity for hearing the score better and felt like they

176 were more able to address multiple parts of a work while conducting. Given that musicality is an essential aspect of conducting and effective gestural communication

(Chapman, 2008), Dalcroze Eurhythmics might be valuable tool in improving musical aspects of conducting.

Gesture. Gesturing in the domain of conducting is communicating musical ideas from a score to an ensemble. There are many musical concepts that can be demonstrated through gesture such as cues, style, dynamics, intensity, phrasing, releases, contour, and many others. Research has indicated that undergraduate conductors often feel that developing gestural vocabulary takes an extended period (Baumgartner & Silvey, 2014;

Hart, 2016; Silvey, 2011). Students in this study perceived that learning through

Eurhythmics helped them to improve their gestures and become more poised in executing gestures while conducting an ensemble.

April talked about the eurhythmics games that she participated in at Frontier, and stated that they enhanced her gestures. In particular, she believed that they aided her preparatory motion. She said, “With the exercises where you have to pass a ball on beat one, it helped [me] a lot with cues and prepping for the first measure” (journal entry,

February 10, 2019). April also commented on how Eurhythmics enhanced the quality and style of her gestures “I definitely feel more fluid and expressive as I’m practicing”

(journal entry, January 27, 2019). Josh thought that learning through eurhythmics would cause his gesturing to become second nature. In turn, then he thought that he could stop thinking about gesturing actively and put more emphasis on other parts of his conducting while on the podium. “[Not thinking about gesture] could take a lot of pressure off, which will allow me to focus on other parts of my conducting” (interview, January 8, 2019).

177 Rachel reported that Eurhythmics taught her to visualize her gestures, which she thinks will assist her in gesturing to an ensemble in the future.

I think it helps me to create a better picture of what I want from the ensemble

because you’re almost showing the music to them and they’re responding to your

movements… And then in conducting today, we were also showing the phrasing

and the melodic contour of the piece that we’re going to be conducting. So we’ll

have a clearer picture of how to show the movements… I think Eurhythmics

makes helps to internalize the music, and I think that then your movements in

conducting are more clear (journal entry, January 29, 2019).

Tara commented on how the act of plastique animée caused her to think about executing gestures and thinking about gestures that were appropriate for the music she is portraying. She related this to preparing the plastique she performed in class, and how her group considered different gestures to convey different aspects of the music. She said,

We didn’t want to be doing the same movement the whole time because the

specific song we were doing was legato. So we found us ourselves doing this and

we were like, “Well how can we show when the different sections starts? Let’s

change the way we stand and we can still continue this sort of movement but just

like build upon it.” So there’s something different happening while something

else is continuing. I feel like we were trying to match that…The plastique forced

us to listen to all of the music and know what everyone was doing and how that

all fit together. I also think it would help with things like size of your gesture. You

have to not conduct very strict and just a beat pattern but think more about the

overall picture (interview, January 16, 2019).

178 Tara also shared how Eurhythmics might aid her gestural choice and clarity in the future as a music teacher in the schools.

I plan to be an ensemble teacher, so conducting will definitely be a part of my

future. I think it will help my portray what exactly I want students to play in a

more helpful way since students may not have the same musical intuition a

professional does and they would need more guidance in musical interpretation.

Additionally, my gestures will become more clear and concise, allowing my

ensemble to better understand what I want them to do (journal entry, February 7,

2019).

Frankie commented how Eurhythmics, and specifically, the plastique, made her think about gesture, and how demonstrated all facets of the music beyond pattern and steady pulse.

I definitely think [the plastique] will help when we start conducting. Because

conducting, in general, is just the movement of your whole body and like you’re

showing the music through all of your movements. So having a more artistic way

to show that will really bring out the different aspects of the music that are harder

to show just in the beat (interview, January 16, 2019).

Michael believed that Eurhythmics made his gestures more fluid and less static.

He thought that this would assist his conducting overall. “So with the Eurhythmics, it’s been helping me get that fluid motion instead of being solid. So I feel like it’s helping me. I feel like it’s going to help benefit my conducting” (interview, January 23, 2019).

Generally, the students in this study thought that Eurhythmics encouraged them to improve their gestural choices, as well as the quality of the gestures themselves. These

179 participants reported that Eurhythmics made gestures more fluid, assisted them in making appropriate gestural choices while conducting, caused them to be able to gesture different parts of a score, and might positively influence gesturing in their future careers. Given that undergraduate students may feel the need to improve gesturing abilities

(Baumgartner & Silvey, 2014; Hart, 2016; Silvey, 2011), Eurhythmics might be a viable option for increasing students’ gestural accuracy and efficacy.

Summary

Following the descriptions of each case in chapters 4 and 5, this chapter detailed three themes that emerged from the data and four subthemes. The three themes that emerged in my analysis of two Dalcroze-inspired conducting courses: (a) a holistic and embodied approach, (b) a natural fit for conducting education, and (c) a vehicle for discovery. Within the third theme of a vehicle for discovery, four sub-themes emerged which were (a) confidence, (b) bodily awareness, (c) musicality, and (d) gesture. In examining the first three themes, I discussed the commonalities and differences between the two conductor educators, Dr. Williams and Dr. Hansen. In discussion related to students’ perceptions, I identified the similarities and differences that student participants expressed in this study. In the following chapter, I will present preliminary assertions about Dalcroze Eurhythmics within the undergraduate conducting classroom as well as implications for conductor educators considering incorporating elements of the Dalcroze method into their conducting curricula.

180 CHAPTER SEVEN

PRELIMINARY ASSERTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Preliminary Assertions about the Quintain

Researchers use multiple case study to examine the commonalities and differences of the quintain (Stake, 2006). In the current study, the quintain was the use of

Dalcroze Eurhythmics within conducting courses. While the quintain in this study was small due to the limited scope and timeframe of data collection, some preliminary assertions might be useful for conductors and students who wish to incorporate embodied methods, like Dalcroze Eurhythmics, into conducting classes. These preliminary assertions are based on the practices and beliefs of two conductor educators who incorporated elements of Eurhythmics into their coursework, as well as the perceptions of undergraduate students enrolled in their respective conducting classes. The following considerations, while initial, may be a starting point for examining further the value and place of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in conducting curricula:

1. Students can become more confident conductors by learning to link music and

movement through Eurhythmics.

2. Eurhythmics can help students gain a sense of bodily awareness and their

movement while conducting.

3. Eurhythmics can help students to discover and develop their innate musicality,

which transfers to their conducting.

4. Eurhythmics can help students develop the ability to gesture.

5. Plastique animée is the branch of the Dalcroze method that potentially can shape

students’ conducting most effectively.

181 In this chapter, I will provide explanations for these preliminary assertions before discussing several implications for conductor educators, schools and departments of music, and conductors.

Confident Conductors

As stated in earlier chapters of this document, students tend to feel uncomfortable in the early stages of learning how to conduct (Baumgartner & Silvey, 2014; Silvey,

2011). They often exhibit self-consciousness about their movements, which can result in conducting that is stiff, timid, or awkward. This is an observation that conducting educators have witnessed for decades; in addition, undergraduate students consistently have reported a lack of security on the podium and remained uncomfortable even after they graduate and enter the field (Baumgartner & Silvey, 2014; Hart, 2016; 2018; Silvey,

2011; Silvey & Major, 2014). Participants in the current study reported that Eurhythmics made them more self-assured in their conducting. They described that through the specific Eurhythmics activities they experienced in class, they became more poised in their movements and conducting.

When engaged in Dalcroze-based activities, students take part in actions that purposefully encourage them to link movement and music. They actively work toward embodying music (Leman, 2007; Leman & Maes, 2014). For example, when students perform eurhythmics games, they transfer elements of music such as meter, anacrusis, crusis, pulse, and rhythm into physical movement or gesture. This action has a direct association with conducting. The more that students perform Dalcroze-based exercises, the more they engage in an activity that mimics conducting, without actually stepping in front of an ensemble. While a great deal of music learning occurs through cerebral and

182 strictly logical means, students can learn about and apply musical knowledge in an embodied context through Eurhythmics (Juntunen & Hyvönen, 2004). When conductor educators ask students to conduct without any prior embodied context or learning, students may feel uneasy, because a physical act like conducting most likely is outside of their experience (Csordas, 1994; Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007).

Participating in Eurhythmics can bolster students’ familiarity with embodying music. If students are at ease with musical movement, they may be more likely to be self-assured conducting in front of an ensemble.

Students discussed how Eurhythmics increased their conducting self-confidence numerous times in observations, interviews, and journal responses. Frankie mentioned that she felt “security and confidence” in her conducting through participating in activities such as preparing a plastique. April talked about eurhythmics games that she played in class, and that those made her feel more self-assured, especially when cuing and prepping. Rachel told me that she continually became more confident as the semester progressed because Dalcroze activities helped her feel secure. Michael reported that

Eurhythmics pushed him beyond his boundaries, and that going beyond his previous limitations made him less intimidated. Tara talked about how some of the games and activities made the students “put [themselves] out there,” and by doing that, conducting did not seem so intimidating.

The perceptions of conductor educators in this study mirrored what students reported about their confidence. Dr. Williams and Dr. Hansen both referred to her observations of students’ uneasiness while conducting, including how hesitant students look when they first begin to conduct. They discussed the ways that Dalcroze fosters

183 security in their students’ conducting. Dr. Hansen explicitly stated, “[my students] gain comfort. They gain interest and enjoyment. That has been my resounding experience.”

Her observation was that, repeatedly, students always seem more assured in themselves and their presence on the podium after learning through Eurhythmics.

The conductor educators and students in this study demonstrated that Eurhythmics could improve young conductors’ confidence. Eurhythmics encouraged them to consider music through their bodies, which prompted them to embody music while conducting.

Students also felt like the activities pushed them beyond their existing limitations, which made conducting seem approachable compared to how they felt before. The conductor educators also perceived that Eurhythmics prompted students to become assertive in their movement and conducting. Learning conducting through Eurhythmics could, therefore, help students to become conductors that are more confident. Eurhythmics holds promise as a way for students to avoid the apprehensive feelings that students typically demonstrate in their undergraduate conducting experiences (Silvey. 2011, Silvey &

Major, 2014).

Students’ Sense of Body

Conductors must have a sense of their body, including how it moves in space and how various body parts move (Gambetta, 2005; Hunsberger & Ernst, 1992; Mauceri,

2017; Spitzer, et al., 2001). A successful conductor controls the space around them with their gestures and movements. Participants in this study reported that they gained a cognizance of their bodies and believed that Eurhythmics made them aware of how music affected different parts of their bodies. Therefore, Eurhythmics can encourage students to cultivate a sense of body awareness as well as improve bodily control while conducting.

184 Body awareness was a fundamental aspect of the conducting class at Frontier

State University. Dr. Williams was interested in ways that she could help her students not only become comfortable with using their bodies, but also how they develop control over their bodies while conducting. While having students participate in a “free movement” or miniature plastique animée exercise in class, Dr. Williams constantly referenced students’ bodies and asked them to think about what each part of their physical being was doing.

As students moved their right arm in the plastique, Dr. Williams asked them also to consider their other hand and arm as well as how they were embodying the music in their faces. In interviews, Dr. Williams referenced the emphasis that she places on the body, and how she uses Eurhythmics to assist her students in controlling their bodies. She believed that gaining bodily awareness and independence was important to students’ ability to sense different parts of music while both listening and conducting. Particularly,

Dr. Williams thought that using Eurhythmics was important for students to embody the pulse of music. A physical relation to beat is important for students to keep a steady pulse while conducting. Researchers who have studied Eurhythmics found that feeling pulse, especially in relation to rhythm, is one of the strongest impacts of the Dalcroze method on students’ musicianship and musical abilities (Alperson, 1995; Rose, 1995;

Venetsanou, Donti, & Koutsouba, 2014; Zachopoulou, Derri, Chatzopoulos, & Ellinoudis

2003). Students at Frontier State University referenced how Eurhythmics facilitated their ability to feel time and the beat within their physical being. In two examples, Josh talked about how Eurhythmics prompted music sensation in different parts of his body, and

April mentioned that she was able to control the space that she used while conducting.

185 Through her Dalcroze expertise, Dr. Hansen viewed the body as the conductor’s instrument, much like the body is considered a tool of musical perception in the Dalcroze method (Juntunen, 2016). The activities that she planned in class revolved around the notion that the body must perceive and communicate musical ideas. According to Dr.

Hansen, everything in the body is connected; posture, breathing, preparatory gesture, gestural flow, and facial affect are all connected as one continuous whole. She treated the entire body is a “unit,” working together to embody music in both Eurhythmics and conducting. Because Dr. Hansen taught students in a manner that encouraged them to consider their entire physique, students developed a bodily awareness. Rachel reported, “I am more aware of the space around me when conducting. I also think more about timing in relation to the amount of space I am using.” Tara and Frankie both mentioned how they could better perceive musical elements within their bodies, and each specifically referred to how they sensed energy and phrasing in their chest and torso areas. Tara also commented on how feeling music in parts of her body could aid her and her fellow students in making conducing choices. She believed that they could use that information to make appropriate gestural choices, especially as future middle or high school choir directors.

