CONDUCTING FROM THE : A TRADITION WORTH REVIVING? A STUDY IN PERFORMANCE

PRACTICE: MOZART’S PIANO IN C MINOR, K. 491

Eldred Colonel Marshall IV, B.A., M.M., M.M, M.M.

Dissertation Prepared for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS

May 2018

APPROVED:

Pamela Mia Paul, Major Professor David Itkin, Committee Member Jesse Eschbach, Committee Member Steven Harlos, Chair of the Division of Keyboard Studies Benjamin Brand, Director of Graduate Studies in the College of John W. Richmond, Dean of the College of Music Victor Prybutok, Dean of the Toulouse Graduate School

Marshall IV, Eldred Colonel. from the Piano: A Tradition Worth Reviving? A

Study in Performance Practice: Mozart’s in C minor, K. 491. Doctor of Musical

Arts (Performance), May 2018, 74 pp., bibliography, 43 titles.

Is conducting from the piano "real conducting?" Does one need formal orchestral conducting training in order to conduct classical-era piano from the piano? Do

Mozart piano concertos need a conductor? These are all questions this paper attempts to answer.

Copyright 2018

by

Eldred Colonel Marshall IV

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: A BRIEF HISTORY OF CONDUCTING FROM THE KEYBOARD ...... 1

CHAPTER 2. WHAT IS “REAL CONDUCTING?” ...... 6

CHAPTER 3. ARE CONDUCTORS NECESSARY IN MOZART PIANO CONCERTOS? ...... 13 Piano Concerto No. 9 in E-flat major, K. 271 “Jeunehomme” (1777) ...... 13 Piano Concerto No. 13 in C major, K. 415 (1782) ...... 23 Piano Concerto No. 20 in D minor, K. 466 (1785) ...... 25 Piano Concerto No. 24 in C minor, K. 491 (1786) ...... 33 Piano Concerto No. 27 in B-flat major, K. 595 (1791) ...... 44

CHAPTER 4. THE BENEFITS OF THE -CONDUCTOR ...... 54 Benefit 1: The Soloist becomes More Involved in the Score ...... 54 Benefit 2: The Invests More into the Score ...... 62 Benefit 3: The Unification of the Soloist and Conductor ...... 65

CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION ...... 68

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 72

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION: A BRIEF HISTORY OF CONDUCTING FROM THE KEYBOARD

Is conducting from the piano “real conducting?” Is this ‘outdated’ performance practice worth reviving? The historical context in which this paper attempts to answer these questions takes place between 1777 and 1808: from Mozart’s Piano Concerto No. 9 in E-flat major, K. 271

“Jeunehomme,” to Beethoven’s Piano Concerto No. 4 in G major, op. 58, and Choral Fantasy, op. 80. The Mozart concerto is Mozart’s first “mature” piano concerto; the Beethoven pieces are the last ones that Beethoven premiered as both pianist and conductor.

In 1808, Beethoven specifically wanted to conduct the premiere of his Piano Concerto

No. 4 and engage a separate soloist. However, he could not engage a pianist to play. Thus, he played and conducted the premiere himself.1 However, he was able to find a separate

conductor and pianist for the premiere of his Piano Concerto No. 5 in E-flat major, op. 73.

Friedrich Schneider played the piano; Johann Philipp Christian Schulz conducted the Leipzig

Gewandhaus Orchestra.2 Not only did Beethoven seek a separate conductor for this truly

symphonic concerto, he also forbade for the first time. From this point

forward, a new tradition of piano-concerto performance practice was born: equal and distinct

roles for pianist, conductor and orchestra. From this point forward, performed Mozart

piano concertos, when performed throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, in this

Beethovenian manner: separate conductors and pianists, with pre-planned and

prepared.

1 Leon Plantinga, Beethoven’s Concertos: History, Style and Performance (: W. W. Norton & Company, 1999) 213-216. 2 Michael Steinberg, The Concerto: A Listener’s Guide (Oxford: , 1998) 71.

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In the early 20th Century, a growing sense of historical awareness led a few pianists to revive the pianist-conductor practice. Ossip Gabrilowistch famously conducted from the piano, especially in his capacity as of the newly formed Detroit Symphony Orchestra.

However, he did not limit his double-duty tasks to Mozart. He performed Romantic and contemporary concertos in the same manner. Wilhelm Furtwängler conducted Bach’s

Brandenburg Concerto No. 5 from the piano with the Philharmonic. credits as his role model and inspiration for taking up the mantle in Mozart concertos.3 once recorded Mozart’s D minor piano concerto while conducting from the keyboard. Further, Walter trained Van Cliburn on how to do the same with Prokofiev’s

Piano Concerto No. 3, as a memorial to . Conducting this concerto from the piano was Mitropoulos’s specialty.4 conducted a handful of Mozart piano concertos from the piano, in addition to 20th Century works like Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue,

Ravel’s Piano Concerto in G, and Shostakovich’s Piano Concerto No. 2 in F. Sir , in the last phase of his career, took to conducting a small selection of Mozart piano concertos from the piano.

Despite a few big names, few conductors doubled as soloists until the 1980s and 1990s, when major record labels began engaging non-conducting soloists, like , to lead their own studio recordings of Mozart piano concertos. Since then, soloists of a certain career rank began to engage themselves in conducting from the piano despite their lack of conducting experience and training. As a result, new questions have arisen as to whether conducting from

3 Harold C. Schonberg, “Pianists at the Podium – Old Tradition, New Interest,” The New York Times, April 26, 1987. 4 Howard Reich, Van Cliburn (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1993) 222-225.

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the piano is a distinct discipline, separate from modern conducting and solo-piano playing, or if

it is achievable only if the orchestra contains experienced players who can play without a

conductor. In short, are conductors necessary in a Mozart piano concerto? Is the

pianist/conductor an encroachment onto their territory?

