BABY BONES, FOOD, AND HEALTH: STABLE ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR INFANT FEEDING PRACTICES IN THE GREEK COLONY OF APOLLONIA (5th - 2nd CENTURIES B.C.)
A Thesis Submitted to the Committee of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Masters of Arts in the Faculty of Arts and Science.
TRENT UNIVERSITY Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
© Copyright by Cynthia S. Kwok 2007
Anthropology M.A. Program
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Baby Bones, Food, and Health: Stable Isotopic Evidence for Infant Feeding Practices in the Greek Colony of Apollonia (5th _ 2nd Centuries B.C.)
Cynthia S. Kwok
The aim of this research is to examine infant feeding patterns in the ancient Greek colony of Apollonia (5th - 2n Centuries B.C.) on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria.
Collagen from the ribs of 64 subadults, ranging in age from 3 months to 15 years, are analyzed for stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes to determine the general age at which weaning was initiated and terminated, and the types of foods onto which infants were weaned. From the stable isotopic evidence, weaning is observed to begin around 1 year and ends around 3 to 5 years of age. Furthermore, the subadult diet is compared to that of the adults to investigate whether the children consumed a different type of diet than the adults of Apollonia. In addition, the stable isotopic data is integrated with the palaeopathological and archaeological evidence as well as ancient literary sources to further explore infant feeding practices at Apollonia. Finally, the Apollonian weaning pattern is discussed within the context of other Classical biochemical weaning studies.
Overall, this study shows the potential of incorporating evidence from multiple sources to draw a more complete picture of ancient Greek lifestyles and childrearing practices.
Keywords: Apollonia, Greek, stable isotopes, nitrogen, carbon, breastfeeding, weaning, palaeodiet, Classical-Hellenistic
n ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, my supervisor Dr. Anne Keenleyside deserves my utmost gratitude for her support, guidance, encouragement, and patience during this whole process at Trent, and for reminding me that not every pathological lesion is congenital
syphilis, as I wish it were. Also, I would like to thank my committee members, Dr.
Jocelyn Williams, Dr. Jennifer Moore and Dr. James Conolly for their insight and
stimulating discussions. I am also grateful to my external examiner Dr. Tamara Varney
for graciously taking the time to read my thesis and participating in my defense. All of
their comments, suggestions and critiques are most appreciated and have improved my
thesis greatly.
My time spent in Sozopol will not be forgotten, and I must thank Dr. Kristina
Panayotova, Dr. Margo Damyanov, and Dr. Dimitar Nedev for allowing me to work with
the skeletal material, for providing information about Apollonia, and for making
fieldwork an incredible experience. The hourly coffee breaks, daily ice-cream/baklava
trips and five-course meals will be missed.
I must also acknowledge Dr. Darren Grocke for access to the Stable-Isotope
Biogeochemistry Laboratory at McMaster University, and to Martin Knyf for performing
the stable isotope analysis. I am also appreciative of the use of Dr. Peter Dillon's lab and
to Heather Broadbent for her assistance while I was working there.
I would like to thank Dr. Tracy Prowse, Dr. Tosha Dupras and Dr. Sandra Garvie-
Lok for providing the comparative information on their research. I am also thankful to
Dr. Henry Schwarcz for reviewing an earlier stage of my work, and to Dr. Frances Burton
for her intuition and Dr. John Albanese for telling me grad school was a 'good idea'.
iii The time I have spent at Trent would not have been as memorable without my fellow graduate students: Marc Blainey, Nathan Content, Carrie Dennett, Jean-Paul
Foster, Rhianne McKay, Jason Seguin, Flannery Surette, Ferenc Toth, Dagmara
Zawadzka, Kate Dougherty, Christopher Little and Donald R. Garrett. I thank them for keeping me sane. It was a 'joy' being your social coordinator for the past two years. I also could not have done this without the support of my parents and family throughout this whole time.
I would lastly like to acknowledge the generous financial support from the
Ontario Graduate Scholarship, The Bagnani Graduate Award from Trent University and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, provided through Dr.
Anne Keenleyside.
IV Table of Contents
Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Table of Contents v List of Figures viii List of Tables ix List of Equations x
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Chapter 2: Infant Feeding Practices and Diet in Classical Antiquity 5 2.1 Weaning Practices in Classical Antiquity 6 2.1.1 Ancient Literary Evidence for the Onset 6 and Cessation of Weaning 2.1.2 Wet-Nurses in Classical Antiquity 10 2.1.3 Archaeological Evidence for Ancient Weaning Practices 13 2.1.4 Artificial Feeding 14 2.2 The Mediterranean Diet 16 2.2.1 Cereals 17 2.2.2 Vegetables 21 2.2.3 Fruits and Nuts 22 2.2.4 Meat 24 2.2.5 Dairy Products 26 2.2.6 Marine Resources 27 2.2.7 Legumes 28 2.2.8 Wine and Olives 29 2.3 The Infant Diet 30 2.3.1 The Neonatal Diet 30 2.3.2 Weaning Diet 32 2.4 Summary 34
Chapter 3: Stable Isotope Analysis in Relation to Weaning Studies 35 3.1 A History of Stable Isotope Analysis 36 3.2 Theoretical and Methodological Aspects of Biochemical Weaning Studies 36 3.2.1 "What are Stable Isotopes?" 37 3.2.2 Methods of Analysis and Tissues Used 39 3.2.3 Diagenesis 41 3.3 Stable Nitrogen Isotopes 43 3.3.1 Assumptions 45 3.3.2 Factors Influencing 5' 5N Values 47 3.4 Stable Oxygen Isotopes 49 3.4.1 Factors Affecting 6180 Values 50 3.5 Stable Carbon Isotopes 51
v Chapter 4: A Review of Biochemical Weaning Studies 53 4.1 A History of Infant Weaning Studies in Anthropology 53 4.2 Terminology 55 4.3 Weaning Studies Using Stable Nitrogen Isotopes 56 4.3.1 Contemporary Studies 56 4.3.2 Prehistoric Europe and South Africa 58 4.3.3 Pre-Contact North America 60 4.3.4 Graeco-Roman 63 4.3.5 Byzantine and Medieval 66 4.3.6 Historic North America 70 4.4 Weaning Studies using Stable Oxygen Isotopes 71 4.5 Limitations in Biochemical Weaning Studies 74 4.6 Summary of Weaning Practices 76
Chapter 5: Materials and Method 78 5.1 Historical and Archaeological Context of the Sample 78 5.2 The Human Skeletal Sample Used for Analysis 81 5.3 Methods of Subadult Age Estimation 83 5.3.1 Dental Formation and Emergence 85 5.3.2 Diaphyseal Length 87 5.3.3 Epiphyseal Fusion 88 5.4 Preparation of Bone Samples for Stable Isotope Analysis 90 5.5 Assessing the Degree of Preservation 94 5.6 Statistical Analysis 95
Chapter 6: Results 96 6.1 Age Estimation 96 6.2 Preservation of Collagen 97 6.2.1 Collagen Yield 99 6.2.2 Carbon to Nitrogen Ratios 101 6.2.3 Nitrogen and Carbon Concentrations 103 6.3 Stable Nitrogen and Carbon Isotope Data 106 6.3.1 Stable Isotope Data by Age 106 6.4 Palaeopathological Data 112 6.4.1 Cribra Orbitalia 112 6.4.2 Porotic Hyperostosis 113
Chapter 7: Discussion and Interpretations 115 7.1 How Representative is the Apollonian Necropolis of the Population? 115 7.2 Assessment of the Isotopic Analysis 118 7.2.1 Stable Nitrogen Isotopes and Weaning Practices 118 7.2.2 Archaeological Evidence for Weaning Practices 122 7.3 Stable Isotopic Evidence for the Subadult Diet 125 7.3.1 Weaning Diet 126 7.3.2 Childhood Diet 130 7.3.3 Juvenile Diet Compared to the Adult Diet 134
VI 7.4 Health Implications Associated with Infant Feeding Practices 136 7.4.1 Cribra Orbitalia and Porotic Hyperostosis 137 7.5 Individual Weaning Patterns? 142 7.6 Subadult Mortality 144 7.7 Comparison of the Graeco-Roman Weaning Studies 147
Chapter 8: Conclusions 150 8.1 Limitations of this Study 150 8.2 Future Research 151 8.3 Summary of the Apollonian Infant Feeding Practices and Significance of the Research 153
References Cited 156
Appendices Appendix A: Ancient Literary Sources 175 Appendix B: Summary of Previous Weaning Studies 177 Appendix C: Recording Forms 182 Appendix D: Age Estimation Methods 193 Appendix E: Adjusted Subadult Stable Isotope Values 201
VII List of Figures
2.1 Red-figure vase illustrating a wealthy mother breastfeeding 13 her child 3.1 Stable nitrogen isotope enrichment in the food web 44 3.2 Hypothetical graph of the weaning process using stable nitrogen 45 isotopes 4.1 Calculation of the age-at-formation for Linear Enamel Hypoplasia 54 (LEH) 5.1 Map showing the location of Sozopol (Apollonia) 79 5.2 Map of the Apollonian necropolis relative to the town of Sozopol 80 6.1 Age-at-death distribution of the Apollonian subadults (n=64) 96 6.2 Assessment of diagenesis by comparing collagen yield to the 100 815N values 6.3 Assessment of diagenesis by comparing collagen yield to the 101 S13C values 6.4 Assessment of diagenesis by comparing the 8 N values to 102 C/N ratios 6.5 Assessment of diagenesis by comparing the 8 C values to 103 C/N ratios 6.6 Assessment of diagenesis by comparing the %N and 815N values 104 6.7 Assessment of diagenesis by comparing the %C and 813C values 105 6.8 8 N values compared to the age-at-death for the Apollonian 107 subadults 6.9 8 C values compared to the age-at-death for the Apollonian 110 subadults 6.10 Frequency of cribra orbitalia (CO) in the Apollonian subadults 113 6.11 Frequency of porotic hyperostosis (PH) in the Apollonian 114 subadults 7.1 Scaled drawing of infant feeding vessels from burial # 322 and unknown from Apollonia 123 7.2 Typical feeding vessel from Apollonia 123 7.3 Reconstructed weaning diet of subadults 1 to 5 years of age 128 7.4 Reconstructed childhood diet of those over 5 years of age 131 7.5 Sheep astralgali uncovered at the Apollonia necropolis 132 7.6 Fish grill from the Apollonia necropolis 134 7.7 Comparison of the diet consumed by the Apollonian subadults and adults 135 7.8 First permanent molar with noticeable crenulations on crown (Ap 403) 143 7.9 Age-at-death distribution and CO frequency of the Apollonian subadults 146
Vlll List of Tables
1 Stable nitrogen and carbon isotope values 97 2 Stable nitrogen and carbon isotope values by age-at-death 106 categories 3 Mann-Whitney U test for 815N values comparing subadults to adult females 108 4 Mann-Whitney U test between subadult age groups and their §15N values 109 5 Mann-Whitney U test between subadult age groups and their 813C values 111 6 Number of subadults affected with cribra orbitalia 112 7 Number of subadults affected with porotic hyperostosis 114 1 Comparison of weaning practices derived from Graeco-Roman biochemical studies 148
IX List of Equations
5.1 Bone weight 91 5.2 Weight of collagen 93 5.3 % Collagen yield 94
x 1
Chapter 1
Introduction
Weaning, the process whereby an infant becomes gradually independent of breast milk and begins to consume other foods, is a fundamental part of childhood. For the first six months of life, breast milk is usually the sole form of infant nutrition and contains T- and B-lymphocytes, immunoglobulins, and anti-staphylococcus factors, which are essential for immune system development (reviewed in Katzenberg et al., 1996).
Understanding weaning patterns of past populations can provide additional insight into cultural behaviour such as childrearing practices, as well as biological information, including infant mortality and morbidity, population health, growth and fertility (Clayton et al., 2006; Stuart-Macadam, 1995; Williams et al., 2005). Breastfeeding also likely held more precedence in past societies, since it is often assumed that safe alternatives, such as the use of infant feeding formula in modern western societies, were lacking in the past
(Stuart-Macadam, 1995). In connection, weaning is also a critical time in an infant's life since the types of foods a child is weaned onto can significantly impact their health.
Dietary choices are constrained by factors such as individual preference, availability of resources, and economic situation. As with any society, food in Classical antiquity provided the necessary nourishment required to survive, but one of its more inconspicuous functions is the symbolic role it played in differentiating social groups
(Garnsey, 1999). Diet, health and disease are synonymous with one another, and social differences can have an impact on their effect on the individual and the population. 2
Understanding how these elements interact with one another is a key question in bioarchaeological research that can help clarify what life was like in past populations.
Reconstructing the palaeodiet of previous societies can be accomplished using a variety of evidence, including skeletal and dental remains, archaeological, and ancient literary sources. Archaeological remains encompassing faunal and palaeobotanical remains and pottery types can all provide indirect evidence of the types of foods available to the population. Pottery types can also yield dietary information, since certain types were designated to store particular foods in Classical antiquity; for example, wine jars possess specific stylistic features that help identify their function. Although an excellent source of information, archaeological remains do not address whether these foods were actually consumed by the inhabitants. Additionally, the recovery of archaeological remains is contingent upon the existence of adequate preservation. Ancient literary sources can also provide information as to the types of meals and foods typical of the population, yet they often do not indicate whether all individuals consumed the same diet.
Furthermore, there are literary biases to contend with and be wary of. Incorporating skeletal remains can offer additional insight into past diet through paleopathology and biochemical evidence (Katzenberg, 2000). Skeletal indicators of stress can yield indirect information on the effects of dietary choices, while stable isotope analysis can provide more direct evidence of the types of foods consumed.
Since its application to anthropology in the 1970s (DeNiro and Epstein, 1978; van der Merwe and Vogel, 1978; Vogel and van der Merwe, 1977), stable isotope analysis has opened up new avenues of research in the field. Diet can be examined in more detail than before, and the utilization of stable isotopes is now commonly employed in 3 palaeodietary studies. More importantly, larger population-based questions concerning the interactions between diet, health and disease in past populations can be investigated.
The premise of stable isotope analysis is that collagen in bone tissues is reflective of the major sources of protein consumed by the individual. Therefore, it is possible to derive palaeodietary reconstructions for individuals as well as for the general population
(Katzenberg, 2000). Moreover, stable isotopes also exhibit a trophic level effect, particularly nitrogen, in which organisms higher on the food chain will yield proportionately enriched isotopic signatures (DeNiro and Epstein, 1981; Minagawa and
Wada, 1984; Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1984). This phenomenon has been applied to
study weaning patterns using subadult remains, since breastfeeding children are one trophic level above their mothers and will therefore exhibit elevated stable nitrogen
isotope values compared to adult females (Fogel et al., 1989; Katzenberg, 2000).
The goal of this study is to investigate infant feeding practices in the ancient
Greek colony of Apollonia (5th - 2nd centuries B.C.) on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria.
Questions that will be addressed are the following: 1) what was the timing and duration of weaning?, 2) what types of foods were the subadults weaned onto?, 3) what foods were consumed by older subadults?, 4) how does the childhood diet compare to that of the adults of Apollonia?, and 5) how has the diet influenced the health of the Apollonian
subadults? This research is of importance on multiple levels. First, it will contribute to
our limited knowledge of ancient Greek lifestyles and childrearing practices. Secondly,
on a broader level, it will expand our comprehension of how this crucial infant feeding practice varies across cultures. In particular, the results from Apollonia will be compared to those derived from other biochemical weaning studies of populations from Classical 4 antiquity. Thirdly, this is the first study to apply stable isotope analysis to explore weaning and childhood diet in a Greek colonial population on the Black Sea.
This thesis will commence with a survey of the ancient literature on infant feeding practices and diet in Classical antiquity. Chapter 3 discusses the theoretical and methodological background associated with stable isotope analysis in relation to weaning practices, while Chapter 4 provides an overview of past biochemical weaning studies.
This section explores the larger cultural trends in infant feeding practices and assesses how it has changed over time and in different populations. Chapter 5 details the materials and methods utilized in this study, and Chapter 6 provides the results obtained in this analysis. The data is interpreted in Chapter 7 and discussed in relation to their health and also compared with other Classical biochemical weaning studies. Lastly, a summary of the pertinent conclusions is revealed in Chapter 8, and limitations and recommendations for future research are considered.
By integrating a variety of sources including skeletal, archaeological and ancient literary evidence, we can draw a more complete image of infant feeding practices at
Apollonia and can examine the factors influencing this childhood process. In essence, we can begin to understand the larger picture of diet and health in an ancient Greek colonial population. 5
Chapter 2
Infant Feeding Practices and Diet in Classical Antiquity
Within the Classical literature, there is a paucity of sources outlining childhood weaning practices and their dietary regimen. In addition, most of the available and widely known literary evidence is from the Roman period, while the Greek literature pales in comparison. Given this limitation, both Greek and Roman literary sources were surveyed for this review. The rationale for this stems from the knowledge that Roman practices were heavily influenced by Greek culture, particularly the field of medicine, which was strongly affected by Greek practices from the 3rd century B.C. onwards (King, 2001).
Therefore, both cultures should share a great deal of similarity (Braun, 1991). Another consideration is that since the Graeco-Roman period spans a vast amount of time, the time period for each literary author is listed in Appendix A. Furthermore, weaning and dietary practices can change over time, and this review will serve to provide a 'general' overview of dietary and weaning practices in Classical antiquity.
Although ancient literary sources can provide us with a first-hand account of daily life in Graeco-Roman society, their inherent biases must be recognized. For one, most of these scholarly works were written by upper class males, and are not representative of all socio-economic classes (Garnsey, 1998). Secondly, all of the literary treatises examined in this review are English translations from Greek or Latin, and prejudices can originate from the translators themselves (Braun, 1991). 6
When referring to the ancient Graeco-Roman literature, confusion often arises regarding terminology used in reference to time periods. Throughout this thesis, the term
'Classical antiquity' will be used to encompass both Greek and Roman periods, while the actual time periods will be specified when referring to particular time periods, for example, the Classical-Hellenistic period.
2.1 Weaning Practices in Classical Antiquity
2.1.1 Ancient Literary Evidence for the Onset and Cessation of Weaning
Medical texts and wet-nursing contracts provide much of the evidence for weaning practices in Classical antiquity. A gradual weaning process was recommended in the medical works of Hippocrates, Soranus and Galen. Food was to be slowly introduced to the infant while the amount of breast milk imbibed accordingly decreased. In comparison, abrupt weaning was perceived to be deleterious to the infant's health
(Soranus, Gynecology II, 46.115). Most of the literary evidence indicates that weaning began around 6 months of age. Soranus (Gynecology II. 46.115) writes: "by the age of six months, it is proper to feed the child also with cereal food". In addition, a wet-nursing contract from Egypt during the Greek period indicates that the nurse was to solely breastfeed the infant until they are 6 months of age. After this, the infant was to be fed with breast milk and other foods until s/he reached 18 months of age (Fildes, 1986, 1988;
Garrison, 1965). Although several wet-nursing contracts have survived from this era, they are limited, in that most do not clearly indicate the age when weaning 'typically' began.
Instead, most contracts only specify the age when weaning was terminated. 7
Besides using the chronological age of the child to signal when weaning should begin, other indicators noted in the literature are the timing of dental eruption and body mass. The Hippocratic treatises (On Dentition, IX. \6) mention that weaning is closely related to teething, and Galen (as cited in Fildes, 1986) advises that solid foods be introduced to an infant once he has "cut his first teeth". In connection, the central lower incisor is the first deciduous tooth to emerge at 6 months of age (Buikstra and Ubelaker,
1994), the age at which weaning was suggested to commence. This further substantiates the Classical belief that weaning was related to teething. Body mass was another factor considered to indicate the start of weaning. Soranus (Gynecology 46.115) believed that infants should only be fed on milk until their bodies became stronger and firmer due to the added body mass that accompanies age.
There are more literary sources that supply information on the weaning age, the age at which infants completely cease feeding on breast milk. On average, the Graeco-
Roman literary sources indicate a weaning age of 2 to 3 years (Fildes, 1988). Galen (On
Hygiene, I. 9) advocated that infants be completely weaned at 3 years of age, while
Soranus (Gynecology II. 47.116) recommended a time frame of 18 months to 2 years.
Egyptian wet-nursing contracts from the Graeco-Roman period exhibit varying weaning ages, ranging from 6 months to 3 years, while 2 years appears to have been the typical age (Garnsey, 1998). One Hellenistic period contract (13 B.C.) notes, "Didyma agrees to nurse and suckle...with her own milk...for a period of 16 months...the foundling slave girl" (Select Papyri, 1.16). Another agreement from Egypt (A.D. 187) required the slave
Sarapias to nurse the young girl Helena for 2 years (Oxyrhynchus Papyrus, 91, as cited in
Jackson, 1988). 8
Once again, the termination of weaning was dependent on other factors besides the age of the child. These included the state of dental emergence, the season, and the sex of the child. Soranus (Gynecology II 47.116) advised that the child be fully weaned when most of the milk teeth had emerged, so that they could readily chew more solid foods.
Biologically, the deciduous dentition is fully erupted by the age of 3 to 4 years (Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994), which coincides with most Classical weaning recommendations.
The environment was also believed to influence how well a child was weaned, although there was some debate as to which season was best. The Hippocratic treatises (On
Dentition, XVI) note that infants teething during winter were weaned more successfully, while Soranus (Gynecology II, 48.117^ felt that spring was "well tempered" weather, and the best season for weaning a child. He considered autumn to be the worst season because of the fluctuating climate and the increased prevalence of disease due to individuals changing their daily habits. There was also some debate about whether girls should be weaned later than boys. This belief can be attributed to the patriarchal nature of Classical society, in which women were generally perceived to be of lower status than men
(Pomeroy, 1995). Damastes advised that girls be weaned 6 months later than boys, owing to their 'weaker' nature (Soranus, Gynecology II 48.117). However, Soranus (Gynecology
II 48.117^) disagreed, observing that some girls are stronger and 'fleshier' than boys and therefore should be weaned at the same age.
Although the average age at which weaning began and was completed is presented here, this does not mean that every child followed these guidelines. The ancient literature also documents variation in weaning practices, since some children were weaned earlier, and others later than the recommended age. Some mothers weaned their 9 child onto cereals as early as 40 days after birth, which Soranus (Gynecology II 46.115) felt was hasty. Garnsey (1998) suggests that poorer families may have prematurely weaned their children if they could not continue to breastfeed them due to financial reasons, and if they had no wet-nurses among their family, friends or neighbours. Based on modern clinical studies, risks associated with early weaning include 'weanling diarrhea', allergies due to the introduction of food to an immature digestive tract, and malnutrition, which can all lead to increased infant morbidity (Hendricks and Badruddin,
1992). Furthermore, the Greeks were aware of infant diarrheal diseases, as the
Hippocratic treatises (Aphorisms, I. 25) mention this condition in teething subadults.
However, this condition was not explicitly associated with weaning practices, which would have been a likely cause since weaning normally occurred when a child was teething.
The practice of late weaning is also illustrated in Graeco-Roman wet-nursing contracts. Reasons for the delay may be linked to the health of the child, since Soranus
(Gynecology II 48.117) recommended that a child revert back to breastfeeding if s/he became ill after s/he was weaned. Some of the biological consequences associated with late weaning include growth faltering, decreased biological immunity, diarrheal diseases and malnutrition (Hendricks and Badruddin, 1992).
Even though the medical treatises of Hippocrates, Soranus and Galen were authoritative works of their time, it remains unknown whether the general public actually followed their recommendations. Medical treatises were ordinarily written and read by the upper class, and the lower classes may not have had access to this medical knowledge. Certainly, weaning practices varied in Classical antiquity, as evident by the 10 fluctuating weaning ages noted in wet-nursing contracts and by the broad weaning age range provided by Soranus (Gynecology II, 47.116).
2.1.2 Wet-Nurses in Classical Antiquity
It is evident from wet-nursing contracts, medical texts, and tombstone inscriptions that wet-nurses were commonly employed in Classical society. Most of the wet-nurses were slaves and women of lower socio-economic status. Given poverty and stress, some women may have resorted to wet-nursing in addition to breastfeeding their own children as a means of financial support if their husbands were abroad fighting in wars (Fildes,
1986).
Foreign nurses were preferred by the Athenians. Spartan women were especially
favoured on account of their "robust physique and sturdy wholesome nature", and the reputation that Spartan children were strong and healthy (Garrison, 1965:36). Corinthian
and Phrygian nurses were also hired by the Athenians (Garrison, 1965). The Romans themselves were partial to Greek nurses, particularly Spartan women since Soranus
(Gynecology, II. 19.88) viewed them as the ideal wet-nurse. However, Fildes (1988) notes that the majority of medical writers during the Roman period were Greeks themselves, and thus may be biased towards advocating the employment of Greek nurses.
Not every Graeco-Roman family could afford to hire wet-nurses. Access to a nurse was likely restricted to the upper socio-economic classes who could afford to hire one (Fildes, 1988; Garnsey, 1998). Reasons for hiring wet-nurses are complex and may have included the inability of a mother to breastfeed, or the death of the mother.
Additionally, wet-nurses could have acted as a status symbol, since affluent families were the typical employers. Furthermore, these women may have been sought after to help the 11 mother recover after childbirth, so that she did not grow "prematurely old, having spent herself through the daily suckling" (Soranus, Gynecology, II, 19.88). Bradley (1986) also suggests that wet-nurses may have functioned to protect parents from the psychological trauma associated with losing a child, since infant mortality was considerably higher in
Classical antiquity compared to modern populations. However, Garnsey (1998) cautions against this interpretation since inferring past emotional feelings from archaeological and literary evidence is complicated.
Stringent guidelines were involved in selecting a suitable wet-nurse in Classical antiquity. The nurses were evaluated based on their behaviour, appearance, milk quality and quantity, health, and morals (Fildes. 1988). This level of detail was deemed necessary since it was widely believed that infants would take on the physical and mental characteristics of their nurse through her milk (Fildes, 1988). According to Soranus
(Gynecology, II. 20.89), an appropriate nurse was between the ages of 20 and 40, healthy, had already borne 2 to 3 children, and had to have been nursing for 2 to 3 months prior to being hired. The diet of the wet-nurse was deemed to influence her milk production, and was to be regulated. Soranus advised that the nurse consume bread, particularly made from spring wheat, yokes of eggs, thrushes, young pigeons, domestic birds, suckling pig, and fish such as red mullet, and bass. Foods with 'bad juices' were to be avoided since they provided little nourishment and were hard to digest. These included leeks, onions, garlic, preserved fish, radishes, pulses, most vegetables, sheep, roasted oxen, spices, and rich sauces (Soranus, Gynecology, II, 24.93).
Wet-nurses played an important role within the Greek household. In addition to looking after the child, they also supervised other household servants, and stayed within 12 the home of their charge until s/he reached adulthood (Fildes, 1988). However, this position may have been restricted to acquired slaves, while free women may have only be hired for a period of time, as the Romano-Egypt wet-nursing contracts suggest.
Generally, Greek wet-nurses were perceived as kind, loving and caring women who established close bonds with their charges. This is evident through the many epitaphs, statues, and grave stelae that citizens dedicated to the memory of their nurse (Fildes,
1988; Garland, 1998).
Even though wet-nurses were part of childrearing practices in Classical antiquity, not every child may have been breastfed by a nurse. Many philosophers and moralists from the Roman period, such as Pliny, Plutarch, Tacitus, and Aulus Gellius were against the employment of wet-nurses. To them, mother's milk was the most suitable, natural, and healthiest form of nourishment for the young infant. In contrast, Soranus
(Gynecology, II. 17.86) encouraged parents to choose the best person to feed their infant, which may not necessarily have been the child's mother. Although the upper classes were the typical employers of wet-nurses, some wealthier mothers may have elected to breastfeed their own child. Evidence for this practice can been seen in the Odyssey
(Homer, XI. 508), for Penelope, the queen of Ithaca was portrayed with her "infant
[Telemachus] at her breast" when her husband Odysseus left for the battle at Troy.
Further evidence comes from a Greek red-figure vase dated to 440 B.C. (Figure 2.1).
Based on the woman's 'high backed chair', she is a 'legitimate wife' and her bracelets and embroidered cloak indicate a position of wealth (Pomeroy, 1995: Illustration 9). 13
Figure 2.1 An Attic red-figure hydria dated ca. 440-430 B.C. Scene of wealthy mother breastfeeding her own child. (Pomeroy SB. 1995. Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves. Women in Classical Antiquity. Schocken Books: New York, pp. Illustrations 9).
2.1.3 Archaeological Evidence for Ancient Weaning Practices
Artistic reliefs, tombstone inscriptions and infant feeding vessels can also provide information about weaning practices. In this review, infant feeding bottles will be the topic of focus, since several have been found buried with the Apollonian infants. The ancient literature suggests that these vessels were used primarily to feed children supplementary fluids. For example, thirsty infants were to be given watery wine using an
"artificial nipple" (Soranus, Gynecology, II. 46.115/
Feeding vessels have been recovered in graves of infants and young adult females in Greece, Italy, Asia Minor and Egypt (Fildes, 1986; Rosenthal, 1936). The earliest 14 feeding vessel to be found dates from the Late Neolithic (5th millennium B.C.) in France from an infant grave at Tours-sur-Marne (Brothwell and Brothwell, 1998). During the early 20l century, these vessels were commonly misinterpreted as oil lamps, since feeding vessels and oil lamps are stylistically similar. However, considering the archaeological context of these vessels, in which they are often buried with young children, it becomes likely that these artifacts were used to feed infants (Weinberg, 1993).
Additional chemical analysis of residues within these vessels has yielded traces of casein, a protein found in milk, thereby strengthening the argument that these artifacts are infant feeding vessels (Drake, 1938; Fildes, 1981; Smith, 1871; Weinberg, 1993). However, it does not indicate whether human breast milk or animal milk was in these feeding vessels.
Fildes (1981, 1986, 1988) has observed that the Classical period yielded two distinct types of feeding vessels base on size. The first type is the smaller vessel measuring 30 to 70 mm in height and possessing a maximum diameter ranging between
60 to 70 mm. The smaller vessel may have been used to feed neonates with supplementary fluids before or during the early days of breastfeeding. The second type, the larger vessel, may have functioned to administer supplementary fluids to older infants during weaning. These larger vessels tend to encompass a height ranging from 95 to 125 mm, and are 100 to 150 mm in width.
2.2.4 Artificial Feeding
Not every child in Classical antiquity was breastfed by its mother or a wet-nurse.
Reasons for this may include: 1) the mother's death during childbirth, 2) the inability of the mother to provide breast milk, 3) congenital defects of the child, 4) prematurity of the infant, or 5) the decision to withhold breast milk from a child (Fildes 1988). Maternal 15 death during childbirth was a common occurrence in Classical antiquity. This was likely due to the lack of sterilized equipment, unsanitary conditions, poor hygiene of the midwife, and limited medical knowledge about the complications associated with child- birthing, such as uterine haemorrhage and gangrene (Allason-Jones, 1989). The
Hippocratic treatises (Airs, Waters, Places, 4) provide evidence that some mothers in
Greek society were "unable to feed their babies because the flow of milk is dried up by the intractable hardness of the water". Famine and multiple births are also conditions that can inhibit the production of breast milk. Congenital defects such as cleft palate would have rendered infants unable to suckle, while genetic syphilis would have deterred wet- nurses from breastfeeding a child for fear of contracting the disease. Like infants with cleft palates, those born prematurely would not possess enough strength to suckle and would have had to be fed by hand. Lastly, some mothers may have simply decided not to breastfeed their child, possibly due to financial constraints if they had to work, or because of narcissistic reasons (Fildes, 1988).