Although situated in different contexts, participants in this study demonstrated improved bodily awareness after participation in Eurhythmics. Students felt like they had an increased awareness of the space around them. In addition, students reported that they could distinguish different parts of the music in their bodies, such as rhythm and pulse, as well as phrasing and musical direction or energy. Conducting students, therefore, could benefit from Eurhythmics by nurturing control over their physical being as well as

186 sensing where different aspects of music affect various parts of their physique. Students can use their sense of bodily awareness to make appropriate conducting choices, such as direction of motion, where they conduct on the X-, Y-, and Z-axes, the size of their gesture, how they might lean forward or back while conducting, and other factors related to their motion and presence. The data collected in this study indicated that Eurhythmics could be a promising endeavor toward increasing students’ bodily awareness and, consequently, encouraging them to acquire agency over these particular aspects of conducting.

Student Musicality

The celebrated conductor Eugene Ormandy prefaced the fifth edition of Green’s

(1992) vaunted text, The Modern Conductor, by stating that a conductor must be a good musician. Musicianship is an essential aspect of conducting, as conductors must be able to communicate musical ideas to an ensemble. To be an effective communicator and rehearser, conductors must be able to hear, diagnose, and prescribe remedies for myriad musical issues, especially when an ensemble needs guidance or correction (Barry &

Henry, 2014; Hunsberger & Ernst, 1992; Mauceri, 2017; Valle Brandao, 2011). The concepts of which conductors must have a firm grasp typically include intonation, style, articulation, balance, blend, phrasing, dynamics, intensity, direction of line, rhythmic accuracy, and harmony, among others (Green, 1961a; 1961b; Spitzer et al., 2001) The participants in this study maintained that Eurhythmics improved students’ musicianship, especially as it related to musicianship skills applicable to conducting.

One of the primary goals of Eurhythmics is to draw upon what Dr. Hansen referred to as students’ “innate musicality.” Proponents of the Dalcroze method maintain

187 that the system encourages students to discover their natural musical abilities and to enhance their musicality. Participants in Frego (2009), Juntunen (2016), and van der

Merwe (2015) reported that their musical abilities and sense of musicality improved after taking part in Eurhythmics training. Participant reports in the current study were consistent with these findings. Students conveyed that various aspects of their musicality and musical abilities improved after experiencing aspects of the Dalcroze method in their conducting classes.

One of the musical benefits that many participants in this study described was that

Eurhythmics prompted them to discover musical movement that represented the style of music that they intended to portray in their conducting. April mentioned how she cultivated expressivity in her conducting and how Eurhythmics caused her conducting motion to be more fluid, which, in turn, facilitated her capability of portraying lyrical music. Felix also reported that he saw an increase in his expressivity and was better able to show various aspects of music while conducting. Frankie conveyed that she was able to more fully recognize multiple aspects of the music that she was going to conduct, including the rhythm, melodic contour, dynamics, and tempo. She stated that improving her understanding of these elements would help her to conduct and portray them more accurately to an ensemble. Tara thought that Eurhythmics allowed her to understand and hear an entire score rather than a single part at a time while both listening and conducting. Michael believed that Eurhythmics made him to connect the artistic and expressive aspects of a piece, which he believed would transfer to his conducting.

Many of the participants commented on how Eurhythmics exercises improved their sense of pulse and the rhythmic domain of their musicianship. Josh and April

188 reported that Eurhythmics games they experienced in conducting and band helped them to understand pulse better, and that they were able to feel steady beat by experiencing it through Eurhythmics games in class. Rachel discussed how a specific eurhythmics game where students stepped around the room in time solidified her sense of time signatures.

Michael talked about how engaging in Eurhythmics aided him in feeling the downbeat in a piece, and how that skill could aid him in finding the downbeat in a situation where he may temporarily lose the pulse and need to find it again quickly. These participants stated that they developed an ability to both accurately hear and sense different parts of the music, which translated into increased musical abilities and musicality. They thought that they were able to demonstrate the intended style of a musical work more competently, as well a sense of rhythm and steady pulse associated with the music. In addition, they reported the ability to perceive the downbeat stronger than they had before learning through Eurhythmics.

Each conductor educator in this study also reported that they noticed that their students acquired a stronger sense of musicality and music abilities from Eurhythmics.

Dr. Hansen purposefully wanted to improve students’ musicianship along with their basic conducting skills when she teaches conducting. Because Dr. Hansen’s teaching philosophy was rooted in Dalcroze methodology in one way or another, she incorporated all facets of Dalcroze into her conducting class activities. She used fixed-Do solfège to mature students’ listening skills in an attempt to ground their listening to the note C as a relative pitch. Dr. Hansen also adapted activities to mimic Dalcroze-style improvisation to encourage students to listen for changes in the music and to be able to respond to the music that they hear from an ensemble while in the act of conducting. She weaved

189 elements of eurhythmics into every facet of the class and has students choreograph plastiques to learn how to map movement and gesture from music. By engaging in all branches of the Dalcroze method, students foster different aspects of their musicianship that they can apply to conducting and rehearsing. They improved the ability to hear, gained an awareness of all parts of a score, began to internalize relative pitch around the note C, and practiced hearing and feeling changes that they perceive in a piece of music.

All of these musical skills are critical for conductors to possess if they want to be successful at demonstrating musical concepts on the podium.

Although Dr. Williams was not a Dalcroze practitioner and only involved

Eurhythmics as a small part of the class’ larger structure, she sought to use Eurhythmics for improving her students’ musicianship. She believed that engaging in Eurhythmics, specifically the eurhythmics games, increased her students’ abilities of pulse, keeping a steady beat, and perceiving changes in rhythm in a piece. She reported that she has observed her students become more able to embody time and feel a pulse in their bodies.

Dr. Williams also said that Eurhythmics improved “everything” related to students’ music and musicality, despite not incorporating elements of all four branches of the method into her class. Even through partial engagement in Eurhythmics, like eurhythmics games and free movement activities (plastique animée), students at Frontier State

University also worked on multiple facets of their musicality and musicianship abilities.

However, Dr. Williams and her students reported that the strongest aspect of musicianship that improved at Frontier was in the domain of rhythm, beat, and pulse.

Regardless of the level of immersion in Dalcroze Eurhythmics, it is possible that students could develop different aspects of their musicianship. Moreover, Eurhythmics

190 training can enhance more musical abilities than those related only to beat, pulse, and rhythm. The system advances students’ musicianship holistically, which can heighten the skills needed to be an effective conductor (Battisti, 2007; Byo & Austin, 1994; Chapman,

2008; Valle Brandao, 2011).

Ability to Gesture

The participants in this study reported that Eurhythmics improved students’ gesturing. Student participants reported that Eurhythmics facilitated both sureness in their gestures as well as the quality of gestural choices that they make. Considering that gesturing includes actions that many conducting students need time to master

(Baumgartner & Silvey, 2014; Hart, 2016; Silvey, 2011), participants’ positive attitude related to gesture in this study indicated that Eurhythmics is one possible solution for accelerating students’ gestural development as undergraduate conductors.

Gestural communication was an aspect of conducting that student participants frequently discussed during our various correspondences. Many of the participants reported that Eurhythmics improved their gestural choices. Rachel said that Eurhythmics made her feel confident about her conducting gestures and that her gestures were more fluid and musical rather than used to merely beat time. Michael reported that his movements became fluid “instead of being static.” April said that she felt more fluid and expressive than before, and that she experienced more control of her arms and hands when conducting. Felix believed that Eurhythmics caused him to discover his interpretation of music through movements. It is possible that Eurhythmics can help conductors become better at choosing appropriate gestures as well as improve the quality of the gestures themselves. Young conductors might improve the ability to gesture as

191 well as acquire comfort in gesturing much more quickly when learning conducting through Eurhythmics than when learning conducting in traditional formats (Silvey, 2011).

Many of the students also testified that their gestures became more natural, almost as if they were second nature. Tara reported that as time passed in the class, she thought less and less about gestures, and that her gestures “seemed to just fit in place.” Josh said that he believed learning through Eurhythmics would “take a lot off of [his] brain” and that gesturing happened naturally while he was conducting. For these participants, one of the benefits of learning through Eurhythmics was that they increased their gestural vocabulary to the point that selecting gesture was automatic. Arguably, many conductors only reach this point after many years of experience or conductor training. However, these students reached an advanced stage of conducting during a semester of undergraduate conducting class. Self-assurance of gesture and feeling that it is natural stands in contrast to previously documented undergraduate conducting experiences (Hart

2016; Silvey, 2011).

The student participants’ considerations of gesture mirrored the philosophies and observations that conductor educators conveyed in this study. Dr. Hansen, for example, said that the “gestural rationale is the strongest rationale” for teaching conducting using the Dalcroze method. She has observed her students making positive changes in their conducting related to gesture, which have included gestural flexibility and fluidity. She posited that they embodied scores more accurately and make more appropriate gestural choices. Dr. Williams believed that eurhythmics games improved students’ preparatory and downbeat gestures because they had to learn how to time their movements to complete tasks while participating in eurhythmics games. The skills that students develop

192 related to weight, speed, and direction of movement transfer to their ability to control these aspects of their gestures while conducting (Battisti, 2007; Byo & Austin, 1994;

Dollman, 2012; Green, 1961b).

Participants in this study indicated that students’ ability to gesture as well as the depth of their gestural vocabulary improved after learning conducting through

Eurhythmics. Moreover, the impact of students’ ability to gesture can be viewed through the lens of the previous assertions of the study. Participants believed that they were more confident with their gestures and gestural choices after engaging in Eurhythmics. They also believed that they had more agency over their whole body to make appropriate and effective gestural choices. In addition, they also reported that they could choose gestures that were musically accurate and that portray different aspects of the music that they conduct. Therefore, Eurhythmics might help students to become better at executing gestures as well as improve the quality of their gestures. Eurhythmics may be an appropriate tool for conductor educators who want to avoid the discomfort with gesturing that undergraduate students typically experience in their conducting education (Hart,

2016; Silvey, 2011).

The Potential of Plastique Animée

Each conductor educator in this study incorporated various exercises and aspects of the Dalcroze method into their conducting courses. Yet, none appeared to be as impactful for conducting students as plastique animée. Plastique animée is an exercise where students choreograph aspects of a piece of music into purposeful movement. A

Dalcroze practitioner can use a plastique to demonstrate any element of music that they wish. Movements can be matched to the rhythm and pulse of the accompanying piece of

193 music. Alternatively, performers can show elements of melodic contour, phrasing, changes in energy and direction, harmonic shifts, changes in dynamics, and other parts of a piece of music through body positioning and purposeful movement. The options for what performers can demonstrate through plastiques are limitless. The exercise stimulates performers to listen to and make specific decisions about the music that they are portraying (Dalcroze Society of America, 2019).

The act of taking music and purposefully translating it into movement also happens in conducting. When conductors gesture and move with a piece of music, they are purposefully taking what they either hear or audiate from a score and translating that music into physical motion. The act of performing a plastique shares many of the characteristics of conducting. What makes performing a plastique different from conducting is that performers choreograph their plastique to prerecorded music or to music that others play during the performance. A plastique is reactionary to the music; it is a reactive action. Conversely, conducting is a proactive action, as conductors elicit sounds from an ensemble through movement before the ensemble plays the desired sounds. This difference is what makes plastique animée a potentially beneficial activity for conductor education. Because students do not have to elicit sounds from an ensemble during a plastique, there is less pressure to perform a gesture correctly. In addition, students can experience less trepidation, as they do not have to worry about their physical movements not producing the result that they intended. Plastique animée can provide students an opportunity to explore and learn about gesture in a safe environment. By learning in this way, students are practicing their musical movements that they can transfer to conducting. When students who have engaged in plastique animée are

194 conducting, they have already practiced certain actions and gestures. Subsequently, they might feel more confident when gesturing in front of their ensemble because they have experienced the gesture already. These movements become knowledge that is embodied in them (Bendelow & Williams, 2002; Latta & Buck, 2008; Leman & Maes, 2014; 2015;

Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007; Toiviainen, Luck & Thompson, 2010;

Woodard, 2009).

Even if conductor educators do not decide to incorporate all facets of the Dalcroze method into their courses, as Dr. Hansen does, they still can provide benefits for their students by incorporating plastique animée into their teaching. The nomenclature of the act seems to be irrelevant; a teacher can refer to it as plastique, free movement, or another term. Nonetheless, this activity appears to hold enormous potential for benefitting undergraduates’ conducting skills, knowledge, and confidence. Because plastique seems to enhance students’ conducting in each of these domains, it can be a powerful tool for transforming them into competent conductors before graduating and entering the field.

Implications for Music Education

No music education research study would be complete without presenting implications drawn from the findings. This section of the chapter includes a discussion of implications for the profession. The findings from this study position Dalcroze

Eurhythmics as a viable tool for improving undergraduate students’ conducting abilities.

In the following section, I will discuss the implications for conductor educators, schools and departments of music, and current conductors who conduct professional and school ensembles.