In his book Orchestral Conducting, Adam Carse illuminates the evolution of the standalone modern conductor via three paths. In the church, organists were also the choirmasters and led from the organ bench as they used their hands, heads and other extremities to keep the together.5 The and the cembalist/

dually led the secular orchestra, and the keyboardist mostly led performances.6

In his treatise on music Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen, C.P.E. Bach writes,

The klavier can completely take the place of the time-beating conductor who is common today only in extensive musical performances. The sound of the klavier – which is surrounded, quite wisely, by the – can be clearly heard by everyone. I, myself, know that even in large and diffuse orchestral performances, where many voluntary and mediocre musici participated, all have been kept in order merely by the tone of the klavier. The klavier gives the music the harmonic backbone and the strict, rhythmic direction. [It was best suited] to maintain the necessary evenness of the beat not alone with the other basses, but in the whole music…should someone hasten or drag, he can be most readily corrected by the keyboardist, for the others will be too much concerned with their own figures and syncopations to be of any assistance.7

Bach wrote this in defense of the keyboardist-conductor as the question of orchestral

leadership grew. As became the prime instrument, it seemed natural that the first chair

of the section would be responsible for the musical leadership of the orchestra. However,

5 Adam Carse, Orchestral Conducting (: Augener Ltd., 1935, Second Edition) 87. 6 Ibid., 92-93. 7 Ibid.

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he would have to contend with the , who was the keyboardist and most often the

.8 J.N. Forkel emphatically believed the keyboardist to be the leader of the orchestra, and his view was the norm in and .9 In France, the opposite view was the

norm: from the violin comes the orchestral leadership. Even after the emergence of the

modern conductor, nineteenth Century French musicians believed that keyboardists made poor

conductors who could not keep time; they preferred that a conductor be a violinist.10 The

German Kapellmeister tradition continued until the nineteenth Century, as the standalone conductor increasingly became a specialist and not necessarily the composer. The old

Kapellmeister-concertmaster relationship morphed into the modern conductor-concertmaster

relationship. In piano concerto performances, the bulk of the leadership fell to the pianist, mostly because the pianist was also the composer.11

There is evidence that eighteenth and early nineteenth century performed piano concertos with the piano in the center, facing in three different directions:

1) The keyboardist facing the audience, playing within the orchestra12

2) The keyboardist facing the orchestra directly, with his back to the audience13

3) The keyboardist profiled to the audience14

8 Ibid., 372. 9 Ibid., 373. 10 Elliott Galkin, A History of Orchestral Conducting: In Theory and Practice (Pendragon Press: New York, NY, 1988) 316. 11 Ibid., 444. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid., 151. 14 Harold C. Schonberg, The Great Pianists: From Mozart to the Present (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987) 65.

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In the first iteration, the concertmaster led the orchestra, conducting from the violin and maintained eye contact with the piano soloist. From the eye contact, the violinist-leader gave cues to the rest of the orchestra. The second iteration was common as it allowed the

keyboardist to have full contact with the orchestra. The third variant was rare, as it did not take hold until composer and pianist began leading his piano concertos in this direction.15 Dussek wanted the audience to admire his profile.16 Contemporary pianists who wish to conduct most often choose the second iteration. It is worth mentioning that the third iteration is used if the stage is too small for the second option (like the in Vienna), or if the concerto cannot afford for the pianist to lose sound by removing the lid and turning away from the audience. Examples of this include Van Cliburn conducting Prokofiev’s Piano

Concerto No. 3 from the piano and András Schiff leading the in

Schumann’s Piano Concerto from the piano.17

15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 David Wright, “Schiff provides intermittent rewards in duo roles with Philharmonic,” New York Classical Review, http://newyorkclassicalreview.com/2017/10/schiff-provides-intermittent-rewards-in-duo-roles-with- philharmonic/, October 20, 2017.

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CHAPTER 2

WHAT IS “REAL CONDUCTING?”

Innumerable pedagogues have written treatises and books on physical conducting technique, strategies, and score preparation. This short chapter will not add to this literature, but rather provide a shortened summary of this material to define the verb “to conduct.”

In his book Conducting Technique for Beginners and Professionals, Brock McElheran writes, “The most important requirement in a conductor is the ability to inspire the

performers.”18 While he accedes that this point seems obvious, it is telling that he begins his treatise on conducting with the charge that the conductor must be able to motivate a group of musicians. Simply put, charisma is a necessary ingredient for successful conductors.

Conducting technique discussions all touch on the question of the and whether or not to use it. Elliott Galkin writes, “The concept of the baton as a symbol of authority may be as old as time-beating itself.”19 He further asserts that some form of rod led music from antiquity

through the middle ages, particularly with singers.20 The baton’s function as we know it today – to keep time – was first mentioned in the sixteenth century, with Venceslaus Philomathes noting about Gregorian chant performance: “He who would direct Gregorian chant well, must hold a staff in his hand to point out the notes and continuously give the measure.”21 However,

18 Brock McElheran, Conducting Technique for Beginners and Professionals (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966) 3. 19 Elliott Galkin, The History of Orchestral Conducting: In Theory and Practice (New York: Pendragon Press, 1988) 487. 20 Ibid., 488. 21 Ibid., 488-489.

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during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the use of a stick for musical leadership fell

out of vogue as instrumental ensembles looked to a violinist or a keyboardist to take the helm

in rehearsal and performance. However, McElheran notes that one should be effective with and without a baton.22 He challenges conductors who only use baton to try to go without it – and vice versa. As Leonard Bernstein notes, “If [the conductor] does not use a baton, his hands must

do the job with equal clarity. But baton or no baton, his gestures must be first and always meaningful in terms of the music.”23 When conducting from the piano, it is impractical to use a baton to keep time. However, the technical skills one receives from baton study are invaluable to anyone who conducts from the piano.

Major conducting treatises prescribe the following roles for the left-hand: to shape the music, show the musical phrase, to cue instrumentalists or singers. Further, all sources agree that the left-hand should not mirror the right, as it is superfluous for ensembles to see both hands keeping time. famously eschewed the left-hand all together: it “has nothing to do with conducting.”24 For pianists who wish to conduct while playing, they will find

discussions of the left-hand equally stimulating and useless as it pertains to the moments when

they are actively playing. The Strauss ideal is far more practical, in terms of its physicality. Yet what keyboard- conductors lose in hand they gain in eye.

Orchestral players revered for his eyes. They routinely called them

22 Brock McElheran, Conducting Technique for Beginners and Professionals (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966) 13-14. 23 Leonard Bernstein, “The Art of Conducting,” The Joy of Music (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1960) 150. 24 Raymond Holden, “The Technique of Conducting,” The Cambridge Companion to Conducting, ed. José Antonio Bowen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003) 10.