In these circumstances, children would have to rely on alternate sources of nutrition, such as animal milk and gruels (Jelliffe and Jelliffe, 1978). In Classical mythology, abandoned infants were commonly nursed directly from animals. Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome, were suckled by a she-wolf when abandoned, and other examples from Greek myth detail how Zeus was suckled by a goat named
Amalthea, while a deer nursed the abandoned son of Heracles (Fildes, 1986). The reality of this situation is that it was unlikely that children fed directly from an animal, given the belief that the infant would then take on the characteristics of that animal. For example,
Romulus and Remus were said to be cruel due to the fact they were nursed by a she-wolf 16
(Fildes, 1986). Instead, feeding vessels, horns, and cups were likely used to administer the artificial diet. However, infant feeders were also used to provide supplementary fluids to infants during weaning, and it is not possible to distinguish whether these artifacts were used for artificial or supplementary feeding (Fildes, 1988).
It is imaginable that the consequences associated with artificial feeding were grim in Classical antiquity. Infants fed on an artificial diet of animal milk and gruel would have likely suffered from diarrheal diseases, owing to the infant's immature gastro intestinal system (Jelliffe and Jellifee, 1978). In the Mediterranean environment, milk and food spoil quickly and the chance of bacterial contamination leading to gastrointestinal diseases becomes all the greater.
2.2 The Mediterranean Diet
The various types of foods and dishes described in dinner banquets provide ample evidence for the gastronomical diversity that existed in Classical antiquity. For example, items listed from a Greek dinner banquet hosted by Philoxenus of Cythera (as cited in
Waterlow, 1989) (4 century B.C.) include several types breads (barley cakes, wheaten loaves), a variety of marine foods (tunny, eel, shark, sting ray, grey mullet, squid, prawns), terrestrial meats (pig, milk-fed goat, hare, partridges, ring doves), and sweets
(puff wheat cakes, honey and cheese curds). However, this was not a typical meal of ordinary citizens. Access to this variety of food ultimately depended on an individual's socio-economic status, as well as geographical location (Fidanza, 1979). In the Republic,
Plato (as cited in Fidanza, 1979) notes that the meals of Greeks living outside of Greece were often much more luxurious than those living in inland Greece. 17
The 'ordinary' diet, in comparison, consisted heavily of cereals. Beans, pulses, vegetables, fruit, olive oil, and dairy products were also consumed, while meat and fish were available but made up only a minor part of the diet (Garnsey, 1998; Waterlow,
1989; White, 1995). Within the lower socio-economic class in Athens, the choice of food was often restricted, as noted in Athenaeus' Deipnosophists (II. 54-55):
"My man is a pauper, and I am an old woman... If three of us get a dinner, the other two must share with them only a tiny barley cake. Sounds of wailing untuneful we utter when we have nothing, and our complexions grow pale with lack of food. The Elements and the sum of our livelihood are these - a bean, a lupine, greens, and a turnip, pulse, vetch, beech-nut, the bulb of an iris, a cicada, chick-pea, wild pear, and that God-given inheritance of our mother-country, darling of my heart, a dried fig, brought to light from a Phrygian fig-tree"
Another example of a frugal diet is described in a letter by Pliny the Younger to Septicius
Clarus where "one lettuce each, three snails, two eggs, wheat-cake, and wine with honey
chilled with snow... olives, beetroots, gherkins, onions" were served at his dinner party
{Letters, I. XV).
2.2.1 Cereals
"Barley meal and wheaten flour are the marrow of men" (Homer, Odyssey,
XX. 121). Cereals were the primary dietary staple of the Mediterranean diet. It was important enough that the Greeks prayed to a designated grain goddess, Demeter, for a
successful growing season. Cereals were part of sacrificial ceremonies, particularly white barley, which was sprinkled over oxen prior to being sacrificed (Fidanza, 1979). In
addition, grain was the most valuable trade commodity amongst the Greeks (Garnsey,
1999; Waterlow, 1989). The Athenian government tightly controlled the grain exchange 18 by regulating the price of cereals, providing rations for citizens, and importing supplies when the local reserves were low (Dalby, 2003). In addition, one of the reasons for establishing colonies on the Black Sea was to gain access to cereals so they could be directly imported into Greece (Braun, 1991; Waterlow, 1989).
A wide range of cereals was available throughout the Graeco-Roman world; however regional variation dictated which types of cereals were accessible and consumed. The season would also undoubtedly govern what type of crops could be grown (Garnsey, 1999; White, 1995). Wheat and barley were the major cereals grown in the Mediterranean. Palaeobotanical remains from archaeological sites in Bulgaria have yielded several types of cereals, including einkorn, emmer, spelta, free-threshing and naked 6-rowed barley (Zohary and Hopf, 2001). Oats, millet and panic were also available in Classical antiquity but were only consumed in times of food scarcity and were used primarily as animal feed (Garnsey, 1999; Grant, 2000).
Wheat was the preferred cereal within the Graeco-Roman world, since it was considered to be more easily digestible and nutritious compared to barley and legumes
(Braund, 1995; Garnsey, 1998, 1999). Dioscorides (De Materia Medica, II. 108) and
Celsus (De Medicina, II. 18.4) highly revered the benefits of wheat over barley, and
Athenion the Aristoelean (as cited in Braun, 1991) decreed that barley was only consumed by the poor and animals. However, within the Hippocratic treatise, Regimen in
Acute Diseases (X), barley was considered superior to wheat in treating illnesses.
Nevertheless, in another Hippocratic text, Regimen in Health (II. 42), wheat was deemed to be more nourishing than barley. Although the Greeks viewed barley as the oldest cereal (Braun, 1991; Pliny the Elder, Natural History XVIII. 71), it did not possess the 19 same 'power' as wheat when making bread. Galen {On the Powers of Food, I) explained that barley 'failed to heat', while wheat was able to do so, making it the appropriate cereal for bread. Brothwell (1988) mentions that some Greek localities may have grown more barley than wheat due to poor crop rotation practices, little manure, and poor soil.
Barley also took less time to mature and was less likely to be afflicted with diseases compare to wheat (Braun, 1991). Furthermore, a hierarchy existed between the different species of wheat and barley, in which some were valued more than others. For example, out of the two species of naked wheats, Triticum aestivum was perceived as 'softer' than
Triticum durum for bread. Husked grains, such as emmer and einkorn, were also favoured over the naked grains (Garnsey, 1999).
Social class was an important factor in determining what type of cereal was consumed, and how it was prepared. Wheat may have been consumed more by the upper classes since wheaten bread was expensive. It was likely only consumed by the ordinary masses on holidays (Fidanza, 1979). Barley, in contrast, was the chief cereal of the ordinary masses, particularly those who did not have access to the government grain doles, since it was cheaper and more freely available than wheat (Braund, 1995; Garnsey,
1998; Grivetti, 2001). Peasant food included boiled wheats seasoned with salt (Galen, On the Powers of Food, I), and kykeon, a popular beverage of barley meal steeped in water flavoured with mint, penny royal or thyme (Grivetti, 2001). Barley could also be prepared as bread, flat cakes/maza (a type of pancake) gruel, porridge, roasted meal, biscuits, stew and soup (Garnsey, 1998; Grivetti, 2001; Fidanza, 1979). In addition, supplements such as dairy products, olives, figs, meat and salt fish could be used to flavour the barley gruel
(Brothwell, 1988). 20
Cereals were first threshed, winnowed, ground, and pounded with a mortar before they were cooked to make a variety of food products (Garnsey, 1999; Hansen, 1999).
They could be further boiled, cooled, or roasted, which was believed to alter the power of the food (Hippocrates, Ancient Medicine, 3). However, nutrients are often lost in the cooking process (Hansen, 1999). The majority of cereals were prepared as bread, as many different types existed, such as leavened or unleavened bread (Fidanza, 1979). Moreover,
Galen (On the Powers of Food, I) lists 4 classes of bread: extra dirty bran, white breads, wholemeal bread, and cleanly fine ground bread. Bread was a staple for all socio economic classes, and was normally dipped in undiluted wine and consumed during breakfast (Grivitti, 2001).
Cereals were the major carbohydrate within the Graeco-Roman diet, and may have comprised almost 70% of an individual's daily caloric requirement (Brothwell,
1988). Galen (On the Powers of Food, I) and Celsus (De Medicina, 11.18) both considered cereals to be highly nutritious, and they made up a greater portion of the middle to lower class diet compared to the upper faction, who had access to a greater variety of different foods (White, 1995). Garnsey (1998) reasons that cereals were an adequate source of food energy, assuming that the minimum caloric intake required to sustain life is 1,625 to 2,012 kilocalories per day, this baseline could be achieved by ingesting 650 to 800 grams of wholemeal bread. Although cereals provide a large amount of protein, they are deficient in vitamins A, C, D, and the amino acid lysine, and contain a high amount of phytates (Garnsey, 1998). Biologically, lysine is required for proper calcium absorption, the development of antibodies, hormones and enzymes, and collagen formation. In children, it is important for proper growth and bone development (Dorland, 21
1982). The presence of phytates affects and limits the body's ability to absorb calcium and iron (Garnsey, 1998).
2.2.2 Vegetables
Vegetables mainly served to flavour dishes and provide variety to meals, and were not consumed primarily for their nutrients (Brothwell, 1988). Romans were renowned for overseasoning their dishes with vegetables (Jackson, 1988). Vegetables did not hold as great importance as cereals since Celsus {De Medicina, II. 18.3) ranked them as the lowest class of nourishment. Although vegetables were part of the Mediterranean diet, they were not consumed in equal amounts in all geographical areas. Grivetti (2001)
suggests that rural areas of Greece consumed more vegetables while it was rare for urban centres to have access to fresh produce.
Vegetables available in Classical antiquity included asparagus, garlic, lettuce, onion, peaks, radish, turnip, cabbage, watercress, celery, chestnuts, beechnuts, carrots, leek, white mustard, clematis, elm-leaf, parsnip, spinach, peas, cucumber, cyclamen root, and artichoke (Brothwell, 1988; Fidanza, 1979; Garnsey, 1998; Grivetti, 2001; Waterlow,
1989). Once again, not all of these vegetables were available to every socio-economic class. Vegetables accessible to the lower classes included cabbage, leeks, beet, garlic and onion (Garnsey, 1998). Not all vegetables were believed to provide the same amount of nutrition, and turnips, onion, garlic, cabbage, beet and leek were considered to be more nutritious than others (Celsus, De Medicina, II. 18.5). Herbs and spices such as cumin, sesame, mint, basil, coriander, anise, thyme, bay, fennel, saffron, rosemary, sage, silphium, and salt were used to season dishes (Hippocrates, Regimen in Health, II. 54). 22
Vegetables and herbs with 'good juices' were judged to possess medicinal properties and, in addition, to be more nourishing and easily digestible (Soranus,
Gynecology, II. 25.94). These consist of lettuce, watercress, celery, carrots, thyme, pepper, ginger, and oregano (Brothwell, 1988; Galen, On the Powers of Food, 2).
Lettuce, for example was believed to help the body produce new blood (Galen, On the
Powers of Food, 2).
2.2.3 Fruit and Nuts
Fruit was eaten in large quantities during the Classical period by all socio economic classes (Fidanza, 1979). The consumption of fresh fruits was considered to be relaxing (Hippocrates, Regimen in Health. II. 55), and they were normally eaten fresh or dried in combination with honey or nuts during dinner (Brothwell and Brothwell, 1998;
Grivetti, 2001). Fruits also functioned as a sweetener in other dishes (Jackson, 1988).
However, orchard fruits were not nutritious, according to Celsus (De Medicina, II. 18.3).
A variety of indigenous and non-indigenous fruits were available during the Graeco-
Roman period. Fruits indigenous to Greece and Italy include figs, almond, apples, blackberry, cherry, chestnut, citron, dates, filbert, grape, mulberry, olive, peach, pear, plum, pomegranate, quince, carob, arbutus, strawberry, apricot, raspberry, and raisins
(Braun, 1991; Brothwell, 1988; Fidanza, 1979; Grivetti, 2001). Non-indigenous fruits include oranges, lemons, peaches, cherries, bananas and melons, which were not introduced into the Mediterranean until the 1st century A.D. (Braun, 1991). However, the availability and ingestion of these fruits depended largely on the season (Jackson, 1988).
Nuts that were common in Classical antiquity included acorns, almonds, pistachios, walnuts, and chestnuts. 23
One of the most highly regarded fruits in the Classical world were figs, and these were part of the daily Mediterranean diet. Considered to be the first cultivated fruit, figs were important enough that the Athenians forbade the export of this fruit in order to ensure that they had a constant supply (Braun, 1991). Two types of figs prevalent in the
Mediterranean were the sycamore and common fig, the former being more frequent in
Greece. In Sozopol today, fig trees are commonly seen throughout the town, suggesting that they may also have been an important resource at Apollonia during the Classical-
Hellenistic period.
Figs were consumed by all socio-economic classes, were eaten fresh or dried, and were added as a sweetener to dishes such as porridge (Brothwell and Brothwell, 1998;
Brothwell, 1988). However, ripe figs were judged by Galen {On the Powers of Food, 2) to contain little nourishment. He also writes about the medicinal properties of this fruit, since he felt it contained 'something good' that readily passed through the stomach and helped people with kidney problems (Braun, 1991). However, Galen {On the Powers of
Food, 2) warns against the over-consumption of figs, which he believed would damage the liver and spleen. In addition, this fruit was also fed to children, for shoots of figs were recommended as part of the childhood diet (Fildes, 1986). Waterlow (1989) has attributed the high prevalence of carious lesions seen in Greek skeletal remains to be indicative of the frequent consumption of figs, fruit and honey. However, carious lesions can also be caused by a carbohydrate-rich diet (Hillson, 2005; Ortner, 2003), such as would be the case with a diet dependent on cereals. 24
2.2.4 Meat
"Leaf-chewing Greeks... Among them you can only get four little pieces of meat for a ha' penny. But among our ancestors, they used to roast whole oxen, swine, deer and lambs."
(Antiphanes, Oenomaiis/Pelops)
This excerpt from Antiphanes' play, the Oenomaiis, as cited in Athenaeus'
Deipnosophists (IV. 130-131), illustrates the low prevalence of meat consumption amongst the Greeks. Prior to the Classical-Hellenistic period, meat may have been regularly consumed, as suggested within the multiple accounts of roasted meat and slaughtered animals in the Odyssey and Iliad, which are dated to the 8l - 7* century B.C.
However, considering that these epics are generally viewed as fictitious literary works, it is unknown how truly representative they are of earlier time periods. It is reasonable, nevertheless, to assume that meat did not comprise a large part of the ordinary diet during the Classical-Hellenistic period, as meat was an expensive food commodity due to the difficulties of preserving this resource (Garnsey, 1998; Fidanza, 1979; Waterlow, 1989).
Most animals were processed 'on the hoof, in that they were killed immediately before they were served in a meal (Jackson, 1988). In addition, the size of farmland in Greece was reduced during Solon's reign (638 - 558 B.C.), undoubtedly diminishing the ability to raise livestock. Raising livestock is reasoned by Garnsey (1999) to have been an uneconomical use of land, since plants yielded more food per unit area compared to animals. Furthermore, most land was reserved for cultivating olives and grapes, staples exchanged with the Black Sea colonies for grain (Waterlow, 1989).
Generally, meat did not comprise a significant portion of the Mediterranean diet; however it was consumed from time to time, and mostly only available to the upper 25 classes. Pliny the Elder comments that Greeks may have added a small amount of meat to their diet, but not a lot (Brothwell, 1988). Meat was consumed as a part of sacrifices, or during dinner as the main course (Waterlow, 1989). A great variety of domestic meats and wild game existed during the Graeco-Roman period, as evident from Philoxenus of
Cythera's poem of a wealthy dinner banquet. Domesticated meats included pork, beef, goat, mutton, poultry and kid (Brothwell, 1988; Fidanza, 1979; Garsney, 1998; Grivetti,
2001; Waterlow; 1989). Of all animals, cattle were highly prized and the best ones were chosen for sacrificial offerings (Brothwell, 1988), yet most were raised to serve as work animals instead. In comparison, pork, kid and mutton were the more typical types of meat consumed (Fidanza, 1979). Wild game included wild ass, hare, bears, deer, boars, wolves, goats, and a variety of birds, such as blackbirds, chicken, coot, crane, cuckoo, bustard, dove, duck, partridge, goose, grebe, guinea, fowl, jay, lark, nightingale, ostrich, owl, peacock, pelican, pheasant, pigeon, quail, starling, thrush, swan and wagtail
(Brothwell, 1988; Fidanza, 1979; Grivetti, 2001). According to Ovid (Dispatches from the Black Sea I, viii.41-62), livestock that were raised in the Black Sea colonies included goats, sheep and oxen.
Celsus (De Medicina, II. 18.2) classified meat as one of the most nourishing foods, particularly beef and large game animals such as, "wild-she goat, deer, wild boar, wild ass" and large birds including "goose, peacock, and crane". He also noted that qualities such as the size, age, and cut of meat affected how much nourishment could be obtained from the food (Celsus, De Medicina, II. 18.7-8). Meat could be boiled, smoked or roasted, and the latter method was considered most suitable for Homeric heroes, athletes, and soldiers (Braun, 1991; Galen, On the Powers of Food, 1; Jackson, 1988). 26
Jackson (1988) suggests that smoked or dried meat may have led to high cases of food poisoning if it was contaminated, due, in part, to poor sanitation.
2.2.5 Dairy Products
Milk from sheep and goats was the major dairy product in Classical antiquity
(Brothwell, 1988; Fidanza, 1979; Garnsey, 1998; Waterlow, 1989). Camel and cow's milk were also available, but were not used as frequently. The consistency of milk was also believed to differ depending on the time of the year, and this was further correlated to the level of nutrition. Cow's milk was deemed to be thickest and most nutritious, while
camel's milk was the most watery and least oily. Goat's milk was of average consistency,
and sheep's milk was only slightly thicker, making them suitable for consumption
(Galen, On the Powers of Food, 3).
Milk could be imbibed directly or flavoured with honey and salt (Brothwell,
1988; Galen, On the Powers of Food, 3; Grivetti, 2001; Ottagoalli and Testolin, 1991).
Adults rarely drank milk, in contrast to children who drank milk on a more regular basis.
However, the consumption of milk was believed by Galen {On the Powers of Food, 3) to result in tooth decay, and he advocated that a mixture of wine and honey be used to rinse out the mouth after imbibing milk. This could be one reason why adults rarely drank milk, and usually used it only for medicinal purposes.
Cheese was the type of dairy product normally consumed (Grivetti, 2001;
Waterlow; 1989; Fidanza, 1979). It was regarded as one of the favoured foods.
Considered by Celsus (De Medicina, II. 18.3) to be highly nutritious, it was consumed by all socio-economic classes. This dairy product was normally eaten during dessert, and the
Greeks also used it to flavour barley gruel (Brothwell, 1988: Pliny the Elder, Natural 27
History; XVII, 72). Butter was available, but was not typically used by the Greeks, since they viewed this product as food "fit for barbarians" (Grivetti, 2001: 8).
2.2.6 Marine Resources
A diversity of fish and shellfish were available during the Graeco-Roman period.
Shallow and deep sea level fish were procured and included anchovy, carp, conger, halibut, mackerel, mullet, shark, sole, tunny, turbot, grey mullet, mirror carp, parrot fish, sturgeon and sprats (Grivetti, 2001; Waterlow, 1989; Fidanza, 1979). Other obtainable types of seafood encompassed octopus, squid, echinoderms, mussels, oysters, snails, prawns, eels, sting-rays, shell fish, mollusks, and cuttle fish (Brothwell, 1988; Fidanza,
1979; Grivetti, 2001; Waterlow, 1989). Large marine animals such as whales were viewed to be highly nutritious over the smaller fish (Celsus, De Medicina, II. 18.2).
Furthermore, the quality and level of nourishment obtained from marine resources, such as fish, were believed to be dependent on where it was caught and how fresh it was
(Jackson, 1988).
Many of these species were either eaten fresh, pickled, or salted (Brothwell,
1988). Fish could also be prepared as a sauce, known as garum, which was a very popular condiment among the Romans (Waterlow, 1989). Many Black Sea colonies, such as
Bithynia, were renowned for their fish sauce, and marine resources such as salted fish were one of the principle commodities exported from the Black Sea to Greece (Polybius,
The Histories, IV.38). Tunny fisheries were also operated by colonies lining the Black
Sea coast during Classical antiquity (Dalby, 1996; Strabo, Geography 7.6.2).
Although a large variety of marine resources were available, they were not a major component of the Greek diet. From the Homeric epics, heroes despised fish and 28 rarely ate it, and only out of desperation when stranded on an island (Braun, 1991;
Brothwell, 1988). During the Classical-Hellenistic period, marine resources were considered to be a luxury food item since they were expensive, and only accessible to the upper classes (Garnsey, 1998; Waterlow 1989; Fidanza, 1979). The high cost of seafood may be attributed to the difficulties of transporting these resources, which were delivered alive in tanks, an unquestionably labour-intensive task (Jackson, 1988). There may also have been a geographical difference in terms of marine resource consumption, with urban
Greeks ingesting more seafood than rural populations (Grivetti, 2001).
2.2.7 Legumes
Legumes also comprised a large part of the Mediterranean diet, and were widely cultivated in open fields in Macedonia and Thessaly (Brothwell, 1988; Garnsey, 1988;
Hansen 1999). Legumes available during the Classical-Hellenistic period included broad beans, chickpeas, lentils, lupins, bitter vetch, fenugreek, fava beans, and peas (Brothwell,
1988; Fidanza; 1979; Galen, On the Powers of Food, 1; Garnsey, 1998). Broad beans, lentils and chickpeas were the main legumes in the Mediterranean diet (Garnsey, 1998), and Celsus (De Medicina, II. 18.5) considered them to be the most nutritious of the pulses.
Greeks and Romans may have recognized the toxic effects of legumes as well
(Brothwell, 1988). For example, Larthyrus species such as grass peak, chickling vetch and Spanish vetchling all contain the neurotoxic amino acid beta-(N)-oxalylamino-L- alanine acid (BOAA) (Hansen, 1999). Eating an excess amount of these legumes will result in lathyrism, a condition characterized by paralysis of the legs. Additionally, the consumption of fava beans by individuals lacking the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate 29 dehydrogenase (G6PD) will cause a severe case of anemia. Legumes may have been soaked and heated, a process that reduces some of their toxic effects (Hansen, 1999).
Although legumes were consumed by all socio-economic classes, they may have comprised a greater portion of the 'poor man's diet' (Fidanza, 1979; Garnsey, 1988). In comparison, the upper socio-economic classes may have only consumed legumes sparingly, re-affirming their superiority over the lower classes (Garnsey, 1998). However, in times of food scarcity, legumes may have been relied upon to a greater extent by all social classes (Hansen, 1999).
2.2.8 Wine and Olives
During the Graeco-Roman period, wine was a beverage of the affluent, and was symbolically connected with prosperity (Dalby, 2003; Grivetii, 2001). Water, in comparison, was the more common drink amongst all socio-economic classes. Based on archaeological and chemical evidence, red and white wine were available, and were often diluted with hot or warm water before being consumed after dinner, during dessert
(Dalby, 2003). Excessive consumption of undiluted wine was believed by the Greeks to lead to madness and death. The importance of wine in the Greek world can be demonstrated by the extensive exportation of this beverage to Greek colonies, such as those located on the Black Sea (Braun, 1991; Braund, 1995; Brothwell and Brothwell,
1998). Beer was another known beverage during this time, but was considered to be a drink of 'barbarians'. Dionysus, the Greek god of wine, was said to have fled from his native Mesopotamia, repulsed by their consumption of beer (Brothwell and Brothwell,
1998). 30
Olives were another important commodity in Graeco-Roman culture (Braun,
1991; Braund, 1995). They were the primary source of oil and fat in the Mediterranean diet, and were consumed regularly by all socio-economic classes during breakfast
(Grivetii, 2001; Fidanza, 1979). Olives could be eaten as they were, or prepared as oil and olive cakes. They were also used to season dishes, such as Apicus' (as cited in
Brothwell and Brothwell, 1988) recipe of using crushed black olives to help flavour a dish of boiled chicken. Olives could also be easily preserved using brine or vinegar.
2.3 The Infant Diet
2.3.1 The Neonatal Diet
Many definitions of neonate exist, and it will be defined in this review as subadults younger than 4 weeks old (Dorland, 1982). From the ancient literature, there is some disagreement as to whether newborns should be fed on breast milk right away.
Aristotle {Historia Animalium, IX. 10) suggested that breastfeeding should begin on the first day, however it is unclear whether he meant for the child to be breastfed by the mother or wet-nurse (Fildes, 1986). In contrast, Soranus {Gynecology, II. 18.87) advised that maternal breastfeeding begin 3 weeks after birth, allowing the mother to recuperate from childbirth.
It was commonly perceived in Classical antiquity that the mother's colostrum was harmful to the infant, and this belief was based on the different appearance, consistency, and colour of breast milk during the first few days compared to later mature breast milk
(Fildes, 1986). Soranus {Gynecology, II. 18.87) describes maternal colostrum as
"unwholesome" because it was too "thick, caseous, hard to digest, raw, not prepared to 31 perfection, and was produced by bodies that were agitated and in a bad state". Aristotle
(Historia Animalium, IX.5) depicted colostrum as 'saltish', and felt that infants should not be fed on breast milk produced any earlier than 7 months. Additionally, the ancient medical treatises advised families to hire wet-nurses that had already given birth 2 to 3 months before, since it was believed that breast milk at this time is of better quality
(Garnsey, 1998).
The health benefits of colostrum have been widely documented in the medical literature. Colostrum has a higher concentration of antibodies and proteins such as IgA,
T- and B-lymphocytes, leukocytes, lactoferin, a-lactoalbumin, and important elements such as iron and zinc (Jonas, 1981). Furthermore, colostrum is three times as rich in protective proteins as mature human breast milk (Garnsey, 1998). Essentially, colostrum helps to develop a child's immune system and protects against gastro-intestinal diseases which can lead to 'weanling diarrhea', usually as a result of the early introduction of weaning foods (Saunders and Barrans, 1999). The protective benefits of colostrum last for 6 weeks, and gradually decline after this time (Garnsey, 1998). Infants breastfed by wet-nurses in Classical antiquity would not likely have received any maternal colostrum, and this could have led to health problems. Based on modern clinical studies, newborns who have received colostrum have a higher chance of fighting off infections compared to those fed on later breast milk, or alternate food (Fildes, 1986). In the extreme, Garnsey
(1998) has argued that withholding colostrum from infants may reduce the child's lifespan.
Soranus and Galen both recommended that purges be given to the infant instead of colostrum to rid the neonate of meconium, the waste within the intestines and stomach 32
(Fildes, 1986). Honey was the typical purge since it was believed to help nourish the body and rid the infant of meconium. Galen (On the Powers of Food, 3) recommended boiled honey and water, while Soranus (Gynecology, II. 17.86) advised boiled honey by itself or combined with goat's milk to empty the "black bowel contents" in the child.
Furthermore, Soranus (Gynecology, II. 17.86) recommended that the child abstain from food for the first 2 days after birth. However, if s/he was hungry then s/he should be given foods that could be 'licked', such as moderately boiled honey, and her/his mouth should be anointed with a drop of lukewarm hydromel, a mixture of honey and water or sweet wine.
2.3.2 Weaning Diet
The weaning diet is defined here as the type of supplementary food fed to infants while they are undergoing the weaning process. This is also a critical time for children, since the type and quality of food they are weaned onto can affect the overall health of the individual. Childhood is a time of rapid growth since a high amount of protein is necessary to maintain and develop biological functions. A deficient diet can result in poor health, malnutrition and growth faltering (Brothwell, 1988).
Overall, very few literary sources exist which detail the type of weaning diet fed to children. Parents were advised by Galen (Hygiene I. 7) to administer mainly soft and liquid foods to their children in order to balance out their dry and hard bodies. Simple milk and cereal dishes were recommended by Soranus (Gynecology, II. 46.115), and he further suggests a weaning diet of wheat and barley breadcrumbs softened with sweet wine, honey wine or hydromel. Bread dipped in diluted wine could also be offered to the child. As for the type of diet befitting older children, Soranus (Gynecology, II. 46.115) 33 suggests a diet of spelt (a moist porridge) and an egg that can be 'sipped'. Some of the foods to be avoided by infants included bread flavoured with poppy or sesame, and anything that was spicy (Soranus, Gynecology, II. 46.115). Porridge or gruel was the typical weaning food in Classical antiquity, and could be flavoured with milk, honey or salt (Brothwell and Brothwell, 1998; Galen, On the Powers of Food, 3).
Animal milk was part of the weaning diet since it was believed in Classical antiquity that sheep and goat's milk mirrored the consistency of human breast milk, making it a suitable replacement (Fildes, 1988). However, it is unclear from the literary sources whether it made up a large portion of the weaning diet of Graeco-Roman children. Grivetti (2000) argues that animal milk was rarely imbibed in Classical society.
This was due to milk spoiling quickly, which could lead to gastro-intestinal problems for young infants with immature immune systems. To some medical authors, milk was considered to be harmful to the child. Galen believed that continuous drinking of milk would harm the gums and cause dental decay (Grant, 2000). Hippocrates (Airs, Waters,
Places, 9) also thought that drinking excessive amounts of milk would lead to kidney stones in children. Butter was recommended for infants; however it was combined with honey to help relieve sore gums of teething infants (Pliny the Elder, Natural History, XI.
239).
Diluted wine is mentioned by Soranus (Gynecology, II. 46.115) as a beverage for thirsty infants. There is some debate within the ancient literature, however, whether infants should receive any wine. While Soranus clearly advocated wine consumption,
Hippocrates (Regimen in Health, VI) believed that certain wines would lead to convulsions in children, and they should be given warm, diluted wine instead. Aristotle 34
{Politics, VII. 1-2) suggested that wine should be given sparingly to children "because of the diseases it causes". Plato (as cited in Dalby, 2003), on the other hand, felt that wine should be completely withheld from individuals under the age of 18.
2.4 Summary
From the ancient literary sources we are able to draw a general picture of weaning practices and diet in Classical antiquity. However, it should be remembered that factors such as social class, geographical location, political stability, sex differences, and individual choice could produce variation in infant feeding practices. Infants began weaning around 6 months and completed the process around 2 to 3 years of age.
Although a variety of different foods were available during the Graeco-Roman period, the typical Mediterranean diet was heavily dependent on cereals. Vegetables and legumes were also commonly consumed; however, meat and marine resources were considered luxury food commodities and were eaten infrequently. 35
Chapter 3
Stable Isotope Analysis in Relation to Weaning Studies
The field of skeletal biology has grown immensely from its modest infancy as a side branch of anatomy and anthropology during the early 1900s. Over the past 100 years, it has developed into a thriving independent discipline, in which research goals have changed from detailing individual anomalies through a clinical case study outlook, to population-based questions encompassing a biocultural perspective (Armelagos et al.,
1982; Lovejoy et al., 1982). Research projects now centre upon reconstructing the lifestyles of ancient populations, particularly aspects of their health and diet. Armed with new technological advances, such as the application of stable isotope analysis to archaeological material, researchers can further examine the lives of ancient populations in more detail than before (Lovell, 2000). The use of stable isotope analysis has become an increasingly important tool in skeletal biology and is now routinely implemented to help investigate a plethora of research topics including palaeodiet, migration and weaning patterns (Katzenberg, 2000). This chapter will focus on evaluating the theoretical assumptions and methods involved in using these techniques to answer questions concerning weaning. Although trace elements are also applied to anthropological research, they are not as widely used as stable isotopes and will not be discussed here. 36
3.1 A History of Stable Isotope Analysis
Stable isotopes were discovered in 1913, but were not explored in detail until the
1950s, when propelled by the technological advancements following World War II. They were first applied in the fields of biology, chemistry and geochemistry (Aufderheide,
1989; Katzenberg, 2000). Their utility in the realm of anthropology was first realized when researchers who were using l4C to date organic remains observed variation in the dates derived from human skeletal remains (reviewed in Katzenberg, 2000). In addition, other studies found that the 14C dates obtained from maize differed from those of wood charcoal (Bender, 1968; Hall, 1967). Although stable isotopes were first employed in archaeological studies during the mid 1970s (DeNiro and Epstein, 1978; van der Merwe and Vogel, 1978; Vogel and van der Merwe, 1977), they did not become widely utilized until the 1980s, when further developments in the instrumentation and methods occurred.