195 Implications for Conductor Educators

Conductor educators assume the responsibility of teaching students how to become both knowledgeable about the act of conducting and to gain self-assurance in their own conducting abilities. However, undergraduate students sometimes leave conducting class and matriculate into the field with a low level of confidence in their conducting (Silvey, 2011). Conductor educators should explore ways to assist students in attaining not only their skills such as beat pattern, preparatory and cuing motions, and gesturing ability, but also their self-efficacy related to conducting, so that when they step in front of an ensemble, they feel prepared and self-assured in their abilities to conduct a rehearsal or performance. It is likely that students express discomfort with their conducting because they often are taught in a manner that inadvertently reinforces the mind-body divide. This approach is consistent with the conservatory method, which has persisted for well over a century and a half, potentially disembodies knowledge, and focuses on thought and the logical mind (Bendelow & Williams, 2002; Latta & Buck,

2008; Leman & Maes, 2014; 2015; Toiviainen, Luck & Thompson, 2010; Woodard,

2009). By teaching conducting in a disembodied manner, faculty take an embodied activity in conducting and attempt to fit it into a disembodied act, thus reinforcing the disassociating effect of the body on the mind (Damasio, 1994). From all indications, the students in this study did not feel the same uneasiness and lack of knowledge about conducting that seem prevalent in other contexts. The data that participants reported indicated that Eurhythmics made conducting education more embodied, as it aided students’ learning and knowledge in embodied ways. The information presented in this study suggested that Dalcroze Eurhythmics can be a viable option for conductor

196 educators to help their students achieve mastery and efficacy on the podium by encouraging them to learn conducting skills through embodied means.

The preliminary evidence in this study indicated that the ways in which

Eurhythmics is incorporated into coursework, and the amount of Eurhythmics that is taught, may not matter. Students in the current study reported benefitting from their experiences at both sites, even though Eurhythmics was incorporated at varying intensities at each location. Conductor educators who are considering incorporating

Eurhythmics into their coursework can decide whether to include a small amount of

Eurhythmics, to have it influence every aspect of their entire course sequence, or to find a balance in-between. In either scenario, it is possible that students could benefit from experiencing different elements of the system in their learning. However, Dalcroze educators and certified practitioners might advocate that students be immersed completely in the system in order to fully benefit from its tenets (Carnegie Melon

University, n.d.; Dalcroze Society of America, 2019).

If conductor educators can only fit in a small part of the system, plastique animée might provide the most benefit for students. Plastique animée incorporates multiple facets of the Dalcroze method. For example, students engage in the eurhythmics branch of

Dalcroze during a plastique when they embody rhythmic aspects of the music. Students also must use improvisation in plastique animée, especially if they spontaneously perform the plastique rather than choreographing it. The act of performing a plastique is directly related to the act of conducting, as students must react to the music that they hear when engaging in a plastique, and then embody different elements of music that they are hearing. This progression can enhance their ability to react to music that an ensemble

197 plays. Performing a plastique also can increase their gestural vocabulary, which they can then apply to conducting pieces that have a similar style. Plastique animée also can positively affect students’ confidence in their ability to conduct, because students practice many aspects of musical movement that are related to the act of conducting during plastique. As the student participants in this study reported, engaging in plastique was “a smaller version” of conducting and reinforced mapping musical ideas to specific movements. Incorporating plastique animée into conducting classes could be a powerful tool in cultivating students’ conducting knowledge, conviction, and efficacy.

Implications for Schools and Departments of Music

Implementing Eurhythmics training could be one avenue that schools or departments of music could consider for offering students embodied musical opportunities. If students were immersed in Dalcroze beyond what they could experience in conducting class, they could develop additional embodied knowledge about music, which subsequently could enhance their conducting education (Juntunen & Hyvönen,

2004; Juntunen, 2016; Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007; van der Merwe, 2015).

However, given that each school and department is structured differently, curricular reform could take various forms. Schools and departments of music might consider incorporating Dalcroze Eurhythmics into their courses of study if they wish to provide their students with a complete music education that includes embodied learning.

The findings of the present study indicated that students who learned conducting through Eurhythmics became confident in their conducting, gained a sense of bodily awareness, increased their musicality, and improved their sense of gesture. These findings are similar to several other studies that have documented the benefits of

198 Eurhythmics (see Alperson, 1995; Frego, 1996; O’Leary, 2010; van der Merwe, 2015;

Walker, 2007). These studies indicated that students’ abilities were enhanced and solidified when they engaged in Eurhythmics training (see chapters 1 and 2 for more complete descriptions of many of these studies.) Data in the current study suggested that students’ conducting skills also can benefit from studying Eurhythmics, and can be added to the list of benefits that students gain after Dalcroze training. Given the findings of this study alongside existing empirical data on the positive impacts of Eurhythmics, schools of music might want to consider adding courses dedicated to Eurhythmics to their sequences of study to assist students in achieving their highest music potential.

Implications for Conductors

Some conductors already in the profession who conduct either professional, school, or community ensembles may be interested in learning more about Eurhythmics and its benefits. Attending a Dalcroze workshop or even a long-term Dalcroze academy could be an introductory step. Dalcroze himself stated (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1921), and current practitioners maintain (Carnegie Mellon University, n.d.), that the only way to gain a firm grasp of the system is to experience it first-hand. Various institutions such as

Bard College and Carnegie Mellon University offer workshops and intensive summer institutes for people interested in the system, including pathways to certification by the

Dalcroze Institute in Geneva. There are also independent Dalcroze-centered institutions such as the Dalcroze School of the Rockies in Denver that offer similar courses and training (Dalcroze Society of America, 2019). Conductors also might consider enrolling in graduate programs at universities and schools that offer Eurhythmics as part of their courses of study, such as the Cleveland Institute of Music. There are avenues for learning

199 about Dalcroze from 1-day experiences through multi-year courses of study that result in full certification.

Furthermore, because of conducting’s similarity to many aspects of Dalcroze

Eurhythmics, conductor educators could collaborate with Dalcroze training centers and experts in order to bring more authentic Dalcroze experiences to the conducting classroom. Dalcroze himself proposed that conductors already typify many aspects of his method (Daley, 2013; Jaques-Dalcroze, 1921). Leaders of Dalcroze schools and certification programs could adapt and teach the method to conductor educators and conductors. Other collaborations in music education exist that have established models for such partnerships. For example, the Jump Right In series (Grunow, Gordon, &

Azzara, 2000) is a beginning band method that is based on Edwin Gordon’s (2007) Music

Learning Theory. The authors of Jump Right In combined a specific methodology, Music

Learning Theory, with practitioner-level sequencing, and designed the text for teachers to use in the classroom. Similarly, conductor educators and Dalcroze practitioners could collaborate to develop a comparable system of instruction for conductor education that is based on the Dalcroze method for use in undergraduate conducting classrooms.

Chapter Summary

In this chapter, I discussed the findings in this study that resulted in five assertions about the quintain, or the use of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in undergraduate conducting courses. These assertions were (a) students can become more confident conductors by learning to link music and movement through Eurhythmics, (b) eurhythmics can help students gain a sense of bodily awareness and their movement while conducting, (c) eurhythmics can help students to discover and develop their innate musicality, which

200 transfers to their conducting, (d) eurhythmics can help students develop the ability to gesture, and (e) plastique animée is the branch of the Dalcroze method that can potentially can shape students’ conducting most effectively. In addition, I presented implications for conductor educators, schools and departments of music, and conductors.

These implications include incorporating Dalcroze Eurhythmics into the conducting classroom, offering Eurhythmics classes as part of a music major sequence of study, and ways that practicing conductors in the field can study Eurhythmics.

201 CHAPTER EIGHT

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Summary

The practice of conducting requires one to take abstract musical ideas and translate them into physical expression. Conductors must find ways to embody music to communicate with an ensemble. Many colleges and universities include conducting in their sequences of study for undergraduate music majors to prepare them for conducting as professional teachers and performers. NASM (2017) also requires conducting instruction for accreditation, but the guidelines that NASM lists are vague. This ambiguity can lead to a variance in both the way that conducting is taught and the amount of conducting experience that colleges and universities offer their students (Boardman,

2000; Manfredo, 2008; Runnels, 1992). Often, undergraduate conductors feel like they are unsure of their gestures, even after completing conducting courses (Silvey, 2011).

One possible solution for helping students’ confidence and self-efficacy while conducting is to incorporate embodied methodologies into conductor education. Dalcroze

Eurhythmics is one promising option for potentially making conductor education more embodied.

The purpose of this adapted multiple instrumental case study was to examine the incorporation of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in undergraduate-level conducting classes. A specific focus was placed on the perspectives of conductor educators who employ

Dalcroze Eurhythmics in their conducting classes, and on the perceptions of students who are enrolled in these classes. The following questions guided this research:

202 Research Questions

1. How do conductor educators incorporate Dalcroze Eurhythmics into their

conducting curriculum?

2. What specific aspects of Dalcroze Eurhythmics systems do conductor educators

incorporate into their conducting curriculum?

3. What benefits and challenges of incorporating Dalcroze Eurhythmics do

conductor educators and students identify?

4. How do conducting students describe their experience learning conducting

through Dalcroze Eurhythmics?

To answer these questions, I used critical case sampling (Patton, 2002; Suri,

2011) to identify conductor educators who incorporate Dalcroze Eurhythmics into their undergraduate-level conducting courses. In my attempts to find conductor educators who used Eurhythmics, I discovered that the practice is somewhat rare. As a result, only two conductor educators who used Eurhythmics and were willing to participate in this study emerged. I spent 3 days at each site observing classes and conducting interviews with conductor educators and students. Because of limitations regarding the small sample that emerged, as well as a compressed timeframe for collecting data, this study did not conform to the definitions of a full-scale multiple case study as outlined by Stake (2006).

Rather, I applied a modified multiple case study using Stake’s (2006) suggestions and study design.

I recorded interviews and classes with both a Samsung Galaxy S8 smartphone and

Zoom H1 recorder at each school. I hand-wrote observation notes during class meetings which I later transferred to an Acer Aspire V5 laptop running Windows 10. I took

203 photographs and collected syllabi, assignments, and other materials to assemble a diverse set of data sources. I asked participants semi-structured questions and used the same set of questions at both sites. The questions that I asked focused on conductor educators’ and students’ perceptions about learning conducting through various elements of Dalcroze

Eurhythmics.

I began to analyze data while still in the process of data collection (Creswell &

Poth, 2017). Audio data was uploaded to Temi.com, an AI-driven, cloud-based transcription service. I immediately listened to transcribed audio and fixed errors created by the program once I received the transcript. I coded each data item in two rounds.

During the first round, I coded In Vivo codes, or codes based on the actual words of participants (Saldaña, 2016). I then recoded the data in a second round using focused coding to find “frequent or significant codes” (Saldaña, 2016, p. 240) in the data (Ryan &

Bernard, 2003). The coding process yielded 175 In Vivo codes, which I then focus coded into four categories based on themes that emerged from the data (See Appendix G). Two graduate student colleagues with a qualitative research background audited my codes and offered recommendations and thoughts (Patton, 2002).

After coding, I completed individual case reports. I then began the process of cross-case analysis by re-reading both case reports and implementing a synopsis of both cases (Stake, 2006). Using the original research questions, I executed a cross-case analysis based on four themes, (a) aspects of Dalcroze Eurhythmics used in conducting curriculum, (b) how Eurhythmics was incorporated into conducting classes, (c) why conductor educators incorporate Eurhythmics into class, and (d) students’ perceptions.

The theme of student perceptions yielded four subthemes, (a) confidence, (b) bodily

204 awareness, (c) musicality, and (d) gesture. Using this analysis, I formulated several preliminary assertions and implications about the quintain.

Conclusions

In this study, I examined the use of Dalcroze Eurhythmics within undergraduate conducting coursework. During the cross-case analysis of the resultant data, I discovered five preliminary assertions: (a) students can become more confident conductors by learning to link music and movement through Eurhythmics, (b) eurhythmics can help students gain a sense of bodily awareness and their movement while conducting, (c) eurhythmics can help students to discover and develop their innate musicality, which transfers to their conducting, (d) eurhythmics can help students develop the ability to gesture, and (e) plastique animée (an interpretive exercise mapping elements of music to body movements similar to an interpretive dance) is the branch of the Dalcroze method that potentially can shape students’ conducting most effectively.

Based on these preliminary assertions, I suggested implications for conductor educators, schools and departments of music, and conductors. For conductor educators, I recommended that they could incorporate Eurhythmics to help students become more confident and knowledgeable conductors. I also suggested that any amount of

Eurhythmics might help their students; options for conductor educators ranged from incorporating a few eurhythmics games, to planning a course sequence around the

Dalcroze method, to collaborating with certified Dalcroze practitioners. I also suggested that plastique animée could be the most beneficial part of the method that conductor educators could use in their classes. For departments and schools of music, I proposed that the findings in this research support other studies documenting the benefits of

205 Eurhythmics study, and that schools could consider adding Eurhythmics to their required coursework (Meints, 2014). Finally, I posed that conductors who wish to learn about

Eurhythmics could seek out workshops, sessions, or other options for learning about the method. In addition, conductors might consider practicing plastique animée on their own to reap the benefits of the practice.