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“mesmerizing.”25 Raymond Holden says that Nikisch is likely the most famous example of a conductor who uses his eyes to achieve his musical goals.26 Further, Holden writes, “the eye has the power to indicate entries, to alert the players and the singers to possible difficulties, and to act as an expressive device, complementing the motion of the arms and the stick.”27 Knowing

how and when to use one’s eyes effectively comes from years of study: watching more senior

conductors live in rehearsal and performance, studying footage of great conductors of the past,

and practicing on one’s own imaginary or real orchestra.

When one engages in formal orchestral conducting studies, one learns how to use a podium: efficient posture, economical use of space, and proper positioning. When conducting from the piano, the pianist is not going to be on a podium; rather, he will be on the stage floor

alongside the rest of the orchestra. However, the lessons learned about posture and use of

space will be directly applicable to the performance.

Conductors must be equally adept at using their arms, eyes, and ears. Elizabeth Green writes that there are two types of hearing: objective hearing of sounds and the subjective,

imagined, inner-ear process.28 She further says that training objective hearing is easy; the

subjective is more difficult but achievable through practice.29 McElheran reminds his reader,

“You must constantly remind yourself to listen. A well-known corporation has a sign saying

THINK in all its offices. Our slogan must be LISTEN.”30 In the context of this dictum, McElheran

25 Ibid., 12. 26 Ibid. 27 Ibid. 28 Elizabeth Green and Nicolai Malco, The Conductor and His Score (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1975) 3. 29 Ibid., 3, 6. 30 Brock McElheran, Conducting Technique for Beginners and Professionals (New York: Oxford University Press, 8

cautions readers against listening to the recordings in our own heads during and performances instead of actively hearing what is happening in real time. For pianists who wish to conduct from the keyboard, this admonishment is vital: not only must they be active listeners to their own performance, but they also have to react to the ensemble at hand.

Further, they may not ignore the ensemble when the piano writing is difficult. In essence, they must assume multiple layers of hearing: their own playing and that of the orchestra, simultaneously. One must train his ear to listen and anticipate details and nuances

that are not always readily apparent on a recording.

Ears are keenly honed with thorough score study and preparation. Max Rudolf point out that score study “has a double purpose: to learn the music in terms of notes and markings and to establish a conception of the composition in the broadest sense.”31 Part of what makes

conducting a unique profession in music is that one cannot practice it as one would a conventional instrument like a violin or . One has to have a fully formed idea of the work,

anticipate the ensemble’s needs and be able to answer quickly any questions that arise from the musicians. Further, expert knowledge of clefs, transpositions, string technique (especially bowings), wind methods, and brass functions are a prerequisite to functional score-study.

Green exclaims plainly, “Without excellent preparation of the score, there is no conducting. In the strongest of words, THE CONDUCTOR MUST KNOW THE SCORE.”32 This is

why she recommends that any conductor go through a systematic approach to any score. First,

1966) 91. 31 Max Rudolf, The Grammar of Conducting: A Comprehensive Guide to Baton Technique and Interpretation (New York: Schirmer Books, 1995, Third Edition) 321. 32 Elizabeth Green, The Modern Conductor (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1961) 213.

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memorize the . Second, look at broader form, make a thematic graph, set an ideal , and check dynamics. Third, anticipate potential danger spots in the ensemble, rhythmic

problems, intonation. Fourth, look at how to attack first downbeats or notes after ties among many other subjects properly. Rudolf goes further and reminds would-be conductors to mark their scores, examine the orchestra’s parts for errors and mark parts (or see to it that parts are

marked) before the first rehearsal. Pianists who look to conduct piano concertos from the piano are not exempt from these requirements.

To prepare oneself for concerto , William Cox-Ife recommends that the

conductor spend part of her preparation playing the orchestra part at the piano and eventually with the soloist. For professional pianists preparing to conduct the orchestra themselves, this is most easily achievable via reading the full-score at the piano – not the two-piano orchestral reductions so often used to learn a concerto. Cox-Ife prescribes that “all would-be conductors should take every opportunity of playing the piano for all kinds of soloists”33 and that there is

no wasted experience. With this kind of work, one develops a stronger empathy for the

relationship between orchestra and the soloist.

In order to achieve a memorable concerto performance, the conductor has to understand the relationship between the orchestra and the soloist. Brock McElheran writes,

The relationship between soloist and conductor is at best a total union of souls and at worst a cold war…With musicians of equal status, it is customary for the soloist’s wishes to prevail. Wherever possible he plays according to his own wishes and the orchestra…follows, accompanying, as would a pianist. There are certain passages, however, where the conductor must lead; for example, an opening chord, tutti with soloist. The players cannot see the soloist well enough to come in together. In such places, the soloist follows the conductor as though he were an orchestra member. Likewise, the soloist follows the conductor on cut-offs on fermatas and certain sudden

33 William Cox-Ife, The Elements of Conducting (New York: The John Day Company, 1964) 76.

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tempo changes. Afterwards, it reverts back to the soloist.34

One who is properly prepared will know when to lead as a conductor and when to lead as a soloist.

Lastly, the treatises delve into effective rehearsal technique. It is no exaggeration to say that nearly ninety-five percent of a conductor’s active work happens in rehearsal. Herbert von

Karajan once enticed young charges in a conducting class in : “I cannot teach you how to conduct, but I can teach you how to rehearse so that in you won’t need to conduct.”35 Among the universal truths about orchestral rehearsal is that the conductor

determines the pace and music covered. Rudolf cautions conductors about making speeches,

using poetic language, or engaging in lectures about or and instead

convince the players of his ideas through music.36 A conductor must know when to stop the

orchestra and how to explain why, and to have a musical plan to rehearse certain passages within a certain timeframe. Curating an effective series of rehearsals are possible when one is a formally trained conductor who has thoroughly studied both the score and the orchestra.

David Itkin advises conductors preparing for concerto rehearsals and performance:

“effortless excellence comes when there is 1) complete intellectual and musical command of the score and all orchestral issues (by the conductor), and 2) thorough, virtuosic technical command (by both the soloist and conductor) that does not just meet but exceeds the demands

34 Brock McElheran, Conducting Technique: For Beginners and Professionals (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989) 109. 35 Deutsche-Grammophon Tweet, @DGClassics, December 23, 2017, 4:00am. 36 Max Rudolf, The Grammar of Conducting: A Comprehensive Guide to Baton Technique and Interpretation (New York: Schirmer Books, 1995, Third Edition) 332-333.