These changes helped to simplify the sample preparation by reducing the amount of sample required for analysis and decreasing the time needed for analysis, thereby lowering the costs involved in processing the samples. Twenty years later, the application of stable isotopes is now an essential part of bioarchaeological studies (Katzenberg, 2000;
Sandford and Weaver, 2000).
3.2 Theoretical and Methodological Aspects of Biochemical Weaning
Studies
Stable isotopes of nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), and carbon (C) have all been utilized to examine weaning and diet in past populations. This review will concentrate primarily on the use of stable nitrogen and oxygen isotopes in weaning studies, and will discuss the 37 theoretical assumptions and methods for each element. In addition, the use of stable carbon isotopes to help examine the palaeodiet of past populations will also be examined.
3.2.2 "What are Stable Isotopes?"
Stable isotopes are variants of chemical elements found in living matter. They differ from radioactive isotopes in that they do not decay over time, and instead remain constant. Most elements have two or more stable isotopes, which are essentially atoms of the same element with an identical number of protons, but a different number of neutrons.
Because of this, stable isotopes of an element have different atomic masses, and will possess different chemical and physical properties, referred to as the "isotope effect"
(Hoefs, 2004:3). As a result, heavier isotopes react more slowly during chemical reactions than lighter isotopes, and if one isotope is favoured over another during a chemical reaction, 'fractionation' will occur, which is a difference in the stable isotope ratio between the consumer and the original product (Schoeninger and Moore, 1992). For example, during photosynthesis the lighter isotope of carbon ( C) is favoured over the heavier isotope (13C), in which the 513C of plants will be lower than the 813C in the atmosphere (Prowse, 2001; Schwarcz and Schoeninger, 1991).
To calculate the stable isotope value of a sample, the ratio of the heavier isotope to the lighter isotope is compared to the stable isotope value of a known international standard, and measured in delta (S) units and expressed as permille (%o) in the following notation:
15 4 15 14 5 N = 'W N^T^- N/ N^nH^ x 1000 %„
N/ N(standard)
5180 = "O/^Of^ - 18Q/16Q^_n_H^ x 1000 %o
0/ 0(standard) 38
13 !3 12 13^.2 5 C = C/ C•fsamnlff) ~ C/ CfstanrinrHI X 1000 %0 ^' '-'(standard)
For nitrogen, the reference standard is atmospheric nitrogen (AIR), while for oxygen it is the Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW), and for carbon it is PeeDee belemnite from the Cretaceous Peedee formation in South Carolina (PDB). However, the PeeDee geological formation used as the standard for carbon has been exhausted for the past several years (Coplen, 1994; Hoefs, 2004). Therefore, another standard used for carbon is
NBS-19, which is derived from marble, and is adjusted relative to PDB by adding
1 ^
+1.95%o to the 8 C values. Nevertheless, the PDB standard is still referred to in stable isotope studies (Hoefs, 2004). Since human tissues and most dietary resources are more enriched in 15N compared to the nitrogen standard (AIR), the 815N values are positive. In 1 -3 contrast, the terrestrial ecosystem is depleted in C compared to the carbon standard 1 ^
(PDB), and thus, the 5 C are reported as negative values (Hoefs, 2004; Katzenberg,
2000).
In palaeodietary studies using stable isotopes, it is often assumed that the dietary isotopic composition should be directly reflected in the consumer's bone tissues (Tuross et al., 1988; Kohn 1999). However, metabolic processes in the body, such as the synthesis of bone collagen from ingested protein, carbohydrates and fats, can affect stable isotope values (Gaebler et al. 1966; Hare et al. 1991). This creates a difference between the diet and the tissues of the consumer, which is known as the 'diet-to-tissue' spacing
(DeNiro and Epstein, 1978, 1981). For bone collagen 813C values, the accepted enrichment is 3 to 5%o over the diet (Katzenberg, 2000; Schwarcz and Schoeninger,
1991; van der Merwe and Vogel, 1978). However, body size may affect the degree of enrichment, since controlled feeding studies on animals found an enrichment in 8I3C 39 values ranging from 1 to 3%o in small mammals DeNiro and Epstein (1978), while larger mammals displayed an elevation of 5 to 6%o (Tieszen, 1991). For bone collagen 815N, an enrichment of 3%o over the diet is the accepted value (DeNiro and Epstein, 1981;
Katzenberg, 2000). Despite this, several studies have also observed an elevation exceeding 3%o in bone collagen §15N values from free-ranging ruminants, and suggest that diet and water stress may be causative factors (Ambrose and DeNiro, 1986; Heaton et al. 1986; Sealy et al. 1987; Schoeninger, 1989).
3.2.2 Methods of Analysis and Tissues Used
Multiple methods exist to assess stable isotopes in bone and teeth; however, the use of a certain method depends on the type of tissue being sampled. Stable isotope analysis primarily uses collagen and biological apatite, or carbonate from bone. While both provide information about the diet ingested, it is now recognized that these two tissues supply different dietary records (Katzenberg, 2000). It was assumed previously that bone collagen reflected total diet, in which dietary carbon is broken down and evenly distributed within the body before being used in metabolic processes (van der Merwe,
1982). In contrast, Krueger and Sullivan (1984) proposed that dietary atoms might be preferentially routed to certain tissues instead of being uniformly allocated within the body. Therefore, the carbon comprising collagen and carbonate will come from different dietary elements. It is now accepted that collagen tends to reflect the ingested protein, which is a composite of essential and non-essential amino acids. While the essential amino acids are from ingested protein, the non-essential amino acids can arise from dietary protein, but also from other dietary sources and breakdown products in the body
(Ambrose and Norr, 1993; Katzenberg, 2000; Tieszen and Fagre, 1993). Carbonate in 40 comparison, is configured from bicarbonate dissolved in blood which is drawn from carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Therefore, carbonate is more reflective of the entire diet (Katzenberg, 2000; Schwarcz, 2000). Although Krueger an Sullivan's (1984)
'dietary routing' model is the currently accepted view, Schwarcz (2000) cautions that the model might not be upheld during growth or physiological stress, or if the diet contains an inadequate amount of protein.
Collagen makes up approximately 85 to 90% of the organic portion of bone, and can provide information on stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes. The three commonly used methods are: 1) modified Longin (1971), 2) Tuross and colleague (1988), and 3)
Sealy (1986). Longin's (1971) method, which was later modified by Chisholm and colleagues (1983), Schoeninger and DeNiro (1984) and DeNiro and Epstein (1978, 1981) involves demineralizing ground up bone in 1 Molar of hydrocholoric acid (HC1), and
0.125 Molar of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can be added to remove contaminants. Despite the fact that this method is judged to be time consuming, it is "preferable for poorly preserved bone" (Katzenberg, 2000:309). The method created by Tuross and colleagues
(1988) applies 0.5 Molar of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) to bone samples.
The advantage of this method is that it can utilize larger bone samples for analysis; however, all of the EDTA must be removed so that the nitrogen in the EDTA does not affect the collagen isotope value.
The third method by Sealy (1986) involves decalcifying 1 to 3 grams of bone in
HC1 until the bone samples are translucent before being soaked in NaOH to remove any additional organic matter. The resulting collagen is then freeze-dried. Although Sealy's
(1986) method is considered to be the simplest and easiest, one drawback is the 41 difficulties in determining when demineralization is complete (Schwarcz and
Schoeninger, 1991). Even though most of these methods utilize HC1 to demineralize the bone samples, it does not remove all the decayed organic matter, or humic contaminants.
Given this, NaOH is often utilized even though some collagen may be lost in the process
(Boutton et al. 1984; Katzenberg, 1989; Katzenberg et al. 1995, Schwarcz and
Schoeninger, 1991; Katzenberg, 2000).
Biological apatite, or carbonate comprises the mineral portion of bones
(hydroxyapatite - Cas^O^OH) and teeth, and can provide information on stable carbon and oxygen isotopes. As mentioned earlier, carbonate provides information about the total diet including protein, carbohydrates and lipids (Krueger and Sullivan, 1984). To isolate the carbonate, the method developed by Lee-Thorp and colleagues (1989) is commonly used. The method entails soaking bone samples in sodium hypochlorite to remove any organic material, such as collagen, from biological apatite. Any external carbonate from the burial environment is removed with acetic acid before the sample is combined with phosphoric acid to isolate the carbonate (as reviewed in Katzenberg,
2000).
3.2.3 Diagenesis
In order for bone samples to accurately reflect past diet, one primary assumption is that the chemical composition of the bone has not been altered by the burial environment (Lambert et al. 1985; Tuross et al., 1988). However, diagenesis, defined as the change in chemical and physical make up of bone due to the exchange between the burial environment and bone can potentially affect the validity of stable isotope analysis
(Katzenberg et al. 1996; Schwarcz and Schoeninger, 1991). Many procedures exist for 42 ensuring that bone collagen is adequately preserved and intact. These include: 1) determining the collagen yield, 2) assessing the carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratios, and 3) examining the carbon and nitrogen concentration (%C, %N).
The amount of collagen obtained from the bone sample is defined as the collagen yield, and is a percentage of the weight of the dry bone. The equation used to calculate collagen yield can be found on page 94. The principle behind the use of this indicator is that the quantity of collagen obtained is reflective of its quality as well, since several studies have noted a correlation between these two variables (Hedges et al. 1995).
Collagen from archaeological bone that produces collagen yields ranging between 5 and
25% is typically considered to be adequately preserved (Ambrose and Norr, 1992;
Schoeninger et al. 1989). For bone samples that produce yields greater than 25%, collagen may not have been completely isolated, while samples with yields lower than
5% may signify a loss of protein or possible contamination of the collagen protein
(Hedges et al. 1995; Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1982; Tuross et al., 1988). However,
DeNiro and Weiner (1988) have found that samples are still adequately preserved if they yield over 2% of collagen, while Ambrose (1993) recommends a lower cut-off yield of
1%. It is still possible to use bone samples with yields lower than 5%, provided that other diagenetic indicators are used (Ambrose, 1993).
Carbon to nitrogen ratios can also be used to assess collagen preservation since they reflect the composition of amino acids in the collagen. Collagen that is degraded will lose carbon and nitrogen in differing amounts, thereby altering the expected C/N ratios
(Iacumin et al., 1998). For fresh bone collagen, the C/N ratio is normally 3:2 to 3:3; however collagen is also considered to be adequately preserved if the C/N ratio falls 43 within the range of 2.9 to 3.6 (DeNiro, 1985). Collagen exhibiting a C/N ratio higher than
3.4 may signal contamination by carbon-rich lipids or a loss of collagen (Masters, 1987), while samples with C/N ratios lower than 2.9 may have been altered by bacteria (Grupe et al. 2000; Schoeninger et al. 1989).
The percentage of carbon (%N) and nitrogen (%C), expressed as weight percent, represents the concentration of nitrogen and carbon in the "combusted collagen extract"
(van Klinken, 1999:690). It can be used to examine whether any external sources of nitrogen or carbon have affected the collagen stable isotope values (Ambrose, 1990;
Tuross et al., 1988). Fresh bone collagen has been found to contain 16% nitrogen and
43% carbon (Ambrose and Norr, 1992), however a range of acceptable values is usually given, since the %N and %C will vary depending on the environment (Ambrose, 1990;
Ambrose and Norr, 1992). Collagen is still considered to be adequately preserved if the
%N ranges from 5 to 17%, and if the %C ranges from 15 to 47% (Ambrose, 1990;
Ambrose and Norr, 1992).
3.3 Stable Nitrogen Isotopes
Nitrogen is the stable isotope most commonly used to investigate breastfeeding and weaning in ancient populations. Nitrogen has two stable isotopes, 15N and 14N, and the stable isotope ratio is expressed as 515N. One fundamental property of nitrogen is that it exhibits a 'trophic level effect' in the food chain, in which organisms will show an enrichment in their 815N values by approximately 2 to 4%o, compared to their diet
(DeNiro and Epstein, 1981; Minagawa and Wada, 1984; Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1984)
(Figure 3.1). 44
Figure 3.1. Stable nitrogen isotope enrichment in the food web. Moving up the food web, there is an increase in 515N values, approximately + 3%o for every step of the web. (Image from: http://www.agen.ufl.edu/~chyn/age2062/lect/lect_28/40_07.GIF).
8I!N
ti Predaceous insects Rabbits Squirrel,rels MMjjC(ce t Seed-eating Herbivorous # • A birds k insects 'MmS&tMiik Plants
Since infants feeding exclusively on breast milk are considered to be ingesting their mother's tissues, theoretically they are one trophic level higher than their mothers, and should accordingly have 515N values which are 2 to 4%o higher than their mother's
(Dupras, 2001; Fogel et al., 1989; Fuller et al., 2003; Schurr, 1997). Once weaning begins and breast milk is no longer the main source of dietary protein, the 815N values will decrease. The end of the weaning process will be signaled when the infant 815N values approach the mean adult female values (Fogel et al., 1989) (Figure 3.2). 45
Figure 3.2. Hypothetical graph of the weaning process using stable nitrogen isotopes. A: Exclusive breastfeeding is signaled by increasing 815N values. B: Onset of weaning represented by decrease in 5 N values. C: Termination of weaning when subadults reach the mean adult female 815N values. (Modified graph from: Schurr MR. 1997. Stable Nitrogen Isotopes as Evidence for the Age of Weaning at the Angel Site: A Comparison of Isotopic and Demographic Measures of Weaning Age. Journal of Archaeological Science 24:919-927).
3.3.2 Assumptions
There are several cultural and methodological assumptions underlying the use of stable nitrogen isotopes to illustrate weaning patterns. Cultural assumptions include: 1) the belief that infants were indeed breastfed, and 2) that children were fed the same diet as the adults. Methodologically, it is accepted that the techniques used to estimate the age-at-death of subadults in archaeological samples are accurate.
Unlike western societies today, it is believed that infants in past cultures were breastfed since there were no safe, effective replacements for breast milk (Clayton et al.,
2006; Dettwyler, 1995; Richards et al., 2003; Stuart-Macadam, 1995). Even so, 46 consideration must be given to how individual, class, and temporal variation can influence breastfeeding and weaning practices. Not all women want, or are able to breastfeed their children. Some mothers may have difficulties lactating and may have to rely on supplementary foods instead. Cultural factors can play an additional role, such as in the Graeco-Roman period, when wet-nurses were often employed by elite families to breastfeed their children (Fildes, 1986). Consequently, weaning practices of past populations need to be carefully interpreted (Herring et al., 1998).
The cessation of breastfeeding in a population is usually determined by the age at which the subadult SI5N values reach the adult levels. However, this assumes that subadults are consuming the same diet as the adults, which may not always be the case.
Dietary choices are highly influenced by individual preferences and cultural perceptions.
This will undoubtedly affect the isotopic values of individuals and must be examined when interpreting the data (Fuller et al., 2006). One suggestion is to incorporate the use of stable carbon isotopes to examine whether there is substantial dietary variation between adults and children.
One methodological assumption is that the age estimation techniques used to determine the timing and duration of weaning are accurate. Subadult age estimation methods are generally viewed as being more accurate than adult techniques; however most methods have been shown to underestimate or overestimate the actual age of the individual (Saunders, 2000). For example, Saunders and colleagues (1993) tested the
Moorrees colleagues' (1963a,b) method of dental formation on subadults of known age from the St. Thomas' Church cemetery skeletal sample. Dental formation is regarded as the most accurate subadult age estimation method; however, Saunders and co-workers 47
(1993:173) found that this method yielded a "standard deviation of a half-year". One way to circumvent this issue is to apply multiple age estimation methods to subadult remains.
Still, the accuracy of age estimation methods must be considered when interpreting weaning patterns (Fogel et al., 1989).
3.3.2 Factors Influencing &5N Values
There are several factors which can affect the 815N values. These include: 1) the collagen turnover rate, 2) disease and malnutrition, and 3) the environment. In adults, the collagen turnover rate is approximately 10 to 25 years (Stenhouse and Baxter, 1979;
Manolagas, 2000); therefore, isotope values in adults tend to reflect the dietary average over their lifetime (Fogel et al., 1989). However, the precise collagen turnover rate in subadults remains undetermined, although it is reasoned that the rate in subadults should be faster than adults, considering that juveniles develop at a much swifter rate (Prowse,
2001).
The collagen turnover rate bears further implications on the 'equilibrium rate', which is the time required for body tissues to reflect the isotopic signature of the new diet. Equilibrium rates also appear to vary for different tissues. Fogel and co-workers
(1989) found a delay of 3 months in fingernails from living infants for 815N values, while hair from adults exhibits a delay ranging from 7 to 12 months for 813C values (O'Connell and Hedges, 1999). As for bone collagen, a delay ranging from 3 to 8 months for 815N and 8 C values has been observed for subadults undergoing weaning (Dupras et al.,
2001; Herring et al. 1998; Herrscher, 2003; Williams et al., 2005). Nevertheless, this delay is not seen in all populations. Katzenberg and Pfeiffer (1995) found elevated S15N 48 levels in infants between birth and 1 month from a 19' century Ontario population.
Similarly, Richards and colleagues (2006) observed enriched 8 N values in infants between 1 to 6 months of age in a late Medieval population. Therefore, given these inconsistencies, the precise lag time for subadults still remains undetermined. One way of circumventing this problem is illustrated in a study by Schurr (1997, 1998), in which he sampled collagen from the distal end of long bones, since it represents the diet consumed closest to the time of death. However, using the distal end of long bones for isotopic analysis can be difficult, since it may not survive for all individuals, and sampling this location, if it is well preserved, is more destructive than using fragmentary rib samples.
Disease and malnutrition are additional factors that can elevate 8 N values.
During physiological stress there is preferential loss of' i^, which leaves tissues enriched in 5N, thereby elevating 815N values. Thus, it is advised not to sample bones exhibiting pathological lesions for isotopic analysis (Fuller et al., 2005; Hobson, 1993; Katzenberg and Lovell, 1999; White and Armelagos, 1997). One of the limitations in paleopathology is that not all diseases will exhibit skeletal manifestations. A lack of pathological lesions on an individual's skeleton does not necessarily indicate that s/he did not suffer from disease and malnutrition, since conditions must usually be chronic for them to appear on the skeleton (Ortner, 1992; Wood et al., 1992). Therefore, both disease and malnutrition must be considered when interpreting weaning patterns.
A variety of environmental factors, such as the temperature, level of aridity and fertilizers can all affect 815N values in bone tissues. Arid environments have been shown to enrich S15N levels in humans due to water stress (Dupras, 2001; Sealy and Pfeiffer,
2000; Schwarcz et al., 1999). In connection, individuals will also vary in their ability to 49 maintain water balance, which must be accounted for. Another factor is the amount of fertilizers in the ground. Chemical fertilizers tend to decrease soil 515N values, whereas animal fertilizers will increase the soil §15N values (Keegan, 1989). As a result, plant
815N values will be similarly affected (White et al., 2004; White and Schwarcz, 1994).
However, when considering environmental influences, one must be cognizant that the environment changes over time. Therefore, current environmental conditions may not be representative of those in the past.
3.4 Stable Oxygen Isotopes
Stable oxygen isotopes have been mainly utilized for migration studies, but they can also provide information on infant feeding practices as they can trace the duration of breastfeeding (Wright and Schwarcz, 1998; White et al., 2001; Williams et al., 2005).
Oxygen (O) has two stable isotopes, 180 and 160, and the ratio of the two is expressed as
to
8 O. Stable oxygen isotopes in body tissues mostly reflect the origin of water imbibed, but also the food ingested and air as well (Luz et al., 1990). In addition, oxygen also exhibits a small trophic level effect, and human breast milk is enriched in the heavier isotope O, since the lighter O is lost through respiration and body fluids, through milk, urine, blood and plasma. Therefore, breastfeeding infants will show elevated 8180 levels compared to non-breastfeeding infants. Oxygen isotopes can be used to trace the change in water intake and the role of breast milk in the infant's diet even after supplementary sources are introduced, and it is thought to provide a more precise weaning age compared to stable nitrogen isotopes (Wright and Schwarcz, 1999, 1998). Nonetheless, a change in water intake does not necessarily indicate the onset of weaning and the introduction of 50 supplementary foods. In order to trace the weaning process, it is recommended that multiple elements be used to cross-check one another (White and Schwarcz, 1994; White et al., 2004; Williams et al. 2005)
Stable oxygen isotopes are bound in phosphate (P04~) and carbonate (CO3) ions within bone apatite and teeth. Phosphate is thought to be more resistant to diagenetic changes and can be used for badly degraded samples, however complex laboratory preparation and large sample sizes are required for successful analysis (Stuart-Williams and Schwwarcz, 1995). While carbonate is more susceptible to diagenesis, it involves less laboratory preparation of samples and can also yield information regarding 5 C values (Lee-Thorp and van der Merwe, 1987; Wright and Schwarcz 1998).
3.4.1 Factors Affecting ^O values
Factors which can influence 8 O values are: 1) climate, 2) water and plant sources, and 3) physiological differences. Climatic factors are well studied and include latitude, increasing distance from the sea, increasing altitude, and decreasing temperature, all of which can act to decrease the S180 values (Faure, 1986). The type of meteoric water source will also have an effect on §180 values, since it is composed of a multitude of water sources such as rain, snow, recycled water from rivers, lakes and springs. Stable oxygen isotopes can be used to identify the water sources, which is the basis for migration studies. The type of plants and animals consumed may also influence the 5180 values in bone tissues. C4 plants can have higher 8 O values than C3 plants, and this difference can be magnified in arid environments (Sternberg et al., 1984). 51
Human physiological differences, for example, high metabolic rates attributed to exercise and anemia, may also affect the 5 O values by lowering them. There is a possibility that males and females may process stable oxygen isotopes differently as well, but this requires further study (White et al., 2004). In addition, Balasse (2002) has recently found that there may be a lag time in enamel mineralization of 6 to 7 months in steers. This may have consequences, particularly when "interpreting patterns of intra- tooth isotopic variation" (Balasse, 2002:162). Given this finding, additional research needs to be conducted on the lag time in enamel mineralization, particularly in humans.
3.5 Stable Carbon Isotopes
Commonly employed to identify the type of diet consumed by an individual, stable carbon isotopes can also be used to determine when supplementary foods were introduced to the infants, and hence identify when weaning began (Katzenberg, 2000).
However, they are more commonly used to investigate dietary patterns in past populations, and will only be discussed briefly here.
Carbon (C) has two stable isotopes, C and C, and the stable isotope ratio is
1 ^ expressed as 8 C. Stable carbon isotopes can be used to discriminate between the consumption of plants reliant on different photosynthetic pathways (C3, C4, crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)), as well as the importance of marine versus terrestrial resources
(Larsen, 1997). Plants obtain carbon in the form of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2, 1 ^
5 C = -7%o), and during fixation, C3 plants produce 3 carbon molecules
(phosphoglycerate), while C4 plants generate 4 carbon compounds (dicarboxyllic acid)
(van de Merwe, 1982). Throughout fractionation, C4 plants discriminate less against the 52 heavier isotope (13C) compared to C3 plants, resulting in a distinguishable difference in the carbon isotope ratios between C3 and C4 plants (Deines, 1980). C3 plants include cereals, fruits, vegetables, and tubers, and have 813C values ranging from -22 to -34%o
(Vogel, 1980:6). C4 plants have 813C values ranging from -9 to -16%o (Smith and Epstein,
1971:380), and are comprised of millet, maize, sorghum and sugar cane (reviewed in
O'Leary, 1981). CAM plants, including cacti, bromeliads, euphorbias, and agaves, use both C3 and C4 pathways and will accordingly have 8 C values that range in between the signatures of C3 and C4 plants (Deines, 1980; Troughton et al., 1974).
It is also possible to differentiate between a diet of marine versus terrestrial resources using stable carbon isotopes, provided that C4 plants were not a major part of
1 ^ the diet. For marine organisms, dissolved carbonate (HCO3) is the source of carbon (8 C
= +2%o), and a heavy dependence on marine resources is reflected by 813C values ranging from -2.5 to -25%o compared to terrestrial resources (Fry and Sherr, 1989). Some factors 1 -5 that can affect the 8 C values in bone collagen include environmental conditions, such as availability of nutrients and water, light intensity, temperature, and partial atmospheric pressure of CO2 (Ambrose, 1993). 53
Chapter 4
A Review of Biochemical Weaning Studies
4.1 A History of Infant Weaning Studies in Anthropology
Understanding the weaning patterns of ancient populations is important, since it can illuminate population aspects such as infant morbidity, mortality, fertility, inter-birth spacing and the general survival of the community (Clayton et al., 2006; Mays et al.,
2002; Stuart-Macadam, 1995; Wright and Schwarcz, 1998). Within the last ten years, there has been a surge of interest in infant feeding practices within anthropology, which can be linked to Postprocessualism.
Postprocessualism made its mark in archaeology during the 1970s and 1980s, mostly in reaction against the scientific dogma of the New Archaeology. The theoretical stance of Postprocessualism called for the consideration of human agency and multi- vocality, in which it is possible to have multiple and different interpretations of the archaeological record (Hodder, 1986). This also led to the advent of Feminist and gender archaeology which ushered in a greater focus on the role of women in past societies, and an interest in infant feeding practices (Mays et al., 2002).
Within skeletal biology, weaning practices were first inferred by examining the prevalence of stress markers such as linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) in subadult skeletal remains. These studies measured the distance of the enamel defect from the cemento- enamel junction to calculate when the lesion formed in the individual's life (Figure. 4.1). 54
Figure 4.1. Calculation of the Age at Formation for Linear Enamel Hypoplasia (LEH). As indicated by the dashed arrows, the distance measured from the Cemento-Enamel Junction (CEJ) to the LEH is often used to determine when the enamel defect formed in life by comparing to known dental formation standards. Early weaning studies observed that these defects seemed to form around the weaning age (picture provided by Dr. Anne Keenleyside).
Most of the defects seemed to occur around the ages of 2 to 4 years, which is the assumed weaning age in past populations. Incidentally, this led some researchers to identify weaning stress as the cause of LEH in these subadults (reviewed in Katzenberg et al.,
1996). Nonetheless, several studies have also failed to find a correlation between the peak frequency of LEH and the weaning age. Blakey and colleagues (1994) did not observe a relationship between the age of highest LEH frequency and the documented weaning age in enslaved African American populations from Maryland, Virginia and Philadelphia during the 1800s. Based on this evidence, the authors suggested that weaning stress was not responsible for the prevalence of LEH seen in these populations (see also Cook, 55
1981; Saunders and Keenleyside, 1999). Compounding this problem, interpreting the age at which the defect formed is difficult, given the subjective nature of scoring LEH, and the high inter-observer error associated with recording them (Hillson, 2000; Katzenberg et al., 1996; Saunders and Barrens, 1999). In addition, heavy enamel wear can also obliterate the defect in some cases (Katzenberg et al., 1996).
Another deterrent is that enamel hypoplasia is a non-specific stress indicator, to which numerous factors besides weaning stress, such as infectious diseases, trauma, dietary deficiencies, fever, congenital infections, low birth weight and parasitic infections can lead to their manifestation in teeth (Franz-Odendaal et al., 2003; Hillson, 2000; Lewis and Roberts, 1997; Neiburger, 1990; Polet and Katzenberg, 2003). Therefore, using only non-specific stress markers to infer weaning practices in ancient populations is an indirect and highly subjective method, at best. Biochemical methods, on the other hand have been viewed as a more direct approach, and are used to examine infant feeding practices today
(Katzenberg et al., 1996; Schurr, 1997).
4.2 Terminology
The term 'wean' is derived from the Anglo-Saxon term 'weanian', which means
'accustomed to something different' (Katzenberg et al., 1996:178). In light of this,
'weaning' is ambiguously defined in the literature. Many studies have treated weaning as an episodic event and have not clearly delineated whether the behaviour is associated with the onset of weaning, if it is a gradual process, or whether it represents the complete cessation of breastfeeding (Schurr, 1997). Within this paper, the definition of weaning, as outlined by Herring and colleagues' (1998) will be used, in which it is viewed as a 56 process whereby an infant gradually becomes independent of breast milk and begins to consume supplementary foods. The term 'weaned' will represent when the infant has completely ceased breast-feeding, while the 'weaning age' will signify the age of termination. Another term that has been equivocally characterized in isotopic weaning studies is what constitutes a 'gradual' process. Based on the scientific benefits of breast milk, Henricks and Badruddin (1992) recommend a weaning duration of 8 months minimum for modern populations, and this time range will be used to evaluate whether weaning was a gradual process.
4.3 Weaning Studies Using Stable Nitrogen Isotopes
One objective of determining past weaning patterns is to explore how this important childhood process varies culturally and temporally. Considering that isotopic studies are now becoming more common, we can begin to investigate how this fundamental process varies, the aim of this review (see Appendix B for summary).
4.3.1 Contemporary Studies
The first weaning study using stable nitrogen isotopes was by Fogel and colleagues (1989). The authors examined 515N values in collagen from fingernail clippings of 16 breastfeeding infants and 14 females in a modern cross-sectional study, and 1 mother-infant pair in a longitudinal study within the United States. They essentially demonstrated that nitrogen isotopes exhibit a trophic level effect and can be used to trace the weaning process. Breastfeeding infants exhibited S15N levels that were 2.4%o enriched compared to adult females, a difference corresponding to one trophic level higher. One limitation of this study was that only one mother-infant pair was examined longitudinally, 57 making it difficult to draw population level inferences. Another drawback of the study was that the mother's diet during breastfeeding, which can affect the 815N values in breastfeeding infants, was not recorded.
In a recent study, Fuller and colleagues (2005) followed up on Fogel and co workers' (1989) study using a modern American population as well. Collagen from hair and fingernails was sampled longitudinally for 1 year from 8 mother-infant pairs. The subjects included pairs who were exclusively breastfeeding (n=5), those who were breastfeeding and formula feeding (n=2), and those who were exclusively formula feeding (n = 1). The diet of the mothers was also recorded. In relation to the 515N values of their mothers, infants who were exclusively breastfeeding showed the highest 815N values (+1.7 to 2.8%o) in contrast to those who relied on breastfeeding and formula (+1.0 to 1.4%o) and exclusively formula (-2%o). This study supports the assertion that stable nitrogen isotopes can be used to trace weaning, and the authors suggest that it can identify infants who are exclusively breastfeeding compared to those who are fed on formula. However, it may not be possible to identify with certainty infants who are exclusively breastfeeding in archaeological populations. Many factors, as mentioned in
Chapter 3, can influence 815N values and must be considered. Variation in the 515N values among exclusively breastfed infants has been interpreted by the authors to be a result of the different types of supplementary food fed to infants during weaning.
Compared to past populations, weaning spans a shorter period of time in most modern societies, yet there is also a wide range of variation seen in this practice. The change in weaning practices has been attributed to better medical practices, and the availability of manufactured infant feeding formulas. These alterations led to the 58 availability of more nutritious supplementary foods which reduced the need to breastfeed children. If weaning is of shorter duration in modern societies, how long were children weaned for in past societies? In hunter-gatherer societies, it has been hypothesized that late weaning may have been practiced, since breastfeeding inhibits ovulation, thereby increasing the inter-birth spacing and limiting the population size to manageable numbers
(Richards et al., 2003).