Suggestions for Future Research

This study was inspired in part by Silvey’s (2011) survey that measured undergraduates’ perceptions about instrumental conducting curricula. Part of Silvey’s results indicated that many students felt least comfortable with conducting expressivity, gestures, and cues. Embodied pedagogies and knowledge (Leman, 2007; Leman & Maes,

2014) seem to hold promise for helping students learn physical actions such as cuing, gesturing, and using expressivity while conducting. Meints (2014) recognized the potential of embodied pedagogies in conductor education and explored various methods including Laban Movement Analysis, Delsarte, Alexander Technique, and Dalcroze

Eurhythmics, which he thought might be useful for conducting classes. Through a literature review and content analysis, Meints determined that Eurhythmics was the embodied pedagogy that held the most promise for helping students develop their conducting. Other conducting educators have published practitioner-level articles about

Eurhythmics in conductor education (Dickson, 1992; McCoy, 1994), although these authors used anecdotal evidence to support their assertions. The current study may be one of the first to document the use of Eurhythmics in conducting curricula through empirical methods and evidence.

206 The adapted multiple case study methodology that I used in this study allowed me to compare the teaching approaches and use of Dalcroze Eurhythmics by conductor educators at two different universities. The observation of conducting courses during the span of two class meetings at each suite did not allow me to observe how students’ conducting skills, perceptions, and understandings developed throughout a semester or into future endeavors, like student teaching or entering the field as music professionals.

The short time frame limited the results of the study to a brief snapshot of students’ overall conducting development. It would be useful to know if participants’ attitudes toward Eurhythmics, as revealed in this study, continued as they progressed through their degrees, especially for music education majors who reach student teaching and the beginning of their careers. In addition, this study only focused on the perceptions of students and conductor educators and did not consider the practical outcomes of learning conducting through Eurhythmics, such as conducting in front of an ensemble in a real- world setting. Determining the degree to which Eurhythmics skills transferred to students’ teaching and rehearsing in the schools would be beneficial for understanding the lasting effects of their classroom experience. This type of information fell outside of the scope of the present research. A longitudinal study of students who learn conducting through Eurhythmics would be an appropriate avenue for exploring the long-term effects of Eurhythmics on conducting. A follow-up study to the present one also might divulge this information. In addition, a phenomenological study observing the use of Dalcroze

Eurhythmics in conducting classes might reveal deeper and more comprehensive findings than those found in a case study.

207 Participants in this study revealed that plastique animée was the branch of the Dalcroze method that appeared to influence their conducting the most. Many participants frequently reported that they improved in the expressive domain of their conducting as well as solidified their internalization of rhythm and pulse. These outcomes emerged as the most salient effects of learning conducting through Dalcroze. Because of the limited timeframe of this study, it is unclear if other skills or attributes related to conducting might have surfaced throughout the semester or during a longer timeframe. Future research could consider the skills that might be affected by learning through the Dalcroze method. Such research could chronicle all branches of the methodology or focus on specific branches and the abilities that they cultivate. For example, researchers might examine the impact of Dalcroze solfège on young conductors’ ability to hear and audiate a score. Because most college- and university-level music programs teach using moveable-Do, Dalcroze solfège could potentially be problematic or difficult to learn for undergraduate students. A study focused on this aspect of the Dalcroze method would yield information regarding how students adjust to using fixed-Do and other aspects of

Dalcroze solfège.

Future research also might include explorations of conducting classes at institutions that require students to take Eurhythmics classes as part of their course of study. The current research examined sites where Eurhythmics was present in conducting courses. Although the conductor educators used parts of Dalcroze methodology in their non-conducting courses, primarily ensembles, students still only experienced the method in the context of non-Eurhythmics classes. Investigations into conducting at universities where Eurhythmics courses are required, such as the Cleveland Institute of Music,

Baldwin Wallace Conservatory, Carnegie Melon University, Bard College (Meints,

208 2014), and others could reveal if students make the same connections between

Eurhythmics and conducting that the participants in this study reported.

This research was limited because I examined the use of one particular methodology, Dalcroze Eurhythmics, in conducting courses. However, other embodied pedagogies exist that conductor educators might want to incorporate into their curricula, including Laban Movement Analysis, Delsarte, Alexander Technique, and kinesthesiology (Meints, 2014). To that end, the findings of the current research do not imply that Eurhythmics is the panacea for fixing conducting’s complicated relationship with disembodied learning. Rather, Eurhythmics can be one possible solution out of many for resolving the mind-body problem (Damasio, 1994; McGinn, 1989; Nagel,

1998) in conductor education. As an embodied pedagogy, Dalcroze Eurhythmics could be one vehicle for reversing Damasio’s (1994) Descartes’ Error by teaching students to build knowledge through the movement of their bodies. Researchers might want to explore the impact of other embodied pedagogies on conducting, as other pedagogies might provide different benefits or solutions. For example, researchers have already examined the effect of Laban Movement Analysis on conducting students’ education

(Aubin, 2010; Bartee, 1977; Billingham, 2001; Hart 2016; Miller, 1988; Neidlinger,

2003; Yontz, 2001). However, current studies about Laban have utilized either quantitative or mixed methods, and there are no known qualitative studies. A qualitative study similar to the present one examining Laban Movement Analysis might reveal deeper connections and insights regarding the use of this method in undergraduate conducting coursework. Qualitative methodology also could be used to study the effects

209 of other embodied pedagogies on conductor education, such as Delsarte training,

Alexander Technique, and kinesthesiology.

Codetta: All Musical Truth Resides in the Body

In an interview on CBS This Morning, American artist Meredith Monk discussed her career, including the time that she spent with Emile Jaques-Dalcroze early in her career toward the end of Jacques-Dalcroze’s life (Dalcroze Connections, 2016). In this interview, she recalled a phrase that Jaques-Dalcroze regularly said in her presence: “All musical truth resides in the body.” Jaques-Dalcroze himself singled out conductors as typifying the principles and actions associated with his system of Eurhythmics (Daley,

2013; Jaques-Dalcroze, 1921). From the Dalcrozian perspective, conductors convey musical truth through the movement and positioning of their bodies as the prototypical

Dalcroze practitioner.

Learning to conduct is a highly personal endeavor. Conductors stand in front of an ensemble and have to move their arms, hands, face, and entire bodies. They are purposefully putting themselves in a position where dozens of people watch them move and gesture. Moreover, undergraduate students who conduct are not only likely conducting for the first time in their lives, but they are also doing it in front of their peers, which could lead to anxiety-laced experiences. Learning conducting through Eurhythmics might help students become more self-assured in their conducting because they become attuned to their musical bodies. Students learn to embody music and practice gesture.

They find ways to embody musical knowledge. This embodying of knowledge may help students to be more confident and natural with their conducting. Learning conducting through Eurhythmics may be an effective way for students to develop their skills in a safe

210 environment that can help them be effective and self-efficacious conductors through undergraduate study and well into their careers.

211 APPENDIX A

LIST OF SAMPLE CONDUCTING TEXTS

Adler, S. (2016). The study of orchestration (4th ed.). New York: W.W. Norton &

Company.

Adler’s text The Study of Orchestration is perhaps the premiere manuscript for orchestration and scoring used in the academe. Although the text does not pertain to conducting and gesture, it is useful for conductors because it has information about scoring, ranges, and score construction. There is no mention of conducting gesture or movement, nor embodied pedagogies.

Battisti, F. L. (2007). On becoming a conductor. Delray Beach, FL: Meredith Music.

On Becoming a Conductor is a text written for future and practicing wind band conductors. Battisti’s book is organized by philosophical and pedagogical concerns about conducting, followed by discussions related to practical considerations like programming and rehearsal techniques. The book does not contain any discussion related to embodied pedagogy and learning. However, the text does go beyond basic discussions of beat pattern and rehearsal techniques as Battisti discusses creative conducting and encourages conductors to reflect on their physical presence and feeling while conducting.

Billingham, L. (2008). The complete conductor’s guide to Laban Movement Theory.

Chicago: GIA Publications.

Billingham’s book distills an embodied method, Laban Movement Theory, and discusses its application to conducting. The book contains sections about the history of Laban, movement exercises based on Laban, creative movement, and applying conducting movement to elicit musical expression. Billingham’s text is the only book on this list solely dedicated to the application of a specific embodied methodology, Laban Movement Theory, to the act of conducting.

Decker, H. A., & Kirk, C. J. (1995). Choral conducting: Focus on communication. Long

Grove, IL: Waveland Press.

Decker’s and Kirk’s text is a choral conducting book written for future choral conductors. The text includes conducting discussions related to body positioning, gesture, and beat pattern. There are no discussions related to embodied learning located within.

212 Durrant, C. (2017). Choral conducting: Philosophy and practice. New York: Routledge.

Durrant’s Choral Conducting is focused on the philosophy and practice of being a choral conductor. In the text, Durrant describes conducting and musical leadership through the lens of human learning and behavior, supported by research citations. The book includes discussions about conducting gesture. However, there are no discussions related to embodiment within conducting.

Farberman, H. (1999). The art of conducting technique: A new perspective. Van Nuys,

CA: Alfred Publishing.

Although written for orchestral conductors, Farberman’s book contains information useful for all conducting disciplines. The text contains many details related to conducting an orchestra, including conductor space, body techniques, baton use, pattern, meters, gesture, and a proprietary system of conductor body mapping called “PatternCube.” The text does include embodied discussions by invoking body mapping and considerations of positioning and bodily technique. However, there is no mention of any specific embodied methodologies such as Dalcroze or Laban.

Garnett, L. (2009). Choral conducting and the construction of meaning: gesture, voice,

identity. London: Routledge.

Garnett’s book is a choral conducting text geared toward future and current choral conducting practitioners. The book is heavily influenced by research, and Garnett uses a litany of studies to both discuss and present the various methods inside. The text does include a large amount of discussion related to embodiment, including how embodied learning and communication can affect gesture on the podium.

Green, E. A. H. (2004). The modern conductor: A college text based on the technical

principles of Nicolai Malko as outlined in his the conductor and his baton (7th

ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Often considered one of the standard conducting texts in music education, The Modern Conductor is used extensively at both the undergraduate and graduate level. The book contains a plethora of information related to beat pattern, gesture, and score study techniques. In addition, it has sections dedicated to band, orchestra, and choral conducting considerations. However, there are no discussions of embodied learning outside of the Malko exercises that Green presents in the text.

213 Hunsberger, D. & Ernst, R. E. (1992). The art of conducting. New York: McGraw-Hill

Education.

The Art of Conducting is a general conducting text meant for both instrumental and choral conductors, especially preservice teachers who will conduct as teachers in the schools. The book features much information related to beat pattern and descriptions of gesture. There are no discussions of embodied learning or pedagogies.

Jordan, J. (2009). Evoking sound: Fundamentals of choral conducting. Chicago: GIA

Publications.

James Jordan is one of the leading experts in the application of Laban theory to conducting and conducting technique. Jordan’s text Evoking Sound contains ideas and aspects related to conductor development rooted in the theories of Laban. Much of the book is written from an embodied perspective, and how to encourage students’ conducting progress through embodied methods. In addition to Laban, Jordan also uses the theories of Hideo Saito, the Alexander Technique, and body mapping in his suggested methods of conductor education. It is the undergraduate conducting text in this list that incorporates the most discussion related to embodiment and embodied learning in conductor education.

Kearns, R. (2011). Quick Reference for band directors. Lanham, MD: Rowman &

Littlefield.

Kearns’ text discusses aspects of program building, lesson planning, and repertoire- programming strategies related to elementary, middle school, and high school band programs. Of note, Kearns details many aspects of a band program that might not be discussed during undergraduate education, including the use of chamber ensembles, different types of marching and jazz band strategies, and instrumental repairs. There are no discussions of embodiment nor conducting technique within.

Labuta, J. A. (1995). Basic conducting techniques (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice-Hall.

Labuta’s Basic Conducting Techniques focuses heavily on conducting beat patterns, cues, fermati, cutoffs, and expressive conducting. In addition, there is an extensive section regarding score study and rehearsal techniques. Also, the book contains practice excerpts.

214 The text covers information for undergraduates regarding instrumental and choral conducting. It does not feature any discussion of embodied learning or techniques.

Maiello, A., Bullock, J. & Clark, L. (2009). Conducting: A hands-on approach. Los

Angeles: Alfred Music Publishing.

Conducting: A Hands-On Approach is a text that addresses the philosophical and pedagogical implications of teaching an ensemble. In addition, the authors discuss basic conducting technique including beat pattern, anacrusis, cueing, dynamics, and changing planes while conducting. The book is meant for current and future band directors. There are no discussions related to embodiment in the text.

Mauceri, J. (2017). Maestros and their music: The art and Alchemy of Conducting.

London, ON: Alfred. A. Knopf.

In Maestros and Their Music, Mauceri provides a large amount of information about the profession of conducting. The book contains discussions about the history of the profession, technique, score study, conductor training, and leadership. The work is written from a musicological or historical perspective rather than a pedagogical one and focuses heavily on orchestral conductors. There are no discussions of embodiment or embodied pedagogy.

McElheran, B. (2004). Conducting technique for beginners and professionals. New York:

Oxford University Press.

McElheran’s Conducting Technique is a handbook written for choral and instrumental conductors to assist them with conducting skill. Included are suggestions for improving beat pattern, movement, and gestures. Despite the book’s focus and detailed descriptions of technique and movement, there are no specific discussions related to embodiment or embodied pedagogies related to conducting.