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of the work in question.”37 This is possible even if the conductor and soloist are the same

person, when all understand the definition of “real conducting”: inspiration, clear gestural language, eye contact, layered hearing, ability to project broadly in a limited space, thorough preparation and expert leadership and guidance of a group of musicians.

37 David Itkin, Conducting Concerti: A Technical and Interpretive Guide (Denton, TX: University of North Texas Press, 2014) 4.

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CHAPTER 3

ARE CONDUCTORS NECESSARY IN MOZART PIANO CONCERTOS?

Robert Donington writes in The Interpretation of that it is preferable for a modern ensemble to engage a standalone conductor, however anachronistic he or she is, when performing Baroque and Classical-era music.38 The conductor will be most beneficial to the

ensemble since contemporary musicians are accustomed to a conductor tending to the ensemble and maintaining the . Furthermore, the conductor will save rehearsal time.

Mozart’s piano concertos squarely fall into this category.

Throughout Mozart’s piano concerto literature, there are several moments where the ensemble would benefit greatly from a standalone conductor. Here are some key examples in the major concertos.

Piano Concerto No. 9 in E-flat major, K. 271 “Jeunehomme” (1777)

In the first movement, the first instance where a standalone conductor will benefit the ensemble is at the opening. The exchange between the orchestra and the piano in measures 1-7 is manageable without a conductor, but who would ensure the proper articulations on beats 3 and 4 of the first measure (and measure 4) as the soloist prepares to answer in kind? The pianist-conductor can rehearse this passage to his/her satisfaction, but he or she will find it cumbersome to engage the orchestra in its sound-world, in its structure and then immediately switch gears to a different mode as pianist as Mozart requires.

38 Robert Donington, The Interpretation of Early Music (London: Faber and Faber, 1975) 587.

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Measures 69-82 are deceptively simple:

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The piano engages in an elaborate Alberti bass and takes a fragment of the main theme through a few harmonic changes as the orchestra pliantly (and quietly) follows. At the same time, this passage is bare and exposed, which makes it a frightening moment for ensemble players. Moreover, there is little onto which anyone can hold rhythmically. With measures 69-

75, the piano plays virtuoso passagework as the two answer on the downbeat of the weak measure of a two-bar phrase. The measure preceding contains nothing for them as a

rhythmic anchor, making it likely that without a standalone conductor they will play the

downbeat of measures 70, 72, and 74 late. This tardiness will be evident to the audience

because the will not have landed together. At measure 75, the violins and violas have an offbeat entrance and mostly match the piano’s left- hand articulation until measure 82 – in

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measure 81, the oboes will enter and sustain to the downbeat of measure 82 alongside the violas, cellos and basses. The string entrance at measure 75 is precarious because there is no strong downbeat in the piano writing: only the flurry of a right-hand arpeggio and a crispy B-flat eighth note in the left hand. Moreover, this is the first string entrance since the downbeat of 67.

Hence, they will need proper prompting in order to enter on time and confidently. This all applies to the Development Section, measures 156-196.

In the Recapitulation, Mozart brilliantly plays upon the metric dissonance in the piano response in the main theme in measures 200-206:

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However, this can be a perilous moment for the violin sections as they have an awkward entrance at measure 206. The violas’ beat two entrance in measure 206 is equally fraught as they could easily mistake the violin 1 and 2 entrance in measure 206 is equally fraught as they could easily mistake the violin 1 and 2 entrance as the downbeat of measure 206, given that the piano does not really provide clear rhythmic leadership. This cascade of problems includes the cellos and basses on beat four of measure 206 and the offbeat entrances (beat two, measure 207 for oboe 1, beat four, measure 207, for oboe 2). A standalone conductor is beneficial in this situation.

In the third movement, the relative alternation between the orchestra and the solo piano make conducting this movement from the piano almost ideal. However, there are moments that require a professional standalone conductor. Firstly, measures 192-196 – and its

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analogous passages in measures 198-204, 320-324, and 328-332 – consist of awkward yet virtuosic string writing which would need attention in rehearsal. Here is the excerpt below:

Secondly, the first violins, cellos, and basses play pizzicato throughout the entire

Menuetto, save for a few measures.

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A standalone conductor is incredibly useful to ensure uniform execution of any pizzicato passages, especially when it is accompanying a solo instrument. One exception can be made in the coda – measures 424-432 – where Mozart has the right-hand sustain a B-flat with a trill and writes nothing for the left hand, presumably to free the left hand to guide the pizzicatos and ensure uniform oboe and horn four-part chorale:

Piano Concerto No. 13 in C major, K. 415 (1782)

The “middle” or “teen” Mozart piano concertos are tricky to conduct due to the fact that Mozart frequently uses fermatas to bring entire sections or phrases to a halt. While he expects the soloist to employ an Eingang39 in these moments, there are times when the Eingang

39 Eingang is the German term for “lead-in.” Customarily, these are short solo , meant as transitional 23

and the orchestra still have to be coordinated. This piano concerto is one such example.

In the third movement, Rondeau, the A section typically ends with a sudden pause, followed by a resolution to the interrupted chord, landing on the dominant chord (V) of C major. This G major chord prepares the listener for the Adagio B section in C minor, which ends

on the V of C minor (also G major), with a fermata. Then the movement leads back into the

Allegro A section.

During these pauses, the pianist can opt to improvise or simply leave it silent. However,

a standalone conductor can best guide the orchestra in and out of these pauses.

material between sections.

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Piano Concerto No. 20 in D minor, K. 466 (1785)

In the first movement, measures 95-98 are a potential source of ensemble difficulties.

Here, the upper strings’ “sinister syncopations”40 contrast against the solo piano’s non- syncopated restatement of the motif.

40 Arthur Hutchings, A Companion to Mozart’s Piano Concertos (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) 130.

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It clears up somewhat in measures 99-103 as the first violins break away from the syncopated pattern. However, the second violins and violas maintain their pattern from the prior four-measure phrase. In measures 104-108, the first violins revert to syncopation, yet the cellos and basses match the piano's left hand and play quarter notes on all four beats, which gives the ensemble its firmest footing up to this point:

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A standalone conductor would easily hold these competing and clashing syncopations together and provide a sturdy framework to guide the orchestra and support the soloist. Interestingly, Mozart repeats a slight variation of this same problem over an eight- measure phrase in measures 261-269, in the Recapitulation section.

