Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History Kim McCorquodale Egypt—Ramesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX

hi.com.au/ancient Contents Introduction ...... iv Outcomes and objectives ...... v Chapter 1 The geographical environment ...... 1 Geographical features ...... 3 Resources ...... 6 Egypt’s neighbours and their resources ...... 7 Significant sites ...... 8 Chapter 2 Social structure and political organisation ...... 12 Images and role of the ...... 13 The viziers ...... 14 Civil, religious and military administration ...... 15 The army ...... 17 Royal and non-royal women ...... 19 Scribes, artisans and agricultural workers ...... 21 Chapter 3 The economy ...... 25 Importance of the Nile ...... 26 Crafts and industry ...... 29 Economic exchange ...... 30 Technological developments ...... 33 Later economic problems ...... 34 Chapter 4 Religion, death and burial ...... 37 Cults of gods and goddesses ...... 38 Festivals ...... 40 Personal religion ...... 41 Funerary customs ...... 43 Funerary texts ...... 46 Temples ...... 47 Tombs ...... 49 Chapter 5 Cultural life ...... 53 Art—statues, jewellery, wall paintings and reliefs ...... 54 Writing and literature—love poetry and tales ...... 58 Chapter 6 Everyday life ...... 63 Daily life and leisure activities ...... 64 Food ...... 67 Clothing ...... 68 Housing and furniture ...... 69 Occupations ...... 71 Index ...... 74

III Why study societies? The focus of Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Egypt—Ramesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX is the study of the society and the lives of people during that time. The central question that needs to be asked is, ‘Why do we study societies?’ By studying ancient societies, sites and sources, we are concerned with seeking the explanations to the ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions of history: how people lived in the past, why they may have lived that way, and how and why their life circumstances changed. We investigate the social history of a people through an investigation of the remains of their material culture, and come to understand the key developments and forces that may have shaped that society and the nature of the available sources for the study of that society. The majority of the evidence for the study of this society comes from the archaeological remains: temples, tombs, statues, reliefs and grave goods, but written evidence gives us an insight into official records and everyday thought. The majority of this relates to royalty or the high officials in their employ. The remains left by the workers of Deir el-Medina give a detailed record of life in the exclusive village of the tomb builders. Evidence for the peasant farmers, the majority of the population, is mostly gleaned from what others record. By studying this society not only is a sense of what it was like back then achieved, but the key competencies of collecting, analysing and organising information and communicating ideas and information, which are the core processes of historical inquiry, are explored. Process of inquiry The thematic books in the Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History series have been written to address the Ancient History syllabus requirements for Queensland and New South Wales. A process of inquiry is used to investigate the various topics presented in each book. The aim of each book is not to cover every aspect of the given topic. The main approach is through investigation of a specific key question in each chapter. Using this approach, it is hoped that you will identify historical issues for investigation, use focus questions to investigate issues and finally reach conclusions or make judgements about them. The structure of the process of inquiry requires you to investigate the following main aspects of your issue: • sources • background • key terms and concepts • changes and continuities. The focus questions that occur at the beginning of each chapter guide the process of inquiry and provide the scale and scope of each chapter. A brief background is provided before the ‘Beginning the inquiry’ section. By the end of each chapter, in the ‘Culminating the inquiry’ section, you should be able to reach a conclusion or make a judgement about the key question. By working through the chapter, answering the ‘Critical inquiry’ questions that are provided for each source will assist you in answering the focus questions. Critical inquiry involves critically engaging with historical sources, not only the interpreting, analysing and evaluating Process of inquiry. sources, but also unmasking situations and Adapted from the Queensland Studies Authority, revealing the interests embedded in situations Ancient History Senior Syllabus 2004. and sources.