Meier, G. (2009). The score, the orchestra, and the conductor. New York: Oxford

University Press.

In The Score, the Orchestra, and the Conductor, Meier provided information regarding the act of conducting, including beat pattern, preparatory beats, styles, various meters, changes in tempo and style, score study, and orchestra specific techniques, such as oratorio and orchestration. The book also contains information for administering an

215 orchestral program, including seating charts and rehearsal techniques. The book does not mention any embodied methodologies.

Neuen, D. (2002). Choral concepts: A text for conductors. Boston: Cengage Learning.

Choral Concepts is a text for future and practicing choral conductors that details various aspects of administering a school or professional choral program. Within, Neuen details singing and vocal technique, the history of American choral singing and American choral sound, error detection, warm-ups, diction, score study, and rehearsal flow. There is a discussion about conducting technique, but it is a relatively small part of the text. There are no discussions about embodiment or embodied pedagogies.

Phillips, K. H. (2003). Directing the choral music program. New York: Oxford

University Press USA.

Phillips’ text is geared toward developing choral programs from elementary through adult and is used in music education choral methods courses. In addition to program building and rehearsal techniques, the text also features a section on choral conducting. The book does include discussions of movement and embodied pedagogies applicable to choral rehearsal, including Dalcroze Eurhythmics. However, there are no discussions regarding embodiment and conducting.

Rimsky-Korsakov, N. (1964). Principles of Orchestration. New York: Dover

Publications Inc.

One of the first textbooks of its kind, Principles of Orchestration was written by Rimsky- Korsakov in the 1890s to help composition students and composers learn his system and attitude related to orchestration. The book is not only valuable as a historical artifact, but can be useful for conductors for learning about scoring, colors, and timbres. As a composer of both orchestral and sacred choral music for the Orthodox Church, the Rimsky-Korsakov provides information for both instrumental and choral composers and conductors. There are no discussions about conducting nor embodiment.

Rosenbaum, H. (2017). A practical guide to choral conducting. New York: Routledge.

Rosenbaum’s work discusses practical issues related to being a choral conductor in various situations, including school, university, professional, church, and community choruses. The book is meant for both undergraduate and graduate choral conducting students. Within, Rosenbaum discusses the philosophical underpinnings of being a choral conductor, recruitment, choosing repertoire, common mistakes, conducting technique,

216 ensemble placement, and rehearsal technique. There is a discussion of embodied methodology within the text, specifically, developing conducting technique through the practice of kinesthetics.

Rudolf, M. (1994). The grammar of conducting: A comprehensive guide to baton

technique and interpretation (3rd ed.). New York: Schirmer Books.

Rudolf’s Grammar of Conducting is a book written for the training of orchestral conductors and is used within undergraduate and graduate level conductor education. The book contains an extensive explanation of beat pattern, style, rehearsal techniques, and performance practice. Of note, there is also a section related to conducting style associated with specific composers. There are no discussions related to embodied learning or techniques.

Rush, S. (2006). Habits of a successful band director. Chicago: GIA Publications.

Habits of a successful band director is a text dedicated to the non-musical aspects of being a band director in the K-12 school setting. The book features valuable information about recruitment, budgets, parent communication, and concert planning. There are no discussions about conducting itself nor is there any mention of embodiment.

Scherschen, H. (1978). Handbook of conducting. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press.

Scherschen’s Handbook of Conducting was the first known written text dedicated to conductor education. It was meant for orchestral conductors. There is no mention of movement or embodied methods in the text outside of basic conducting technique such as patterns and cues.

Schuller, G. (1997). The complete conductor. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

The Complete Conductor is less of a textbook and more of a description and critique of the profession of conducting. Schuller offers a discourse on the philosophy of conducting, a history of the practice, and a discussion about various commonly played orchestral works. However, there are no descriptions or discussion related to embodied learning in the book.

Schwiebert, J. & Barr, D. (2018). Expressive conducting: Movement and performance

theory for conductors. New York: Routledge.

217 Jerald Schwiebert is a movement and performance expert and Professor Emeritus at the University of Michigan, where he taught movement performance in the disciplines of music, theatre, and dance. His book Expressive Conducting is perhaps the text written about conducting that has the most discussion related to embodiment and conducting to date. Within the book, the author discusses movement and expression, and specifically, how conductors can use their bodies to demonstrate expression to an ensemble. The book also invokes embodied pedagogies in the learning of conducting, including Laban and principles of Tai Chi. The text can be useful for undergraduates, graduates, and professional conductors. In the present list of conducting texts, Expressive Conducting addresses embodiment in conducting in perhaps the most detail.

Sparks, R. (2019). The conductor’s toolbox. Chicago: GIA Publications.

Sparks’ book is meant for professional and aspiring choral conductors and uses research from the disciplines of education and psychology to suggest useful rehearsal and performance strategies. Of note, Sparks parallels coaching sports to teaching music. There are no discussions of embodiment or conducting through embodied methods.

Spradling, R. (2010). Error detection: Exercises for the Instrumental Conductor. New

York: Carl Fisher.

Error Detection is a practical text for training students’ ability to hear errors during rehearsal. The work includes a CD with 54 examples as well as PDF files of all written parts in the examples. Aspects of the system were developed from research literature, and the author piloted the method in conducting courses at three universities. There are no discussions of conducting technique or embodied methods within the text.

Stith, G. (2011). Score and rehearsal preparation: A realistic approach for instrumental

conductors. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications.

Stith’s text is written to help band and orchestral conductors prepare scores for rehearsal and performance. Stith provides a suggested step-by-step procedure for preparing a score and making a rehearsal plan based on the score preparation. There are no discussions about conducting technique or embodiment.

Wagner, S. (2016) The pursuit of excellence: A band director’s guide to success. Delray

Beach, FL: Meredith Music Publications.

218 The text The Pursuit of Excellence focuses on program building, rehearsal technique, and contest preparation in middle and high school band programs. Also included in the text is valuable information about budgets, saving money while purchasing and repairing instruments, and discussions regarding assessment in the ensemble classroom. The book does not discuss conducting, nor does it mention embodiment or embodied pedagogies.

Wigglesworth, M. (2019). The silent musician Why conducting matters. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press.

Wigglesworth’s book is billed as “neither an instruction manual nor a history of conducting” (Wigglesworth, 2019, back cover). Instead, the book is an exploration of philosophy and undertakings related to conducting. There is a section dedicated to movement and how conductors shape music through gesture. The book does not contain any discussion about embodiment or embodied pedagogy.

Williamson, J. E. (2008). Rehearsing the Band. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music

Publications.

Rehearsing the Band is a collection of chapters written by wind band luminaries such as Frank Battisti, Eugene Corporon, Donald Hunsberger, Craig Kirchhoff, H. Robert Reynolds, and John Whitwell. In each chapter, the individual conductor discusses how he or she rehearses an ensemble, including warm-ups, rehearsal pacing, and breaking down pieces of music for rehearsal. There is no mention of conducting technique nor embodiment.

Wittry, D. (2014). Baton basics: Communicating music through gestures. New York:

Oxford University Press.

Baton Basics was designed to help conductors improve their body positioning, gesture, and conducting technique. It has information relevant for band, choral, and orchestral conductors. The text has very detailed descriptions and instructions for various physical aspects of conducting, including motion, speed, and weight of conducting gesture and movement. However, the book does not mention any specific embodied methods or techniques.

219 APPENDIX B

LETTERS OF COOPERATION, IRB PROTOCALS, AND CONSENT DOCUMENTS

4 3F

4 This dissertation had a different title when I obtained letters of cooperation.

220

221 [USE THIS SOCIAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND EDUCATIONAL PROTOCOL TEMPLATE IF YOUR PROJECT INCLUDES SURVEY, INTERVIEWS, FOCUS GROUPS OR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ACTIVITIES WITH NO BIOMEDICAL/CLINICAL COMPONENTS].

INSTRUCTIONS: 1. Use this template to prepare a document with the information from the following sections. 2. Depending on the nature of what you are doing, some sections may not be applicable to your research. Do not delete any sections or questions, including italicized text. Mark “N/A” if sections do not apply. 3. When you write a protocol, keep an electronic copy. You will need to modify this copy when making changes.

PROTOCOL TITLE: An investigation of embodied movement systems within undergraduate conducting coursework.

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Nathan Kruse Music Education 216-368-0675 [email protected]

UH FACULTY ADVISOR: N/A If the principal investigator’s primary role at UH is resident, fellow or student, identify a faculty advisor. Name Primary Department Telephone Number Email Address

OTHER DEPARTMENTS INVOLVED IN THIS STUDY (IF APPLICABLE): N/A

VERSION NUMBER: Include the version number of this protocol if assigned by an outside entity.

DATE: 9/27/18

222

Objectives

1. Describe the purpose, specific aims, or objectives. 2. State the hypotheses to be tested.

The purpose of this multiple instrumental case study is to examine the use of movement systems in undergraduate-level conducting classes. A specific focus will be placed on the perspectives of conductor educators who employ movement systems in their conducting classes, and on the experiences of students who are enrolled in these classes. The following questions will guide this research: Research Questions 5. What aspects of Dalcroze Eurhythmics do conductor educators incorporate into their conducting curriculum? 6. How do conductor educators incorporate Eurhythmics into their conducting courses? 7. Why do conductor educators choose to incorporate Eurhythmics into their conducting curriculum? 8. What are conducting students’ perceptions of learning conducting through Eurhythmics?

Background 1. Describe the relevant prior experience and gaps in current knowledge describing how it will add to existing knowledge. 2. Describe any relevant preliminary data.

Please add relevant references at the end of the protocol, not at the end of this section.

To help develop students’ gestures as well as expressive conducting, some conductor educators have incorporated Dalcroze Eurhythmics in their conducting classes. Scholarship in practitioner-level journals has addressed the use of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in conductor education (Dickson, 1992; McCoy, 1994) as well as basic examinations of Eurhythmics in various schools’ conducting classes (Meints, 2014). However, there is no known research regarding the use of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in conducting classes from an empirical or investigatory perspective. There is no empirical data about the use of Eurhythmics in conducting curricula. This study will address the lack of research by describing the use of Dalcroze Eurhythmics in conducting classes.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria 1. Describe how individuals will be screened for eligibility.

223 2. Describe the criteria that define who will be included in your final study sample. Inclusion 1. Music faculty members who teach undergraduate-level conducting courses at 4- year institutions 2. Music faculty who incorporate Dalcroze Eurhythmics into their conducting coursework. 3. Student participants will be undergraduate music majors enrolled in the conducting course 4.

3. Describe the criteria that define who will be excluded in your final study sample. Exclusion 1. Students who are under 18 2. Students who are enrolled in observed conducting courses who do not consent 3. 4.

Number of Research Participants 1. Indicate the target number of research participants to be accrued locally. 2. If this is a multi-site study, indicate the total number of research participants to be accrued across all sites.

This research will examine two conducting faculty at two separate schools and ideally four student participants at each site

Vulnerable Populations 1. Indicate specifically if you will include each of the following special populations by checking the appropriate box: ☐ Adults unable to consent ☐ Minors (infants, children, teenagers) ☐ Wards of the state ☐ Foster Children ☐ Pregnant Women ☐ Neonates ☐ Neonates of Uncertain Viability ☐ Employees of CWRU or UHHS ☐ Prisoners ☐ Illiterate Individuals ☐ Non-English Speaking ☒ University Students

2. If the research involves individuals that are included in a vulnerable population, describe the additional safeguards included to protect the rights and welfare of

224 the individuals for each population indicated.

3. If excluding pregnant women, illiterate or non-English speaking individuals, provide a scientific rationale for the exclusion. Inconvenience or cost is not an acceptable rationale.

Participants will not be identified and will be assigned pseudonyms to protect their anonymity. A hard-copy master list with pseudonyms will exist with contact data and real names. Only researchers will have access to this document, which will be kept locked in a key-locked cabinet inside of a locked building. All email correspondence will occur via email addresses typed into the BCC field. All electronic data, such as interview transcripts, observation reports, and collected materials will either use pseudonyms or have identifying information redacted. These documents will be stored in CWRU Box.

Recruitment Methods 1. Describe the source of the research participants. 2. Describe the methods that will be used to identify potential research participants. 3. Justify the feasibility of recruiting the required number of suitable research participants within the agreed recruitment period. For example, how many potential research participants do you have access to? 4. Describe when, where, and how potential research participants will be recruited. 5. Describe materials that will be used to recruit research participants.

To find participants for this study, I will employ a type of purposeful sampling called critical case sampling (Patton, 2002). Critical case sampling is a type of sampling that identifies a single case or a small number of cases where a particular subject or practice happens. The sampling method can be used with the reasoning that “if it happens there, it will happen anywhere” (Patton, 2002, p. 236). The sampling strategy is implemented for unique cases (as in this study), or when there are limits to resources and the researcher selects the cases that would provide the most knowledge. Suri (2011) suggested that this type of sampling is particularly useful in determining the “viability of an educational program” or method (p. 6), which is the aim of the present study. Following institutional approval for this study (see below), the researchers will contact acquaintances and colleagues whom the researchers know teach conducting at the undergraduate level. Once the researchers identify potential participant conducting teachers and cases, the researchers will contact them through their publically available, institutional email addresses. Student participants will be undergraduate music education majors enrolled in the conducting course. Faculty participants will inform students of the study, and the researchers will video conference with each site for the recruitment process.