The second movement's relatively consistent call-and-response structure is a near- perfect scenario for the pianist-as-conductor. However, the stormy G minor middle section presents a potential ensemble problem, as the strings provide little beyond short explosive chords at the opening of large sections, the piano races through relentless sextuplets replete with hand-crossing technique, and the winds enter and play without any solid ensemble support. The opening moments:

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Mozart does allow the soloist to double certain moving lines, yet that is more likely for the soloist's benefit to follow the winds, rather than the winds to follow the soloist, given that he will be able to hear them more easily than they will hear him. In any respect, a standalone conductor able to coordinate this passage makes this execution more feasible.

In the movement, a standalone conductor would mask the ensemble difficulty

Mozart poses in measures 212-229:

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In this passage, the solo flute and the first trade offbeat motives as the piano

accompanies with broken arpeggios and the strings provide a sustained harmonic foundation.

Without proper direction, the flute, at measure 212, would enter late – if at all – because the downbeat is in the piano. Further, once the flute hears the piano downbeat at the back of the stage, it will already be too late to prepare a breath and play the pickup to beat two at the tempo of this movement.

A second passage of note in the third movement is the dialogue between the piano, solo flute, and principal oboe in measures 240-261.

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While these 21 measures are pure , they are fraught with problems when

one considers the distance between the piano and the wind section in a modern concert hall.

Active and anticipatory listening plus eye contact can make this section work. However, a

standalone conductor to coordinate this section will save both rehearsal time and energy from

both orchestra and soloist.

The last example comes in the D major coda. Here, the ensemble difficulties are mainly

in the violin sections. Since they have an unusually long period of rest (24 measures) until their first entrance is at the tutti at measure 370. In measures 402-409, the first and second violins trade rotating octave A's in a metrically dissonant and context:

As it is easy for them to get lost, it is likely that they can miss this entrance at measure 412:

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Piano Concerto No. 24 in C minor, K. 491 (1786)

The C minor piano concerto is Mozart’s most complex and expansive piano concerto. It is also the one which uses the fullest orchestra and greatest variety of orchestral color. In the same vein, the piano writing is intricate and difficult. Thus, there is no shortage of ensemble problems for the standalone conductor to navigate.

In the first movement, the transition between the strings accompanying the piano in the third theme in measures 147-156 to the wind chorus answering the same idea in measures 156-

164 is difficult. The second is likely to come in late and be slightly behind the beat at measure 156, which would then bring down the ensemble. The pianist is tempted, in measures

165-170 to reestablish the tempo. However, this will create even more problems with the

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ensemble as the winds have offbeat entrances in measures 170-175. At this moment, they are most “locked-in” to the tempo the second clarinet established at measure 156.

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In the following large phrase group, in measures 178-190, the first violins, the second violins and the violas alternate answering the solo piano on the offbeat after beat one. After the offbeat sequence, each group finishes the phrase with a tie into the next measure.

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Measures 228-232 continue in this offbeat vein, as the bassoon and the oboe alternate motifs, and the second violins and violas execute syncopations against the rest of the orchestra and piano soloist playing on the downbeat.

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Measure 330 is a difficult orchestral entrance without an active conductor. In the five measures that precede it, the piano soloist performs fleet passagework that is difficult to count without following the score.

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Measures 435-444 is where the pianist plays intricate Alberti bass passagework in the left hand and modal scales in the right hand, against the wind chorus restating the B theme in quarter notes. Here, the pianist is likely to rush, and the winds are likely to drag:

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A successful performance of the second movement lies mostly in the wind chorus. Mozart uses the wind chorus, alone, to introduce the B and C themes. Hence, it is imperative that any conductor pay close attention to the issues presented in these sections. In terms of coordination, measures 36-39 need a good conductor to anticipate the pianist’s quasi- and bring in the winds the end of the phrase.

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Intricate orchestral activity closes the C theme’s section, measures 59-63. Here a standalone conductor will navigate the various alternations, first in the strings and then in the winds.

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Lastly, there are two opportunities for the soloist to perform an Eingang: measures 15 and 73.

Leading into an Eingang and bringing the orchestra back in after one keeps the conductor busy.

In the third movement, there are several spots that could use a standalone conductor.

The first of them is at measure 140:

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The entrance at measure 140 is difficult because it is hard to decipher each downbeat without

knowing the score. Furthermore, the first violin’s entrance comes in the middle of the piano soloist’s phrase. The second violins enter on beat three of this measure, and then the rest of the enters at measure 141. Similar problems arise with the string entrances at measure 158 and 159. At the

pickup to measure 177 to measure 181, the strings’ upbeat entrance, grace note articulations and dotted

eighth rest followed by sixteenth note execution could use a conductor.

Lastly, the Eingang and cadenza in measures 219 and 220, respectively, are difficult to manage without a conductor.

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Piano Concerto No. 27 in B-flat major, K. 595 (1791)

The final piano concerto poses a different set of musical problems from the 26 that precede it. Moreover, its aesthetic simplicity belies the number of potential execution problems that a standalone conductor could best solve.

In the first movement, the first instance is at measures 122-130, where the strings trade pizzicato lines throughout the section, accompanying the solo pianist in a series of broken thirds alternating between the right and left hands. There is an analogous passage in the

Recapitulation section, in measures 284-292.

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In passages like these, one can depend on the fact that the underlying pulse is unchanged and

that there is no metric dissonance. However, with the passagework moving quickly, a steady hand on the beat will help both orchestra and soloist. Another spot in this movement in which a conductor is most helpful comes in the phrase that follows, in measures 131-136 and 292-298, for the wind chorus.

Here, the winds need a clear prompting in order to ensure that all of the players come in at the same time, but also adhere to the same attack and articulation. A third example is in measures

161-164 and 323-325, where the strings need a clear downbeat cue in order to enter confidently. Unfortunately for them, they receive no assistance from the solo pianist as she is engaged in broken thirds in the left hand and alternating sixths in the right hand.

In the second movement, the piano and the orchestra largely alternate between unaccompanied solo and tutti. However, in the moments when the orchestra accompanies the

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piano, a standalone conductor would be beneficial. The first passage of note is between measures 49 and 82.

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This C theme, which is completely new material and never again repeated in the rest of the movement, has the piano lyrically playing an atop operatic-style accompaniment. In this

passage, the strings provide a steady and gentle eighth note pulse to set the foundation for the piano soloist. The winds eventually enter to provide color contrast and subtly shift the mode. In the entire passage, both the strings and the winds must react to the soloist.