IV Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Egypt—Ramesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX Each chapter begins with an identification of the focus and key question that will guide the inquiry. Focus questions, key terms and, in a couple of chapters, important dates are also provided. You are guided through the rest of the process of inquiry by headings that flag the major aspects of the inquiry. Under the heading ‘Sources’ is information about the major historians and theorists associated with the study of each issue and the problematic nature of primary and secondary sources. The heading ‘Background’ provides the context of time and place. The interests of individuals and groups in society are identified, and the ancient and modern arguments about the issue are presented. Key features Key features that enhance learning and skills development are: • a list of key terms and concepts for each chapter • important dates at the beginning of Chapters 1 and 3 • integration of historiography integrated into relevant sections of each chapter to enable you to understand the significant historiographical issues relevant to each topic • FYI (For Your Information) boxes to draw attention to specific aspects of the text or sources • ‘Critical inquiry’ boxes to provide questions related to sources and provide you with the opportunity to develop your skills in interpreting, analysing, evaluating and making decisions about the content of sources • ‘Review and revise’ sections that provide you with opportunities to review the content covered, and provide additional research activities • ‘Further explorations’ sections at the end of each chapter; these include a reference list and direct you to web resources. • The icon indicates the availability of web links through the Heinemann site: http://www.hi.com.au/ancient. Outcomes and objectives New South Wales The following Knowledge and Understanding Outcomes of the Ancient History Stage 6 HSC in the New South Wales Syllabus are addressed in each of the six chapters of Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Egypt—Ramesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX. H1.1 describe and assess the significance of key people, groups, events, institutions, societies and sites within the historical context H2.1 explain historical factors and assess their significance in contributing to change and continuity in the ancient world H3.1 locate, select and organise relevant information from a variety of sources H3.2 discuss relevant problems of sources for reconstructing the past H3.3 analyse and evaluate sources for their usefulness and reliability H3.4 explain and evaluate differing perspectives and interpretations of the past H3.6 plan and present the findings of historical investigations, analysing and synthesising information from a range of sources H4.1 use historical terms and concepts appropriately H4.2 communicate knowledge and understanding of historical features and issues using appropriate oral and written forms Board of Studies NSW Ancient History Stage 6 Syllabus 2004, p. 11.

V Queensland The following General Objectives of the Queensland Studies Authority Ancient History Syllabus 2004 are addressed in each of the six chapters of Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Egypt—Ramesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX. Planning and using a historical research process • identify issues or problems for investigation • locate and use a variety of primary and secondary sources • maintain a coherent record of research Forming historical knowledge through critical inquiry • understand the explicit content of sources • understand the nature of historical sources of evidence, assumptions about the problematic character of historical sources, and the tentative and interpretive qualities of historical knowledge • analyse what is explicit and implicit in a wide variety of sources, including themes, values and interrelationships within and among sources • evaluate the worth of sources. This will involve students in assessing the reliability, authenticity, representativeness, relevance and accuracy of the sources and in identifying value positions, perspectives and standpoints in their historic context • make decisions, i.e. making a judgment about a question or hypothesis, based on the interpretation and analysis and on the evaluation of sources. This will involve students in: • synthesising evidence into a coherent whole • reaching a conclusion or proposing a solution that is consistent with the interpretation and analysis and with the evaluation of the sources • justifying the conclusion by providing sound reasoning and logical argument in support • demonstrate an attitude of reflection on and revision of judgments made Communicating historical knowledge Using both written and non-written communication: • recalling significant information, defining and describing key concepts, events, development and people • providing explanations of and justifications for the finding/results of research, including the problematic nature of historical sources, the interpretive nature of historical inquiry and the tentative nature of historical judgment • producing written and non-written responses in a variety of genres • incorporate accurate definitions, abstractions and concepts, and relationships between key concepts, events and historic developments • substantiate claims by reference to sources of evidence. Adapted from Queensland Studies Authority Ancient History Syllabus, 2004, pp. 7–8.

VI Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Egypt—Ramesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX Chapter 1

The geographical environment

Important dates Chapter focus of the Ramesside period and approximate The natural features of were very dates of their reigns. different from most countries and helped shape the Dynasty XIX: 1295–1188 BC society that developed along the Nile. The river was 1295–1294 I central to the society, providing life-giving water, 1294–1279 1279–1212 Ramesses II transport and resources as it made its way north 1212–1202 Merenptah through the desert. Natural borders helped to 1202–1199 protect Egypt from invasion, but her resources 1202–1196 Seti II enabled Egypt to trade with her neighbours. During 1196–1190 the Ramesside period a number of man-made sites 1196–1188 Queen Tawosret were also significant. Dynasty XX: 1188–1069 BC In this chapter you will examine the key question: 1188–1186 Sethnakhte 'What natural features and resources enabled Egypt 1186–1154 Ramesses III to play a prominent role in the Near East?' 1154–1148 Ramesses IV 1148–1144 1144–1136 Ramesses VI 1136–1128 Ramesses VII 1128–1125 Ramesses VIII 1125–1107 Ramesses IX 1107–1098 Ramesses X 1098–1069 Ramesses XI 1075–1069 Herihor Focus questions FYI Egyptians recorded dates by the regnal year (year In order to develop a response to the key question of the reign) of the pharaoh who was on the you will need to consider the following focus questions: throne. 1 Why was the Nile important? 2 What types of natural resources did Egypt possess? 3 How did the natural world affect the ancient Terms/Concepts Egyptians’ beliefs and values? 4 What types of relationships did Egypt have with cataract page 4 Kmt page 5 her neighbours? delta page 4 page 3 5 How did the concept of maat affect their world Deshret page 5 natron page 7 view? page 4 Sea Peoples page 8 6 What man-made sites were important and what friable page 4 silt page 3 were their functions? inundation page 3 unguent page 8 Source 1.1 Black Sea