Setting

225 1. Describe the sites or locations where your research team will conduct the research. 2. Identify where your research team will identify and recruit potential research participants. 3. Identify the physical location where research procedures will be performed.

Research will be conducted at two separate participant sites. Participant sites will be colleges or universities that offer a bachelor’s degree in music, and requires music majors to take at least one semester of conducting coursework. Observations will occur within conducting course classrooms. Interviews will occur in a room within the music building at each site and will be reserved for interviews in accordance with the participant site schools’ facilities procedures.

Consent Process Indicate whether you will be obtaining consent: ☒ Yes ☐ No

If yes describe: 1. Where the consent process will take place 2. Any waiting period available between informing the prospective subject and obtaining the consent 3. Any process to ensure ongoing consent 4. The role of the individuals listed in the application as being involved in the consent process 5. The time that will be devoted to the consent discussion 6. Steps that will be taken to minimize the possibility of coercion or undue influence 7. Steps that will be taken to ensure the research participants’ understanding

After agreeing to participate in the study, conducting faculty participants will submit their consent forms directly to the researchers, either in person or through mail. Faculty participants will inform students of the study, and distribute consent forms to each student. Consent forms will explain the study, outline participants rights, provide information about the researcher, and ask students for contact information, including student email addresses. Additionally, the researchers will video conference with each site for the recruitment process. Each participant will complete and submit a consent document before the researchers collect any data from them. For sites that the researchers do not recruit in-person, participating students will submit their consent forms to a volunteer, such as a non-participating graduate student or faculty member at the institutional site in a pre-paid, pre-addressed researcher-provided envelope. The non- participating volunteer will then mail the envelope back.

Waiver or Alteration of Consent Process or Documentation (consent will not be obtained, written consent will not be documented) Indicate which part of the consent process you are requesting be waived or altered:

226 ☐ I will obtain consent, but not participant’s signature ☐ I will obtain consent, but request a waiver for pre-screening purposes ☐ I will obtain consent, but request a waiver of some of the elements of consent (e.g. use of deception) ☐ I will not obtain consent, and I am requesting a full waiver of consent

 Give the rationale for the request of a waiver or alteration of the consent process or documentation.  If you will obtain consent, but not document consent in writing (e.g. over the phone, verbally, electronic survey, etc.), please describe and provide a rationale. Describe how you will be documenting that a research participant has consented

Be sure to upload a consent script or information sheet with your study protocol

N/A

Additional Considerations for Consent Process with Adults Non English Speakers 1. If research participants who do not speak English will be enrolled, describe the process to ensure that the oral and written information provided to those research participants will be in that language during initial consent as well as throughout the study. Indicate the language that will be used by those obtaining consent. 2. List the language(s) other than English that will be included.

Adults Unable to Consent 1. Describe the process to determine whether an individual is capable of consent. 2. List the individuals from whom permission will be obtained in order of priority (e.g. durable power of attorney for health care, court appointed guardian for health care decisions, spouse, and adult child). a. For research conducted outside of the state, provide information that describes which individuals are authorized under applicable law to consent on behalf of a prospective subject to their participation in the procedure(s) involved in the research. 3. Describe the process for assent of the research participants. Indicate whether: a. Which subjects that are unable to consent will be required to give assent? If not all, explain why. b. Describe whether assent of the research participants will be documented and the process to document assent. N/A

Research Participants Who Are Not Yet Adults (infants, children, teenagers) 1. Will parental permission be obtained from:

227 ☐ One parent even if the other parent is alive, known, competent, reasonably available, and shares legal responsibility for the care and custody of the child or ☐ Both parents unless one parent is deceased, unknown, incompetent, or not reasonably available, or when only one parent has legal responsibility for the care and custody of the child ☐ Waiver of parental permission

2. Describe whether permission will be obtained from individuals other than parents, and if so, who will be allowed to provide permission. Describe the process used to determine these individuals’ authority to consent to each child’s participation in research. 3. Indicate whether assent will be obtained from all, some, or none of the children. If assent will be obtained from some children, indicate which children will be required to assent. 4. When assent of children is obtained describe how it will be documented. N/A

Sharing of Results with Research Participants Describe whether results (study results or individual subject results such as results of investigational diagnostic tests, genetic tests, or incidental findings) will be shared with the research participants or others (e.g. the subject’s primary care physicians) and if so, describe how the results will be shared.

☒ Results will not be shared with research participants Study Design, Procedures and Timeline 1. Describe and explain the study design. 2. Provide a description of all study-related research procedures being performed including procedures being performed to monitor research participants for safety or minimize risks, if applicable. 3. Describe: a. Procedures performed to lessen the probability or magnitude of risks b. The source records, including medical or educational records, that will be used to collect data about subjects In this study, the researchers will observe the practices of conducting educators who incorporate movement pedagogies into their conducting classes, and will explore the perceptions of the students who participate in them. The movement pedagogy that the participants in the study incorporate is Dalcroze Eurhythmics. The current study will be driven by a multiple instrumental case study design, as it details the practices and methods of multiple conducting educators who incorporate Eurhythmics into their courses. Multiple cases would be beneficial for understanding how each different system works in multiple locations. The multiple case study design is appropriate for this research, because multiple cases would yield a large amount of useful data related to the incorporation of movement systems into conducting classes.

228 Furthermore, this study is instrumental in nature, as the researchers will be observing a specific phenomenon: the incorporation of movement systems into conducting curricula. This research will include the perspectives of undergraduate conducting students and their respective conductor educators. The researchers will select participants and collect data using Stake’s (2006) methods for designing and performing a multiple case study. For the current study, all participants will be aware of objectives for the research, as well as the procedures that the researchers will undertake during it. While observing conducting classrooms, the researchers will observe in a manner that is inconspicuous and that minimizes interference with the classroom environment. To do so, the researchers will sit or remain somewhere in the periphery of the physical room, and not interact with the teacher or students. The researchers will conduct interviews in a private setting away from distractions or other participants in the study. The researchers will inform students that the researchers will not share their answers and perceptions with their conducting faculty, so that they do not feel that their answers will affect their grade or their teacher’s opinion of them. With the intent of compiling as much information available from each bounded case, the researchers will collect varying data throughout the duration of the study. The sources that the researchers will collect include (a) individual interviews, (b) observation field notes, (c) course documents, (d) participant journals, and (e) email communications. This information will be collected within the last few weeks of each participant sites’ Fall 2018 semester through the first weeks of each sites’ Spring, 2019 semester. Interviews For the current study, the researchers plan to interview conductor educators and their respective students. As part of this procedure, the researchers will interview each conductor educator participant twice. Interviews will occur once before or in the beginning part of the conducting course where they teach using Eurhythmics, and once after they have completed instruction. Regarding student participants, each student participant will be interviewed after completion of instruction. Each interview will be approximately 1 hour. The researchers plan to record each interview on both a Samsung Galaxy S8 phone and a Zoom H1 digital recorder. The researchers also will take notes by hand during each interview, and then transfer handwritten notes to a Windows 10 based laptop in the hours following the interview. The researchers will use Temi AI cloud-based transcription software for interview transcription. During the interviews, the researchers will ask open-ended, semi-structured questions to conductor educators about their process in incorporating movement systems, the ways in which they do so, and the impact they perceive that movement systems have on their students’ development. The questions that the researchers ask students also will be open-ended and semi-structured. The questions will pertain to how students feel

229 when engaged in the movement systems, their comfort with conducting gestures and movement, and how they perceive the movement systems transfer to their conducting. Observation and Field Notes The researchers will observe two classes within each bounded case during instruction using Eurhythmics. During the class period, the researchers will record notes by hand, and type them later on a Windows 10 based laptop. Note taking procedure will be based on Creswell and Poth’s (2017) recommended observation protocol, and will include jottings and formal descriptions as Yin (2017) described. Notes will be as thorough as possible, and the researchers will provide detailed observations in descriptions and jottings (Emmerson, Fretz, & Shaw, 2011). To ensure that notes are as accurate and detailed, the researchers will read notes and add additional information following each observation. Course Documents The researchers will collect course syllabi and any conducting course handouts from each location. These items may provide additional information that may not emerge during participant interviews and field observations. These items will also help corroborate data that emerges in interviews and field observations (Bowen, 2009). Participant Journaling Student participants will complete three journal entries during data collection. The researchers will ask participants to complete a journal entry once per week for three weeks while conductor educators are teaching Eurhythmics. The journals prompts will be open-ended to elicit a variety of responses from participants. Email Communication Each participant will receive emails throughout the process. These emails will include communication regarding observation and interview schedules, general discussions, clarification, and communication regarding trustworthiness and other study-related concerns. Email communication from participants could provide additional information and insights from participants that might not emerge in interviews, observations, or journals.

ClinicalTrials.gov Information Has this study been registered on ClinicalTrials.gov? ☐ Yes. Provide the following:

1. The ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: 2. Investigator/sponsor responsible for registering:

☒ No. Explain if there are plans to register or why registration is not required

230 (i.e., the study is not NIH funded, registration is in process, or does not meet the definition of a clinical trial)

This is not a clinical trial

List of Data to be Collected 1. Indicate what identifiers you will collect ☒ Name ☐ Address ☐ Dates related to an individual (e.g., Date of admission, birth, surgery, etc.) ☐ Telephone number ☐ Fax number ☒ Email address ☐ Social security number ☐ Medical record number ☐ Health plan beneficiary number ☐ Account number ☐ Certificate/license number ☐ Any vehicle or other device serial ☐ Device identifiers or serial numbers ☐ Web URL ☐ Internet protocol (IP) address ☐ Finger or voice prints ☐ Photographic images ☐ Other: Any characteristic that would uniquely identify the individual

2. List all other data to be collected for the research study (e.g. laboratory values, physician notes, length of stay, etc.).

Data Analysis Plan  Describe the data analysis plan, including any statistical procedures. Provide a power analysis if applicable.

Before the researchers begin data analysis, the researchers will convert all recorded audio to text through Temi AI cloud-based transcription service. All collected data will then be organized and converted into text-based documents into .docx format in Word 2016. The researchers will then transfer all data to NVivo 11 software. Within NVivo, the researchers will analyze and code all data from interviews, observations, handouts, journal entries, and emails. From this data, the researchers will find emergent codes that apply to one bounded case or that apply to multiple or all cases (Saldaña, 2016). The coding process that the researchers will use will begin with initial coding using In Vivo codes. In Vivo codes are codes based on the actual words and responses that participants provide in interviews, observations, documents, and correspondences

231 (Saldaña, 2016). Following the initial round of coding, the researchers will then recode the data using focused coding, a process that identifies the most “frequent or significant codes” from the data (Saldaña, 2016, p. 240). The goal of both rounds of coding will be to find themes within the data (Ryan & Bernard, 2003). The data in this study also will be analyzed within each bounded case first, and then analyzed as a whole across all cases. After analyzing each bounded case individually using the previously described coding procedure, the researchers will employ Stake’s (2006) cross-case analysis process to ascertain any themes that apply to multiple or all of the cases. The goal of cross-case analysis is to find themes or ideas that are present in all of the cases studied.

Confidentiality of Data  To maintain the confidentiality of the data: ☒ I will use a unique study identifier (not derived from the participants personal identifiers) to code individuals’ data and I will store this ID log separate from study data. ☐ Other (please explain)

 How are you storing your electronic data? ☐ UH Redcap ☐ CWRU Redcap ☐ Secure Research Environment (SRE) ☒ CWRU Box ☐ OnCore ☐ UH Secure Network Drive ☐ CWRU Secure Network Drive ☐ Other - List storage method and provide justification:

 ☒ I acknowledge that paper research data and documents will be stored in a double- locked secure environment in the following location: Location: In a locked cabinet in Haydn Hall.

 If sharing data, describe: N/A  The exact data elements that will be shared  How data will be sent (Please note if sharing data, a Data Use Agreement (DUA) is required.

HIPAA Authorization

232 If you are going to be accessing PHI (Protected Health Information), indicate how HIPAA authorization will be obtained (check all that apply): ☐ HIPAA authorization is in the consent form ☐ Requesting a full or partial waiver of HIPAA for prescreening ☐ Requesting a full or partial waiver of HIPAA

1. Describe why the study cannot be completed without the specified identifiable information. 2. If the identifiable information will be used or disclosed by anyone other than the research team, please state who those individuals/entities are and provide justification for the disclosure. 3. Describe how long identifiers will be kept for in relation to study length and data collection and analysis.

☐ I assure that protected health information collected for purposes of this research study will not be reused or disclosed to any other person or entity, except as required by law, for authorized oversight of the research study, or for other research for which the use of disclosure of protected health information for which an authorization or opportunity to agree or object is not required by 45 CFR 164.512

N/A

Risks to Research Participants 1. List the reasonably foreseeable risks such as breach of confidentiality, discomforts, hazards, or inconveniences to the research participants related to their participation in the research. Include a description of the probability, magnitude, duration, and reversibility of the risks. Include the physical psychological, social, legal, and economic risks. 2. If applicable, indicate which experimental procedures may have risks to the research participants that are currently unforeseeable. 3. If applicable, indicate which procedures may have risks to an embryo or fetus should the research participant or their partner be or become pregnant. 4. If applicable, describe the risks to others who are not research participants. 5. Describe the availability of medical or psychological resources that research participants might need.