A second section of note is in the Recapitulation: measures 103-110.

Here, the piano soloist, violin 1 and the flute play the main theme simultaneously. Although it is

not marked in the Neue Mozart Ausgabe, most conductors employ the concertmaster to play this as a violin solo instead of asking the entire section to play. While this solution helps to create an intimate restatement of the theme, it calls for standalone conductor, as the flutist, violinist and pianist are on different parts of the stage. The flutist, being furthest to the back of

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the stage, is most disadvantaged.

The rondo movement is replete with solo piano and orchestral interruption and the

orchestra plays an equal role with the piano in terms of importance even as the pianist plays;

this is chamber music disguised as an orchestral work. In these moments, for ensemble cohesion, a standalone conductor is welcome. One such example is in measures 73-79 or at

similarly composed passages like measures 212-218 in the Recapitulation section.

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Here, the wind chorus and the strings interrupt the piano passagework on the second large pulse instead of the downbeat. Further, the winds finish the phrase as an echo yet come in on beat two instead of the second pulse in measure 78 (217). A second example involves a fast- paced dialogue between the piano and the wind chorus in measures 102-107.

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With the piano and the winds quickly alternating measures of sixteenth notes, it is possible to

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lose ensemble cohesion, with the oboes and entering slightly late from listening to the

flute, or the solo pianist or flutist rushing in anticipation of the downbeat. For a final example, one can investigate the Development section, after the extended piano solo section: measures

163-181.

Here, the pianist accompanies the orchestra as it banters with a fragment of the main motif and

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travels through various harmonic directions. In addition, the strings and the winds echo each other: the first violins and flute echo each other; the bassoon echoes the cellos and basses; the second violins and violas provide a rhythmic foundation although they studiously avoid the downbeat. Here, a conductor to hold everyone together is necessary.

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CHAPTER 4

THE BENEFITS OF THE PIANIST-CONDUCTOR

It can hardly be doubted that the most efficient and effective manner to rehearse and perform concerti is to have separate conductors and soloists. The modern standalone instrumental conductor emerged for partly this reason. However, there are musical and psychological benefits to merging the two roles.

Benefit 1: The Soloist becomes More Involved in the Score

Often, pianists and other soloists focus on perfecting their part technically and musically and overlook the larger picture – namely how their part interacts with the orchestra, competes against it or complements it. This approach unduly delegates all musical responsibility to the conductor, assuming that he, who has spent far less concentrated time preparing the piece than the soloist, is able to take this level of control. When informed that they will need to conduct, pianists and other soloists will take a far deeper interest in the full score, make interpretive decisions otherwise not immediately apparent in the solo part alone, and they will find their own playing and interpretation markedly improved.

From Mozart’s Piano Concerto No. 24 in C minor, one can find areas where the soloist, conducting from the piano, may find additional nuances in the score. One such example is in the first movement, measures 169-174:

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Here, one can see how the piano’s left hand scales and the woodwinds pass the phrasing torch back and forth, creating an ebb and flow. One possible idea that the soloist may consider is to crescendo to the end of the scale in order to encourage a phrasal direction in the winds, based on the contours of their passagework. This effect is not immediately obvious in a two-piano reduction.

A second example comes in the Development section of the first movement, measures

309-313:

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Here, one will notice that Mozart notates no articulation for the piano yet uses a pronounced juxtaposition in the orchestra between the uniformly strings and mostly winds (bassoons echo the strings’ articulation and motif.) The pianist can play the moving sixteenth notes fleetly and lightly to match the strings and contrast against the legato winds, or mix the articulation to match the shifting moods in the phrase: light and fleet with the strings, accentuate and make incredibly smooth the quarter notes in measures 312-313 in order to accompany the flute and oboes.

Thirdly, particularly in Mozart, increased score involvement yields to ideas for

embellishments and other stylistic expectations. In the C minor concerto, Mozart writes “empty

spaces” in major cadential moments. Here is one such example in the third movement:

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Two other empty-space examples are found in the first movement. Here is one example from measures 467-471:

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Hermann Beck, the editor of this NMA edition, offers a suggestion for how to fill this

space. However, one is not bound by his opinion. Another option would be to look at the

change in texture and rhythmic intensity in the string accompaniment. A good solution would

be to either complement it or compete against it. Either way, the most viable solution would

come from a close study of the score, as the larger picture is not readily apparent in a two-

piano reduction. It is safe to say that any close score study will open new interpretive options to the soloist in this concerto. Preparing to conduct the concerto will force the pianist to make harder decisions about the entire work and not just the piano solo: from how the piano interacts with each section of the orchestra, to how each instrument should phrase – and how to match the piano to the natural phrasing abilities of instruments in the orchestra – to proper tempi that play to the strengths of the orchestra and the piano (not just the piano.) In the C minor concerto, these issues are magnified beyond the other 26 Mozart piano concertos.

Another beneficial aspect comes in that the pianist-conductor will learn when he or she

must lead as a conductor versus leading as a soloist. Measures 141-147 in the first movement of

the C minor concerto provides one example as to when the soloist must lead as a conductor:

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While it may seem minor, knowing to cut the strings off on beat two of measure 145 is important, as it is tempting to assume that they cut-off on the downbeat. In the same vein, it is easy to forget to bring them back in at measure 147 in the heat of playing. It is highly unlikely that a professional orchestra would miss the counting, but a good conductor never makes this assumption. Moreover, it takes a high level of multitasking skill to maintain a perfect right-hand legato while cutting off the strings on the second beat of measure 145 without creating an accent in the right-hand passage.

In order to prepare to conduct from the piano, the pianist must know every detail of the

score. It is not sufficient to know that a certain instrument is carrying the at this

moment or to pay attention to the orchestra when the piano is silent. For example, in the third

movement, the strings completely mirror the piano left hand accompaniment in measures 17-

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20. Later, they slightly elaborate it in subsequent measures:

Here, the conductor and the soloist should agree on proper lengths and articulations of the quarter notes, proper releases of the V chord in measure 20. When conducting from the

piano, the leader must be aware of the slight embellishments in the second violins and violas in measure 21 and the answer in the first violins in measure 22, even though it is easy to hear it as one Ab 6/4 chord and focus more on the virtuosic right hand turns. The right hand figures themselves are simply ornaments and figures above the given melody in the strings, first

announced in the second violins (mm. 17-18), picked up by the first violins (mm. 19-20), the

violas (mm. 21-22) and then later bounced amongst the upper strings to the first ending. This basic understanding is the kind of detail every conductor needs to understand when working on this concerto. It only serves to empower the soloist’s interpretation further.