4.3.2 Prehistoric Europe and South Africa
Our closest ancestors, great apes such as chimpanzees and orangutans, are weaned around 5 to 7 years of age, while humans in comparison are weaned earlier at an average age of 2.5 years (Dettwyler, 1995). Dettwyler (1995) has suggested, based on biological needs and non-human primate studies, that children should be ideally weaned around 2.5 to 7 years. Yet, weaning patterns in past human populations do not necessarily conform to this extended parameter. A shorter weaning interval may have been selected for in humans, since early brain growth cannot be "sustained by ... human mother's milk alone" and more nutritious supplementary food is required (Kennedy, 2005:123). In addition, cultural factors also play a prominent role in shaping this infant feeding practice. Foraging societies are postulated to have practiced extended breastfeeding, since they may not have had adequate nutritional substitutes for breast milk (Richards et al.,
2003). Furthermore, a longer weaning process may also act to increase the inter-birth interval and limit population growth as a result (Clayton et al., 2006; Katzenberg et al.,
1996).
Clayton and colleagues (20066) examine this hypothesis in a mid-Holocene hunter-gather population from Matjes River Rock Shelter, located on the coast of South 59
Africa. The weaning pattern and its implications for inter-birth spacing and fertility were also discussed. Rib and dentine samples from 35 individuals of varying ages were analyzed for stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes. Based on the isotope data, the subadults in the population were exclusively breastfed until 1.5 years of age and were weaned around 2 to 4 years of age. The biochemical evidence also compares well with the ethnographic data on Kalahari hunter-gatherer societies. The !Kung women usually weaned their children around 2.5 to 3.5 years of age, but would stop nursing their children if they became pregnant again. Both the Holocene hunter-gatherers examined in this study and the !Kung displayed an inter-birth spacing of approximately 3 years of age, suggesting a gradual weaning process. However, weaning practices are variable and can change through time. Modern day hunter-gatherer practices may not reflect those that were followed in the past (Fuller et al., 2006). Therefore, care must be applied when using modern ethnographic studies to corroborate past weaning practices.
There have been few prehistoric weaning studies within Europe. Richards and colleagues (2003) examined dietary patterns at Catalhoyiik, an Early Neolithic farming village in Turkey (7000-8000 BP). Bone samples from 31 children were analyzed for stable nitrogen isotopes. From the isotopic data, children were weaned before 1.5 years of age, but it is unknown at what age supplementary foods were introduced. The authors caution that some subadult age categories are underrepresented, and that the true weaning pattern may not be reflected as a result. One limitation of this study was that the authors did not discuss the implications of weaning in this population.
Ogrinc and Budja (2005) also examined infant feeding practices in the Neolithic agricultural site of Ajdovska Jama in Slovenia (6400-5300 BP). Bone fragments were 60 sampled from 13 infants and analyzed for stable nitrogen isotopes. Children between 1 and 2 years of age exhibited enriched 5I5N values, interpreted as the 'nursing effect'.
Around 4 to 5 years of age, the subadult 815N values returned to the adult levels, suggesting complete cessation of breastfeeding. Consequently, weaning was a gradual process in Ajdovska Jama, spanning a period of 2 years, and appears to have been longer than at Catalhoyuk, where children appear to have been completely weaned by 1.5 years.
4.3.3 Pre-Contact North America
In comparison to Europe, many stable isotope studies have been undertaken on prehistoric North American remains. Most of these biochemical skeletal studies have focused on the changes in health and disease associated with the adoption of agriculture.
One hypothesis put forward by Buikstra and colleagues (1986: 540) is that the adoption of maize and thin-walled ceramic vessels led to the ability to prepare "palatable and digestible weaning foods", and an increase in carbohydrate consumption. Furthermore, they proposed that this resulted in an earlier onset of weaning for infants and shorter inter-birth intervals for mothers, leading to a population increase during the Mississippian period (A.D. 800 to 1500)
Fogel and co-workers (1989) and Tuross and Fogel (1994) investigated Buikstra and colleagues' (1986) hypothesis using stable nitrogen isotope analysis. Fogel and co workers (1989) examined the pre-agricultural sites of Cherry, Eva and Ledbetter, located within the Tennessee Valley (5500-2000 B.C.) and the post-agricultural site of Sully in
South Dakota (A.D. 1650-1700). In their later study, Tuross and Fogel (1994) re examined the post-agricultural Sully site using a larger sample size. Ribs and bone fragments were sampled from a total of 13 adults and 34 children from the pre- 61 agricultural sites, and 12 adults and 28 children from Sully. A 8 5N enrichment of 2.5 to
4%o was seen in 1 year old infants, while a decline in 515N was observed in subadults around 18 to 20 months, presumed to coincide with the onset of weaning. The weaning age ranged from 2 to 5 years (Tuross and Fogel, 1994). The authors did not find a difference in the duration of weaning between the sites, and concluded that the adoption of agriculture did not have an impact on the onset of weaning and inter-birth spacing in these populations. One limitation of these studies is that three different sites were pooled together to represent the 'pre-agricultural population'. There is a possibility that differences in weaning practices may have existed between these sites, which can be addressed by investigating whether variation is evident in the weaning pattern between the sites before combining them.
Buikstra and colleagues' (1986) hypothesis was further examined by Shurr (1997) and Shurr and Powell (2005) in four eastern North American sites. Two of the sites were pre-agricultural, dating to the Late Archaic (Indian Knoll, Carlston Annis: 5000-1000
B.C.), and the other two were agricultural sites, dating to the Middle Mississippian
(Angel, Tinsley Hill: A.D. 1300-1450). A total of 104 juveniles and 92 adults1 were analyzed for stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes. The long bone diaphyses were sampled for collagen in the juveniles because it closely represents the diet consumed near the time of death (Schurr, 1997). Based on the 515N values, there was no significant difference in weaning patterns between the pre- and post-agricultural sites. The maximum 515N values were found in children before 2 years of age, which suggests that weaning began around
1 to 2 years of age. Children were completely weaned around 5 years, when the 515N
Only 102 juveniles and 90 adults yielded sufficiently preserved collagen to be included in the analysis (see Schurr and Powell, 2005). 62 values reached those of adult females (Schurr, 1997; Schurr and Powell, 2005). Therefore weaning was gradual and extended over a long period of time in these populations.
Furthermore, the isotope data did not support the hypothesis that the Late Prehistoric population growth was due to a reduction in the weaning age (Schurr and Powell, 2005).
Although a difference was not observed in the weaning process between the pre- and post-agricultural populations, there was variation within the pre- and post-agricultural sites themselves, a finding not discussed by the authors. Another limitation is that long bone diaphyses were used in this analysis, making it difficult to directly compare this study to others that have used rib samples. Although previous research has suggested that the isotopic variation between different tissues is negligible (DeNiro and Schoeninger,
1983; Schwarcz and Schoeninger, 1991), it would have been useful if rib samples were also analyzed in order to compare to the diaphyseal isotopic values.
Another prehistoric North American weaning study was conducted at the
MacPherson site, a Neutral Iroquoian Village (A.D. 1530-1580) located in Ontario
(Katzenberg et al., 1993). Stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes were analyzed from rib samples of 12 juveniles and 17 adults to examine the dietary patterns in this population.
The authors observed that infants between birth and 2 years of age had 515N levels that were 2 to 3%o enriched compared to other age groups, indicating that they were exclusively breastfeeding. By the age of 5, most children exhibited S15N values comparable to the adults, an observation interpreted as the cessation of weaning. The occurrence of circular caries in 2 subadults aged 3 to 4 years was also correlated with the stable carbon isotopic evidence to suggest that infants were weaned onto a diet consisting almost entirely of maize. 63
Overall, based on these North American isotopic studies, the onset of weaning does not appear to have been influenced by the adoption of agriculture, as originally suggested by Buikstra and colleagues (1986). However, in order to refute this hypothesis, more sites dating from the pre- and post-agricultural periods, as well sites from other regions of North America need to be examined. From the available North American data, weaning also appears to have been a gradual process that extended for several years.
Despite this, there is variation in weaning practices within the North American prehistoric sites.
4.3.4 Graeco-Roman
Several weaning studies have also been undertaken on populations from the
Graeco-Roman period. One advantage of these studies is that we can compare the biochemical evidence with the available ancient literary sources. For example, the
Romans left an abundance of literary sources, and several studies have focused on weaning practices in this period. It is possible to compare the isotopic evidence obtained from the skeletal remains to the documented childrearing customs that existed during the
Graeco-Roman period.
Prowse (2001) examined dietary patterns in the Roman necropolis of Isola Sacra,
Italy (1st to 3r centuries A.D.). Infant feeding practices were also investigated to discern whether those followed by the inhabitants of Isola Sacra conformed to known Roman practices as indicated in the ancient literary texts. Femora from 32 children were analyzed for the stable isotopes of nitrogen and the values suggested that weaning began prior to 6 months and ceased around 2.5 to 3 years of age. This concurs well with the ancient
Roman practices, as reported in the literary sources (Prowse et al., 2004). Variability in 64 the S15N values was also observed, and was interpreted as a result of individual variation in infant feeding practices. The ancient literature offers further explanations for this variability, in that early and late weaning were both practiced in Roman society. One limitation of this study is that infants between birth and 6 months (n=6) were underrepresented in this sample; therefore, the weaning pattern may not entirely represent those practiced by the population.
Considering that the Roman Empire spanned most of Europe and extended into parts of Africa, there have been questions has to how receptive these settlements were to
Roman practices. Dupras and colleagues (2001) investigated a Roman village in the
Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt (ca. A.D. 250) to see whether the inhabitants followed Roman weaning practices or previous customs, given that prior to 27 B.C., the Dakhleh Oasis was under Ptolemaic rule (332-27 B.C.). Stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes were analyzed using rib and humeral samples from 49 children of varying ages to reconstruct the weaning process and dietary patterns. From the 815N data, it was determined that weaning began around 6 months of age and was completed around 3 years of age, timing
1 ^ which corresponds well with the Roman literary sources. Furthermore, the 8 C data suggest that 6 month old infants may have been consuming cow or goat's milk, a suggestion that is also supported by the literary sources, which recommend a weaning diet of goat's milk and honey. This type of weaning food may have also resulted in megaloblastic anemia, as a high frequency of cribra orbitalia was detected in the subadults of Dakhleh Oasis. Therefore, based on the weaning pattern observed, Dupras and colleagues (2001) concluded that the inhabitants followed traditional Roman infant feeding practices. 65
In another study aimed at investigating the customs of Roman settlements, Fuller and colleagues (2006) explored weaning practices at Queenford Farm in Dorchester-on-
Thames, Oxfordshire, Britain. Although the cemetery is considered to be Christian (4l -
6th centuries A.D.), Roman burial practices were still observed. As such, the objective was to investigate whether the weaning pattern in this population coincided more with
Roman or Christian/Medieval practices. Stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes were analyzed in ribs and femora from 54 juveniles and 27 adults. Based on the 8 N values, weaning terminated between 2 and 4 years of age. Fuller and colleagues (2006) suggest that the data are consistent with the ancient Roman literary recommendations as well as studies by Prowse (2001) and Dupras and co-workers. (2001). The results are also compared to those from the Medieval site of Wharram Percy, in which the weaning age, as interpreted from the biochemical evidence, was found to be earlier than 2 years of age.
From this, the authors conclude that weaning at Queenford Farm followed the Roman feeding practice and that Roman infant customs were still observed even after the fall of the Roman Empire.
Despite this, the authors did not consider the heavy influence of Classical philosophy on later medical practices, in which weaning recommendations may have been similar in both time periods (Fildes, 1986; Mays et al., 2002; Richards, 2002).
Therefore, it could be difficult to assess whether the weaning pattern exercised at
Queenford Farm resembled Roman or Medieval recommendations. Population variation rather than temporal factors could also account for the infant feeding pattern observed at
Queenford Farm. Moreover, it is surprising that the authors did not consult the ancient 66 literature for weaning recommendations during the Medieval period, given the wealth of literary sources from this period (Fildes, 1986).
Based on the isotopic evidence, the timing and duration of weaning does not seem to have varied extensively between Roman populations, and appear to be consistent with the recommendations in the ancient literary texts. In contrast to earlier cultures, the onset of weaning in Classical populations commenced at an earlier age, yet it was still a gradual process that extended over many years. However, this assessment is only based on three studies, and additional research on Classical populations needs to be undertaken so that broader patterns can become apparent. Nonetheless, caution must be exercised when using ancient literature. Most ancient sources were composed by elite males and may not accurately represent what was practiced in the past.
4.3.5 Byzantine and Medieval
Weaning has also been investigated in the Byzantine period. Bourbou and
Richards (in press) examined this process in the Middle Byzantine site of Kastella (11th century A.D.) located on the island of Crete, Greece. Using rib samples from 11 subadults and 15 adults, the stable nitrogen isotope values suggest a weaning age around
2 years. However, the age-of-onset for weaning could not be determined due to the small sample size, limiting the interpretation.
One of the most intensively studied Medieval sites is Wharram Percy in
Yorkshire, England (10th to 16th centuries A.D.). Several different methods have been utilized to examine infant feeding practices in this population (Fuller et al., 2003; Mays et al., 2002; Richards et al., 2002). Mays and colleagues (2002) analyzed the S15N values in ribs from 70 infants and 29 adults, and the data indicates that weaning began around 1 67 year of age and terminated at approximately 2 years of age. There also appeared to be a tight clustering of the 815N values, suggesting that breastfeeding practices were more constrained by cultural factors and less by individual decisions (Mays et al., 2002).
Dentine sampled from different teeth from Wharram Percy was also assessed for stable isotopes by Richards and co-workers (2002), since teeth do not remodel after formation and will retain the childhood isotopic signature. The deciduous second molars
(dm2), permanent canines (C) and third molars (M3) were all analyzed, based on the age at which they mineralize. In comparison to the other teeth, the dm2 was more enriched in
5 N and 5 C since it mineralizes at an earlier age (beginning at 16 to 24 weeks in utero and reaching completion at 3 years of age). The dm2 is reasoned to exhibit the breastfeeding signal since it mineralizes when weaning occurred at Wharram Percy.
Fuller and colleagues (2003) also compared dentine serial sections from teeth to rib isotope values from 21 subadults at Wharram Percy. Using dentine serial sections, the stable isotope values at the crown, cervix and apical sections were examined for each tooth using the modified Longin (1971) method. The dm2 (n=21), M3 (n=8) and C (n=8) were sampled as well as the corresponding ribs from the same individual, if possible. The purpose of this study was to assess whether 'mortality bias' was a factor, since weaning practices are generally interpreted from subadults who failed to survive beyond weaning.
The isotope values were found to be the most enriched at the crown, followed by the cervix, apex and the ribs. It is suggested that this pattern of isotopic enrichment demonstrates the weaning process at Wharram Percy. Furthermore, the authors note that subadults who survived past the weaning process exhibited the same dietary pattern as 68 those who did not, indicating that the pattern determined from deceased subadults was the
'true' weaning practice.
Dittman and Grape (2000) also investigated weaning patterns in a Medieval population of Wenigumstadt in Germany (A.D. 400-700), using both isotopic and palaeopathological evidence. Ribs and phalanges from 44 children were analyzed for stable nitrogen isotopes, which indicated that weaning began at 1 year of age and ceased by 3 years of age. In addition, pathological conditions such as scurvy, rickets and non specific stress markers that are associated with malnutrition including Harris lines, linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH), cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, otitis media and meningeal infections were recorded. Overall, the authors found that the peak occurrence of stress markers such as LEH and Harris lines occurred around 3 to 4 years of age, coinciding with the weaning process. Therefore, weaning was reasoned to be the underlying cause of the pathological lesions seen in the children of Wenigumstadt.
However, non-specific stress markers have been linked to a variety of causes besides weaning stress, including diseases and dietary deficiencies. Thus, all of these factors must be evaluated. In addition, pathological lesions can paradoxically be interpreted to signify good health, since individuals survived long enough to develop bony manifestations
(Wood etal., 1992).
Richards and colleagues (2006) examined dietary patterns in an Iron Age, Viking and Late Medieval site of Newark Bay, Orkney in Scotland (500-1200 BP). Ribs of 88 juveniles were analyzed for stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes. While enriched 815N values were found in subadults between birth and 1.25 years of age, suggesting that these infants were feeding on breast milk, the authors could not interpret the weaning age. This 69 was due to isotopic variation observed in the adult females and the small sample size of subadults past the age of 1.25 years. Additionally, the authors proposed that the type of weaning diet in Newark Bay may have led to high infant mortality, since the sample is mainly comprised of young children who did not survive past weaning. Peculiarly, the authors did not provide the methods used to determine the age of the subadults. Without this information, it is difficult to assess the validity of their interpretations, since the ability to elucidate weaning patterns is contingent upon precise age estimation methods.
Herrscher (2003) also investigated weaning in a Medieval population of Saint-
Laurent, in Isere, France (13th to 15th centuries A.D.). Instead of sampling ribs, a growing tooth root and two sections from the mandible (one near the tooth bud and another near an erupted tooth) were selected from 21 subadults for isotope analysis. The reasoning behind this method is that these tissues are formed at different times and will correspondingly reflect diet at separate points in an individual's life. The growing tooth root represents diet formed near their time of death, while the mandible signifies the diet consumed prior to death. Using this method, weaning was determined to have begun around 2.6 to 3.3 years for this population.
In comparison to other populations and time periods, weaning during the
Byzantine and Medieval periods appears to have been gradual as well. However, in contrast to the Roman period, weaning may have spanned a shorter length of time. This suggests that Roman customs may not have been followed during the Byzantine and
Medieval periods, contrary to the literary sources. The average weaning age during the
Byzantine and Medieval periods appears be around 1 to 2 years, as opposed to 3 years for
Classical populations. Nevertheless, additional studies are required before it can be 70 determined whether Byzantine and Medieval infant feeding patterns mirrored Roman practices or not.
4.3.6 Historic North America
Most of the historical weaning studies in North America have concentrated on more modern societies, particularly 19l century Ontario European immigrant populations. Given that historical documents exist for this time period, it is possible to compare different lines of evidence and further interpret the living conditions and health in Ontario during this time.
Katzenberg and Pfeiffer (1995) looked at individuals from Prospect Hill, a
Methodist cemetery in Newmarket, Ontario that was in use from 1824-1879, and represented an early immigrant population in Ontario. Stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes were analyzed from ribs of 36 subadults and compared to historical documents from Canada and Great Britain regarding weaning practices. From the stable isotopic data, the authors determined that weaning occurred a few months prior to the first year, but did not provide a weaning age. This correlates with the British historical documents on weaning practices, which recommended that weaning should begin around 18 to 20 months of age. Although the Prospect Hill population settled in Ontario, the weaning pattern suggests the retention of British customs. Furthermore, the diaphyseal lengths of the subadult long bones indicated that the Prospect Hill children were shorter than modern North American standards, reflecting slower growth due to poor nutrition and illness.
The Harvie Family cemetery dates to the 19th century and constitutes a population of European immigrants in Ontario, Canada. Katzenberg (1991) used stable carbon and 71 nitrogen isotope data to examine the type of diet in 19l century Canada. Bone samples from 6 juveniles and 9 adults were analyzed, and the highest 6I5N values were observed in subadults around 1 year of age, signaling the onset of weaning. The weaning age, in contrast, was not provided. Only 3 infants between 1 to 2 years of age were sampled, and thus it is difficult to make inferences about broad population trends.
The weaning process was also investigated in the St. Thomas cemetery in
Belleville, Ontario (1821-1874) by Herring and colleagues (1998). Stable nitrogen isotopes were used in this study and were compared to a demographic method, known as the biometric model. This method can distinguish between breastfed and non-breastfed infants based on the age distribution of documented deaths. Ribs were sampled from 60 individuals, ranging from birth to 3 years of age, although the age categories were unevenly represented. The isotopic data suggests that the infants were completely weaned around 14 months of age, while the biometric model determined that weaning began around 5 months of age. This corresponds well with the parish records, which report that weaning often lasted for 9 months. Furthermore, based on the historical documents, the authors suggest that variation in the 815N data may be partly attributed to the inability of some women to breastfeed and that cow's milk was supplemented instead.
4. 4 Weaning Studies using Stable Oxygen Isotopes
Few studies have used stable oxygen isotopes to investigate weaning. One of the biggest advantages in employing stable oxygen isotopes is that they can examine this practice in individuals who survived beyond this crucial process. Therefore, it can allow 72 researchers to examine weaning in a skeletal sample without the inherent problem of the
'mortality bias'.
One of the first studies to demonstrate the potential of using stable oxygen isotopes to infer weaning practices was conducted by Wright and Schwarcz (1998; 1999).
They examined infant dietary patterns at Kaminaljuyu, a Preclassic to Late Postclassic
(ca. 700 B.C. to A.D. 1500) early state society in Guatemala. Stable oxygen and carbon isotopes were analyzed from the enamel carbonate of 35 individuals and were sampled from the permanent first molar (Ml), a premolar (PM) and a third molar (M3). Dental samples were utilized based on the principle that enamel does not remodel after it is formed, so it should theoretically record the isotopic signature of infant diets.
Furthermore, the chronology for dental development has been extensively studied and different teeth are known to mineralize at different ages. The Ml mineralizes between birth to 3 years of age, the PM between 2 and 6 years of age, and the M3 between 9 and
12 years of age. The results of their analysis indicated that the Ml was more enriched in
1 O
8 O, followed by the PM and M3. This pattern is interpreted by the authors to indicate that food was introduced to juveniles around 2 years of age, while breast milk continued to be the main source of water for children up to the age of 6 (Wright and Schwarcz,
1998).
In a follow-up study, Wright and Schwarcz (1999) also compared their results to the stable nitrogen and carbon isotope values derived from dentine collagen in the same sample. The 815N values exhibited the same trend as the 8180 values, with the Ml being the most enriched, followed by PM and then M3. They therefore suggest the same weaning pattern, with supplementary foods being introduced before the age of 2. A 73 correlation was also found between the 5 N and 5 O levels. The authors showed that
8180 can be used to examine a different aspect of the weaning process and that by applying a multi-element approach, a more detailed record of the timing and duration of weaning can be obtained. One limitation in this study is the large time span of the sample, which extends for approximately 2000 years. Weaning is a variable process and can change through time, and this must be considered when samples encompass a large time frame.
Williams and colleagues (2005) also applied a multi-element approach to investigate weaning patterns in two Postclassic sites: Marco Gonzalez (100 B.C. - A.D.
1350) and San Pedro (A.D. 1400-1650) in Belize. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes were analyzed from bone collagen, and carbon and oxygen isotopes from bone apatite.
These elements should reflect different metabolic processes, components of bone and macronutrients and/or liquid sources, so that varying aspects of diet can be investigated.
The 515N values were enriched in infants from 1 to 3 years, demonstrating that they were breastfed. On the other hand, infants aged 4 to 6 exhibited lower 815N values, suggesting that breastfeeding ceased around this time. No significant difference was found in the
1 Q
5 O values between the different subadult age cohorts, but higher values were displayed in the subadults compared to the adult female levels. Furthermore, the authors did not find a correlation between 515N and 5180 values, as Wright and Schwarcz (1999) had observed. Williams and colleagues (2005) attributed the lack of correlation between the
515N and 8180 values to the different type of information each element provides. Nitrogen reflects maternal protein, while oxygen represents maternal water source and liquid fed to the infant. In addition, different samples were also used in that Williams and co-workers 74
(2005) sampled bone apatite, while Wright and Schwarcz (1998) utilized enamel carbonate. Considering that enamel carbonate develops at a shorter interval of time compared to bone apatite, teeth will therefore provide information of a certain time period in an individual's life (Balasse et al., 1999).
White and co-workers (2004) also analyzed stable oxygen isotopes in a population from Wadi Haifa, during the X-group period in Sudan (A.D. 350-550). Delta
1 8 O values were obtained from phosphate in cortical bone and dental (dm2, M2, M3)
1 O samples. Pre-weaning teeth (dm2, Ml) exhibited higher 5 O values compared to teeth formed after the weaning process had begun (M2, M3). This suggests that weaning occurred around 3 years of age, which compares well with the 815N values analyzed in a previous study (White et al., 1994). However, variation in the 8180 values was observed, which was attributed to seasonality effects and migration. This study illustrates the potential of using multiple elements to further elucidate interpretations about the lifestyles of past populations.
4.5 Limitations in Biochemical Weaning Studies
Although biochemical methods have proven to be a more direct approach to examining weaning practices in past populations, they can only provide a general time frame of weaning at this moment. This is due to limitations such as the sample size, the time span of the skeletal sample, the unknown cause of death, the cross-sectional nature of these studies, individual variation, and the lack of standardization.
Schurr (1997) has suggested that the sample sizes for isotopic analysis should encompass at least 20 individuals. Many of the isotopic studies reviewed here do not 75 have sufficient sample sizes, and not all age ranges are represented. Despite this, the subadult sample size is often dependent on the nature of the skeletal series. Whether subadults are adequately represented depends on considerations such as the burial environment, recovery efforts, and cultural mortality bias (Saunders and Hoppa, 1993).
The time span of the skeletal sample must also be taken into account since weaning practices can change over time (Fuller et al., 2006). Furthermore, the nature of the cemetery is important, since this can affect whether the skeletal sample represents the entire population. Some cemeteries, such as those in Canada during the 19th century, only represent individuals who belonged to certain religious factions, which obviously will not reflect the entire population.
The cause of death cannot usually be determined from skeletal remains alone.
This is problematic given that the skeletons of young infants are used to reconstruct weaning patterns. Consequently, it is unknown whether an infant died due to malnutrition, disease, or as a result of weaning. Therefore, it is questionable whether the weaning pattern as determined from deceased subadults truly reflects what was practiced by the population (Prowse, 2001). Therefore, studies of weaning practices based on subadult samples must be scrutinized carefully (Herring et al., 1998). However, studies analyzing stable oxygen isotopes from individuals who survived the weaning process have been able to circumvent the problem of the mortality bias and appear promising.
Another limitation is that isotopic weaning studies only provide a cross-sectional perspective of the population (Clayton et al., 2006; Richards et al., 2002). As weaning practices vary between individuals and through time, it may not be possible to obtain detailed information regarding this practice. Although cultural factors play a key role in 76 determining breastfeeding practices, individuals also have a choice in whether they decide to breast feed or not. Some mothers may not be able to breastfeed, and wet-nurses were employed in certain cultures (Fildes, 1986). All of these factors need to be considered when interpreting weaning patterns.
There appears to be a lack of standardization in isotopic weaning studies, which is likely contingent on the nature of the sample and the vague definition of the process. Not all studies report the same type of data. For example, some papers report only the age at which weaning began or ceased. Furthermore, not all isotopic values are presented in every study, making it difficult to assess how much variation is seen within the population. This hinders our ability to understand this crucial infant feeding process and how it compares across different cultures. Standardization of terminology and how the data is reported is an important component in research if spatial and temporal patterns are to be ascertained cross-culturally. There needs to be an agreement in the definition of weaning as well as the way in which the isotopic data are reported. For future studies, it is recommended that the onset and termination of breastfeeding should be provided if possible, so that the duration of weaning can be determined.
4.6 Summary of Weaning Practices
Research on weaning in past populations has progressed from using indirect approaches, such as the application of linear enamel hypoplasia data, to using more direct biochemical approaches. Technological advances have allowed researchers to examine feeding practices in more detail than ever before, and will help further our interpretations regarding lifestyles of past populations. It must be remembered that weaning is 77 influenced by a multitude of factors, making it difficult to precisely identify the underlying cause for the shifts in weaning practices.
As the studies discussed above indicate weaning is a gradual process in most cultures. The duration of weaning, however, is more varied between cultures and sites themselves. It further appears that weaning began at a later age in earlier periods and lasted for a longer time span compared to later periods. Generally, modern day populations have the shortest weaning duration of all, which is often attributed to the availability of more nutritious supplementary foods as a result of technological advances.
Interestingly, the onset of weaning in past cultures often exceeds current clinical recommendations to begin between 4 to 6 months, given the reduced and possibly deleterious benefits of breast milk as the sole form of nutrition after this period.
Exclusive breastfeeding past 6 months can lead to growth faltering, decreased immunity, diarrhea and malnutrition (Hendricks and Badrudding, 1992).
As more studies are being conducted on weaning practices, we can begin to unravel and understand how this process compares between different cultures, how it has changed through time, and how it has had an impact on the dynamics of past populations. 78
Chapter 5
Materials and Methods
5.1 Historical and Archaeological Context of the Sample
Founded in 610 B.C. by the city of Miletus in Asia Minor, the Greek colony of
Apollonia lies in the modern day town of Sozopol, situated on the Black Sea coast of
Bulgaria (Figure 5.1). At the time of the colony's foundation, it is believed that the
Thracians inhabited the area (Nedev and Panayotova, 2003). While the original Greek settlement may have started on the island of St. Kirik (Strabo, Geography. VII, 6.1), the colony later spread to the adjacent peninsula. In addition, qualities such as a harbor, plentiful fishing, and the ease with which the area could be defended made Apollonia an ideal location for settlement. Given these characteristics, it is not surprising that the town flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries B.C., and the population was estimated to have reached around 3000 inhabitants during this time (Danov, 1948).
In 1938, the first grave associated with Apollonia was discovered accidentally during construction of a water pipe (Nedev and Panayotova, 2003). Further investigation found multiple graves in an area known as Kalfata, located 2.5 km to the south of
Sozopol (Figure 5.2). Soon after the first inhumation was uncovered, large-scale excavations of the site were undertaken from 1946 to 1949, under the direction of Ivan
Venedikov of the Institute of Archaeology in Sofia. Over 800 burials were unearthed and dated from the middle of the 5th century to the beginning of the 2nd century BC based on the associated grave goods (Nedev and Panayotova, 2003). Most were Greek inhumations of single individuals placed on their backs in an extended position with their heads 79 directed towards the west. Several cremations as well as individuals buried in flexed positions dating from the 4 century B.C. were also found, and have been interpreted as
Thracian burials (Nedev and Panayotova, 2003).
Figure 5.1. Map showing the location of Sozopol (Apollonia) (modified from http://geographv.about.com/library/cia/blcbulgaria.htm).
0 50 100 km l ' 1—' b>0 tOSrr-i
ROMANIA
/*Ruse V,^/
Varna./
er%»A BULGARIA Burgas,.-^ SAac* OZOpoT^0*" *fi
TURKEY Lf~' 1*5? if"* &•* ^ „ f*» 80
Figure 5.2. Map of the Apollonia necropolis relative to the town of Sozopol (from Keenleyside and Panayotova, 2006).
Excavations at Kalfata recommenced in 1992, under the direction of Dr. Kristina
Panayotova of the Institute of Archaeology in Sofia, and are still ongoing today. These renewed efforts have revealed an additional 400 burials. Most of them date from the
Classical and Hellenistic periods (5th - 2" centuries B.C.) based on associated grave goods, such as ceramic dishes and plates, drinking vessels, amphorae, terracotta figures, bronze coins, needles, mirrors, funerary wreaths and jewellery. The majority of the inhumations contain one individual. Five different types of graves were found. These include: 1) simple unlined pits, 2) stone cists, 3) tile graves, 4) wooden coffins, and 5) amphora and urn burials containing mostly child burials and cremations, respectively. 81
Moreover, some graves appear to be confined within stone walls, and have been correspondingly interpreted as family plots (Nedev and Panayotova, 2003).
As for the child burials, they appear to be evenly distributed and are not restricted to a separate area in the necropolis (Nedev and Panayotova, 2003). Skeletal analysis of the remains, thus far, has found that subadults (birth to 18 years of age) comprise approximately 29% (n=92) of the total number of skeletons analyzed (n=312). In addition, most of the children in the sample died under the age of 10 (81.5% of subadults, n=75) (Keenleyside, pers. commun., 2007; Keenleyside and Panayotova, 2005).
5.2 The Human Skeletal Sample Used For Analysis
One of the basic requirements for determining infant feeding patterns is that subadults of varying ages are necessary for isotopic analysis. In total, 64 subadults, ranging from birth to 15 years of age were sampled in this analysis. These are derived from the most recent excavations at Apollonia. In contrast to some isotopic weaning studies which have only examined subadults up to the assumed weaning age (see Herring et al., 1998), it was decided to include subadults up to the age of 18 in this analysis in order to examine the types of supplementary foods and the juvenile and adolescent diet following weaning.
