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180 Degrees Out: the Change in U.S. Strategic Bombing Applications, 1935-1955

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180 Degrees Out: the Change in U.S. Strategic Bombing Applications, 1935-1955 180 Degrees Out: The Change in U.S. Strategic Bombing Applications, 1935-1955 By C2008 John M. Curatola B.A. University of Nebraska, 1987 M.A. George Mason University, 2001 M.M.A.S. U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 2002 Submitted to the Department of History and the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Kansas In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy ______________________________ Theodore Wilson ______________________________ Roger Spiller ______________________________ Jenny Weber ______________________________ Christopher Gabel ______________________________ Phillip Schrodt Date defended: October 21, 2008 The Dissertation Committee for John Curatola certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: 180 DEGREES OUT: THE CHANGE IN U.S. STRATEGIC BOMBING APPLICATIONS 1935-1955 Committee: Theodore Wilson Chairperson Date approved: October 21, 2008 ii ABSTRACT 180 DEGREES OUT: The Change in U.S. Strategic Bombing Applications, 1935-1955. By John M. Curatola Professor Theodore A. Wilson, Advisor This dissertation examines how the U.S. Army/Air Force developed strategic bombing applications during the 1930s and then changed them during World War II and in early Cold War planning. This narrative history analyzes the governmental, military, and social influences that changed U.S. bombing methods. The study addresses how the Air Force diverted from a professed strategy of precision bombardment during the inter-war years only to embrace area, fire, and atomic bombardment during WW II. Furthermore, the treatise continues in this vein by examining how the USAF developed atomic and thermonuclear applications during the post war era and the Cold War. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE APPROVAL PAGE………………………………………………… ii ABSTRACT………………………………………………………… iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………… v LIST OF ACRONYMS…………………………………………….. vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS……………………………………….. viii LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………….. ix CHAPTER 1. ZERO DEGREES……………………………………… 1 2. AT THE ACUTE...…………………………………….. 42 3. 45 DEGREES………….………………………………. 101 4. 90 DEGREES………….………………………………. 167 5. AT THE OBTUSE……………………………………… 242 6. 180 DEGREES OUT…………………………………… 322 7. CONCLUSIONS……………………………………….. 369 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………….. 387 iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In writing this dissertation, I received invaluable assistance and support from a number of people and organizations. Without their help and support, I would have never succeeded in finishing this treatise, nor the course of instruction at the University of Kansas. For these reasons, and many more, I offer my sincere and utmost appreciation to the following: First, to my wife Deb and daughters Jenny and Katie, who have always provided only love and support in both my Marine Corps career and academic efforts. Regardless of our location on the globe they continuously backed both my personal and professional endeavors and served as my emotional and moral foundation. I have always been able to count upon their unwavering support and I take great pride in their own individual accomplishments, of which there are many. I consider it an honor to be my wife’s husband and the father of two wonderful young ladies. It is my greatest wish that my daughters find a spouse who is of similar caliber as their mother and is as supportive, loving, and talented as she. To my parents, LtCol Carl Curatola USAF (Ret) and Jane Curatola, who always provided me with a set of values and ethics that served me well throughout my life and provided me with life, love, and the ability to stand on my own two feet. Despite my rather lackluster performance as a child, they always provided unconditional love and support and never stopped believing in me. Whatever successes I have enjoyed as an adult are in no small measure attributable to their parenting skills, guidance, and the many sacrifices they made for all three of their children. At the University of Kansas, Dr Theodore Wilson, PhD championed my endeavors and guided me in my studies. He provided valuable editing and commentary regarding the content of this paper. If it were not for his efforts, I would have never achieved this goal. Additionally, Dr Jenny Weber, PhD who significantly influenced my writing and helped me improve academic skills. She also provided invaluable council and personal advice. Both of these learned individuals taught me how to ‘think like a historian.’ Furthermore, I am indebted to the United States Marine Corps for giving me educational opportunities and a career that exceeded my expectations. Being a “Marine” has largely defined my adult life and given me a great sense of pride and purpose. I am thoroughly convinced that the Marine Corps is the finest fighting organization ever conceived and it has been an honor to serve with the professionals in its ranks. I will proudly carry the moniker of “Marine” for the rest of my life. Additionally, the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College’s (CGSC) Department of Joint, Interagency, and Multinational Operations (DJIMO) provided two very valuable commodities for this effort, time and resources. The support of CGSC and DJIMO was an integral part of not only this effort, but also my entire professional military education. Lastly, LtCol Dave Stephan, USAF provided valuable insights on bombing applications and served as a foil for discussion and an important sounding board for many of this dissertations’ arguments and opinions. v LIST OF ACRONYMS ACTS Air Corps Tactical School AEC Atomic Energy Commission AUQR Air University Quarterly Review AWPD Air War Planning Document CEP Circular Error Probable CBI China Burma India CJCS Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff CNO Chief of Naval Operations COA Committee of Operational Analysis DoD Department of Defense FEAF Far East Air Forces FDR Franklin Delano Roosevelt FY Fiscal Year GAC General Advisory Committee GNP Gross National Product HE High Explosive HUAC House UnAmerican Activities Committee ICBM Intercontinental Ballistic Missile vi IRBM Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile IP Initial Point JCS Joint Chiefs of Staff KT Kiloton LASL Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory MT Megaton NSC National Security Council OWI Office of Wartime Information PGM Precision Guided Munition RAF Royal Air Force RAND Research and Development Corporation SAC Strategic Air Command USAAC United States Army Air Corps USAAF United States Army Air Force USAF United States Air Force USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics USSBS United States Strategic Bombing Survey VE Day Victory Europe Day VJ Day Victory Japan Day VHB Very Heavy Bomber VLR Very Long Range WSEG Weapons System Evaluation Group vii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Second Atomic Bomb Crew……………………………….. 3 2. YB-17 in Flight…………………………………………….. 38 3. Norden Mk XV Bombsight…………………………………. 55 4. First Radar Bombing Mission………………………………. 62 5. General H. H. Arnold………………………………………. 68 6. Studebaker Advertisement…………………………………. 86 7. Yale Locks Advertisement…………………………………. 86 8. South Wind Heaters Advertisement……………………….. 86 9. General Curtis E. LeMay…………………………………… 93 10. Japanese Winter Weather Pattern………………………….. 111 11. Japanese Summer Weather Pattern…………………………. 114 12. B-29 over Tokyo……………………………………………. 128 13. B-29 Front Cockpit…………………………………………. 133 14. Ditched B-29 in the Pacific..……………………………….. 135 15. LeMay Time Magazine Cover…………………………….... 152 16. Collier’s Magazine Cover………………………………….. 153 17. Trinity “Gadget”…………………………………………… 176 Page 18. Enola Gay B-29…………………………………………… 225 viii 19. Air Force Vision of Future Conflict………………………. 244 20. B-39 Peacemaker………………………………………….. 284 21. B-47 Stratojet……………………………………………… 284 22. YB-52 Stratofortress………………………………………. 284 23. LeMay/B-36 Time Magazine Cover………………………. 311 24. Air Force Version of National Security…………………… 354 25. Collier’s Magazine Cover………………………………… 374 LIST OF TABLES 1. Area Destroyed by the 20th Air Force……………………….. 128 ix CHAPTER 1 ZERO DEGREES Foundations ____________________________________________ Shortly after August 6, 1945 following the dropping of the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, the United States attempted to warn the Japanese people about the power of the newly developed atomic bomb. In an effort to encourage the Japanese to sue for peace, Americans dropped leaflets over the home islands. Written on leaflets prior to the Nagasaki detonation was an ominous warning: To the Japanese People: America asks that you take immediate heed of what we say on this leaflet. We are in possession of the most destructive explosive ever devised by man. A single one of our newly developed atomic bombs is actually the equivalent in explosive power to what 2000 of our giant B-29s can carry on a single mission. This awful fact is one for you to ponder and we solemnly assure you it is grimly accurate. We have just begun to use this weapon against your homeland. If you still have any doubt, make inquiry as to what happened to Hiroshima when just one atomic bomb fell on that city. You should take steps now to cease military resistance. Otherwise, we shall resolutely employ this bomb and all our other superior weapons to promptly and forcefully end the war. EVACUATE YOUR CITIES.1 Despite this warning and because of Japanese inaction regarding surrender proceedings, early on the morning of August 9, a specially configured B-29 “Superfortress” piloted by Major Charles Sweeney took off from Tinian Island. The plane's mission was to drop a second atomic bomb. Traveling northwest from the island, Major Sweeney’s primary target was
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