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Benefit 2: The Orchestra Invests More into the Score

Pianist and conductor Christian Zacharias, who has led hundreds of accompanying concertos as a conductor and has conducted frequently from the piano, noted that “the orchestra sounds better when I’m simply a conductor, even if the musicians like it more when I’m playing with them. The energy is different.”41

The energy Zacharias describes is democratic,42 as Jeremy Denk confirmed in a recent

New York Times interview about his project to lead Mozart’s Piano Concerto No. 25 in C major,

K. 503, from the keyboard, with the Westchester (NY) Philharmonic. To support this point,

Jeffrey Kahane said in a recent Chicago Symphony interview, “The orchestra really has to adopt

a different psychological attitude to the whole process. They can’t do what they would normally

do, which is to rely exclusively on visual cues. They have to listen carefully. They have to watch.

They have to become more participatory and less like they are just following.”43 Kahane also says that orchestra that are not used to conductors leading from the piano usually end up enjoying it.44

In this scenario, have to become even more attentive than usual. They

have to be watchful of the cues the pianist may give with the way he or she may strike the keys

or any visual cues he or she may give. In fact, music reviewers in both Chicago and Cleveland

singled out their orchestras’ concertmasters for their leadership in recent Mozart piano

41 Philippa Kiraly, “Conducting keeps Zacharias connected,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer. March 1, 2007. 42 Philip Lutz, “Conducting from the Piano Bench,” The New York Times, November 21, 2013. 43 Kyle MacMillan, “Masters of a dual role: conductors at the keyboard.” Chicago Symphony Orchestra Sound and Stories. https://csosoundsandstories.org/masters-of-a-dual-role-conductors-at-the-keyboard/. October 30, 2017. 44 Ibid.

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concerto efforts that led.

In terms of the C minor piano concerto, here are some places where the orchestra must get involved. One example is in the second movement, at measures 51-55. Here, the wind septet has awkward yet intricate entrances that demand the highest amount of attention. But more than this spot, the second violins have to take ownership of the second-half of the phrase that follows, beginning at the pickup to measure 49 until measure 50 (and at the analogous spot a few measures later.)

Another such “ownership” example while the piano plays is found in the third movement, between the pickup to 165 until measure 201. Shown below are measures 175-183:

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Here, the winds, piano and strings all take turns with playing the main motif in this

variation. Interestingly, no group mimics another in terms of its accompaniment material,

which gives each section, and the soloist, a chance to lead in its own manner. An orchestra that

is fully invested in the score and thinking deeply about their role in the larger whole would

catch this instinctively – or a good pianist-conductor would show them how this is the case in

rehearsal and gently coax it out of them.

Benefit 3: The Unification of the Soloist and Conductor

Pianist Howard Shelley, when asked about leading Beethoven’s Piano Concerto No. 1 in

C major, op. 15, from the piano, said that in certain works that resemble chamber music, it is

easier for the orchestra to respond directly to the soloist:

The conductor can try to anticipate for the orchestra where the soloist is going, but the soloist may, suddenly, at the last moment, hesitate on a particular beat. It is easier for the soloist to get the orchestra to understand his overall interpretation of a work and to reflect that directly, instead of trying to get a conductor who he may have met only the day of the concert to understand quickly what is overall interpretation of the work is.45

In a similar vein, Murray Perahia, when asked about his conducting ambitions, said that

he became a “Mozart piano-concerto conductor”46 because he has yet to find a conductor who

shares his ideas.47 He is interested not only in creating more of a chamber music experience, but also in bringing the orchestra into his overall vision of the pieces.

The soloist doubling as conductor allows the conductor to live as deeply with the score

45 Lea Wee, “Look, no conductor at the podium,” The Straits Times (Singapore), July 21, 2000. 46 Harold C. Schonberg, “Pianists at the Podium – Old Tradition, New Interest,” The New York Times, April 26, 1987. 47 Ibid.

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as the soloist. Hence, the soloist and the conductor can reconcile their differences internally

long before the first rehearsal. Further, this eliminates the traditional dance between who leads

and who follows based upon career status and age. This second point is salient, as David Itkin

devotes half of the introduction to his book Conducting Concerti to critical observations and

anecdotes about the soloist-conductor relationship.48 With the soloist as conductor, there is no

need to negotiate between ideas and ideals, nor does one need to unduly compromise in order

to keep the peace. The orchestra itself will follow any convincing leader, within established

reason.

Within this point, the soloist becomes far more aware of what the orchestra needs. For

example, “Will this be an effective tempo with the orchestra?” Or, in the case of the Mozart C

minor, “how can I help the orchestra confidently enter at the pickup to measure 73 in the third

movement after my long solo?” In the case of the last question, one could crescendo through

the left-hand triplet figures and maintain a steady tempo instead of rushing to the downbeat.

However, these are the kinds of questions a sensitive soloist who is to conduct the orchestra

would ask in order to create an effective performance.

The pianist must be of one accord with the conductor – even if the two are the same

person. Brock McElheran’s dictum “The relationship between the soloist and conductor is at

best a total union of souls” is apt because the soloist-side of the pianist must be cognizant of

the orchestra’s technical abilities, the hall, and the orchestra’s sound. These issues will force

the pianist to adjust his or her interpretation accordingly. For example, the opening of the C

48 David Itkin, Conducting Concerti: A Technical and Interpretive Guide (Denton, TX: University of North Texas Press, 2014) 7-12.

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minor concerto, first movement, can be in one or three, depending on the players’ abilities to maintain this flow throughout a technically challenging movement, but might not work in a very reverberant hall: again, issues for the soloist-conductor to consider, together. William Cox-Ife

writes, the conductor and soloist must be “two minds with but a single thought. This is the ideal

partnership when two people make music together.49

Lastly, the soloist and the conductor merged as one benefits from the freedom

to improvise. Few moments are as fraught as when a soloist decides to improvise in a Mozart

piano concerto and the conductor is not quite in accord. In the C minor concerto, this can happen with the Eingang opportunities in the second and third movements, and with the cadenza in the first and third movements. A well-rehearsed orchestra with mentally alert players will be able to follow the pianist as inspiration leads – provided that the pianist, conducting from the piano, provides clear cues as to when the improvisations are concluded.