Dr. Anne Keenleyside and I analyzed the majority of the subadult skeletal remains in Sozopol, Bulgaria during July 2005 and August 2006. Previous bone samples and data collected by Dr. Keenleyside during the summers of 2003 and 2004 were also incorporated into this analysis. Examination of the subadult skeletal remains entailed: 82
1) making an inventory of the remains, 2) estimating the age-at-death, and 3) recording any pathological lesions and trauma observed on the skeleton and dentition.
Water and toothbrushes were used to remove any dirt on the bones to better aid macroscopic examination, and the bones were then laid out to dry in the sunlight. The bones were identified and organized according to the different categories of bones (i.e. long bones, ribs, cranial bones) and were then inventoried. This process required noting the presence and degree of completeness of each bone and tooth using forms from
Buikstra and Ubelaker's Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains
(1994) and those provided by Dr. Keenleyside. For the dentition, each tooth was identified and inventoried using forms developed by Dr. Keenleyside and scored using the following system:
1 = present 2 = lost postmortem 4 = lost antemortem 5 = congenital loss 9 = indeterminate
Although each individual burial was stored within its own box, a minimum number of individuals (MNI) was assessed for every inhumation. This analysis involved noting whether extra bones were present in each burial. Any co-mingled remains were separated and analyzed independently. Based on macroscopic observations, bone preservation ranged from excellent to poor. Any visible pathological lesions on the bones and teeth were described in detail using standard terminology advocated by Buikstra and
Ubelaker (1994), and photographed. Non-specific stress markers such as cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis were recorded. These lesions are included in this analysis since
2 Sex was only determined for the adult remains due to the difficulties of accurately assessing sex in subadults (c.f. Hoppa and Fitzgerald, 1999). 83 they are normally attributed to childhood episodes of anemia (Stuart-Macadam, 1992), and may provide additional insights regarding weaning practices in Apollonia.
Cribra orbitalia, a condition characterized by porous lesions on the roof of the eye orbits, is usually attributed to iron-deficiency anemia or thalassemia in Mediterranean populations (Keenleyside and Panayotova, 2006; Larsen, 1997). An individual was considered to be affected with cribra orbitalia if at least one orbit displayed the characteristic lesions. The lesions were categorized as either active or healed following the criteria of Mensforth and colleagues (1978). The level of 'severity' was scored using the following classification of Stuart-Macadam (1982, 1991):
Stage 1 = scattered fine foramina Stage 2 = large and small isolated foramina Stage 3 = foramina have linked into a trabecular structure Stage 4 = outgrowth in trabecular form from the outer table surface
Porotic hyperostosis is manifested in the cranial vault as porous lesions, usually occurring on the parietal and occipital bones. Although the term porotic hyperostosis generally refers to porous lesions observed on the cranial vault and eye orbits (Larsen,
1997), it will only refer to vault lesions in this study. The cranial bones were assessed for the presence or absence of porotic hyperostosis and lesions were classified as healed or active following Mensforth and colleagues (1978). All recording forms used in this analysis can be found in Appendix C.
5.3 Methods of Subadult Age Estimation
Age estimation is one of the preliminary steps in bioarchaeological studies
(Konisberg and Holman, 1999). Without this crucial procedure, it would be impossible to 84 know whether certain age groups were more susceptible to particular diseases and dietary deficiencies. In a sense, it would be difficult to understand the subtleties entwined in the health and diet of past populations. For isotopic infant feeding studies, it is imperative that accurate age estimation methods be used. The elucidation of weaning patterns, particularly the onset and cessation of weaning, depends on this pivotal procedure (Fogel etal., 1989).
Multiple age estimation methods exist for subadults. Most of the available techniques rely on the timing and development of certain morphological characteristics during growth (Ubelaker, 1978). Subadult methods are often judged to be more accurate than those for adults (Brothwell, 1972), which are dependent on degenerative changes.
However, problems continue to exist in estimating the age-at-death of children. Many factors besides genetics, such as the level of nutrition, the environment, as well as population and individual variation, can influence the degree of growth and development.
As a result, most subadult age estimation methods tend to underestimate or overestimate the actual age of the individual (Liversidge, 1994; Saunders, 2000).
Moreover, most methods are constructed utilizing data from contemporary populations. Applying these techniques assumes that growth and development in the past is comparable to that of modern societies, which may not always be a valid assumption
(Lampl and Johnston, 1996; Mays, 1998). In their controversial paper, Farewell to
Paleodemography, Bocquet-Apel and Masset (1982) questioned the use of standard age estimation methods. They assert that studies using standard methods will erroneously produce age distributions that mirror the reference sample instead of the true demographic pattern. Van Gerven and Armelagos (1983) countered this argument by 85 comparing the age distributions of several archaeological populations to the standard references. They found that the archaeological and reference distributions did not mimic one another, and suggest that the standard age estimation methods can still be utilized in bioarchaeological research.
In light of these inherent difficulties, many researchers endorse the use of multiple age estimation methods in order to improve the accuracy of age-at-death estimates for skeletal remains (Iscan, 1989; Ubelaker, 1978). Following this recommendation, several techniques were applied to determine the age-at-death of the
Apollonian subadults. Most of the methods selected were developed utilizing European populations, making them appropriate for the Apollonian remains. However, some techniques derived from North American populations were also employed, since they are standard methods that are widely used in skeletal biology. Furthermore, age estimation methods utilized in other Classical isotopic weaning studies (i.e. Dupras et al., 2001;
Prowse, 2001) were employed to facilitate comparison of the results of this study with previous work. The methods used to determine the age-at-death of the Apollonian subadults included assessing 1) the degree of dental formation, 2) the stage of dental emergence, 3) diaphyseal length, and 4) epiphyseal fusion. The criteria for each method are listed in Appendix D.
5.3.1 Dental Formation and Emergence
Dental formation or mineralization is the process of completion of the crowns and roots of teeth. Considering that this process is under substantial genetic control, distinct morphological stages of development can be observed, making it a valuable age estimation method (Larsen, 1997; Saunders, 2000; Ubelaker, 1978; White, 2000). 86
Furthermore, many researchers view it as the best method because the deciduous and early permanent teeth develop during the fetal period, and are less affected by external stressors such as environmental, nutritional, and social factors (Saunders, 2000).
Therefore, dental development is a better representative of chronological age. However, this growth process is not entirely immune from diseases such as hypopituitarism, syphilis, and endocrine disorders, which can affect the rate of development (Ubelaker,
1989). Furthermore, there may be intra- and inter-population variation in dental development (Brothwell, 1972).
Dental formation methods used in this analysis include Moorrees, Fanning and
Hunt (1963a,b) and the modified version by Smith (1991). The methods of Moorrees and colleagues (1963a,b) were developed using radiographs of modern American Caucasian children of middle socio-economic background from Ohio. Although this technique was developed on modern American children, it is assumed to be applicable to eastern
European populations, and Saunders and co-workers (1993) have shown it to be the most accurate method of estimating age-at-death. Bearing this in mind, age estimates determined using the degree of dental mineralization were given precedence over the other techniques.
Age estimates were derived from the stage of dental formation charts of the deciduous (canine, first and second molar) and permanent teeth (incisor, canine, premolar, molars), provided by Moorrees and colleagues (1963a,b). The estimates for each tooth were calculated independently and then averaged to obtain an overall estimate.
Moorrees and co-workers (1963a,b) note that males and females develop at different rates, and accordingly provide different age estimation charts. While developmental 87 differences between males and females under the age of 5 are subtle (Saunders et al.,
1993), the inability to accurately determine the sex of juvenile skeletal remains hinders the opportunity to apply sex-specific charts to the remains. Therefore, an age range incorporating the estimates for both males and females was assigned to each individual.
While radiographs are recommended for assessing the degree of dental formation and emergence (Saunders et al., 1993), this was not possible since radiographic facilities were unavailable in Sozopol.
Assessing the degree of dental emergence in skeletal remains involves noting when the tooth cusp arises at or above the surface of the alveolar bone (Konisberg and
Holman, 1999; Scheuer and Black, 2004). Although dental emergence is also under substantial genetic influence, the rate of eruption is affected by more factors than dental formation, including severe undernutrition, high amounts of fluoride, birth weight, and intra- and interpopulation variation (Konisberg and Holman, 1999; Larsen, 1997).
Buikstra and Ubelaker's (1994) method of dental emergence was used in this study. Although this technique was developed utilizing a Native American population, it is the standard method used. While the technique is easy to use, it requires intact teeth within the mandible or maxilla, which were not always present in the remains.
5.3.2 Diaphyseal Length
The dimensions (length and width) of long bones can also be used to estimate the age-at-death of subadults. However, this assumes that all children, past and modern, grow at a constant rate, which is not always the case (Mays, 1998). Compared to teeth, skeletal growth and development are under less genetic control. In addition, growing individuals are exposed to factors influencing growth and development for a longer period of time 88 than teeth (Scheuer and Black, 2004). These influences include: nutrition, socioeconomic status, climate, latitude, and individual variation (Larsen, 1997; Scheuer and Black, 2004;
Ubelaker, 1978). Therefore, using diaphyseal lengths to determine the age-at-death is considered a poorer indicator of chronological age compared to the dental methods, and for this reason was not as heavily relied upon.
Reference standards utilized in this analysis included Stloukal and Hanakova
(1978), Sundick (1978) and Ubelaker (1989). Stloukal and Hanakova's (1978) standard was developed from a Slavonic population, while Sundick's (1978) was based on the
Medieval German population of Alterning. Ubelaker's (1989) technique was also applied, even though the method was formulated based on the Arikara population, a pre-historic
Native American group, since it is a standard method used in skeletal biology. The maximum length of intact long bone diaphyses (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula), and clavicle and ilium width were taken with a tape measure or sliding caliper, and recorded to the nearest millimeter. These measurements were then compared to the charts provided by Stloukal and Hanakova (1978), Sundick, (1978) and Ubelaker (1989).
An age estimate was determined using each method independently, and an average age was then calculated for each individual.
5.3.3 Epiphyseal Fusion
During growth and development, the epiphyseal portions, or 'caps' on the ends of long bones, fuse with the diaphyses (Brothwell, 1972; Mays, 1998). Epiphyses within the body commence union during mid fetal life and are completely united around 30 years of age (Scheuer and Black, 2004). The utility of this technique is based on the assumption that certain areas in the body fuse at a certain age. However, studies have shown that 89 numerous factors can also affect the degree of epiphyseal fusion, including diet, disease, inter- and intra-population variation, and growth differences between males and females
(Brothwell, 1972; Mays, 1998; Saunders, 2000; Ubelaker, 1978).
The fusion methods utilized in this study include Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) and Flecker (1933). Flecker developed his method using European hospital patients, while Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) derived their method from several populations of varying geographical origins. Even though these methods may not be entirely representative of 'healthy' European populations, they were selected in order to be comparable with other studies. Each available bone and its corresponding side were macroscopically examined to assess the degree of fusion and were recorded using forms from Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) as follows:
0 = open 1 = partial union 2 = complete union 9 = indeterminate
The age of the individual was estimated by comparing the fusion pattern observed to the charts provided in these sources. An average age estimate was then calculated. One restriction with this method is that it is mainly applicable to subadults between 10 and 20 years of age (Saunders, 2000; Ubelaker, 1989). Therefore, epiphyseal fusion methods cannot precisely determine the age of children who are breastfeeding or weaning, and were not solely relied upon. In addition, not all bones were present for every individual, making it difficult to determine the entire epiphyseal pattern. 90
5.4 Preparation of Bone Samples for Stable Isotope Analysis
Bone is composed of an inorganic (hydroxyapatite) and organic (90% collagen) component (White, 2000). For palaeodietary isotopic analysis, collagen is often the targeted medium since it is largely comprised of ingested protein and amino acids, and is less susceptible to diagenetic alterations compared to carbonate, or bioapatite
(Katzenberg, 2000; Williams et al., 2005). Collagen can be chemically extracted and isolated from bone bioapatite following a series of acid treatments and heat, a process referred to as demineralization. The protocol used for collagen extraction in this study was developed by Martin Knyf of the School of Geography and Earth Science at
McMaster University, which it based on the method outlined by Longin (1971), and later modified by Chisholm and colleagues (1983).
For this study, rib fragments from 64 subadults were selected for isotopic analysis. The age distribution of the subadults sample is as follows: birth to those less than 1 year (n=10), 1 to 3 years (n=13), those over 3 to 5 years (n=10), those over 5 to less than 10 years (n=21), and those from 10 to 15 years (n=10). In circumstances in which ribs were unavailable, long bone or cranial fragments were substituted instead (9 individuals). Previous research has suggested that isotopic values do not significantly differ when varying bones and areas on the same bone are sampled from the same individual (DeNiro and Schoeninger, 1983). Bone samples selected for isotopic analysis were previously inspected macroscopically to ensure that they were free of pathological lesions, as suggested by Katzenberg and Lovell (1999). Fragmentary remains were also preferentially selected for isotopic analysis in order to prevent the need for destructive sampling of complete bones. All collected samples were stored in labeled plastic bags. 91
Bone samples were first broken into 2 cm fragments using a set of pliers. Pieces that were stained green from copper artifacts were removed from the analysis to ensure that the metal would not affect the stable isotope values. The bone chips were placed in
200 ml beakers of tap water and were washed for 15 minutes using an ultrasonic cleaner to gently dislodge any surface particles. This procedure was repeated approximately 4 to
7 times for every sample until the water appeared clear. De-ionized (MilliQ) water was then used to wash the bone samples for 15 minutes at a time for approximately 10 to 20 washes until the water was transparent. However, samples collected from the 2006 field season were washed in B-Pure water instead of MilliQ water since it was more cost- effective; this substitution is unlikely to affect the results. Finally, the bone pieces were air dried on labeled paper towels. All samples were cleaned in the Physical Anthropology laboratory at Trent University.
An analytical balance was used to weigh approximately 5 grams of bone from each sample for analysis. The actual weight of the samples ranged from 2 to 7 grams, and each was placed in labeled pre-weighed plastic 50 ml centrifuge tubes. Any extra bone fragments were stored in labeled plastic bags. The centrifuge tubes containing the bone samples were then weighed in order to account for any bone loss during their transfer into the tubes, using the equation below:
Equation 5.1. Bone Weight = (weight of tube+bone) - (weight of tube)
The final weight of each bone sample was used to determine the collagen yield of the samples, as will be discussed later. 92
The chemical process involved in preparing the samples entails demineralization of the bones in order to isolate the collagen needed for isotopic analysis. The centrifuge tubes containing the bone samples were filled with 30 ml of 0.25 M solution of hydrochloric acid (HC1) and MilliQ or B-Pure water. Each tube was shaken for a few seconds, and then set for 3 to 4 hours with the caps loosely placed on top, so that gases emanating from the solution could escape. The samples were then centrifuged for 6 minutes in order to spin down the bone pieces so that they would not be lost when the acid solution was poured off. After decantation, 30 ml of new HC1 solution was replaced in the centrifuge tubes. This procedure was repeated approximately 10 to 20 times until the samples appeared to be sufficiently 'gelatinized'. Once the samples were demineralized, they were rinsed with MilliQ or B-Pure water and centrifuged for 6 minutes. This was repeated 3 times in order to remove any remaining acid solution.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was then added to each centrifuge tube to destroy any humic contaminants, external organic materials that may adhere to bone, and if not removed, can potentially alter the isotope values. One limitation in using NaOH is that collagen can be lost in the process (Katzenberg et al., 1995). This was remedied by sampling larger amounts of bone (5 grams versus 3 grams), if possible. Forty ml of 0.1 M solution of NaOH and MilliQ or B-Pure water was poured into each centrifuge tube containing the bone samples and shaken gently. The samples were immersed in the
NaOH solution for 20 minutes. The solution was then decanted and the samples were rinsed with MilliQ or B-Pure water and centrifuged for 6 minutes. This process was repeated 3 to 5 times until the solution became clear. A final rinse of 0.25 M HC1 solution 93 was applied to the samples, leaving them moderately acidic to ensure that bacterial growth did not occur, while waiting further processing.
The collagen was then transferred into 50 ml glass vials filled with MilliQ or B-
Pure water. These vials were then placed in a 900 ml beaker topped halfway with tap water and positioned on a hot plate set at 50 to 70° C, for 2 to 3 days until the collagen completely liquefied. The liquid collagen was then transferred back to the cleaned plastic centrifuge tubes, and then centrifuged for 6 minutes in order to spin down the remaining bone. Next, the liquid was transferred into pre-cleaned Teflon beakers and set on a hot plate at 50 to 70° C to remove any residual water. Using a 9" Pasteur pipette, the remaining collagen was transferred into labeled pre-weighed small glass vials and placed into a drying oven until it solidified. The vials with the solid collagen were then weighed, and the amount of extracted collagen was calculated using the following equation:
Equation 5.2. Weight of Collagen = (weight of collagen+vial) - (weight of vial)
The collagen weight was needed to determine the collagen yield, for assessing the degree of preservation in the samples as discussed in the Chapter 6.
The isolated collagen samples were analyzed on a Continuous Flow Isotope Mass
Spectrometer (CF-IRMS) under the direction of Dr. Darren Grocke in the School of
Geography and Earth Science at McMaster University. The collagen was combusted in a
Costech Elemental Combustion System to obtain the gaseous form of the desired elements, N2 and CO2, which are then separated in the gas chromatography column. The isolated gases are then carried in a helium stream to the mass spectrometer through a
Conflo III. A Thermo Finnigan Delta Plus XP mass spectrometer was used to obtain the 94 stable isotope values, which were compared to the international standards for carbon
(PeeDee Belemnite (PDB)) and nitrogen (Atmospheric Nitrogen (AIR)). Precision of the
815N and 513 C values was ± 0.1%o (Knyf, pers. commun, 2006).
5.5 Assessing The Degree Of Preservation
Preservation of the Apollonia remains was assessed by analyzing the collagen yield, the carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratios, and the carbon and nitrogen concentrations in the bone samples. The collagen yield was calculated using the following equation:
Equation 5.3 % Collagen Yield = weight of collagen x 100 weight of bone
Bone samples are considered to be well preserved, and suitable for isotopic analysis if they produce a collagen yield greater than 1% (Ambrose, 1993). The levels of carbon and nitrogen were measured in the mass spectrometer in order to determine the
C/N ratios. Bone samples were judged to be well preserved if their C/N ratios fell within the acceptable range of 2.9 to 3.6 (DeNiro, 1985). As for the carbon (%C) and nitrogen
(%N) concentrations, collagen is considered to be adequately preserved if the %C is between 15 to 46%, and if the %N is between 5 to 17% (Ambrose, 1990; Ambrose and
Norr, 1993). Following the criteria of Garvie-Lok (2001), samples were deemed poorly preserved and excluded from isotopic analysis if their collagen yield was less than 1% and their C/N ratios fell outside the acceptable range.
Further tests of diagenesis were conducted by looking at the correlation between collagen yield, C/N ratios, carbon and nitrogen concentration, and §15N and 813C values.
It is reasoned that if the bone samples are adequately preserved, there should be a lack of 95 correlation between the stable isotope values and collagen yield, C/N ratios, and the carbon and nitrogen concentrations (Garvie-Lok, 2001; Prowse, 2001).
5.6 Statistical Analysis
All graphs were created using Microsoft Excel for Macintosh 2004. Statistical analysis of the Apollonian data was undertaken using SPSS Version 14 for Windows and
VassarStats, an online statistical program created by Dr. Richard Lowry, and operated by
Vassar College (http://facultv.vassar.edu/lowry/VassarStats.html'). Since the data were not normally distributed, a two-tailed Mann-Whitney U test was applied to the stable isotope data. For the paleopathology data, a two-tailed Fisher's Exact Probability test was employed, given the smaller sample size. 96
Chapter 6 Results
6.1 Age Estimation
A number of standard age estimation methods were applied to the subadults of
Apollonia, as discussed in Chapter 5. Although several techniques were used, not all could be equally applied. This was dependent upon the recovery of the skeletal remains and the level of fragmentation. In some cases, the relevant areas of the skeleton needed for analysis were missing. Overall, the skeletal remains of subadults under the age of 18 comprise this analysis.
A total of 64 subadults were examined, and the age-at-death ranged from 3 months to 15 years (Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1 Age-at-death distribution of the Apollonian subadults (n=64).
70 (64,100%)
60
S 50
'> 40
30
E 20 (13,20.3%) (10,15.6%) MHBM (10,15.6°(10,15.6%/ ) ^M (10,15.6%) 10 - • I • Birth to 1 lto3 3 to 5 5 to 10 10 to 15 Total Estimated Age-At-Death (years) 97
The majority of the subadults in the sample (81.2 %, 52/64) are under the age of 10 and the average age-at-death is 5.4 years. Each subadult was assigned an age range, and the mean age was determined by calculating the midpoint of the range. Throughout this thesis, the term
'infant' will be used to refer to children between birth and 1 year, while 'children' will refer to subadults between the age of 1 and 5, and 'juvenile' will represent those between the age of 5 and 10. Lastly, subadults between the age of 10 and 15 will be termed 'adolescents'.
6.2 Preservation of Collagen
The stable isotope values and their corresponding collagen yield, C/N ratios and nitrogen and carbon concentrations (% N, %C) are listed in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Stable nitrogen and carbon isotope values.
Age 15 13 Collagen 5 Category Burial # *J* Tissue N 5 C (%. C;N Yk,d % N % c (yrs) (yrs) (%»AIR) PDB) (%)
Birth to 1 247 0.25 Ribs 12.3 -18.7 3.4 12 15.1 43.9 266 (03) 0.25 Ribs 11.8 -17.9 3.3 2.2 13.0 37.4 363 0.25 Long 12.3 -18.3 3.4 2.1 12.9 37.6 Bone Long 366 0.25 10.3 -18.2 3.3 1.3 13.3 37.4 Bone 372 0.25 Ribs 11.1 -17.7 3.4 7.2 14.3 41.4 381 0.25 Ribs 11 -18.7 3.4 9.7 15.3 44.0 404 0.813 Ribs 11.7 -18.6 3.3 8.9 14.5 41.3 8036#12 0.25 Ribs 11.9 -17.7 3.4 9.2 15.4 44.9 Ribs, 225 0.25 Cranial, 12 -18.9 3.4 13.9 15.4 45.0 Clavicle 449 0.75 Ribs 11.9 -17 3.4 11.2 17.6 51.5
Continued on next page 98
Age Collagen Age 8,5N 513C (%, Category Burial # Tissue C:N Yield %N %C (yrs) (%o AIR) PDB) (yrs) (%) lto3 204 2 Ribs 9.9 -18.6 3.3 1.4 13.6 38.4 237 3 Ribs 12 -18.5 3.3 3.3 13.5 38.5 239 2 Ribs 9.8 -18.5 3.4 12.2 15.4 44.7 243 2.5 Ribs 9.4 -18.7 3.4 2.9 13.4 39.2 266 (05) 1.5 Ribs 10.3 -18 3.4 14.8 15.6 45.6 297A 1.5 Ribs 11.7 -18.6 3.3 6.8 13.8 39.5 Ribs, 348 3 long 10.4 -18.3 3.3 1.3 15.2 43.3 bones 361 2 Cranial 10.6 -18.2 3.3 5.6 15.0 42.8 5072 #20 3 Ribs 10.1 -18.8 3.4 11.2 15.8 45.5 5072 #9 1.5 Ribs 12.5 -18.3 3.5 9.5 15.6 46.5 199 1 Ribs 11.8 -18.2 3.3 13.4 16.1 46.2 403 2.5 Ribs 11.2 -18.3 3.3 8.9 14.1 39.7 426 3 Ribs 10.2 -17.5 3.4 12.4 15.4 45.4 3 to 5 196 3.5 Ribs 9.7 -19.4 3.4 8.2 15.6 45.2 241 5 Ribs 9 -18.5 3.3 1.2 13.6 38.7 273 5 Ribs 9.1 -19 3.3 1.9 13.2 37.9 295 3.25 Ribs 10.4 -18.9 3.3 6.8 15.2 43.3 314 4 Ribs 11.2 -18.8 3.4 7.4 14.4 41.8 380 4 Ribs 8.6 -18 3.2 1.9 13.3 37.0 8036 #11 4 Ribs 10.4 -18.1 3.4 5 13.8 39.8
Ribs, 212B 5 Cranial, 10.6 -18.5 3.3 8 16.7 45.5 Clavicle
297B 4.5 Cranial 11.8 -17.3 3.3 6.3 16.2 45.6 393 3.5 Ribs 9.3 -18.5 3.3 11.4 11.3 32.9 5 to 10 208 7 Ribs 8.8 -18.8 3.4 4.1 14.4 41.7 211 6.5 Ribs 9.2 -18.9 3.3 5.5 14.7 41.9 212A 6 Ribs 9.3 -18.7 3.4 4.3 14.7 42.8 233 7.5 Ribs 10 -18.5 3.4 5.5 14.9 43.0 268 6 Ribs 12.5 -18.4 3.4 14.4 15.5 44.7 448A 5.5 Ribs 8.4 -19.5 3.4 15.2 16.4 48.1 288 5.5 Ribs 8.7 -18.8 3.3 8.8 14.0 39.5 313 7 Ribs 9.7 -18.7 3.4 5.6 14.1 40.7 320 6 Ribs 9.5 -19.1 3.3 1.2 13.0 37.2 355 5.5 Ribs 9 -19 3.4 7.9 14.8 42.4
Continued on next page 99
Age Collagen Age ,5 13 Category Burial # Tissue 8 N 5 C (%« C:N Yield %N %C (yrs) (%oAIR) PDB) (yrs) (%) 5 to 10 Ribs, 358 6 long 9.4 -18.8 3.3 2.6 13.7 39.4 bones
395 6 Ribs 9.5 -19 3.3 0.4 13.9 39.6
413 12 Ribs 9.2 -18.9 3.4 4.3 14.2 41.2 428 7.5 Ribs 9.6 -19.2 3.4 8.9 15.0 43.5 5072 #23 14 Ribs 10.4 -18.5 3.4 8.5 15.0 43.9 5072 #27 9 Ribs 7.8 -18.9 3.1 11 5.3 14.4 5083 #34 6.5 Ribs 9.5 -19 3.3 4.8 14.7 41.9 202 6.5 Ribs 10.2 -18.9 3.3 5.4 15.4 44.0 431 6.5 Ribs 10 -18.5 3.4 14.2 15.9 46.5 440 7 Ribs 9.4 -18.5 3.3 11.6 16.2 46.2 #?A 8 Ribs 10 -18.9 3.3 10.4 16.8 47.5 10 to 15 294 11 Ribs 10.1 -19 3.4 2.1 12.7 36.8 5072 #22 12.5 Ribs 11.3 -19 3.3 12.2 15.7 44.9 Kal 400 + 10.75 Ribs 9.1 -18.9 3.4 7.1 14.6 42.4 423 11 Ribs 9.6 -18.5 3.3 5.4 15.4 44.1 443 10 Ribs 10.1 -17.4 3.3 2.4 15.6 44.2 #?B 12 Cranial 9.9 -18.9 3.5 7.8 15.3 45.4 448B 13 Ribs 9.2 -18 3.4 10.6 16.1 46.6 5078#6 11 Ribs 9.1 -18.6 3.4 13.4 15.9 46.8 5083#9 15 Ribs 9 -18.8 3.4 11.1 15.0 43.7 5A 14 Ribs 9.8 -18.6 3.4 8.1 15.5 44.9 Average 5.4 10.2 -18.7 3.3 7.4 14.7 42.3 SD(±) 4.0 1.1 0.4 0.06 4.1 1.6 4.9
6.2.1 Collagen Yield
Bone collagen is considered sufficiently preserved if the collagen yield is greater than
5% (Ambrose, 1991). However, additional studies have suggested that there is still adequate preservation when collagen yields are above 1% (Ambrose, 1993; DeNiro and Weiner, 1988;
Garvie-Lok, 2001). In addition, the ideal cut-off point for collagen yield may be dependent on the environment of the site, and assessing significant relationships between the collagen 100 yield and stable isotope values will help to further address the issue of diagenesis (Ambrose and Norr, 1993). Most of the Apollonian subadults have collagen yields above the proposed cut-off point of 1%, with the exception of one sample (Ap 395) which only yielded 0.42% of collagen. Overall, the collagen yields of the Apollonian subadults ranged from 0.42 to
15.21%, with a mean of 7.4 ± 4.1%. This large range in variability could be due to the amount of bone sampled for analysis, since it was noted in chapter 5 that the actual weight of the samples ranged from 2 to 7 grams of bone.
The collagen yields were further compared to the 815N and §' C values to assess whether a relationship exists between these variables, which would further indicate whether the stable isotope values are affected by the amount of viable collagen (Ambrose, 1990)
(Figures 6.2 and 6.3).
Figure 6.2 Assessment of diagenesis by comparing collagen yield to the 515N values.
y = 0.0396x + 9.9537 14 1 2 R = 0.0204
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Collagen Yield (%) 101
1 "\ Figure 6.3 Assessment of diagenesis by comparing collagen yield to the 5 C values.
.16.5- y = 0.0043x- 18.608 R2 = 0.0013
-17 - •
-17.5 -
• • CO o -18 -j • • • a. • e • • • • u • • -18.5 -i ^ • •• "to • • • • • % • • • • • • • • • • • -19 - • • • • • •
-19.5 - • •
-20 - r 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1( Collagen Yield (%)
In both graphs, the correlation between collagen yield and the 515N and 513C values was found to be insignificant, indicating that the collagen is adequately preserved. Therefore, the stable isotope values are not influenced by the amount of viable collagen and the quality of collagen is also intact. In addition, samples with low collagen yields can be retained in this analysis.
6.2.2 Carbon to Nitrogen Ratios
The C/N ratios for the bone samples ranged from 3.1 to 3.5, with an average value of
3.3 ± 0.06, and are within the acceptable range of 2.9 to 3.6 (Ambrose, 1990). The C/N ratios were also compared with the 515N and §13C values to check for any significant relationships that would indicate diagenesis (Figure 6.4 and 6.5). A significant relationship would suggest 102 that the integrity of carbon and nitrogen in the bone collagen has been altered, possibly due to contamination with humic contents that are enriched in IJC, or through the preferential loss of carbon or nitrogen as collagen breaks down (Ambrose, 1990; Schoeninger, 1989). If the collagen samples were affected by diagenesis, the stable isotope value would correspondingly change with the C/N ratios. Once again, a weak but insignificant correlation exists between the C/N ratios and 815N and §13C values, indicating that the collagen is adequately preserved.
Figure 6.4 Assessment of diagenesis by comparing the 815N values to C/N ratios.
y=3.7364x-2.2739 14 R2 = 0.0468
12
g 10 < o
IT) ~eo 8
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 C/N 103
Figure 6.5 Assessment of diagenesis by comparing the 8 C values to C/N ratios.
-16 y=-0.0425x- 18.434 R2 = 0.00003
-17 • • CO aQ . d -18 • u • -t<3
-19 i • •
-20 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 C/N
6.3.3 Nitrogen and Carbon Concentrations
The nitrogen and carbon concentration (%N, %C) were also compared to the 815N and 8 C isotopic signatures to assess diagenesis (Figures 6.6 and 6.7, respectively). The %N and %C are indicative of the concentration of nitrogen and carbon, respectively, in the combusted collagen samples (van Klinken, 1999). They can be used to assess whether external sources of nitrogen or carbon may have altered the biogenic signature. If diagenesis has occurred, then the stable isotope values would change in relation to the nitrogen and carbon concentration. For fresh bone, the %C is 35 wt %, while for %N it is between 11 to 16 wt % (van Klinken, 1999) 104
Figure 6.6. Assessment of diagenesis by comparing the %N and S N values.
y=0.2014x+ 7.2998 R2 = 0.0834
• • 12
*§, io i
"to • • •/•• ••
8©
6 1 1 1 1 1 1 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 17.0 19.0
%N
The %N values in this study ranged from 5.3 to 16.8 wt % and averaged 14.6 ± 1.5%, while the %C values ranged from 14.4 to 47.5 wt %, with a mean of 42.1 ± 4.92 wt %.