There are minimal risks to research participants in this study. The only foreseeable risks include embarrassment or discomfort in discussing classroom-related thoughts and opinions. These discomforts would likely be the most pronounced in data collected from student participants. To minimize risk, all collected data will be kept confidential and all participants will not be identified in an data reporting.

Provisions to Protect the Privacy Interests of Research Participants Describe the steps that will be taken to protect research participants’ privacy interests. (consider issues such as physical space, proximity to other, and participant preferences)

233

Participants will not be identified and will be assigned pseudonyms to protect their anonymity. A master list with real names linked to pseudonyms will be kept in a locked cabinet within a locked building, and will be the only document with identifiable information. The researchers will consistently contact and share data, emergent themes, and any other study related items with participants to check for accuracy and to make sure that their reported voice and opinions are truthful in the study data.

Potential Benefit to Research Participants 1. Describe the potential benefits that individual research participants may experience from taking part in the research. Include the probability, magnitude, and duration of the potential benefits. Indicate if there is no direct benefit. 2. If no direct benefit, state the potential benefit to society or others. Do not list compensation.

Participants will see no direct benefit from participation in this research. The field of conductor pedagogy will benefit from the knowledge and information ascertained in this study.

Withdrawal of Research Participants 1. Describe the anticipated circumstances under which research participants will be withdrawn from the research without their consent. 2. Describe the procedures that will be followed when research participants withdraw or are withdrawn from the research, including partial withdrawal from procedures with continued data collection.

If participants withdraw or are withdrawn from this research, any electronic data collected from or about them will be permanently deleted. Additionally, their real name and identifying information will be permanently redacted from the master list.

Alternatives to Participation 1. Please list, if applicable (e.g., comparable student assignments).

N/A

Costs to Research Participants ☒ There are no costs to research participants or their insurance companies – Please leave the rest of this section blank

1. If applicable, describe what costs the research participants will be responsible for because of participation in the research including but not limited to: transportation to study visits, parking for study visits, costs of procedures, lost, broken or stolen devices, costs of drugs or therapy, etc.

234 2. You must clearly state if insurance will be charged and who will be responsible if insurance does not pay. 3. List what research procedures and research interventions will be covered by this study.

Research Participant Compensation ☒ There is no compensation for research participants – please leave rest of this section blank

1. Describe the schedule, payment method and payment total of any incentives or compensation that research participants will receive for participation in the research (e.g., gift cards or cash with amounts, t-shirts, devices, bags, swag, etc.) 2. Describe the schedule, payment method and payment total of any reimbursements that research participants will receive for participation in research (e.g., parking, mileage, meals, etc.)

Compensation for Research Related Injury Describe who will pay for the costs of medical treatment and/or compensation in the event of a research related injury: ☐ Funding agency is providing some/all payment for injury ☐ Funding agency is providing no payment for injury ☒ Not applicable

Provisions to Monitor the Data to Ensure the Safety of Research Participants 1. Describe the Data and Safety Monitoring Plan for the proposed study. Describe how often the data will be monitored for completeness, accuracy and adherence to the protocol. 2. Is there a formal Data and Safety Monitoring Board/Committee? If yes, provide information about the DSMB/C including the contact information of the committee member(s) (as applicable); whether it is independent from the study sponsor; how often it meets; the type of data that will be used; written reports, etc.

Community-Based Participatory Research ☒ This is not a community-based participatory research project – please leave rest of this section blank

If applicable, describe the involvement of the community in the design and conduct of the research. Note: Community based research is research that is conducted as an equal partnership between academic investigators and members of a community. In Community Based Participatory Research (CBPR) protects, the community participates fully in all aspects of the research process.

235 MULTI-SITE RESEARCH (when UH or CWRU is the IRB of Record) Does this project have multiple sites? ☐ Yes ☒ No

Non-Local Site Information for Multi-Site Studies If this is a multi-site study where you are the lead investigator, list the following information for each relying site: 1. Name of site: 2. PI of relying site: 3. Name of IRB contact: 4. Phone number of IRB contact: 5. Email address of IRB contact:

Non-Local Recruitment Methods for Multi-Site Studies If this is a multi-site study and research participants will be recruited by methods not under the control of the local site (e.g. call centers, national advertisements) describe those methods. Local recruitment methods are described above. 1. Describe when, where, and how potential research participants will be recruited. 2. Describe the methods that will be used to identify potential research participants. 3. Describe the materials that will be used to recruit research participants. Multi-Site Research Communication Plan (when you are the lead investigator) If this is a multi-site study where you are the lead investigator, describe the processes to ensure communication among sites including: 1. All sites will have the most current version of the protocol, consent document, and HIPAA authorization 2. All required approvals (initial, continuing review and modifications) have been obtained at each site (including approval by the site’s IRB of record) 3. All modifications have been communicated to sites, and approved (including approval of the site’s IRB of record) before the modification is implemented 4. All engaged participating sites will safeguard data, including secure transmission of data, as required by local information security policies 5. All local site investigators conduct the study in accordance with applicable federal regulations and local laws 6. All non-compliance with the study protocol or applicable requirements will be reported in accordance with local policy If this is a multi-site study where you are the lead investigator, describe the method for communicating to engaged participant sites:  Problems  Interim results  The closure of the study

Devices  If the research involves device(s), describe your plans to use the device(s).

236 This research will utilize audio recording. Each observation and interview will be recorded concurrently on a ZOOM HI audio recording device and a Samsung Galaxy S8 smartphone. Audio will be transcribed immediately after interviews using TEMI AI cloud-based transcription software. After transcription and error correction, both audio files will be permanently deleted. All participant names used in the transcription will be pseudonyms rather than real names to protect anonymity.

Additional Information If you have any additional information regarding your study not covered in the template, please include it here.

References Please reference the Investigator Manual for local institutional requirements.

237

INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENT AN INVESTIGATION OF EMBODIED MOVEMENT SYSTEMS IN UNDERGRADUATE CONDUCTING CURRICULA

You are being asked to participate in a research study about the use of specific movement systems within undergraduate level conducting courses. You were selected as a possible participant because you are an instructor who incorporates Dalcroze Eurhythmics into conducting courses. Please read this form and ask any questions that you may have before agreeing to be in the research.

Researchers at Case Western Reserve University are conducting this study.

Purpose The purpose of this research is to observe and find information regarding the use of movement in undergraduate conducting courses.

Procedures If you agree to be a participant in this research, we would ask you to do the following things: be observed during class participation; participate in two one-on-one interviews that will last for about a half hour each; complete three journal entries over the course of three weeks (once per week); engage in email correspondence with the researcher during the weeks of data collection and the following weeks during data analysis.

You can choose to stop participating for any reason at any time. However, if you decide to stop participating in the study, we encourage you to tell the researchers. You may be asked if you are willing to complete some study termination activities.

Foreseeable Risks and Discomforts There are no known risks, harms or discomforts associated with this study beyond those encountered in normal daily life. Some of the activities we will ask you to complete might make you feel uncomfortable. You may refuse to answer any of the questions, take a break, or stop your participation in this study at any time. The possible risks and/or discomforts associated with the procedures described in this study include anxiety in recalling episodes in class; discomfort in answering questions about yourself; discomfort in answering questions about or discussing the class instructor.

Anticipated Benefits You will not directly benefit from participation in this study. This study will provide a greater understanding about the use of movement within undergraduate level conducting classes, as well as conductor education as a whole.

238 Compensation There will be no costs to you for study participation. You will not be compensated for your participation in this research study.

Voluntary Nature of the Study Your participation is voluntary. If you choose not to participate, it will not affect your current or future relations with Case Western Reserve University, your institution, or the researcher. There is no penalty or loss of benefits for not participating or for discontinuing your participation.

You are free to withdraw from this study at any time. If you decide to withdraw from this study, you should notify the researcher immediately. The researcher may also end your participation in this study if you do not follow instructions, miss scheduled visits, or if your safety or welfare are at risk.

If you withdraw or are removed from the study, the researcher may ask you if you are interested in continuing long-term follow-up procedures.

If you elect to withdraw or are withdrawn from this research study, the researchers will discuss with you what they intend to do with your study data. Researchers may choose to analyze the study data already collected or they may choose to exclude your data from the analysis of study data and destroy it, as per your request.

Confidentiality The records of this research will be kept confidential. Any time information is collected, there is a potential risk for loss of confidentiality. Every effort will be made to keep your information confidential; however, this cannot be guaranteed.

In any sort of report we might publish, we will not include any information that will make it possible to identify a participant. Research records will be kept in a locked file and access will be limited to the researchers, the University review board responsible for protecting human participants.

All information that identifies you will be removed and replaced with a code. A list linking the code and your identifiable information will be kept separate from the research data. Personal Identifiers will be kept so that the researcher can contact you throughout the duration of the study. All codes and identifying information will be destroyed two years after the completion of the study.

Data Storage Research data will be maintained in a secure location at CWRU. Only authorized individuals will have access to it.

239 Research data will be stored electronically in an encrypted file and is password protected.

The audio/video recordings that can identify you will be:  Stored in a secure location  Transcribed and erased as soon as possible  The recordings will be retained with the other research data for two years after the completion of the study.

Data Retention

The researcher intends to keep the research data:  Until analysis of the information is completed  Until the research is published and/or presented  For approximately 2 years

Contacts and Questions The researcher conducting this study is Nicholas J. Marzuola. You may ask any questions you have now. If you have any additional questions, concerns or complaints about the study, you may contact them at [email protected].

Additional questions may also be directed to the principal investigator for this study, Dr. Nathan Kruse, who can be reached at 216-368-0675 or [email protected].

If the researchers cannot be reached, or if you would like to talk to someone other than the researcher(s) about; (1) questions, concerns or complaints regarding this study, (2) research participant rights, (3) research-related injuries, or (4) other human subjects issues, please contact Case Western Reserve University's Institutional Review Board at (216) 368-4514 or write: Case Western Reserve University; Institutional Review Board; 10900 Euclid Ave.; Cleveland, OH 44106-7230.

You will be given a copy of this form for your records.

Permission to Record Audio/video recording is an integral part of this study. If you do not wish to be recorded, you should not elect to participate in this study.

 YES, I CONSENT to being audio/video recorded. I also understand that I can change my mind.

 NO, I DO NOT CONSENT to being audio/video recorded.

240 Statement of Consent

Your signature below certifies the following:  You are at least 18 years of age.  You have read (or been read) the information provided above.  You have received answers to all of your questions and have been told who to call if you have any more questions.  You have freely decided to participate in this research.  You understand that you are not giving up any of your legal rights.

Printed Name of Participant

Date:

Signature of Participant:

Date:______Signature of Person Obtaining Consent:

241

INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENT AN INVESTIGATION OF EMBODIED MOVEMENT SYSTEMS IN UNDERGRADUATE CONDUCTING CURRICULA

You are being asked to participate in a research study about the use of specific movement systems within undergraduate level conducting courses. You were selected as a possible participant because you are a student enrolled in a class where the instructor incorporates Dalcroze Eurhythmics into the course. Please read this form and ask any questions that you may have before agreeing to be in the research.

Researchers at Case Western Reserve University are conducting this study.

Purpose The purpose of this research is to observe and find information regarding the use of movement in undergraduate conducting courses.

Procedures If you agree to be a participant in this research, we would ask you to do the following things: be observed during class participation; participate in two one-on-one interviews that will last for about a half hour each; complete three journal entries over the course of three weeks (once per week); engage in email correspondence with the researcher during the weeks of data collection and the following weeks during data analysis.

You can choose to stop participating for any reason at any time. However, if you decide to stop participating in the study, we encourage you to tell the researchers. You may be asked if you are willing to complete some study termination activities.

Foreseeable Risks and Discomforts There are no known risks, harms or discomforts associated with this study beyond those encountered in normal daily life. Some of the activities we will ask you to complete might make you feel uncomfortable. You may refuse to answer any of the questions, take a break, or stop your participation in this study at any time. The possible risks and/or discomforts associated with the procedures described in this study include anxiety in recalling episodes in class; discomfort in answering questions about yourself; discomfort in answering questions about or discussing the class instructor.

Anticipated Benefits You will not directly benefit from participation in this study. This study will provide a greater understanding about the use of movement within undergraduate level conducting classes, as well as conductor education as a whole.

242

Compensation There will be no costs to you for study participation. You will not be compensated for your participation in this research study.

Alternative(s) to Participation You have the option to not participate. All recorded classroom observation audio will be edited to erase your voice if you do not elect to participate.

Voluntary Nature of the Study Your participation is voluntary. If you choose not to participate, it will not affect your current or future relations with Case Western Reserve University, your institution, your instructor, or the researcher. There is no penalty or loss of benefits for not participating or for discontinuing your participation.