49 William Cox-Ife, The Elements of Conducting (New York: The John Jay Company, 1964) 75.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

Conductor and pianist Daniel Barenboim recently said to Classic FM, “Conducting is a

profession. The fact that you are a great pianist, violinist or cellist does not really give you license to conduct.”50

In the case of Mozart piano concertos, there is musical evidence to show that a standalone conductor is necessary to bring the most out of the orchestra in the tutti and accompaniment passages. Moreover, the standalone conductor saves rehearsal time and can keep the orchestra together in the most rhythmically challenging and musically intricate moments. In the same vein, there are opportunities for the conductor to make his own personal stamp on the overall interpretation – in conjunction with the soloist. To completely jettison any conductor will not serve the music or bring out the best in the ensemble’s performance.

Unfortunately, there are documented accounts of pianists with little-to-no conducting training leading orchestras in piano concertos, to mixed effect. Firstly, an untrained conductor lacks basic conducting technique. Even in Mozart piano concertos, as evidenced in this paper, a trained standalone conductor is useful. Perhaps this is why two music journalists in two different cities noted that Mitsuko Uchida’s lack of conducting technique led to both orchestras essentially playing Mozart piano concertos without a conductor. Lawrence B. Johnson noted this during Uchida’s Chicago Symphony Mozart piano concertos cycle: “her collateral work as

50 Tim Edwards and Elizabeth Davis, “Daniel Barenboim talks exclusively to Classic FM: ‘I am militant against instrumentalists who conduct.” Classic FM. http://www.classicfm.com/artists/daniel-barenboim/news/video- militant-play-conduct/, April 28, 2015.

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conductor was less convincing. Perhaps only the effect matters, not the means, but the sterling support that Uchida enjoyed was more than her generalized directorial effort might have elicited. Here as in the past, she wasn’t really conducting at all. Gesturing empathetically, enveloping the musicians perhaps, inspiring to be sure; but the flick of a hand coming up from the keyboard was often behind the beat – though the orchestra was not, thanks to the guiding presence of concertmaster Robert Chen.”51

Daniel Hathaway similarly noted that William Preucil, the ’s concertmaster, guided the Cleveland Orchestra from his chair during their Mozart piano concerto cycle with Uchida. He said, “Whether the musicians were following her or taking cues from the concertmaster (who gave plenty of them) was up for debate.”52

Further, music journalists have noted that non-trained or amateur pianist-conductors lack polish as it pertains to their gestural language and stick technique. According to them, the overuse of wild gestures distracts orchestra players. On Freddy Kempf’s performance of

Beethoven’s Fourth and Fifth piano concertos with the Royal Philharmonic in 2012, The Citizen’s

Colin Burrow rued that “some poetry was missing” and found that “certainly some found

Kempf’s constant leaping up and down distracting.”53 ’s Anthony Holden took

Andras Schiff, and others like him, to task in his column for this same issue.54

51 Lawrence Johnson. “In contrasting Mozart concertos with CSO, pianist Mitsuko Uchida blends depth, charm,” Chicago On the Aisle, https://chicagoontheaisle.com/2013/03/29/review-of-chicago-symphony-orchestra-mitsuko- uchida-pianist-and-conductor/, March 29, 2013. 52 Daniel Hathaway. “Cleveland Orchestra: Mitsuko Uchida revisits Mozart concertos," Cleveland Classical, http://clevelandclassical.com/cleveland-orchestra-mitsuko-uchida-revisits-mozart-concertos-april-9/, April 14, 2015. 53 Colin Burrow, “Multi-tasking : Royal Philharmonic Orchestra Cheltenham Town Hall,” The Citizen, April 17, 2012. 54 Anthony Holden, “Piano is still his forte: Schiff’s demented conducting neither looks nor sounds pretty,” The Guardian, December 13, 2003.

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This is not to say that Mozart’s piano concertos may only be performed with separate standalone conductor and pianist. If the pianist is also a trained conductor, then he or she may do double duty. A trained conductor will know when to take leadership, and how to pass it to principal members of the sections. In terms of rehearsal, the trained conductor will know how to rehearse: what each section needs, how to explain it in their unique language. Through this, he or she will be able to teach the orchestra properly. In training, teaching, inspiring and leading the orchestra through this musical journey, the conductor is engaging in “real conducting” even though he or she is occupied at the piano.

As Barenboim notes strongly, “Instrumentalists who are not trained conductors, yet who insist on doing both, find that the orchestra is left to its own devices. And you are limited to saying cute things like ‘Listen [to] how I play this’ and ‘Can you do it like this?’ But this is not conducting.”55 In the manner of Karajan, the goal is to rehearse the orchestra so well, in the

limited time given, that they can perform without a conductor. Professional conductors who

also double as professional pianists like and Christian Zacharias have spoken highly of this performance practice, in their own careers.

Kahane eschews extraneous motions, saying that with smaller orchestras, the gestures only have to travel a smaller space than, perhaps, a Mahler symphony.56 Says Zacharias on

technique, “Conducting is not only done with the hands, but with body language, and the eyes

55 Tim Edwards and Elizabeth Davis, “Daniel Barenboim talks exclusively to Classic FM: ‘I am militant against instrumentalists who conduct.” Classic FM. http://www.classicfm.com/artists/daniel-barenboim/news/video- militant-play-conduct/, April 28, 2015. 56 Jeffrey Kahane. “Kahane on Conducting as a Pianist,” New York Philharmonic YouTube Channel, July 11, 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XmWkbQGrsvk.

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can communicate a great deal.”57

Is this ‘outdated’ tradition worth reviving? It is. However, whoever wishes to embark on this musical journey in Mozart’s style must first learn how to conduct. Failure to do so benefits no one involved in the project. In the words of Edwin Fischer, as relayed to Daniel Barenboim,

“If you want to conduct Mozart piano concertos from the piano, you must first learn how to conduct.”58

57 Philippa Kiraly, “Conducting keeps Zacharias connected,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, March 1, 2007. 58 Joseph Horowitz, “Daniel Barenboim’s ‘Unique’ Dual Career,” The New York Times, November 23, 1980.

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