As can be seen above, a weak correlation exists between the nitrogen content and the
8 N isotopic values. Of note, one specimen (burial 5072 #27, value circled) contained a much lower amount of nitrogen in the bone collagen, at 5.3 wt % compared to the average.
However, it is still within the acceptable range of 5 to 17 wt % for %N (Ambrose, 1990;
Ambrose and Norr, 1993). Overall, the weak correlation suggests that the collagen has not been affected by diageneis. 105
1 ^ Figure 6.7. Assessment of diagenesis by comparing the %C and § C values
y=0.0198x- 19.411 -16.5
-17
• • -17.5 - •
03 P -18 a. © <¥ -18.5 "to
-19 -
-19.5 i
-20 ^ —i 1 1— - 1 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 %c
A weak correlation can also be observed when comparing the carbon content to the stable carbon isotope values. Once again, the sample from burial 5072 #27 (value circled) yields a much lower %C content (14.4 wt %) than the average. The %C of this specimen is slightly below the acceptable %C range of 15 to 47 wt % (Ambrose, 1990). Even though the C/N ratio (3:1) and collagen yield (11.0%) were above the acceptable range, this sample also exhibits a 815N value (7.8%o) that much lower than the other subadults, indicating possible contamination. Consequently, this individual will be excluded from further analysis, and the sample size used for stable isotopic and palaeopathological analysis will consist of 63 subadults instead. Considering that no significant correlations were found, this suggests that the biogenic isotopic signatures in the bone collagen can be used to reconstruct the weaning practice and palaeodiet of the Apollonia subadults. 106
6.3 Stable Nitrogen and Carbon Isotope Data
The stable nitrogen and carbon isotope values for all 63 individuals in the sample are illustrated in Table 6.1. Overall, the subadult 815N values range from 8.4 to 12.5%o, with an average of 10.2 ± l.l%o, and the 813C values range from -17.3 to -19.5 %o, with a mean of
-18.7±0.5%o.
6.3.1 Stable Isotope Data by Age
The stable nitrogen and carbon isotope values by age category are listed in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Stable nitrogen and carbon isotope values by age-at-death categories.
Age-at-death Mean Mean 615N Range S.D. 813C Range S.D. Category n 515N 513C (%o AIR) (%o PDB) (years) (%o AIR) (±) (%o PDB) (±)
birth to 1 10 12.3 to 10.3 11.6 0.6 -17 to-18.9 -18.1 0.6 1 to 3 13 9.4 to 12.5 10.7 0.9 -17.5 to-18.8 -18.3 0.3
3 to 5 10 9 to 11.8 10 1 -17.3 to-19.4 -18.5 0.6 5 to 10 20a 8.4 to 12.5 9.6 0.8 -18.4 to-19.5 -18.8 0.3
10 to 15 10 9 to 11.3 9.7 0.7 -17.4 to-19 -18.5 0.5
Adult Malesb 23 8.5 to 11.4 10.2 0.8 -17.4 to 19.1 -18.6 0.48
Adult Femalesb 31 8.8 to 12.2 10 0.7 -17.8 to-19.3 -18.5 0.5
a Excluding burial 5072 #27 b From Keenleyside et al. (2006) 107
The stable nitrogen isotope values are also plotted against the estimated age-at-death for the Apollonian subadults, and the mean 515N value for adult females is also indicated on the graph (Figure 6.8). Generally, the youngest subadults exhibited the most enriched 815N values compared to the adult female mean. A sharp decline is observed in infants around 1 year of age, while the §15N values of subadults aged 3 to 5 reach the adult female mean.
Between 5 and 10 years of age, the nitrogen isotope values are slightly more negative than the adult female mean, and do not reach the female mean until 10 to 15 years of age.
However, the 8 N values are also loosely clustered within each age group, suggesting individual variation.
Figure 6.8 Stable nitrogen isotope values compared to age-at-death for the subadults.
14
Mean Adult female 5' 5N = 10±0.7%o !• • •
• • • I—I < i io • *••-*•; r*«r * :•-* •- IT-
4 6 8 10 12 14 Estimated Age-At-Death (years) 108
Table 6.3 Mann-Whitney U test for S15N values comparing subadults to adult females.
Age Mean 815N Range n SD(±) p value z U (%o AIR) A (yrs) birth to 6 41 10.6 1.2 0.0293 2.18 443.5 6tol5a 22 9.7 0.6 0.078 -1.47 423 Excluding burial 5072#20 Values in bold have a p value < 0.05, and are significant z = significance level for test UA = critical value
In order to assess whether the subadult S15N values are significantly different than those of the adult females of Apollonia, a two-tailed Mann-Whitney U test was applied
(Table 6.3). The general cohorts of birth to 6 years and 6 to 15 years were chosen for comparison with the adult values to compensate for the subadult collagen turnover time,
since it takes 3 to 8 months for bone collagen to reflect the change in diet after weaning
(Herrscher, 2003). Subadults under the age of 6 were found to have significantly elevated
stable nitrogen isotope values than the adult females.
To further test whether any significant differences exist between the subadult age
cohorts with respect to their 515N values, a two-tailed Mann-Whitney U test was applied
(Table 6.4). The age cohorts used in this analysis were chosen based on the differences observed when the 5 N values were compared to the age-at-death estimates, and also considered the time required for subadults to exhibit dietary changes in their bone collagen, which is 3 to 8 months (Herrscher, 2003). In Table 6.4, subadults under the age of 3 have significantly different nitrogen isotope signatures compared to the older children and adult females of Apollonia. After the age of 3, the 815N values do not significantly differ from those of the older subadults and the adult females. Children between the ages of 5 and 10 109 years, however, exhibit significantly lower 815N values compared to the adult females and children under the age of 3.
Table 6.4 Mann-Whitney U test between subadult age groups and their 515N values.
Age-at-death Adult Birth to 1 lto3 3 to 5 5 to 10 10 to 15 category Females3 (n=10) (n=13) (n=10) (n=20) (n=10) (years) (n=31) Birth to 1 P - 0.01 0.0016 0.0001 0.0002 <0.0001 z - 2.1 2.9 3.8 3.52 4.2
UA - 31 10.5 11 3 16 lto3 P 0.01 - 0.06 0.0004 0.003 0.006 z 2.1 - 1.4 3.3 2.7 2.4
UA 31 - 40.5 38.5 21 104.5 3 to 5 P 0.0016 0.06 - 0.1 0.2 0.4 z 2.9 1.4 - 0.9 0.5 0.2
UA 10.5 40.5 - 77.5 42.5 149 5 to 10 P 0.0001 0.0004 0.1 - 0.33 0.01 z 3.8 3.3 0.9 - -0.42 -2.1
UA 11 38.5 77.5 - 110 419 10 to 15 P 0.0002 0.003 0.3 0.3 - 0.1 z 3.5 2.7 0.5 -0.4 - -1.0 uA 3 21 42.5 110 - 190 Adult Females P <0.0001 0.006 0.432 0.01 0.1 - z 4.2 2.4 0.1 -2.1 -1.1 -
UA 16 104.5 149 419 190 - "From Keenleyside et al., 2006 p value = values in bold are statistically significant if p < 0.05 z value = significance level for test UA = critical value 110
The stable carbon isotope values were also plotted against the subadult age-at-death, and are compared to the adult male and female 8 C means (Figure 6.9). The youngest subadults (birth to 1 year) show elevated S13C values compared to the adults. Between 3 and
5 years of age, the 513C values reach the adult levels, while subadults between the ages of 5
n 1-5 and 10 are depleted of C relative to the adults. In order to assess whether the 8 C values are significantly different between the subadults themselves and when compared to the adults, a two-tailed Mann-Whitney U test was performed (Table 6.5).
Figure 6.9 8 C values compared to the age-at-death of the Apollonian subadults.
-16
Mean Adult 8' 3C = -18.5±0.5%o
o Pi A d -18 A A u
i"TI A* A A.A.A-A.
A A -;». A A
-20 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Estimated Age-At-Death (years) Ill
1 ^ Table 6.5 Mann-Whitney U test between subadult age groups and their 8 C values
Age-at-death Birth to 1 lto3 3 to 5 5 to 10 10 to 15 Adults3 category (n=10) (n=13) (n=10) (n=20) (n=10) (n=54) (years) Birth to 1 P - 0.33 0.12 0.001 0.051 0.054 z - 0.43 1.13 3.1 1.63 1.6
UA - 57.5 34.5 29 28 183 lto3 P 0.33 - 0.2 0.0001 0.03 0.12 z 0.43 - 0.84 3.65 1.77 1.15 UA 57.5 - 51 30.5 36 278 3 to 5 P 0.12 0.2 - 0.059 0.29 0.48 z 1.13 0.84 - 1.56 0.53 -0.04 - uA 34.5 51 64 42.5 272.5 5 to 10 P 0.001 0.0001 0.059 - 0.15 0.004 z 3.1 3.65 1.56 - -1.01 -2.65
UA 29 30.5 64 - 123.5 758.5 10 to 15 P 0.051 0.03 0.29 0.15 - 0.27 z 1.63 1.77 0.53 -1.01 - -0.61
UA 28 36 42.5 123.5 - 303.5 Adults P 0.054 0.12 0.48 0.004 0.27 - z 1.6 1.15 -0.04 -2.65 -0.61 -
UA 183 278 272.5 758.5 303.5 - "From Keenleysic e et al., 2006 p = p value, values in bold are statistically significant if p < 0.05 z = z value, significant level for test UA = critical value
The cohorts chosen for this analysis were once again based on the age at which differences in the § N values occur, and the time required for subadult collagen to register the change in diet. As indicated in Table 6.5, subadults between the ages of 5 and 10 years 112 exhibit significantly more negative carbon values compared to other subadults and adults of the population. No other significant differences were observed between the other age groups.
6.4 Paleopathological Data
6.4.2 Cribra Orbitalia
All subadults were assessed for signs of cribra orbitalia (CO). However, not every individual could be analyzed, since this was contingent upon the level of completeness of the remains, particularly in the eye orbit region. Due to this limitation, the frequency of CO was calculated only for individuals who had at least one orbital roof present that could be scored.
The number of individuals affected with CO is listed in Table 6.6 and their frequencies are presented in Figure 6.10.
Table 6.6 Number of subadults affected with cribra orbitalia.
Age-At-Death Frequency Active Lesions Category (years) Affected/ Active/ % Observed Affected % Birth to 1 0/6 0 0/0 0 1 to 3 4/9 44.4 3/4 75 3 to 5 6/8 75 4/6 66.7 5 to 10 7/11 63.6 4/7 57.1 10 to 15 6/10 60 1/6 16.7 Totaf 23/44 52.3 12/23 52.2 a Individual from buria 5072 #27 was also affected wit l cribra orbitalia. Since it was excluded from stable isotope analysis, it was also removed from palaeopathological analysis. 113
Figure 6.10. Frequency of cribra orbitalia in the Apollonian subadults.
80 1 (6/8, 75%)
70
60
- 50 O (4/9, 44.4%) u ut 40 c s I" 30
20
10
(0/6, 0%)
Birth to 1 lto3 3 to 5 5 to 10 10 to 15 Estimated Age-At-Death (years)
From Table 6.6 and Figure 6.10, subadults between the ages of 3 and 15 display the highest prevalence of CO (19/44, 82.6%). Using a two-tailed Fisher's Exact Probability test, no significant differences existed between the age cohorts.
6A.2 Porotic Hyperostosis
Subadults with observable crania were also assessed for signs of porotic hyperostosis
(PH). The number of individuals affected with PH is listed in Table 6.7, and the frequencies are illustrated in Figure 6.11. Table 6.7 and Figure 6.11 illustrate that subadults between the ages of 3 to 10 years are the only individuals exhibiting signs of porotic hyperostosis. A two- tailed Fisher's Exact Probability test was performed on the PH data, and no significant 114 differences were found between the age cohorts. Three of the four (75%) individuals affected with PH also displayed signs of CO.
Table 6.7 Number of subadults affected with porotic hyperostosis.
Age-At-Death Frequency Active Lesions Category (years) Affected/ Active/ % % Observed Affected Birth to 1 0/6 0 0/0 0 lto3 0/10 0 0/0 0 3 to 5 2/9 22.2 1/2 50 5 to 10 2/15 13.3 1/2 50 10 to 15 0/9 0 0/0 0 Total 4/49 8.2 2/4 50
Figure 6.11 Frequency of porotic hyperostosis in the Apollonian subadults.
25
(2/9, 22.2%)
20 1
X 15 a. (2/15, 13.3%)
e 10
(0/6, 0%) (0/10,0%) (0/9, 0%)
Birth to 1 lto3 3 to 5 5 to 10 10 to 15 Estimated Age-At-Death (years) 115
Chapter 7
Discussion and Interpretations
7.1 How Representative is the Apollonian Necropolis of the Population?
Since the 1960s and 1970s, one of the primary goals in bioarchaeology has been to address larger population-based questions in order to understand what life was generally like in the past (Armelagos et al., 1982; Lovejoy et al., 1982). Within this endeavor, it is implicitly assumed in skeletal studies that the analysis of non-survivors reflects the conditions of the population of study. However, Wood and colleagues (1992) have questioned the validity of this assumption. They argue that deceased individuals may not truly represent the life histories of populations from which they are derived, since we do not know their cause of death. Although this issue, termed the 'biological mortality bias' (Saunders and Hoppa, 1993:127), is prevalent to some degree in all subadult skeletal studies, its effect is often minimal if the sample size is large.
Another concern, and one that is much greater, is the 'cultural mortality bias', in which a population's belief regarding mortality will correspondingly dictate their funerary practices (Saunders and Hoppa, 1993:129). This issue is of particular interest to bioarchaeologists since it will have an impact on how reflective a skeletal sample is of the original population. For the ancient Greeks, children were viewed as a separate and distinct class compared to the adults, and this was manifested at times in different burial customs between adults and children (French, 1988; Golden, 2003; Kurtz and Boardman,
1971). Very young children could be buried beneath family houses or in designated locations within the greater cemetery (Gowland and Chamberlain 2002:684; Oakley, 116
2003). In light of the fact that Apollonia was settled by Greek colonists, it is possible that they may have maintained traditional mainland beliefs and customs. However, most of the subadult burials excavated at Apollonia were not concentrated within one area of the necropolis, suggesting that children did not receive different burial treatments than the adults. Furthermore, additional cemeteries containing only children have not been found in Sozopol. Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that the 'cultural mortality bias' is not affecting this sample and that the necropolis is reflective of the larger Apollonian population.
It also remains a possibility that the Apollonian cemetery was not composed entirely of Greeks, due in part due to the presence of contracted skeletons in the necropolis which have been interpreted as representing Thracian burials (Nedev and
Panayotova, 2003). Prior to Greek colonization, there were Thracians living in the area around Apollonia, and they continued to inhabit the settlement after the arrival of the
Greeks (Nedev and Panayatova, 2003). This complicates the ability to infer infant feeding practices at Apollonia, since nothing is known about Thracian weaning practices and whether they differed from Graeco-Roman customs. However, all of the subadults were interred in an extended position in simple, unlined pits; thus, the individuals analyzed in this study are likely Greeks (Panayotova, pers. commun., 2006).
Subadults are commonly underrepresented in skeletal samples relative to the original population; therefore, subadult skeletal assemblages are not likely representative of the population (Saunders and Hoppa, 1993). The 'scarcity' of subadult remains in skeletal studies has often been attributed to the porous nature of their bones, since they have a higher organic and lower inorganic component relative to adults (Lewis, 2007; 117
Saunders and Hoppa, 1993). Consequently, this renders subadult skeletons more susceptible to taphonomic alterations resulting from soil pH, burial depth and temperature. Acidic and alkaline soils will affect bone porosity by allowing water to infiltrate the bone more readily, which can lead to disintegration of the remains (Lewis,
2007; Saunders and Hoppa, 1993). Despite the fact that taphonomy affects the representation of subadults in skeletal studies many subadults have also been found in cemeteries. For example, the Romano-British site of Poundbury Camp (Dorset, UK) has yielded over 374 subadult remains, while 107 child skeletons have been found at the
Roman period site of Intercisca in Brigetio, Hungary (Lewis, 2007). At Apollonia, a substantial number of subadults were uncovered (92/328, 29%), and their state of preservation ranges from poor to excellent, suggesting that the burial environment was generally not detrimental to the preservation of subadults.
Besides the fact that a sizeable number of subadults are required to draw inferences regarding life histories of past populations, one problem remaining is whether all age groups are evenly represented. In order to trace the weaning pattern, an adequate number of individuals from all age groups is required, particularly subadults being weaned. Most of the subadults in this analysis are under the age of 10 (53/63, 84.1%)3, however, the majority of the individuals fall between the ages of 5 and 10 years (20/63,
31.7%) . Consequently, not all age cohorts are equally represented, especially subadults between birth and 5 years, which is when weaning occurs.
Although there are issues regarding the representativeness of a population using skeletal remains, it does not mean that we should avoid the study of population life
3 Due to possible diagenetic alteration, burial 5027#27 was excluded from further analysis, and not included in this calculation. 118 histories. By combining a variety of evidence such as archaeological and ancient literary sources in addition to skeletal data, it is possible to draw conclusions regarding lifestyles from skeletal samples.
7.2 Assessment of the Isotopic Evidence
7.2.2 Stable Nitrogen Isotopes and Weaning Practices
The beginning and cessation of weaning can be traced by comparing the 8 N values to the age-at-death estimates (Figure 6.8). The highest nitrogen values are associated with infants, those between birth and 1 year (mean S15N = 11.6±0.6%o), and they are significantly more enriched than the adult females (mean 8 N = 10±0.7%o), which suggests they were exclusively consuming breast milk during this time (Mann-
15 Whitney U, p= < 0.0001, UA=16). However, variation does exist in the 8 N values of this particular cohort, since the range in subadult 815N enrichment compared to the adult female mean varies from +0.3 to 2.3%o. This fluctuation could be due to the fact that some infants were never breastfed, particularly those with 815N values close to the adult female mean. This was certainly a reality in Classical antiquity since some mothers were unable to breastfeed their children, as documented within the Hippocratic treatises (Airs,
Waters, Places. 4).
In addition a 'low' enrichment seen in certain infants can also be explained by the fact the S15N values of breastfeeding subadults are, in actuality, relative to the isotopic values of their mothers. Consequently, if a mother possesses a lower 815N value compared to the average female mean, then her child will correspondingly exhibit a 'low'
81 N signature. Variation does exist in the adult female S15N values, since they range 119 from 8.8 to 12.2%o. Furthermore, the ancient literature reports that wet-nurses and likely breastfeeding mothers consumed a diet that is typically low in 515N values. For the first 7 days after birth, they were to eat easily digestible foods such as bread, eggs, soup, and porridge, while meat and marine resources were to be consumed in the following weeks during lactation. However, bread was by far the major component of a mother's diet
(Soranus, Gynecology II. 24.93).
Another possibility that might explain the variation in the 815N values of these infants may be related to their age and whether they reached isotopic equilibrium.
Previous studies have shown that human collagen in children takes 3 to 8 months to turnover and reflect the isotopic signature of breast milk (Dupras et al., 2001; Herrscher,
2003; Herring et al., 1998; Williams et al., 2005). Since individuals vary in their biological functions, and likely collagen turnover rates, it is conceivable that some infants may have died before their bone collagen was able to express the breastfeeding 'signal'.
Between the ages of 1 and 3, the mean 815N value (10.7±0.9%o) is significantly lower than the infants, and suggests weaning has begun around this age (Mann-Whitney
U, p=0.01, UA=31). A significant difference was also found when this age cohort was compared to the adult female mean (Mann-Whitney U, p=0.006, UA=104.5). The children within this age group also fluctuate in their 8 5N values, as they range from 9 to
11.8%o, and suggest variation in weaning practices. Children who express 815N values close to the adult female mean or lower may have already been weaned or were never breastfed, while those who exhibit enriched 815N values may have still been breastfeeding. No significant difference was found when children between the age of 3 120 and 5 (mean 515N = 10±1.0%o) were compared to the adult female mean, signifying that weaning was complete around this age range.
Interestingly, juveniles between the age of 5 and 10 exhibit significantly lower
815N values (mean 815N = 9.6±0.8%o) than the adult females (Mann-Whitney U, p=0.01,
UA=419). Several possible explanations may account for this difference. For one, these juveniles may have been consuming a different diet than the adult females, which will be further discussed in section 7.3.2. Another possibility is that the more negative 815N values in these subadults may reflect the change from breast milk to solid foods, since it takes 3 to 8 months for subadult bone collagen to register dietary changes (Herrscher,
2003). Adolescents between the age of 10 and 15 (mean 815N = 9.7±0.7%o) do not show any significant difference compared to the adult females, which indicates they were likely consuming a similar diet to the adult females.
Overall, the biochemical data indicates that weaning was a gradual process at
Apollonia. It generally began by 1 year, and was completed between the ages of 3 and 5 years. This data is generally consistent with the ancient literary sources which suggest that weaning should begin at 6 months and end at 3 years of age (Galen, On Hygiene, I.
9; Soranus, Gynecology II. 46.115). Although this agreement can be argued to signify that the Apollonian population was following the ancient medical recommendations, it must be remembered that these literary works are mostly drawn from the Roman period.
In addition, access to medical knowledge was normally restricted to the upper socio economic classes, and thus, most inhabitants were more likely to follow weaning customs practiced within their community. 121
Even though it is possible to infer the 'general' weaning pattern practiced by the
Apollonian population, not everyone followed the same weaning regimen, since the subadult 815N values are loosely clustered. For example, as explained above, some of the
3 month old subadults displayed 515N values that were not enriched compared to the adult female mean (i.e. Ap 366: 815N = 10.3%o). This suggests that these subadults may not have imbibed any breast milk, or were only breastfeeding for a short period of time prior to death.
It is difficult to precisely pinpoint the reasons why certain infants were never breastfed or weaned early based solely on skeletal remains. Some possibilities may include the inability of some mothers to breastfeed, or the death of the mother during childbirth, both of which were realities in Classical antiquity (Allason-Jones, 1989;
Garnsey, 1998). The fact that Hippocrates (Airs, Waters, Places, V) had reasoned that the inability of some mothers to produce milk was due to the water quality, suggests that this was a prevalent issue during Classical antiquity among the ancient Greeks. Perhaps financial reasons also played a role; a mother may have been unable to breastfeed her child due to the necessity of having to work to support her family, as with modern day societies (Garnsey, 1998). In addition, some mothers in Classical antiquity may not have wanted to breastfeed their own child for fear of 'growing old' (Soranus, Gynecology, II,
19.88). Certainly, early weaning was practiced in Classical society, since Soranus
(Gynecology II, 46.115) criticizes mothers who weaned their children onto cereals as early as 40 days after birth.
The socio-economic status of the family also plays a role in whether extended breastfeeding was practiced. Poorer families may not have been able to procure an 122 adequate and nutritious diet, and infants may have continued to breastfeed if alternate foods were unavailable (Garnsey, 1998). It is also possible that some mothers may have chosen to breastfeed longer in order to maintain the mother-infant bond.
Due to the inability to determine sex from subadult skeletal remains, it cannot be determined whether males and females were weaned at separate ages, as is suggested in the ancient literature. The loose clustering of the subadult 815N values hints that this may have been a possibility, since variation does exists, yet it is difficult to ascertain with certainty.
7.2.2 Archaeological Evidence for Ancient Weaning Practices
As noted in Chapter 2, feeding vessels have been found in many European archaeological sites (Fildes, 1986; Rosenthal, 1936) and can be used to provide further information about infant feeding practices. At Apollonia, feeding vessels were found accompanying the burials of four individuals who were part of this study (Ap 266 (03),
Ap 247, Ap 204, Ap 8036 #11). Based on scaled drawings, provided by Dr. Margo
Damyanov, of other feeding vessels that have been found in the necropolis, they appear to be a standard size and shape (Figure 7.1 and Figure 7.2).
Unfortunately, the vessels that were interred with the subadults used in this analysis could not be located; however, all vessels recovered at Apollonia were of the same size (Damyanov, pers. commun., 2006). Measurements taken from the drawings indicate that the vessels typically measured 70 mm in maximum diameter and the height ranged from 50 to 60 mm, classifying them as the smaller type of vessel commonly used to feed neonates (Fildes, 1981). 123
Figure 7.1 Scaled drawing of infant feeding vessel from burial # 322 (left) and unknown burial # (right) from Apollonia (drawing provided by Dr. Margo Damyanov).
Figure 7.2 An example of an infant feeding vessel found in the Apollonia necropolis, grave number unknown, currently located at the Archaeological Museum, Sozopol (picture taken by Cynthia Kwok). 124
When the biochemical data is integrated with the vessels, we can begin to draw a larger picture of feeding practices for these particular individuals. Two 3-month old subadults (Ap 266 (03), Ap 247) buried with feeding vessels possessed 815N values that suggest they were breastfeeding prior to death (815N = 12.3, 11.8%o, respectively). The presence of the smaller feeding vessels with these particular subadults suggests that they may have functioned to administer supplementary fluids during the neonatal period.
However, it would not be possible to isotopically detect the types of supplementary fluids fed to neonates since they unlikely made up the bulk of their diet, and were not feeding on them long enough to affect their isotope ratios.
The 515N values of the 2 and 4 year old (515N = 9.9, 10.4%o, respectively) are close to the adult female mean, suggesting that these subadults were not receiving the majority of their protein from breast milk near the time of their death. This suggests that these individuals may have already been weaned, were never breastfed at all, or were only breastfed for a short duration. Considering that these individuals were buried with the smaller type of feeding vessel, it is possible they were never breastfed and had to rely on these vessels for nutrition. Alternatively, these vessels may have been used when these subadults were neonates, and were only buried with the children for symbolic reasons, as reminders of their youth.
Childbirth is a dangerous time for mothers and infants, and it was a common cause of female mortality in Classical antiquity (Garnsey, 1998). In such cases, infants would have been fed by wet-nurses, or artificially on animal milk or porridge using a feeding vessel. While the ancient literature provides ample evidence of wet-nurses in
Classical society, it is more difficult to reconstruct their presence through the 125 archaeological record. Tombstones recovered thus far from Apollonia have not yielded any inscriptional evidence of wet-nurses; however feeding vessels may provide some signs. Within the necropolis, some feeding vessels were interred with young adult females (i.e. Ap 322), in addition to the subadults. Nedev and Panayotova (2003) suggest that they may have been wet-nurses, and if this was the case, then they would have been employed at Apollonia.
7.3 Stable Isotopic Evidence for the Subadult Diet
Stable carbon isotopes were also analyzed in the subadults of Apollonia in order to elucidate the type of weaning foods and childhood diet. When the 8 C values are plotted against the estimated age-at-death for the Apollonian subadults, the general
1 ^ pattern of the 8 C values is comparable to that of the stable nitrogen isotopes (Figure
6.9). Once again, it is the youngest subadults from birth to 1 year (mean S13C = -18.1
±0.6%o) who show an enrichment in their 8I3C values compared to the adults (mean S13C
= -18.5±0.5%o), although this difference is not statistically significant. Previous studies have demonstrated that carbon also displays a small trophic level shift, and breastfeeding infants are usually l%o higher than the adult female values (DeNiro and Epstein, 1971).
It is possible that the small enrichment in this cohort may be due to a trophic level effect.
In addition, the subadult 8 C values likely vary due to the fact their carbon isotope values are relative to that of their mother. If a mother is consuming a diet depleted of 13C compared to the average value, the infant will exhibit a lower 813C signature than the adult mean (Williams et al., 2005). Wet-nurses, and likely breastfeeding mothers, consumed a regulated diet heavily composed of bread (Soranus, Gynecology, II, 24.93). 126
Cereals, vegetables and fruits all possess more negative stable carbon isotope values compared to marine resources and C4 plants, and this may account for the low 8 C values exhibited in these young subadults.
IT IT
Between the ages of 1 and 3 (mean 8 C = -18.3±0.3%o), the 8 C values decline and reach the average adult values. The consumption of supplementary foods with low
813C values (see section 7.3.1) would account for this decline, and the timing corresponds with the onset of weaning, as determined from the stable nitrogen isotope data. Children between the ages of 5 and 10, (mean 8 C = -18.8±0.3%o) display significantly negative
13 8 C values compared to the adult mean (Mann-Whitney U, p = 0.004, UA=758.5). This difference is likely due to the type of diet consumed by these individuals, which is further discussed in section 7.3.2. Past the age of 10, the 8 C values (mean 8 C = -18.5±0.5%o) reach the adult mean, and no significant difference is found between these two age groups, indicating that these older children were consuming a diet similar to the adults of the population.
7.3.1 Weaning Diet
Even though most neonates were likely consuming breast milk, the ancient
Graeco-Roman literature reveals that purges were used to rid the infant's intestine of meconium during the first few days after birth (Fildes, 1986). Honey was the typical purge used, and could be boiled and mixed with water (Galen, On the Powers of Food,
3). Feeding young infants honey can lead to botulism since it is a source of Clostridium botulinum. This can lead to symptoms including apathy, weakness, constipation, sudden apnea, difficulty swallowing, and possibly paralysis of the respiratory muscles, which can result in death (Fairgrieve and Molto, 2000). At the present time, it is not possible to 127 discern from bone collagen using stable isotope analysis whether purges were utilized for the Apollonia infants. For one, these purges may have only been used sparingly, and stable isotope analysis will unlikely isolate foods that make up a short-term minor part of the overall diet. Secondly, stable isotope analysis conducted on bone collagen will only identify the major sources of protein. It would therefore be unable to detect the consumption of sugars such as honey, although it is derived from C3 plants (Lee-Thorp et al., 1987).
Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes were used to determine the type of weaning diet consumed by children between the ages of 1 to 5 years. This age range was selected since the biochemical evidence suggests that weaning 'generally' occurred during this time. However, it is also understood that variation exists, and not every subadult may have been weaned at this age, which would affect the 815N values. Despite this, the sample size used to determine the weaning diet (n=23) is consistent with the recommended number of individuals necessary for palaeodietary reconstruction (n=20)
(Schurr, 1997), and it is assumed that the values in these subadults represent the weaning diet typical of the population.
n 1 c
To investigate the weaning diet of the Apollonian subadults, the 8 C and 8 N values of common Mediterranean foods were reconstructed using data from other biochemical palaeodietary studies by Garvie-Lok (2001), Prowse (2001) and Deines
(1980) (Figure 7.3). To accurately reflect diet, the subadult bone collagen 813C values were adjusted by subtracting 5%o from their reported values and 3%o for the 815N values to account for fractionation (Katzenberg, 2000; Schoeller, 1999). These adjusted values are listed in Appendix E. 128
n
Subadults between the ages of 1 and 5 years are consuming a diet depleted of C relative to older children and adults. This is consistent with a diet composed exclusively of terrestrial meat resources, dairy products and C3 plants such as cereals, fruits and vegetables.
Although the stable isotope data suggests that terrestrial meat was ingested, the ancient literature argues otherwise. Meat during the Classical-Hellenistic period was an expensive commodity and was not widely available to all socio-economic classes. For most, meat was only consumed during ceremonial sacrifices, and in small amounts
(Garnsey, 1998; Waterlow, 1989). Moreover, the concept of vegetarianism did exist in
Figure 7.3 Reconstructed weaning diet of subadults 1 to 5 years of age. Subadults 1 to 5 years 25 (n=23)
20 Marine Carnivores
< 15 Marine Omnivores
Carnivores Marine Fish To 10 #• aii «•— y Hf »rhivnre £•*•
C3 Plant s C4 Plants
-35 -30 -25 -20 -15 •10
8:1,J3C (%o PDB) 129
Classical antiquity, since some philosophers such as Pythagoras considered it "abuse to put animals on tables, souls on menus" (Ovid, Metamorphoses XV. 72-142, cited in
Elliot, 2003). However, this was not a widely accepted practice in Classical society.