THRACE

• Hattusas

GREECE HATTI

Mycenae • • Carchemish

FROM ASSYRIA copper, ivory AND BAYLONIA • Knossos copper SYRIA • • Qadesh olive oil Byblos •

CRETE timber E CYPRUS u p h r a Mediterranean Sea te s Ri ver Kyrene • E

Jerusalem • N I

T

Gaza • S E L LOWER A LIBYA EGYPT P BEDOUINS natron quartzite, limestone Memphis • copper SINAI turquoise, copper

N copper

i l e alabaster

R iv e r EASTERN N DESERT WESTERN DESERT granite, UPPER greywacke EGYPT gold • granite FROM PUNT amethyst AFRICA gneiss copper, gold LOWER Main cultivated area gold EGYPT gold Resource gold Principal import route NUBIA Cataract Red Oasis Sea FROM IREM AND PUNT

0 200 400 km

Egypt and her neighbours, resources and trade routes.

2 Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History—Egypt: Ramesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX Sources Herodotus wrote an account of the ancient world called the Histories. In Book Two he described the Beginning the inquiry geography of Egypt as well as the culture and history. His historical reliability is often questioned, but his Construct a table with the focus questions across geographical knowledge is fairly accurate. the top of the table. As you work through the Other sources that describe Egypt’s resources, chapter, add notes that assist in answering the focus her neighbours and her contact with them, are the questions. Don't forget to reference your notes. monumental inscriptions erected by pharaohs, and official dispatches and records. One cache of records was found in the administrative buildings associated with the mortuary temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu. Geographical features The Nile FYI Central to Egypt is the Nile River, or Iteru as the Herodotus (c.490–c.420 BC) was a Greek historian who ancients called it. It was a constant factor in daily life. wrote about the ancient world from his observations The annual inundation of the Nile, from June to and discussions with people on his travels. September, caused by melting snows and monsoons further south, regulated the seasons and provided life- giving water and fertile silt. This was vital as it rarely Background rains in Egypt. The spirit of the river was the god Hapi. He was depicted as a man with the pendulous belly and The ancient Egyptians saw in their natural environment breasts of a woman. He represented the fertility that both order and disorder. They believed their world had the river brought to the people. A poor flood would been created when a mound, called the ben-ben, arose upset their world, causing hardship and famine. from the waters of chaos. The first god, who was both male and female, appeared on this mound and created life and an ordered world that embodied the concept of Source 1.3 maat or divine order. The opposing force was isfet or disorder and evil. The pharaoh and people constantly strove for maat. This religious concept was a reflection of their natural environment.

Source 1.2

The Nile.

Maat Goddess who personified truth, justice and the essential harmony of the universe. She was depicted as a seated woman with an ostrich feather on her head, or just as the feather. Maat was also the divine order of the universe from the moment of creation. The power of maat regulated the seasons, the movement of the stars and the relations between men and gods. If maat broke down then isfet or chaos occurred. Seti I holding the goddess Maat in his hand, from his temple at Abydos. inundation Flood. silt Fertile organic material washed down with the flood and deposited on fields.