You are free to withdraw from this study at any time. If you decide to withdraw from this study, you should notify the researcher immediately. The researcher may also end your participation in this study if you do not follow instructions, miss scheduled visits, or if your safety or welfare are at risk.

If you withdraw or are removed from the study, the researcher may ask you if you are interested in continuing long-term follow-up procedures.

If you elect to withdraw or are withdrawn from this research study, the researchers will discuss with you what they intend to do with your study data. Researchers may choose to analyze the study data already collected or they may choose to exclude your data from the analysis of study data and destroy it, as per your request.

Confidentiality The records of this research will be kept confidential. Any time information is collected, there is a potential risk for loss of confidentiality. Every effort will be made to keep your information confidential; however, this cannot be guaranteed.

In any sort of report we might publish, we will not include any information that will make it possible to identify a participant. Research records will be kept in a locked file and access will be limited to the researchers, the University review board responsible for protecting human participants.

All information that identifies you will be removed and replaced with a code. A list linking the code and your identifiable information will be kept separate from the research data. Personal Identifiers will be kept so that the researcher can contact you throughout the duration of the study. All codes and identifying information will be destroyed two years after the completion of the study.

Data Storage

243 Research data will be maintained in a secure location at CWRU. Only authorized individuals will have access to it.

Research data will be stored electronically in an encrypted file and is password protected.

The audio/video recordings that can identify you will be:  Stored in a secure location  Transcribed and erased as soon as possible  The recordings will be retained with the other research data for two years after the completion of the study.

Data Retention

The researcher intends to keep the research data:  Until analysis of the information is completed  Until the research is published and/or presented  For approximately 2 years

Contacts and Questions The researcher conducting this study is Nicholas J. Marzuola. You may ask any questions you have now. If you have any additional questions, concerns or complaints about the study, you may contact him at [email protected].

Additional questions may also be directed to the principal investigator for this study, Dr. Nathan Kruse, who can be reached at 216-368-0675 or [email protected].

If the researchers cannot be reached, or if you would like to talk to someone other than the researcher(s) about; (1) questions, concerns or complaints regarding this study, (2) research participant rights, (3) research-related injuries, or (4) other human subjects issues, please contact Case Western Reserve University's Institutional Review Board at (216) 368-4514 or write: Case Western Reserve University; Institutional Review Board; 10900 Euclid Ave.; Cleveland, OH 44106-7230.

You will be given a copy of this form for your records.

Permission to Record Audio/video recording is an integral part of this study. If you do not wish to be recorded, you should not elect to participate in this study.

 YES, I CONSENT to being audio/video recorded. I also understand that I can change my mind.

 NO, I DO NOT CONSENT to being audio/video recorded.

244 Statement of Consent

Your signature below certifies the following:  You are at least 18 years of age.  You have read (or been read) the information provided above.  You have received answers to all of your questions and have been told who to call if you have any more questions.  You have freely decided to participate in this research.  You understand that you are not giving up any of your legal rights.

Printed Name of Participant

Date:

Signature of Participant:

Date: ______Signature of Person Obtaining Consent:

245 APPENDIX C

OPEN-ENDED SEMI-STRUCTURED QUESTIONS FOR CONDUCTOR

EDUCATORS

1. How do you implement Dalcroze Eurhythmics into your conducting classes?

2. What is your rationale for incorporating Dalcroze Eurhythmics?

3. What benefits do you perceive that your students experience in learning through

Dalcroze Eurhythmics?

4. What changes do you observe in students after incorporating Dalcroze

Eurhythmics instruction?

246 APPENDIX D

OPEN-ENDED SEMI-STRUCTURED QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS

1. What is your personal background in movement?

2. How comfortable do you feel with your own movement in conducting?

3. Multi-part question:

a. Do you perceive Dalcroze Eurhythmics helping with your conducting

movement, hurting your conducting movement, or neither?;

b. Why?

4. Multi-part question:

a. Do you think that Dalcroze Eurhythmics will help you learn conducting

movement over time?

b. Why/why not?

5. Can you describe your experiences in learning through Dalcroze Eurhythmics

within your conducting classes?

247 APPENDIX E

OBSERVATION FIELD NOTES

Frontier State University, Class Observation 1/9/19, 7:00 PM Syllabus discussions. The text of the class will be The Modern Conductor. Dr. Williams mentioned Malko exercises earlier in our interview. Interesting quote by Dr. Williams: “you need to know you” (seems focused on students finding their own bodies/movement/comfort) Class immediately turned to the body. Dr. Williams: “Everything is connected.” Spatial exercises, exploring space/area around the students. Dr. Williams: “you must be comfortable using all your space.” Hand and arm movements, timed Malko exercises. Students focusing on their bodily awareness, especially body parts and body articulation. Free movement exercises, Dr. Williams mentioned Dalcroze Eurhythmics to students. Dr. Williams: “Use your hands to show the music.” Encouraged them to show different interpretations. 21:00 into class/recording: Josh is clearly very comfortable. He’s moving freely. April and other student seem more apprehensive. Facial features also indicate this. 22:30 Dr. Williams asks students to react to dynamics any way they want. Josh is clearly into this exercise. 24:15 Dr. Williams discusses mood and how mood can affect conducting. Practiced feeling in body, to upper body only, to arms, to hands, to face. Transfer of feeling. Pass the Beat. Students obviously experienced this before. Having trouble locking into the beat in 6/8. 4/4 exercise easier. 37:00 Dr. Williams discussed how this exercise is linked to cues Dr. Williams: Feel the weight. Stressed the importance of downbeat. 45:30 Pass the Ball. This seems to be working on preps and timing. ***Students are constantly putting the beat somewhere in their bodies!*** Is this because they are used to Dalcroze in band? So cool.

248 Rivers University, Class Observation 1/16/19, 11:00 AM Class started w/impulse conducting. Students prepping and cuing on “ta” Dr. Hansen: “Conduct in 3 different ways” …students are already working on improv! Dr. Hansen introduces Ave Verum Corpus. Plastique animée! Some students are clearly into it, and are really moving Others are clearly in small personal boxes. Not using a lot of space/moving with freedom Dr. Hansen is guiding student language and knowledge. Students giving good answers (check transcript for this discussion) Groups work on plastiques. Unfortunately, I can’t hear what they are saying. However, I can see a lot of interaction and trying different tactics/movements/ideas. Dr. Hansen said to me “It’s fun watching them improv” about their gesturing. ***IS PLASTIQUE ANIMEE THE ANSWER? THE MISSING LINK?!?! I THINK SO!***

1/23/19, 11:00 AM Error Detection Bach chorale. Singing through different SATB parts Moving hand with the bass part. No pattern. This is a mini plastique Students showing some apprehension/stiffness Move to Alto Dr. Hansen: “Be compelling” with your gesture Students practice plastiques Group of 4, Rachel, Felix, Michael, Other Started facing each other Fluid arm movements All move forward at building tension Kneel at reduction in energy.

249

Group of 3, Tara, Frankie, Other Bounced Hands with Pulse Leaned as the energy built Bigger arms in fifth formation All knelt at the cadence. Started kneeling with the ritardando towards the end.

250

251 After Plastique Discussion Michael: “I felt a bond” Rachel likened it/remember children’s eurhythmics learning in general music class. This was more in-depth Dr. Hansen: “Dalcroze was the archetypal Eurhythmitian”

252 APPENDIX F

WEEKLY JOURNAL PROMPTS

Email Prompts, Week 1

1. Did you perceive that Dalcroze Eurhythmics influenced your conducting this

week?

If yes, explain how; if no, explain what other ideas or concepts that you

perceived influenced your conducting movement.

2. How did you feel about your conducting movement and gestures this week?

3. Describe your confidence, or self-efficacy, as a conductor.

Email Prompts, Week 2

1. Did you perceive that Dalcroze Eurhythmics influenced your conducting this

week?

If yes, explain how; if no, explain what other ideas or concepts that you

perceived influenced your conducting movement.

2. How did you feel about your conducting movement and gestures this week?

3. What is your personal definition of gesturing while conducting? How do you/will

you perform gestures while conducting?

Email Prompts, Week 3

1. Can you describe your experiences in learning through Dalcroze Eurhythmics

within your conducting classes?

253 2. Do you think that Dalcroze Eurhythmics will help you develop conducting

movement over time? Why/why not?

3. Do you plan to conduct as part of a future job (for example, as an ensemble

teacher)? How do you think that what you are learning in conducting class will

influence your conducting on the job?

254 APPENDIX G

IN VIVO CODES WITH FOCUSED CODE CATEGORIES

Focused Coding Key C=Confidence/Comfort B=Body Awareness M=Musicality G=Gesture

A great fit musically (M) Connections (M) A reaction to hearing the music (M) Continue to improve (C) Accent and beat pattern (M, G) Contour (M) Accurate (M, G) Control over what is going on (C, B, M) Arms (B, G) Convey how I imagine the music (B, M, Arms and face (B) G) Artistic way to show music (M) Coordinate various parts of the body (B) Artistry (M) Cues (M, G) Aware (B, M) Cuing (M, G) Awareness of space (B, G) Dalcroze (M) Beat (M) Dalcroze games (G) Beat exercises (M, G) Dichords (M) Become expressive (C, B, M, G) Downbeat (M, G) Benefit my conducting (C) Dynamics (M) Better picture of what I want (M) Ear (C, B, M) Body (B) Embodied in your body (B, M, G) Body awareness (B) Embodied knowledge (B, M) Body is an instrument (B, M) Embodied pedagogy (B, M) Breathe (B, G) Embody beat (B, M) Breathing (B, G) Embody the score (B, M, G) Bring out of the score (M, G) Embodying time (B, M, G) Choreography (B, G) Empowering the body (C, B, G) Clap (B, G) Energy (M) Comfort zone (C) Eurhythmitian (M) Comfortable (C) Exercises (B, M, G) Comfortable with our bodies (C, B) Experiential (C, B, M, G) Communicate the rebound (M, G) Express themselves (C, B, M, G) Communicate with the cue (M, G) Expressing physically (C, B, M, G) Conduct based on the way it feels (B, M, Expressivity (M, G) G) Feel (B) Conducting (C, B, M, G) Feel for how much space (B) Confident as a conductor (C) Feel free to move (C, B, G) Connected to the music (M) Feel it though your body more (B, G) Connection to movement (B, M) Feel more comfortable (C) Connection to the floor (B, M) Feel rhythm (B, M)

255 Feel the beat (B, M) Move your arms (B, G) Feel the downbeat (B, M, G) Moved (B) Feel the music (B, M) Movement (B) Feel the pulse (B, M, G) Moving (B) Feel the push and pull of the music (B, Natural (C) M) Natural fit (C, M) Feeling a bond (B, M) Natural movement (C, B, M) Feeling it in a different part of your body Opinions about the music (C, M, G) (B) Pattern (M, G) Feeling pulse inside the body (B) Phrasing (M) Feeling the beat (B, M, G) Physical relation to the beat (B, M, G) Fixed-Do (M) Picture the movement of the music (M, Focus on other parts of my conducting G) (C) Plastique Animée (B, M, G) Focused (C, B) Playful (C) Free movement (B, M, G) Portray my body (B) Fun (C) Preparation (G) Fundamentals (M) Preparatory beat (M, G) Gain an interest and enjoyment (C) Proficient (C) Gain comfort with music making (C) Pulse (M, G) Get the music inside our bodies (C, M) Quality of motion (B, G) Gestural flexibility (G) Reacting to music (B, M) Gestural fluidity (G) Rebounds (G) Gestural rationale (G) Recognize changes in tonality (M) Gestures (G) Reflecting how the music sounds (M, G) Gestures come naturally (C, G) Rehearsal (M) Get a sense of the time signature (C, M, Relaxation (C, B) G) Relaxed (C, B,) Get the body moving (C, B) Represent everything in our movements Hands float high (B, G) (M, G) Helping me (C) Representing the music (M, G) Holistic approach to music education Respond to the harmony (M, G) (M) Responding to movement (M, G) Improvisation (M) Safe and healthy environment (C) Innate expressivity (M, B, G) Seeing the big picture (M) Internalize music (B, M) Sense of freedom and play (C) Interpretation (M) Show (G) Keep the pulse steady (M, G) Show everything in different parts of Knowing where the pulse is (M, G) your body (B, G) Listening to all parts of the score (M) Show the beats (B, M, G) Locked in (C) Show the music to someone else (B, M, Mental image (C, M) G) Mind (B) Show the phrasing (B, M, G) Mood (B) Show various things (B, M, G) Motions (B, G) Show volume differences (M, G) Move the body in time (B, M, G) Showing different styles (M, G)

256 Showing harmonic motion (M, G) Technique (G) Showing musical concepts (M, G) Think in a Dalcroze way (C, M, G) Showing the mood of the music (M, G) Thinking about the overall picture (M) Showing the music (M, G) Time (M) Showing with your body (B, M, G) Time-space-energy Dalcroze Triangle Smooth motion (G) (B, M, G) Solfège (M) Trace the melody (M, G) Something emotional (B, M) Translate to facial expression (B, M, G) Space (B) Uncomfortable (C) Space and energy around me (B) Varying the height (B, G) Strengthening me as a musician (C, M) Velocity in my hand (B, G) Students with discomfort (C) Whole body (B) Sustained motion (M, G)

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