Therefore, it remains unlikely that terrestrial meat composed a large part of the
Apollonian weaning diet.
Although these data cannot pinpoint the exact staples consumed, it does identify the most likely weaning foods, which were C3 plants and dairy products. For the young infant, simple milk and cereal dishes were recommended, and porridge or gruel, which could be flavoured with milk, honey or salt was the common type of weaning diet
(Brothwell and Brothwell, 1998; Galen, On the Powers of Food, 3), which are all C3 foods. Barley or wheat breadcrumbs softened with wine or hydromel were another type of weaning food advocated by Soranus {Gynecology, II. 46.115). The Apollonian infants may have also consumed diluted wine as part of their weaning diet, since Soranus
{Gynecology, II. 46.115) advised that watery wine be dispensed to thirsty infants. This would also be consistent with the isotopic evidence, since wine is made from grapes, another type of C3 plant. However, there is some debate whether wine was a suitable beverage for young children in Classical antiquity (Aristotle, Politics, VII. 1-2; Dalby,
2003).
Dairy products such as milk and cheese are also discussed in the ancient literature as a type of weaning food. Milk was imbibed directly by subadults, and goat and sheep's milk was the preferred choice since it was believed to mirror the consistency of human breast milk (Grivetti, 2000). It was believed, however, that drinking excess amounts of milk would lead to health problems. Galen (as cited in Grant, 2000) thought that it would 130 lead to dental decay, while Hippocrates (Airs, Waters, Places, 9) regarded milk as the cause of kidney stones in children, particularly boys. The etiology of bladder stones is uncertain; however Grmek (1989) attributes its common occurrence in Classical society to early weaning and a diet that was dry and deficient in proteins. Cheese also comprised a large component of the Mediterranean diet (Grivetti, 2001; Waterlow; 1989; Fidanza,
1979) and was likely a part of the weaning diet.
Furthermore, the clustering of the subadult stable isotope values indicate the limited variation in the diet in that the Apollonia subadults consumed similar weaning foods. The available literary sources also support this observation, noting that weaning foods were heavily composed of cereals and were quite monotonous as a result. This is in contrast to the diversity of food choices that existed in Classical antiquity, and suggests that the Greeks may have been aware of the hazards of introducing certain foods that could potentially harm the infant due to her/his immature gastro-intestinal system.
7.3.2 Childhood Diet
Childhood is considered a distinct and separate stage to adulthood in many societies today and was in the past as well. Philosophers such as Aristotle, Plato,
Quintilian, Augustine and Macrobius all wrote about the discrete phases of development, and recommended that boys and girls be treated equally in a patriarchal society. The
Hippocratic treatises recognized that children possessed their own medical problems, and in turn required their own treatments. Furthermore, separation of children in Classical society can be demonstrated by the fact that they dined in different areas than the men of the household (Dalby, 1996). In addition, many Classical writers felt that children required special dietary regimens that differed from those of adults (French, 1988). 131
In order to determine the type of childhood diet at Apollonia, subadults over the age of 5 (n=30) were considered since the majority of these subadults have completed weaning, as discussed earlier. Both stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes were used to elucidate the type of childhood diet and were compared to the isotopic values for typical
Mediterranean foods, as determined from Garvie-Lok (2001), Prowse (2001) and Deines
(1980) (Figure. 7.4). Once again, to accurately reflect diet, isotopic fractionation was accounted for by subtracting the subadult bone collagen 8 C values by 5%o, and 3%o for the §15N values, which are listed in Appendix E.
As illustrated in Figure 7.6, the subadult stable isotope values reflect a childhood diet composed mainly of dairy products and C3 plants. As explained in chapter 2, terrestrial meat was not a major component of the Mediterranean diet. Although sheep and goat astragali have been found within the Apollonia necropolis (Figure 7.5), these
Figure 7.4 Reconstructed childhood diet of those over 5 years of age .Error! A Juveniles over 5 years M (n=30) 25 Marine 20 i Carnivores
PS Marine < 15 Omnivores e Marine Fish Carnivores 10 - to Dairy 4 -lerbivor •j| A 2*^ C Plants (2^ Plants 4
-35 -30 -25 -20 •15 8:11J3C (%o PDB) 132
Figure 7.5 Sheep astragali uncovered at the Apollonia necropolis (picture taken by Cynthia Kwok).
animals were likely employed as labour and for their milk and dairy products such as cheese (Garnsey, 1999), which was part of the childhood diet. From the biochemical data, dairy continues to be a major component of the childhood diet, which is not surprising since these subadults are still transitioning from a weaning diet dependent on dairy products and cereals.
In support of the isotopic evidence, the ancient literary sources reveal that cereals, fruits and vegetables were a large part of their diet. Considering the importance of cereals within the Mediterranean diet, children likely ate them on a regular basis. Grain was generally plentiful in the Black Sea colonies, for they were major exporters of wheat in the trade with Athens and other Greek localities (Braun, 1991; Polybius, The Histories,
4.37.8-47.2; Waterlow, 1989). Although wheat and barley were the preferred cereals in
Classical antiquity, the Apollonian subadults may have also consumed C4 plants, such as millet (5 C=-11.3%o) in small amounts, which would explain why the subadults 5 C values are more positive than would be expected given a diet primarily of wheat and barley, which has a 513C value of-25.3%o (Garvie-Lok, 2001). Millet is mentioned in the 133 ancient literature as animal feed; however, in times of food shortages humans would have also consumed it as well (Garnsey, 1999; Grant, 2000). Food shortages were reported to have occurred during the Hellenistic period in other Black Sea coast colonies such as
Romania and the Ukraine (Garnsey, 1998), and it is reasoned that Apollonia may have been affected as well (Keenleyside and Panayotova, 2006). In addition, Garvie-Lok
(2001) has shown that the Greeks during the Byzantine period consumed millet/maize in small amounts as well. Vegetables and fruit were also part of the Mediterranean diet and shoots of figs were recommended by Galen (as cited in Fildes, 1986) as part of the childhood diet, although he advised that they be pre-masticated by the wet-nurse before being offered to the child. Based on the biochemical evidence, fruits and vegetables may not have been consumed in large amounts since the subadult 8 C values do not tend to reflect those typical of fruits (513C=-26.8%o) and vegetables (813C=28.6%o) (Nakamura et al., 1982).
The stable isotope data does not support a diet based heavily on marine resources, as the subadult 815N and 813C values are mainly clustered around those typical of terrestrial resources. This is surprising, given the geographical location of Apollonia, the variety of available fish in the Black Sea, and the archaeological evidence of fish grills
(Keenleyside et al., 2006; Nedev and Panayotova, 2003) (Figure 7.8). In addition,
Keenleyside and colleagues (2006) report that the diet of the Apollonian adults consisted of both marine and terrestrial resources. Children may not have been consuming copious amounts of seafood due to individual preferences, or the fact that it was not seen as suitable food for children at a young age, a point which will be further discussed in section 7.3.3. 134
Figure 7.6 Fish grill from the Apollonia necropolis, currently located at the Archaeological Museum, Sozopol (picture taken by Cynthia Kwok).
Considered a major part of the Mediterranean diet, legumes do not appear to have been consumed in large amounts by the Apollonian children based on the stable isotopic evidence, since the S15N value of legumes is close to 0%o (Katzenberg, 2000; Keenleyside et al., 2006). It is clear that the isotopic signatures do not approach this value, and perhaps legumes were used merely to season dishes, which would be undetected in the isotopic signature of the subadults.
7.3.3 Childhood Diet Compared to the Adult Diet
Given the perception of children as a separate social group in Classical society, the stable isotope data from the Apollonian subadults over the age of 5 were compared to previous work on the adult diet by Keenleyside et al. (2006) to assess if any dietary differences existed (Figure 7.7).
An overlap in the 8 C and 5 N values is observable between the juveniles and adults of Apollonia, suggesting that the juveniles are generally ingesting a similar diet to the adults. Keenleyside and colleagues (2006) report that the adults of Apollonia consumed a diet dependent on terrestrial sources, particularly C3 plants, and to a lesser 135
Figure 7.7 Comparison of the diet consumed by the Apollonian subadults and adults.
• Subadults over 5 (n=30) 25 • Adults (n=54)
Marine 20 Carnivores
Marine < e 15 Omnivores
Fish 1o Carnivores
Herbivores
C3 Plants C4 Plants
-35 -30 -25 -20 •15 -10 -5 8:1,J3C (%o PDB) degree, marine resources as well. However, the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios for juveniles aged 5 and 10 was significantly lower relative to adults (8 C Mann-
15 Whitney U, p = 0.01, UA=758.5; 5 N Mann-Whitney U, p = 0.004, UA=419). Thus, juveniles may have been ingesting fewer marine resources and more cereals, fruits and vegetables compared to the adults. This is supported by the ancient literature, since
Galen (as cited in Garnsey, 1998) recommended juveniles should be fed first on a diet of cereals, fruits and vegetables, before being gradually introduced to meat and 'other such things'. It should also be noted that the isotope values for the children, like those of the 136 adults, show little variability, demonstrating that both groups may have been eating rather monotonous diets.
Moreover, the data reinforces the Classical perception that children were a distinct social group and were separated and classified according to the types of food they ate.
Lastly, it must be remembered that alternate factors, such as socio-economic status and personal preferences all play a role in shaping dietary choices and dictating the accessibility of certain foods.
7.4 Health Implications Associated with Infant Feeding Practices
Paleopathology, the study of ancient diseases, can yield much information on the lifestyles of past populations. The Apollonian subadult skeletal remains were examined for a variety of non-specific indicators of skeletal disease, including fractures, periostoses, cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis and dental pathology such as enamel hypoplasia, carious lesions, and abscesses.
As noted in Chapter 4, past studies have used enamel hypoplastic defects to infer the weaning age from subadult remains. As linear enamel hypoplasia measurements were not recorded in the field, this stress marker was not incorporated into this study.
Carious lesions in subadults, such as circular caries, have been attributed to the consumption of breast milk and high carbohydrate diet (see Katzenberg and Pfieffer,
1995); however, none were observed in the Apollonian subadult remains. Wear patterns on teeth may also provide details regarding the type of weaning diet, but this data was not recorded for all of the subadults utilized in this study. Therefore, the remainder of this discussion will focus on cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis. 137
7A.1 Cribra Orbitalia and Porotic Hyperostosis
Skeletal manifestations of CO and PH generally result from chronic blood loss, or anemia, in which expansion occurs between the hematopoetic marrow spaces, aimed at increasing red blood cell production (Fairgrieve and Molto, 2000; Ortner, 2003; Stuart-
Macadam, 1992). Stuart-Macadam (1989) has demonstrated through radiographic, clinical, and macroscopic evidence that a strong correlation exists between CO and PH lesions; however, Ortner (2003) warns that this relationship may not necessarily exist in all cases. Vault and orbital lesions can be caused by separate etiologies, and caution
should be taken when interpreting these lesions. Wapler and colleagues (2004) have also demonstrated that the sieve-like lesions commonly associated with anemia can also be caused by a variety of taphonomic factors, inflammations, other metabolic disorders, and osteoporosis.
In Mediterranean populations it is widely debated whether these conditions result
from iron-deficiency anemia or genetic anemias, such as thalassemia or sickle cell
anemia. Due to the lack of lesions observed in the post-cranial skeleton, the 'moderate
severity' of these lesions, and the comparatively low frequency of CO in the adults, the
lesions affecting the Apollonian inhabitants are likely associated with iron-deficiency
anemia (Keenleyside and Panayotova, 2006).
Overall, the frequency of PH in the skull vault was much lower compared to the
orbital lesions (PH=8.2%, CO=52.3%), which is expected and has been observed in varying populations (Ortner, 2003). This finding has led some researchers to suggest that
orbital lesions may actually be the first signs of anemia, and the vault lesions are manifestations of the condition at a later period (Stuart-Macadam, 1989). Most 138 individuals affected with affected with PH in this analysis also showed signs of CO (3/4,
75%), however the severity and degree of healing for the CO lesions varied between the individuals. Therefore, given the low frequency of PH in the Apollonian remains, the discussion will focus on the CO lesions.
Infants younger than 1 year did not exhibit any signs of CO compared to the other subadults, and this is likely due to the fact that the majority of these infants were breastfeeding during this time. Human breast milk during the early phases of lactation contains a higher amount of iron compared to (Feeley et al., 1983). For example, early milk provides 0.97 mg/L of iron and drops to 0.3 mg/L by 5 months (Griffin and Abrams,
2001). Infants younger than 6 months are also relying on the iron reserves in their body, which were accumulated when they were in-utero (Dewey, 1998). Consequently, the chance of developing iron deficiency anemia prior to 6 months of age is rare, and many palaeopathological studies have not found evidence of CO in subadults younger than 6 months (Ortner, 2003; Stuart-Macadam, 1989). Conversely, anemia must be a chronic condition for orbital lesions to appear, and the length of time required for these lesions to develop remains unknown in humans. Thus, it is uncertain whether individuals who lacked lesions were truly unaffected with this condition, or whether they suffered from acute anemia, which would not produce any skeletal manifestations (Wood et al., 1992).
For children between the ages of 1 and 3 years, the higher of frequency of CO
(4/9, 44.4%) compared to the infants (0/6, 0%) could be due to the sample size, since only 6 infants had observable eye orbits, while the crania of 9 children were available for analysis. However, the higher frequency of CO in the children could also be attributed to the fact that weaning has generally begun for children this age. Three out of the four 139 children that showed signs of cribra orbitalia have 515N values that indicate they may
15 have been weaning near their time of death (Ap 348: 8 N=10.49%0; Ap 5072#20:
15 l5 8 N=10.1%0; Ap 403: 8 N=11.2%o). By the age of 6 months iron reserves in infants become depleted, while the iron demands necessary for growth increase in subadults between the ages of 4 and 12 months. At the same time, breast milk is unable to meet the increased iron requirements of the infant, and the clinical literature today recommends the introduction of iron-fortified foods during this age (Dewey et al., 1998; Griffin and
Abrams, 2001; Krebs, 2000). In addition, infants do not completely absorb all of the available iron in breast milk. At 6 months of age, infants require 0.17 mg of iron/per day; breast milk provides only 0.055 mg/kg per day at 5 months, and only 0.02 mg/kg per day is actually absorbed by the infant (Griffin and Abrams, 2001).
From the isotope data, milk and cereals made up the majority of the weaning diet at Apollonia. A preference for goat and sheep's milk is indicated in the ancient literature, and cow's milk was imbibed on occasion. Even though animal milk contains iron, children do not absorb this mineral as well in animal milk compared to human breast milk (Vaughan et al., 1979). Saarinen and colleagues (1977) found that only 19% of the available iron from cow's milk was absorbed by infants, compared to 49% in human milk. Goat's milk in contrast has been reasoned to provide more iron than cow's milk since anemic rats fed on goat's milk grew better (Park, 1994; Park et al., 1986). This increases the risk of iron deficiency anemia in children who are dependent upon animal milk, particularly those who were artificially fed from birth. Compared to human milk, sheep's milk is low in folate (52 ug/L vs. 6 |ag/L, respectively), and if this vitamin is continually deficient in infants older than 3 months, megaloblastic anemia may occur. 140
Symptoms may include "iron malabsorption, hemopoietic marrow expansion and reduced levels of platelets and fibrinogen in the blood" (Fairgrieve and Molto, 2000:329).
Furthermore, the manner in which food is prepared and processed will affect the amount of nutrients that can be obtained from it. Both Galen and Hippocrates suggested that food should be pre-masticated before being fed to the child, but this process will reduce the nutritious value of the food, and will also transfer bacteria from the mother to child
(Imongetal., 1995).
The older subadults, in comparison, exhibit a much higher frequency of CO, since over 60% of children over the age of 5 display signs of iron-deficiency anemia. Possible etiologies of this condition include diet, pathogen load, and food shortages. As previously discussed, the childhood diet was heavily composed of cereals, which were a staple in the Mediterranean. Wheat and barley both contain sufficient amounts of iron; however, they also include phytates, a substance that inhibits iron absorption in the intestine (Keenleyside and Panayotova, 2006; Garn, 1992). Wine is reported to have been consumed by some children, since it was an essential beverage in Classical antiquity, and most socio-economic classes drank some form of diluted wine (Grivetti,
2001). Excessive wine consumption has been demonstrated to prevent iron absorption due to the presence of polyphenols that bind with the available iron in the body, which can increase the risk of developing anemia (Cook et al., 1995; Garn, 1992; Hallberg and
Hulthen, 2000). Although wine was part of the Mediterranean diet, it remains unknown how much wine was actually imbibed by children.
Stuart-Macadam (1992) has argued that in addition to dietary factors, the high pathogen load in past populations may also be a cause of anemia. In this scenario, 141 anemia may actually be an acquired 'defense mechanism' to help combat pathogens, since iron is necessary for the pathogen to reproduce in the host. Parasitic and bacterial infections were common in Classical antiquity (Garn, 1992). In addition, the heavy traffic and high density of people, which was estimated to have numbered around 3000 inhabitants at the height of Apollonia's prosperity (Danov, 1948, as cited in Nedev and
Panayotova, 2003), would create ideal conditions for the spread of infectious diseases when combined with an unsanitary environment. Parasites can be introduced through a variety of foods, such as through agricultural practices and marine resources.
Agricultural-based populations from the tropics and sub-tropics are more susceptible to developing anemia, since hookworms (Ancylostoma duodenale) are located in the soil
(Aufderheide and Rodriguez-Martin, 1998). The consumption of marine foods are another source of parasites, since many fish-borne parasites such as Plesiomonas shigelloides, which are resident in pike, can cause severe gastro-intestinal bleeding
(Gonzalez et al., 1999; Keenleyside and Panayotova, 2006).
Dairy products are another source of bacteria and parasites such as,
Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella typhimurium,
Salmonella enteriditis, Salmonella anatum, and Yersinia enterocolitica (Perm State
University, 2005), and drinking spoiled unpasteurized milk can lead to gastrointestinal bleeding. The use of feeding vessels to dispense fluids such as milk can also promote bacterial growth if not properly cleaned (Brothwell and Brothwell, 1998). In connection, children before the ages of 3 to 4 are more susceptible to the introduction of parasitic infections through food compared to adults, due to their immature gastro-intestinal 142 systems (The Visible Embryo, 2006). This can result in severe blood loss, and if chronic, can lead to anemia.
7.5. Individual Weaning Patterns?
Although a general weaning pattern at Apollonia has been determined from the isotope data, the anomalous cases can also yield some interesting inferences about individual weaning patterns when the stable isotopic and paleopathological evidence is combined. For one 6 year old child (Ap 268), her/his 515N value (12.5%o) was approximately 2.5%o enriched compared to the adult female mean, suggesting that this individual may have been breastfed beyond the 'typical' weaning age. One reason for extended breastfeeding may have been illness, since Soranus, Gynecology II, 48.117) advised children who fell ill after weaning to return to a diet of breast milk. In addition, this child also displayed signs of CO, suggesting that s/he was afflicted with iron- deficiency anemia, which could occur if the child was still breastfeeding at this age since breast milk at this stage is deficient in iron. However, 515N ratios can also be elevated in individuals who are under nutritional stress (Katzenberg and Lovell, 1999), which could also be the case with this particular juvenile.
Another individual (Ap 403), a two and a half year old child, had a 815N value
(ll.l%o) that indicated that s/he might have begun weaning near the time of their death.
In addition, several palaeopathological conditions were seen in this child. A peculiar set of dental crenulations on the crown of the first permanent molar, and deep horizontal grooves on the permanent incisor are consistent with rickets (Ogden, pers. commun.,
2006) (Figure 7.8). However, the infra-cranial skeleton did not yield evidence of the 143
Figure 7.8 First permanent molar with noticeable crenulations on crown (Ap 403) (Photo taken by Cynthia Kwok).
classic diaphyseal 'bowing' normally associated with vitamin D deficiency. Cribra orbitalia was also observed in this individual, suggesting that this child also suffered from iron-deficiency anemia. Combining the data, it is possible that the supplementary foods onto which this child was weaned could have led to the development of rickets and iron- deficiency anemia. A weaning diet dependent on cereals and dairy products would increase the risk of developing both iron-deficiency anemia and vitamin D deficiency.
The developmental defects were located on the crowns of the first permanent molar, which forms around 6 to 9 months of age (Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994), indicating that the insult occurred around this age. In addition, infants and young children this age were usually still constricted by swaddling bands that covered their entire body except for the hands and feet. This practice was believed to help mold the child's body into the 'ideal' shape (Garnsey, 1998; Golden, 1990). Plato suggested that infants were to be swaddled until the age of two, while Soranus (Gynecology, II 42.111) felt that 40 to 60 days was an appropriate time (Golden, 1990). Undoubtedly, this practice could have led to the development of rickets (Garnsey, 1998) since the bands would prevent the absorption of UV light, which is necessary for vitamin D synthesis. 144
Medical practitioners during Classical antiquity were certainly aware of the symptoms that are typical of rickets, but not their cause. Soranus (Gynecology, II, 43.112) describes how the limbs become distorted when the "the whole weight of the body rests on the legs".
7.6 Subadult Mortality
Subadult mortality was an issue in Classical antiquity, and its occurrence was much higher compared to modern Western societies, a difference generally attributed to improved medical knowledge and practices today. Young children are considered more susceptible to disease and stress due to their immature immune systems, compared to adults and older children (Goodman and Armelagos, 1989). The ancient Graeco-Roman literature also provides further support for high infant mortality. Aristotle (Historia
Animalium VIII. 12.10) notes that:
"most deaths occur before the 7th day, which is why they give them their names then, on the grounds that they have more confidence by then in their survival".
In addition, infants under the age of 1 were not to be mourned, while parents could display some grief over children who died between the ages of 1 and 3 years. The lack of emotion associated with infantile deaths has been interpreted to represent the stark
'realism' that infant mortality was frequent in Classical antiquity (Garnsey, 1998), and most children did not survive beyond the age of 5 (Grmeck, 1989). Based on a Graeco-
Roman life expectancy of 25 years, Garnsey (1998) calculated that 28% of children died within the first year, and 50% passed away before the age of 10, while Oakley (2003) 145 reasons that only 1 out of 3 infants survived in the Classical period. Infant mortality has been associated with weaning in many societies, since subadults during this time are vulnerable to diseases due to their immature immune system and the effects of poor sanitation (Goodman and Armelagos, 1989; Popkins et al., 1990).
In the Apollonia skeletal assemblage, the highest frequency of subadult deaths occurs between the ages of 5 and 10 years (20/63, 31.7%), while the lowest occurs in children between birth and 1 year (10/63, 15.8%). This is surprising considering that many studies have found that infant mortality is highest in subadults undergoing weaning
(Goodman and Armelagos, 1989). One reason for the perceived 'low' rate of infant mortality compared to the older subadults, may be due to preservation of the subadult remains and Greek burial practices. As mentioned in section 7.1, subadult bones are more porous than adults, and more susceptible to taphonomic alterations. Since the preservation of the subadults ranged from excellent to poor, it is conceivable that some of the subadult remains may have disintegrated. In addition, the Apollonia necropolis has not been fully excavated yet, and therefore, not all the subadult remains may have been uncovered. Greek burial practices may also have an affect, since infants were not considered to be an integral part of Graeco-Roman society, and may have been buried elsewhere (Garnsey, 1998; Kurtz and Boardman, 1971). However, as mentioned in section 7.1, infants recovered at Apollonia are likely representative of the number of deaths in the population.
Stress markers such as cribra orbitalia can also be compared to the age-at-death distribution in order to assess factors underlying mortality of the Apollonian subadults. 146
Figure 7.9 Age-at-death distribution and cribra orbitalia frequency of the Apollonian subadults (excluding burial 5072#27).
Birth to 1 1 to 3 3 to 5 5 to 10 10 to 15 Estimated Age-At-Death (years)
Overall, the frequency of subadult deaths does not strongly coincide with the cribra orbitalia data (Figure 7.9), suggesting that whatever caused these lesions may not have been the primary cause of their deaths. However, most deaths occur in the juvenile cohort, those aged 5 to 10, and they also display a high frequency of cribra orbitalia.
Assuming that these lesions were caused by iron deficiency anemia, it is possible that the types of foods these juveniles were ingesting may have contributed to their deaths.
Juveniles, as discussed earlier, were consuming a diet composed mostly of cereals, which can have a deleterious effect on the health of a child.
Another possibility for the high frequency of deaths in this cohort may be the lifestyle of children at this age. In Classical antiquity childhood was viewed by philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle to be composed of distinct phases, in which each 147 stage is characterized by a specific childhood activity (Golden, 2003). For children between the ages of 5 and 7, this was often a time of increased physical activity and children were often playing amongst themselves (French, 1988; Golden, 2003). In addition, socio-economic status may also play a role, in that children from poorer families may have started working at the age of 5 (Allason-Jones, 1989). It becomes imaginable that active children would be more prone to injuries, which can often be fatal.
Injuries are often the number one cause of child mortality, and they account for 40% of child deaths for those between the ages of 1 and 14 in developed nations (Unicef, 2001).
In Bulgaria today, accidents and injuries continue to be the main cause of child deaths
(Unicef, 2007). Other factors that could influence the level of subadult mortality is the degree of sanitation as well as the season.
7.7 Comparison of the Graeco-Roman Weaning Studies
Few Graeco-Roman biochemical weaning studies exist, making it difficult to fully assess the larger temporal and spatial trends. Available studies that have utilized bone collagen are limited to three investigations dated to the Roman period. These studies include 1) Dupras and colleagues' (2001) work on the village of Dakhleh Oasis in Egypt,
2) Prowse's (2001) study on the urban centre of Isola Sacra, Italy, and 3) Fuller and co workers' (2005) research on the village of Queenford Farm in Oxfordshire UK. The age of onset and termination of weaning found in each study is listed in Table 7.1, and compared to the Apollonian data. 148
Table 7.1 Comparison of Graeco-Roman weaning practices derived from biochemical studies.
Population Reference Onset Termination Isola Sacra Prowse, 2001 6 months 2.5 - 3 years (Italy, ls,-3rd centuries AD) Dakhleh-Oasis Dupras et al., 2001 6 months ~ 3 years (Egypt, ca. 250 AD) Queenford Farm Fuller et al., 2005 n/a 2-4 years (Britain, 4,h-6,h centuries AD) Apollonia Current study 1 year 3-5 years (Bulgaria, 5,h-2nd centuries BC)
Although the Apollonian subadults appear to have begun weaning later than individuals from the other sites, weaning likely commenced earlier than 1 year, considering that it takes subadult bone collagen 3 to 8 months to reflect dietary changes
(Herrscher, 2003). Bearing this in mind, the onset and cessation of weaning is similar for all sites. This is not entirely surprising since Roman practices were heavily influenced by
Greek medicine. For example, Galen, the most prominent Roman physician, was profoundly influenced by the Hippocratic treatises (Grant, 2003). Furthermore, the weaning practices from these populations correspond with the ancient literature, hinting that perhaps these inhabitants followed the medical recommendations of their time.
However, as previously stated, it was the upper socio-economic classes who gained access to the contemporary medical knowledge and practices. Therefore, not every family would have been aware of these teachings, and it is unlikely that every individual was following the medical recommendations. A more plausible scenario is that Graeco-
Roman families were exercising traditional infant feeding practices that worked for their 149 families, and that weaning may have been a 'standardized practice' during Classical antiquity.
In addition, the timing and duration of weaning can be used to infer reproductive strategies in past populations, particularly inter-birth spacing practices (see Clayton et al.,
2006; Richards et al., 2003). It may have been in the interest of the Greek colonists at
Apollonia to increase their labour pool and further populate the colony, which is typical of agricultural societies (Richards et al., 2003). Since breastfeeding can suppress ovulation (Knodel and Van de Walle, 1967), colonies aiming to increase their population may have practiced early weaning, which would result in a shorter inter-birth spacing interval (Clayton et al., 2006; Katzenberg, 2000; Richards et. al, 2003). It is unknown, however, whether the Greeks were aware of the contraceptive effects of lactation, since wet-nurses were required to abstain from sexual relations during breastfeeding for "fear they may become pregnant" (Fildes, 1988:18; Soranus, Gynecology, 24.93). When the
Apollonian data is compared to the other contemporary biochemical studies, the Greek colonists do not appear to be systematically practicing early weaning, as would be expected if the goal was to reduce the inter-birth spacing. 150
Chapter 8
Conclusions
8.1 Limitations of this Study
Although it was possible to infer infant feeding practices at Apollonia using a multitude of sources, the limitations within this study cannot be discounted. These include: 1) the large time span of the necropolis, 2) possible errors in the age-at-death estimates, 3) the unknown cause of death, and 4) the inability to discriminate between infants who were never breastfed from those who were breastfed for only a short period of time.
As discussed in previous chapters, the Apollonia necropolis spans the middle of the
5th to the beginning of the 2nd century B.C. Given a range of approximately 300 years, it is possible that weaning practices may have changed over time. At the moment, however, these burials cannot be assigned a more precise date, which would address this issue. Secondly, despite the use of multiple methods to estimate the age-at-death of these subadults, it is well documented that these techniques only yield age ranges. In order to determine the age at which weaning began and ceased, exact ages are required. Thirdly, the cause of death cannot usually be determined from skeletal remains alone.
Unfortunately, this can colour interpretations about weaning, since it is unknown whether the subadults sampled for biochemical studies may have died due to weaning practices that were 'unsuccessful'. Adding to this complication is the fact that disease conditions can alter the nitrogen isotope ratio in bone collagen. Katzenberg and Lovell (1999) and 151
White and Armelagos (1997) have demonstrated that malnutrition, disease and injuries can all affect the nitrogen isotope ratios, and thus bone collagen of affected individuals may not necessarily be reflective of their diet. Although bones exhibiting obvious pathological lesions can be avoided for isotopic analysis, not all diseases produce skeletal lesions.
Lastly, for young infants who fail to exhibit the nitrogen isotope enrichment characteristic of breastfeeding, it is not possible to determine whether this is due to never being breastfed at all, or being breastfed for only a short period of time. Considering that the collagen turnover time for infants ranges from 3 to 8 months (Herrescher, 2003), an infant breastfeeding for less than 3 months will not manifest the breastfeeding signal in her/his isotope value. This can confound interpretations about childrearing practices and one must be cognizant of this issue.
8.2 Future Research
Weaning is a complicated process, and the decision to breastfeed rests upon an infant's and mother's willingness and ability to breastfeed. Therefore, it is imperative that this process be examined in more detail. Goodman (1993) has remarked that using multiple lines of evidence in bioarchaeology will strengthen one's interpretation. The study by Herring and colleagues (1998) provides an excellent example of how the application of alternate lines of evidence can aid interpretations regarding infant feeding practices. In their study, the biometric model, which is commonly used in demographic studies, was applied to help determine the age at which weaning began in a 19th century
Canadian population. In addition to using palaeopathological evidence, skeletal growth 152 curves can be incorporated to assess the impact of infant feeding practices on the health of the children. Children between the ages of birth and 3 years require adequate nutrition to sustain proper growth and development. Consequently, they are most susceptible to the effects of malnutrition, a condition that can result in stunting (Blossner and de Onis;
2005; Hoppa, 1992; Saunders and Barrans, 1999).