The geographical environment 3 The river has two main sources. From Lake Victoria Source 1.5 in present-day Uganda, the White Nile flows northward and is joined in the Sudan by the Blue Nile Herodotus on Egypt and the Atbara River, both of which come from the [5] Egypt … the Egyptians have gained as a gift from highlands of Ethiopia. The river flows northwards the river. 5470 kilometres to reach the southern border of [7] From the coast to the interior of the country as far Egypt, just south of Aswan at the First Cataract. It as Heliopolis Egypt is a broad country, consisting of flows 800 kilometres north through a narrow valley plains, water and marshlands. hemmed in first by sandstone then limestone cliffs. [8] Continuing south from Heliopolis Egypt becomes The fertile strips on either side of the river vary from narrow. On the Arabian side it is bounded by a 3 to 18 kilometres wide. Just south-west of Memphis, mountain range which runs from north to south and water flows into a lush area called the Faiyum. This then continues inland without a break towards what is 800 kilometres of land is or Shemau. known as the Red Sea. In these mountains are the Just north of Memphis the river fans out into quarries where the stone for the pyramids in Memphis a number of branches as it winds its way to the was cut. Here the mountains start to decline and the Mediterranean Sea. This delta area is range changes direction, as mentioned, towards the or To-mehu. It is lush with lots of wildlife. Over the Red Sea. As I myself found out, it takes two months last 4000 years the river’s path has not altered except to traverse the mountains from east to west at their in the north where it has moved several kilometers to widest point, and the country at their eastern end the east. The building of the Aswan High dam in the produces frankincense … As for the Libyan side of 1960s has controlled the flow of the river. Egypt, it is bounded by another rocky mountain range, where the pyramids are to be found … South of Heliopolis there is not much land … Between the Source 1.4 two mountain ranges the land is level, and it seemed to me that, at its narrowest point, there are no more than two hundred stades [about 40 kilometres] between the Arabian range and the Libyan mountains. Further upstream, however, Egypt broadens out again. [12] Egyptian soil is black and friable, which suggests that it was once mud and silt carried down from Ethiopia by the river. Libyan soil, on the other hand, I know to be redder and more sandy, while Arabian and Syrian soil is more clayey and stony. [14] … the land is not watered by rain … they [those who live in the delta] gather their crops with less effort than anyone else in the world, including the rest of Egypt. They do not work at breaking the land up into furrows with a plough, they do not have to wield The cliffs to the west of the Nile, at Luxor. hoes or carry out any of the other crop-farming tasks which everyone else does. Instead, the river rises of its cataract Steep, rocky stretch in a river causing rapids. There own accord and irrigates their fields, and when the were six cataracts along the Nile between Aswan and Khartoum water has receded again, each of them sows seed in his in Nubia. own field and sends pigs in to tread the seed down. Faiyum Area to the south-west of Memphis where a branch of Herodotus, The Histories, translated by R.Waterfield, Oxford the Nile flows into a depression. The land around this huge lake University Press, 1998, pp. 97–100. was fertile and rich in wildlife. delta Flat alluvial (muddy, sandy) plain where a river divides into many branches, spreading into a fan shape. The Nile delta in Egypt is between the ancient capital of Memphis and the sea. friable Easily crumbled.

4 Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Egypt—Ramesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX Source 1.6 The land The land and the river affected the way the Egyptians thought about themselves and the world. Duality, or the concept of two opposing ideas, was how the ancient Egyptians tried to make sense of their world. They saw this in the extremes of the land around them. The fertile land along the banks of the Nile and in the delta area was known as Kmt or the Black Land, while beyond that was Deshret or the Red Land of the deserts. The deserts could be dangerous places and represented chaos, while the fertile area was lush and ordered. It was the role of the pharaoh to ensure maat or order within Egypt. The deserts also provided natural defences and resources, which were exploited by mining expeditions organised by the pharaoh. From the earliest times Egypt had always been two lands or tawy—Upper and Lower Egypt. The pharaoh united these, and this duality is seen in the symbolism of the two crowns of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt in the double crown. On the two banks of the Nile, the people generally lived on the east and buried their dead on the west. The river affected lifestyle and beliefs—it was the uniting factor in life. A central government was needed to control water supplies, undertake irrigation work, re-survey land after the floods and provide A distinct line between the fertile, irrigated area and employment during the period of the flood. the desert. Religious beliefs were partly inspired by the land and its climate. The Egyptian creation myth reflects Critical inquiry the world coming forth from the watery void. Many of the Egyptian gods symbolised some aspect of the Refer to Source 1.1 to 1.6. natural environment. Re embodied the sun, Osiris symbolised the energy of regeneration, Seth was 1 Consult a map of the Nile’s course today. Identify the similarities and differences between the god of the desert and Hapi the god of the Nile. Herodotus’ account and modern maps. The sun and the river showed the cycle of death, Follow the hi.com.au/ancient link for regeneration and rebirth, which influenced their maps and information on the river and deserts. afterlife beliefs. 2 Locate and list the resources Herodotus mentions for Egypt and her neighbours. 3 Identify the reasons why Herodotus believes that farming in the delta was easier that anywhere else. 4 Try to account for the fact that there is such a distinct line between the fertile land and the desert. 5 How reliable do you believe Herodotus’ account is? Justify your response by researching and commenting on how his evidence was gathered. 6 Follow the hi.com.au/ancient link to look Kmt—the Black Land The narrow river valley, enclosed by at satellite photographs of the Nile. desert cliffs and the delta, made up of fertile, black silt or mud, which the Nile deposited every year during flooding. Deshret—the Red Land The desert.