Goodman's (1993) recommendation that multiple lines of evidence be used can be extended to biochemical studies. By incorporating multiple elements and multiple tissues, the finer details of infant feeding practices can be illuminated since individual elements will provide different dietary information (Herrscher, 2003; Williams et al.,
2005). A few studies have taken this approach by using multiple tissues and elements to examine infant feeding practices in past populations. It is possible to use nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon isotopes to examine weaning; for example, Wright and Schwarcz
(1998, 1999) analyzed all three elements in teeth, while Williams and colleagues (2005) used ribs to examine the same stable isotopes. White and co-workers (2004) used both teeth and bones to isolate stable nitrogen, oxygen and carbon.
Another avenue of research that may hold potential is the use of laser ablation
(Herring et al., 1998). It can be used to analyze elements such as nitrogen, oxygen, and strontium within teeth at specific periods within an individual's lifetime (Dolphin et al.,
2005; Song and Goodman, 1999). This may prove to be a more precise method of examining weaning practices considering that dental chronology is well known. It may also avoid the problems associated with age estimation in skeletal remains, where accurate estimations are required to correctly interpret weaning practices. However, more research needs to be undertaken on this technique. 153
Lastly, additional Graeco-Roman biochemical weaning studies need to be conducted if we are to understand how infant feeding patterns and dietary preferences have changed over time or vary geographically. Ideally, research should be undertaken on Greek urban centres, rural towns and other colonies from the Classical-Hellenistic period for comparison. Similarly, sites from the Roman period should be examined as well.
8.3 Summary of the Apollonian Infant Feeding Practices and Significance of the Research
This study has demonstrated the possibility of investigating weaning practices and childhood diet at Apollonia in more detail by using a variety of sources that include stable isotope analysis, paleopathology and archaeological data, as well as ancient literary texts. The biochemical data indicate that weaning began by least 1 year and was completed between 3 to 5 years of age. This is consistent with the ancient literary sources, which document that weaning in Classical antiquity generally began around 6 months and ceased around 2 to 3 years of age. The biochemical evidence also illustrates that weaning practices for certain individuals deviated from the 'general' practice at
Apollonia; the ancient literature supports this variation by documenting the practice of early and late weaning. It is difficult to ascertain the past motivations associated with weaning a child, since it is a highly personal and social process. Additional information regarding weaning practices can be gleaned from the archaeological evidence in the form of infant feeding vessels. The association of feeding vessels with the infant burials suggests that supplementary fluids in addition to breast milk may have been fed to these 154 individuals when they were neonates, or later on during the weaning process. When the
Apollonian weaning practices are compared to that of other Classical populations for which biochemical weaning studies have been conducted, a similar pattern emerges, suggesting that weaning may have been a highly standardized process in Classical society.
The foods onto which children are weaned can have a dramatic impact on their health. The isotope data suggests that the supplementary foods consumed by the
Apollonian children consisted mainly of cereals and dairy products. The later childhood diet was still composed of cereals and dairy products; however fruits, vegetables and perhaps trace amounts of marine and meat resources were also ingested, palaeopathological lesions consistent with cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis are typically interpreted as diagnostic of iron-deficiency anemia, and their presence in the subadult remains from Apollonia suggests that the childhood diet may have compromised their health. When the juvenile diet was compared to that of the adults, a significant difference was found, and the isotopic evidence suggests that children were consuming more cereals, fruits, and vegetables and less meat resources than the adults. This difference is further supported by the ancient literature, and emphasizes that food not only functioned to provide nutrition, but also acted to symbolize the different social groups in Classical society.
This research is of importance on multiple levels. This is the foremost study applying stable isotope analysis to explore infant feeding practices in a Classical-
Hellenistic Greek population from the Black Sea coast using subadult skeletal remains. It has also contributed to our knowledge of ancient Greek lifestyles and childrearing 155 practices, and also to the wider comprehension of how this crucial infant feeding practice varies across cultures and time periods. Lastly, it has also demonstrated the utility of a multi-disciplinary approach by comparing multiple lines of evidence against one another, in order to draw a more complete picture of childrearing practices. 156
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Tieszen LL, Fagre T. 1993. Effect of Diet Quality and Composition on the Isotopic Composition of Respiratory CO2, Bone Collagen Bioapatite and Soft Tissues. In Lambert JB, Grape G, editors. Prehistoric Human Bone: Archaeology at the Molecular Level. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 121-155.
Troughton J, Wells P, Mooney J. 1974. Photosynthetic Mechanisms and Paleoecology from Carbon Isotope Ratios in Ancient Specimens of C4 and CAM Plants. Science 185:610-612.
Tuross N, Fogel ML. 1994. Stable Isotope Analysis and the Subsistence Patterns at the Sully Site. In Owsley DW, Jantz RL, editors. Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains. Migration, Warfare, Health, and Subsistence. Smithsonian Institution Press: Washington D.C., pp. 283-289.
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APPENDIX A
Ancient Literary Sources Time Period of Ancient Authors
Alexis of Thurri: 408 - 334 B.C.
Athenaeus: A.D. 200
Antiphanes: 387 B.C.
Aristotle: 384-322 B.C.
Aulus Gellius: A.D. 125-180
Celsus:A.D. 175-180
Dioscorides: A.D. 40 - 90
Galen of Pergamum: A.D. 129 - 200
Hippocrates/Hippocratic treatises written in: 460 - 370 B.C.
Homer: 8th or 7th century B.C.
Ovid: 43 B.C.-A.D. 17
Philoxenus of Cythera: 435 - 380 B.C.
Plato: 427 - 347 B.C.
Pliny the Elder: A.D. 23 - 79
Pliny the Younger: A.D. 63 - 113
Plutarch: A.D. 46-127
Polybius:203-120B.C.
Soranus: A.D. 98-138
Tacitus: A.D. 56-117 177
APPENDIX B
Summary of Previous Biochemical Weaning Studies Stable Nitrogen Isotope Studies Sample Onset of Cessation Period Reference(s) Site(s) Date Tissue Size ' Weaning of Weaning Matjes River Rock ~ 12,000 - Mid Holocene Clayton et al., 1996 Ribs, teeth n = 35 1.5 yrs 2 - 4 yrs Shelter, South Africa 2000 BP Early 7000 - 8000 Richards et al., 2003 Catalhoyuk, Turkey Bone n= 31 < 1.5 yrs n/a Neolithic BP Ogrinc and Budja, Ajdovska Jama, 6400 - 5300 Bone Neolithic n=13 2 yrs 4 - 5 yrs 2005 Slovenia BP fragments Pre- Cherry, Eva, Agri cultural: 5500 - 2000 Bone, Rib 18-20 Fogeletal., 1989 Ledbetter, Tennesse n/a Middle - Late n = 34 Valley, USA B.C. fragments months Archaic Pre- Schurr, 1997; Schurr Indian Knoll, Agricultural: 5000-1000 Long bone ,, 6 months 5 yrs and Powell, 2005 Kentucky, USA B.C. - ' n = 33 Late Archaic diaphyses 1 yr Pre- Schurr, 1997; Schurr Carlston Annis, 5000-1000 Long bone Agricultural: n = 24 ~ 1 - 2 yrs 5 yrs and Powell, 2005 Kentucky, USA diaphyses Late Archaic B.C. Tuross and Fogel, Post- Sully, South Dakota, A.D. 1650- Bone, Rib 18-20 1994; Fogeletal., n = 28 > 2 yrs Agricultural USA 1700 fragments 1989 months Post- Agricultural: Schurr, 1997; Schurr A.D. 1300- Femur ~5 yrs Angel, Indiana, USA n = 24 1 -2 yrs Middle and Powell, 2005 1450 diaphyses Mississippian Stable Nitrogen Isotope Studies Continued Sample Onset of Cessation Period Reference(s) Site Date Tissue Size ] Weaning of Weaning Post- Schurr, 1997; Schurr Tinsley Hill, _, 6 months Agricultural: A.D. 1300- Long bone n = 21 , 5c yrs Middle and Powell, 2005 Kentucky, USA 1450 diaphyses - 1 yr Mississippian Neutral Katzenberg et al., MacPherson, Ontario, A.D. 1530- Ribs n= 12 <2yrs 5 yrs Iroquoian 1993 Canada 1580 1st-3rd Classical: Isola Sacra, Rome, Prowse, 2001 centuries Femora n = 32 6 months 2.5-3 yrs Roman Italy A.D. Classical: Ribs, Romano- Dupras et al., 2001 Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt ca. A.D. 250 n = 49 6 months 3 yrs Humeri Christian Late/Sub 4th-6th Queenford Farm, Ribs, Roman - Fuller et al., 2006 centuries n = 54 ~ 2 yrs 3-4 yrs Oxfordshire, Britain Femora Medieval A.D. Bourbou and Kastella, Crete, II1 century Richards, 2007, Ribs n = 11 n/a 2 yrs Byzantine Greece A.D. In Press Dittman and Grupe, Wenigumstadt, Ribs, n = 44 1 yrs 3 yrs Medieval 2000 southern Germany A.D. 500-700 Phalanges 10th-16th Wharram Percy, Mays et al., 2002 centuries Ribs n = 70 1 yr 2 yrs Medieval Yorkshire, England A.D. Stable Nitrogen Isotope Studies Continued Sample Onset of Cessation Reference(s) Period Site Date Tissue Size Weaning of Weaning 10th-16th ribs n = Medieval Richards et al., 2002 Wharram Percy, centuries Ribs, Teeth 71; teeth n/a 2 yrs Yorkshire, England A.D. n = 22 10th-16th Wharram Percy, Medieval Fuller et al., 2005 centuries Ribs, Teeth n = 21 n/a 2-4 yrs Yorkshire, England A.D. St. Laurent, Isere, 13th-15th Teeth, 2.6-3.3 Medieval Herrscher, 2003 n=21 n/a France centuries mandible yrs Iron Age, Newark Bay, Orkney, -1.25 Viking, Late Richards et al., 2006 550-1200 BP n = 88 n/a Scotland Ribs yrs Medieval Katzenberg and Prospect Hill, Ontario, Historic 1824-1879 Ribs n = 36 ~ 1 yr n/a Pfeiffer, 1995 Canada Harvie Family Historic Katzenberg, 1991 Cemetery, Ontario, 19th century Bone n = 6 1 yr n/a Canada St. Thomas Cemetery, 5 Historic Herring et al, 1996 n = 60 14 months Ontario, Canada 1821-1874 Ribs months3 Modern Fogeletal. 1989 USA contemporary Fingernails n=17 n/a 4-8 months Fingernails, 4 4-12 Modern Fuller et al. 2006 0 8-14 months Sacramento, CA, USA contemporary ° . n = 8 months Stable Oxygen Isotope Studies
Sample Onset of Cessation Period Reference(s) Site Date Tissue Size Weaning of Weaning
Mayan: Wright and Preclassic - Kaminaljuyu, ca. 700 BC Teeth (Ml, Schwarcz, 1998; n = 35 2 yrs 5 yrs Late Guatemala AD 1500 PM, M3) 1999 Postclassic
Mayan: Williams et al. Marco Gonzalez, 100BC-AD Ribs, Bone n = 10 1 yr 3-4 yrs Postclassic 2005 5 Belize 1350
Mayan: AD 1400- San Pedro, Belize Ribs n = 9 1 yr 3-4 yrs Postclassic 1650
Cortical bone n Egyptian: X- AD 350- long bone, =11 Group period White et al., 2004 Wadi Haifa, Sudan 3 yrs n/a 1400 teeth (dm2, teeth n to Christian M2, M3) = 26 Subadults under the age of 18 years and number of individuals who yielded viable isotopic results 2 Includes individuals under the age of 20 3 Using biometric demographic model 4 Infant mother pairs Study also examined stable nitrogen isotopes
00 182
APPENDIX C
Recording Forms INVENTORY RECORDING FORM FOR COMPLETE SKELETONS
Site Name/Number / Observer
Feature/Burial Number / Date
Burial/Skeleton Number /
Present Location of Collection
CRANIAL BONES AND JOINT SURFACES L(left) R(right) Frontal ___ Sphenoid Parietal Zygomatic Occipital . Maxilla Temporal , Palatine TMJ Mandible
POSTCRANIAL BONES AND JOINT SURFACES R Clavicle Os Coxae Scapula Ilium Body Ischium Glenoid I Pubis Acetabulum Sacrum Auric. Surface
VERTEBRAE (Individual) VERTEBRAE (grouped) Centrum Neural Arch •Present/* Complete C1 Centra Neural Arches C2 C3-6 C7 T1-T9 J- T10 T11 T12 11 12 Stermim: Manubrium Body _ 13 L4 L5
RIBS (individual) RIBS (grouped) I R #Presenl/# Complete 1st L R Unsided 2nd 3-10 / 11th 12th
From: Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994 Series/Burial/Skeleton„ Observer/Date LONG BONES Diaphyy-, Proximal Proximal Middle Oisiai Distal Epiphysis Third I hurt Third Epiphysis Left Humerus Right Humerus Lett Radius Right Radius Lett Ulna Right Ulna Lett Femur Right Femur Left Tibia Right Tibia Left Fibula Right Fibula Lett Talus... Right Talus Left Calcaneus... Right Calcaneus .
HAND {# PresenW Complete) FOOT (f Present/I Complete) L R Unsided L R Unsided
# Garpals _/_ J/Tarsals •Metacarpals /„ •Metatarsals •Phalanges ,_./., if Phalanges
Comments:...
From: Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994 185
IMMATURE REMAINS RECORDING FORM: BONE UNION AND EPIPHYSEAL CLOSURE
Site Name /Number / Observer
Feature/B jrial Number / ... Date
i Burial/Skeleton Number i
Present Location of Collection
stage ol Union; blank = unobservable; 0 ~ open; 1 ss partial union; 2 = complete union
EPIPHYSEAL FUSION PRIMARY OSSIFICATION CENTERS
Bone Epiphysis Stage of Union Bone Area of Union Extent Cervical Vertebra e superior Os Coxae ilium-pubis interior ischium-pubis
Thoracic Vertebrae superior ischium-ilium interior Sacral Segments 1-2
Lumbar Vertebrae superior . __. 2-3 inferior 3-4 L R 4-5
Scapula coracoid -^™™™„._ ,..,„.,„. Cervical Vertebrae
acromion ™.,.„....„ ___,„„ neural arches to each other ,„ Clavicle sternal neural arches to centrum Humerus head Thoracic Vertebrae distal — — neural arches to each olher ___ medial epicondyie neural arches to centrum Radius proximal Lumbar Vertebrae distal neural arches to each other Ulna proximal distal — neural arches to centrum Os Coxae iliac crest Cranium ischial tuberosity sphenooccipital synchondrosis Femur head Occipital greater trochanter —_ ...... lateral part to squama lesser trochanter basilar part to lateral part distal Tibia proximal
distal ,.„..„...^, Fibula proximal distal
From: Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994 Series/Burial/Skeleton_ Observer/Date
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS
9. Clavicle 15. Ulna (a) Length: (a) Length: (b) Diameter: (b) Diameter:
10. Scapula 16, Radius (a) Length (height): (a) Length: (b) Width: (b) Diameter: (c) Length o! the Spine: 17. Femur 11. Ilium (a) Length: (a) Length: (b) Width: (b) Width: (c) Diameter:
12. Ischium 18. Tibia (a) Length: (a) Length; (b) Width: (b) Diameter:
13. Pubis 19. Fibula (a) Length: (a) Length: (b) Diameter; 14. Humerus (a) Length: (b) Width; (c) Diameter:
Comments:
From: Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994 o o Dental Pathology - Deciduous Teeth o Site Name/Number Observer_ *+5 Feature/Burial Number_ Date Burial/Skeleton Number Present Location of Collection
L Maxilla R
ml ml c i2 il il i2 c nil m2
CB
Tooth Presence CD
Caries - General Number Location
Abscesses - General Number Location Aftv'H K#\ Calculus - Amount Location
00 ^1 188
%
ft, < a u I
Courtesy of Dr. Anne Keenleyside 189
1
HI
o s6 *© "3
I5i
, <0 E '/. B O
fit
Courtesy of Dr. Anne Keenleyside 190
I a. —f- f—
.4—.
Sol
...+„. -4—•¥—* _4_+ r. i J 8 f*k ! S I 1 |3,| I' / C 1> I I U ! J J.
Courtesy of Dr. Anne Keenleyside Stress Indicators
Site Name/Number,. Gkservei__ _.___ Feature/Burial Number___^^ Burial/Skeleton Nuraber_ „____ Present Location of Collection.
State of Preservation: Bxeellent__ Good__ Fair._.,,_ Poor __
I nfect ion: General: Type: Bone loss. Bone formation. _ Both Bone Involved:_ Location on bone Degree of healing Active_ Healing/Healed Dtagnosi $: ___
Trauma: General Type Fraetimi. _ Dislocation Deformation Amputation Bone Involved Location on bone Degtee of healing
i Unhealed ,.,..___Jfe*li«i^" ^edM__^_-M_____
Parotic Hyperostosis: ______„ Aciive/Healed:______
Cribra Orbitalia: L_ R__ Active/Healed: L ___JR__ Stature (max. lengths); L, femur _,_ ,.„mm L, t Additional Comments; Courtesy of Dr. Anne Keenleyside Enamel Hypoplasia - Permanent Tetth O o Site NaiBft^Nambgr _ Gbserver_ Featefc^wrial Number__ Date Bwiat/Skek»n Number Present Location of Collection o L R C !2 » 11 12 C to Mufih to to Goetri Type to § of Defeats - Ht, to Lowest Hi to Highest Mandate Geseni Type # of Defects Hi to Losrest Ht to Highest to 193 APPENDIX D Age Estimation Methods 1) Age Estimation Using Dental Formation Dental Formation Codes a. Deciduous mandibular canines c„ oc Cr1/2 Cr3/4 Cr 3 4 5 •) (&) ^ Q Q Rl/4 R3/4 a 11 b. Deciduous mandibular molars oc Cr1/2 Cr3M Cr. 3 4 [ ) IC-T J (C—3j £~~™~j O CI, R1/4 R1/2 R3M 1 8 9 10 11 12 vv lr~v c. Permanent mandibular molars Code Stage Initial cusp formation B Initial cleft formation 2 Coalescence of cusps 9 Root length MA 3 Cusp outline complete 10 Root length 1/2 4 Crown 1/2 complete 11 Root length 3/4 8 Crown 3/4 complete! 12 Root length complete 6 Crown complete 13 Apex 1/2 closed 7 Initial root formation 14 Apex closed From: Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994 195 Age Estimation Using Dental Formation Charts Year/Age (mean) Males Females Dec. Stage Dec. Can Ml Dec. M2 Dec. Can Dec. Ml Dec. M2 Ceo 1.5 weeks - 2wk? - - - Coc 2 mo 2 wk 2 mo 1.5 mo - - Cr 1/2 3.2 mo 2 mo 3 mo 3 mo 1.5 mo 3 mo Cr 3/4 5.5 mo 2.5 mo 6 mo 5.5 mo 2.5 mo 6 mo Crc 7 mo 5 mo 8 mo 8 mo 4 mo 8 mo Ri 8.5 mo 7 mo 10.5 mo 10 mo 6 mo 11.5 mo Rl/4 11.5 mo 9 mo 1.4 yr lyr 7.5 mo 1.3 yr Rl/2 1.3 yr 11 mo 1.6 yr 1.3 yr 10 mo 1.6 yr R3/4 1.85 yr 1.2 yr 1.9 yr 1.8 yr 1.1 yr 1.9 yr Re 1.95 yr 1.3 yr 2.1 yr 2.05 yr 1.25 yr 2yr A 1/2 2.5 yr 1.7yr 2.5 yr 2.5 yr 1.5 yr 2.4 yr Ac 3.1 yr 2yr 3.1 yr 2.95 yr 1.8 yr 2.8 yr Dental formation stages and their associated age of development for deciduous (dec.) dentition (extrapolated from Moorrees et al., 1963a) Year/Age (mean) Males Females Stage 11 12 11 12 Cr3/4 - - - 4.5 yrs Crc 5.2 yrs 5.9 yr 4.8 yrs 5.5 yrs Rl/4 6.3 yrs 7 yrs 6 yrs 6.5 yrs Rl/2 6.9 yrs 7.5 yrs 6.5 yrs 7 yrs R2/3 7.5 yrs 8 yrs 7 yrs 7.5 yrs R3/4 8 yrs 8.6 yrs 7.5 yrs 8.2 yrs Re 9.5 yrs 9.6 yrs 8.1 yrs 9 yrs A 1/2 - - 8.8 yrs 9.5 yrs Dental formation stages and the associated age of development for maxillary incisors (extrapolated from Moorress et al., 1963 b) 196 Dental Formation - Permanent Mandibular Teeth Males Stage 11 12 C PI P2 Ml M2 M3 Ci - - 0.6 2.1 3.2 0.1 3.8 9.5 Ceo - - 1 2.6 3.9 0.4 4.3 10 Coc - - 1.7 3.3 4.5 0.8 4.9 10.6 Crl/2 - - 2.5 4.1 5 1.3 5.4 11.3 Cr3/4 - - 3.4 4.9 5.8 1.9 6.1 11.8 Crc - - 4.4 5.6 6.6 2.5 6.8 12.4 Ri - - 5.2 6.4 7.3 3.2 7.6 13.2 Rcl - - - - - 4.1 8.7 14.1 Rl/4 - 5.8 6.9 7.8 8.6 4.9 9.8 14.8 Rl/2 5.6 8.8 8.8 9.3 10.1 5.5 10.6 15.6 R2/3 6.2 7.2 ------R3/4 6.7 7.7 9.9 10.2 11.2 6.1 11.4 16.4 Re 7.3 8.3 11 11.2 12.2 7 12.3 17.5 Al/2 7.9 12.4 12.4 12.7 13.5 8.5 13.9 19.1 Ac . ------ Females Stage 11 12 C PI P2 Ml M2 M3 Ci - - 0.6 2 3.3 0.2 3.6 9.9 Ceo - - 1 2.5 3.9 0.5 4 10.4 Coc - - 1.6 3.2 4.5 0.9 4.5 11 Crl/2 - - 2.5 4 5.1 1.3 5.1 11.5 Cr3/4 - - 3.5 4.7 5.8 1.8 5.8 12 Crc - - 4.3 5.4 6.5 2.4 6.6 12.6 Ri - - 5 6.1 7.2 3.1 7.3 13.2 Rcl - - - - - 4 8.4 14.1 Rl/4 4.8 5 6.2 7.4 8.2 4.8 9.5 15.2 Rl/2 5.4 5.6 7.7 8.7 9.4 5.4 10.3 16.2 R2/3 5.9 6.2 - R3/4 6.4 7 8.6 9.6 10.3 5.8 11 16.9 Re 7 7.9 9.4 10.5 11.3 6.5 11.8 17.7 Al/2 7.5 8.3 10.6 11.6 12.8 7.9 13.5 19.5 Ac - - ______ From: Smith 1991 (modified version of Moorrees et al. 1963b) 197 2) Age Estimation Using Dental Emergence V.. • *• ""^3 In mare v:fPi Z*\ (t 2 mos.) j 4 years \« «* •» «331 7 months i (± 1a mos.) iRrV V IQyoars ^ •--..,.—. ; jn ut(Jf0 ©I, ((30 mos.) 1 (*2mos.) ' ~s0 •\CWni Birth ^^x-xj'l - - — ft J mos.) 5yoa s A-M-l-f (s 16' mos) '. ' n yoars < » ri h (1 30 mos.) 6 monlhs ../W :i tMll' -.- ". .."." ,_ (13mos) Ha !j\r> i1 ,/ hr i , •. I | 1 i .1 iZyoars -X^C^flM] 9monlhs , 6 yoafs ( , h i i I ' ' l ' >' (l 36 mos) ,.~~--"-ll Ja (.t3 mos) iQ (+ 24 mos.) s OQQH > ) i / ; i • • ' | ; i! "^''l>| .*} iMA/TVl i i H !\ A A I 'Syoars ^^OSOQ , ,yaar v - QQ (14 mos.) U-C y > j A. J 1 ' ' 7 years Ml I' (i 24 mos.) 'ii/i IS monlhs ffiiKM^A A (± 8 mos.) "•(•Biffe8«> i 1 urn^//// I i - > W'Vi'l' , In' ' ;i yoars (i 24 mos.) 1 i I SSyoare ' < i V^ TVi, ,', I (* 84 mos! i nwv From: Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994 Age (yrs) Humerus Radius Ulna Femur Tibia Fibula Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Birth 64-84 74 56-61 58 64-68 66 75-103 89 66-76 71 62-72 67 0.5 78-98 87 63-75 69 72-80 76 95-122 108 84-93 88 78-88 83 1 89-106 97 68-75 76 79-96 87 109-135 122 93-103 98 90-100 95 1.5 98-118 108 75-90 82 85-95 90 122-152 137 102-120 111 102-113 107 2 106-129 117 80-96 88 93-102 97 135-166 150 109-131 120 115-125 120 2.5 113-138 125 86-103 94 98-110 104 143-182 162 117-144 130 123-136 129 3 120-147 133 93-110 101 104-117 110 156-196 170 127-156 141 133-147 140 4 128-159 143 98-120 109 111-129 120 169-213 191 136-171 153 143-161 152 5 136-170 153 105-130 117 118-139 128 183-230 206 146-184 165 158-177 167 6 147-181 164 114-140 127 125-152 138 198-246 222 158-201 179 165-194 179 7 157-192 174 121-152 136 134-164 149 214-263 238 168-216 192 173-211 192 8 169-201 185 130-160 145 145-174 159 228-278 253 180-227 203 185-227 206 9 178-210 194 139-163 151 154-178 166 241-290 265 191-253 213 197-234 215 10 186-218 202 149-168 158 163-186 174 254-305 279 202-246 224 205-245 225 11 196-224 210 156-175 165 169-193 181 265-323 294 212-259 235 217-250 233 12 202-234 218 160-179 169 173-198 185 279-337 308 218-268 243 224-253 238 13 211-247 229 165-188 176 178-208 193 286-358 322 227-283 255 233-265 249 14 220-257 238 166-200 183 183-221 202 296-382 339 245-301 268 238-275 256 From: Stloukal and Hankova, 1978 Age Clavicle Humerus Radius Ulna Femiii r Tibia Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Birth - 6m - 51 - 78 - 61 - - - - - 46 6-15mo - 51 81-110 95.5 - 63 - 71 - - - - 15-25mo - 66 - 125 - - - - - 127 - 52 24-3 Omo - - - - - 98 - 108 127-129 128 - - 30-42mo 70 128-135 130.7 95-98 96.3 103-107 105 132-141 136.5 64-69 67.3 42-54mo 75-80 76.7 139-160 149.2 106-126 113.4 116-123 120.3 152-159 156.3 69-79 75.3 4.5-5.5yr - - - 179 - 134 - - 164-209 182 - 84 5.5-6.5yr 87-96 90.7 175-197 183.6 146-153 148.3 144-160 155.8 181-223 205.6 87-100 92.8 6.5-8yr 87-102 92.3 177-216 189.8 135-159 144.8 149-175 159.5 194-242 213 82-96 89 8-10.5yr 101-108 104.5 203-225 212.7 148-170 156.8 175-190 182.5 217-257 236.2 103-118 110.3 10.5-1 lyr - 110 - 245 - 183 - - - 268 - 103 11-12yr 102-110 106 220-227 222.7 170-178 174 185-195 191.3 256-272 263 105-111 108.8 12y 111-123 112.6 213-258 240 182-196 190 200-203 201.5 270-304 292 127-128 127.5 15yr±6mo 100-147 123.2 232-280 247.8 218 192.7 200-210 205 253-330 291.3 102-149 124.8 15yr - 123 - 279 210 - 233 - 332 - - 16yr ------16.5-17yr 127-144 135.5 ------372 - - 21yr - 141 ------From: Sundick, 1978 200 4) Age Estimation Using Epiphyseal Fusion M • JillMIir. i i i (j t'.fl '.V '. I flnlr. i . , i !,iV!t If 'M{>*! , I'pl --• M sacrum- S2 S Ml 'V'S -Si) '.i'llU' lit' I M li'fnnt fjff ih-f tu\ * MWa: pre •M Ir-im.t N'.KWI" M'l tiiK h tcuou'iii', tii'.ni M scaf.«Mi« nimioivt!, i n<.ii' w.u I o«.t M Sefnnt (list 'libui.j pm* lihi.Lt lii',* liM.i i|i-.l M MijsH* ;mj •- - M r v»'ili.|.i.,.> /,i 0 2 4 8 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 AGE IN YEARS From: Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994 201 APPENDIX E Adjusted Subadult Stable Isotope Values 202 Age 515N - 3% 813C - 5% Category Burial # Age (yrs) Tissue (%o AIR) (%o PDB) (yrs) Birth to 1 247 0.25 Ribs 9.3 -23.7 266 (03) 0.25 Ribs 8.8 -22.9 363 0.25 Long Bone 9.3 -23.3 366 0.25 Long Bone 7.3 -23.2 372 0.25 Ribs 8.1 -22.7 381 0.25 Ribs 8 -23.7 404 0.813 Ribs 8.7 -23.6 8036#12 0.25 Ribs 8.9 -22.7 Ribs, Cranial, 225 0.25 9 -23.9 Clavicle 449 0.75 Ribs 8.9 -22 lto3 204 2 Ribs 6.3 -23.6 237 3 Ribs 9 -23.5 239 2 Ribs 6.8 -23.5 243 2.5 Ribs 6.4 -23.7 266 (05) 1.5 Ribs 7.3 -23 297A 1.5 Ribs 8.7 -23.6 Ribs, long 348 3 7.4 -23.3 bones 361 2 Cranial 7.6 -23.2 5072 #20 3 Ribs 7.1 -23.8 5072 #9 1.5 Ribs 9.5 -23.3 199 1 Ribs 8.8 -23.2 403 2.5 Ribs 8.2 -23.3 426 3 Ribs 7.2 -22.5 3 to 5 196 3.5 Ribs 6.7 -24.4 241 5 Ribs 6 -23.5 273 5 Ribs 6.1 -24 295 3.25 Ribs 7.4 -23.9 314 4 Ribs 8.2 -23.8 380 4 Ribs 5.6 -23 8036 #11 4 Ribs 7.4 -23.1 Ribs, Cranial, 212B 5 7.6 -23.5 Clavicle 297B 4.5 Cranial 8.8 -22.3 393 3.5 Ribs 6.4 -23.5 Continued on next naee 203 Age 515N - 3%o 513C - 5%o Category Burial # Age (yrs) Tissue (%o AIR) (%o PDB) (yrs) 5 to 101 208 7 Ribs 5.8 -23.8 211 6.5 Ribs 6.2 -23.9 212A 6 Ribs 6.3 -23.7 233 7.5 Ribs 7 -23.5 268 6 Ribs 9.5 -23.4 448A 5.5 Ribs 5.4 -24.5 288 5.5 Ribs 5.7 -23.8 313 7 Ribs 6.7 -23.7 320 6 Ribs 6.5 -24.1 355 5.5 Ribs 6 -24 Ribs, long 358 6 6.4 -23.8 bones 395 6 Ribs 6.5 -24 413 12 Ribs 6.2 -23.9 428 7.5 Ribs 6.6 -24.3 5072 #23 14 Ribs 7.4 -23.5 5083 #34 6.5 Ribs 6.5 -24 202 6.5 Ribs 7.2 -23.9 431 6.5 Ribs 7 -23.5 440 7 Ribs 6.4 -23.5 #?A 8 Ribs 7 -23.9 10 to 15 294 11 Ribs 7.1 -24 5072 #22 12.5 Ribs 8.3 -24 Kal 400 + 10.75 Ribs 6.1 -23.9 423 11 Ribs 6.6 -23.5 443 10 Ribs 7.1 -22.4 #?B 12 Cranial 6.9 -23.9 448B 13 Ribs 6.2 -23 5078#6 11 Ribs 6.1 -23.6 5083#9 15 Ribs 6 -23.8 5A 14 Ribs 6.8 -23.6 1 Burial 5072#27 was omitted from stable analysis due to diagenesis, and is not listed here in the adjusted stable isotope values