The geographical environment 5 Source 1.7 Resources Hymn to Hapi Central to resources was the river, which deposited silt Praise to you, Hapi, sprung from the earth, come to on Kmt, the Black Land, allowing the production of nourish Egypt! crops and the breeding of animals. The farmers grew … You flood the fields that Re has made, to satisfy all emmer-wheat, barley, flax, fruit and vegetables. who thirst, Poultry and livestock were kept, and the Nile was a Your dew descends from the sky to let the waterless bountiful source of , birds and . Papyrus desert drink. was used not only as a writing material, but also for … Lord of the fishes, small boats, matting (both for floor covering and You make the wild fowl stream south and none falls roofing) and ropes. Baskets were made from the leaves down from heat. of the dom palm. Maker of barley and wheat, it is through you that the Deshret, the Red Land, provided great mineral temples celebrate. wealth, which was exploited by expeditions organised When your flow is sluggish, noses are blocked and by pharaohs. For much of the Ramesside period Nubia everyone is poor; and the Sinai were considered as part of the country As the number of sacred loaves goes down, a million (as they had been for much of Egypt’s history). Many men perish. of the people who undertook mining were foreign … When you flood, the earth is glad and every belly captives or prisoners. rejoices, Laughter is on every face and every mouth is smiling. … If your rise is insufficient, the people dwindle, FYI A year’s food supply is lost. Nubia consisted of Wawat in the north and Kush in The rich man looks concerned, everyone is seen with the south. weapons, Friends do not attend to each other. Cloth is wanting for one’s clothes, noble children lack Critical inquiry their finery. There is no eye-paint, no one is anointed … Refer to Source 1.8. P.Bradley, Ancient Egypt: Reconstructing the Past, Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp. 20–1. 1 Draw up a table dividing the resources into stone, metals, minerals and semi-precious stones. Try to determine what these resources may have been used for. 2 What conclusions can be drawn about Egypt’s Critical inquiry natural resources? 3 Assess the ability of the ancients, given their Refer to Source 1.7. resources to be self-sufficient. 4 Go to hi.com.au/ancient and follow the 1 Who was Hapi? link to geography. Here you can explore 2 What benefits did the annual floods bring the landscape. farmers? 3 How was society affected when the flood was insufficient? 4 Assess the impact of the Nile on ancient Egyptian thought. 5 Go to hi.com.au/ancient to find links to cruise the Nile.

6 Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Egypt—Ramesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX Source 1.8 Mediterranean Sea Tell el-Gamma KEY Town or site

• Daphnae (Tell Dafana) Fertile area Naukratis • Wadi el–Natrun • SINAI Wadi (dry river bed) route LOWER EGYPT Wadi Other route Memphis • Nasseib Timna GYPSUM Limestone quarries DOLERITE Wa ah di Ara b Serabit el-Kadim BASALT FAIYUM Granite quarries Gebel Maghara EASTERN DESERT Greywacke quarries BAHARIYA UPPER Diorite quarries OASIS EGYPT Hatnub • Sandstone quarries

Gold mines Qena Fawakhir Copper mines Coptos (Qift) Qusseir Wadi Hammamat Tin mines WESTERN DESERT Thebes ALUM Lead mines

EMERALD Iron mines EL-KHARGA OASIS Aswan Natron deposits AMETHYST Turquoise quarries

Alabaster quarries

llaki Wad i A Quartzite quarries

Nile River ALUM Other mineral, with type Abu Simbel Red Sea Buhen

NUBIAN DESERT

N

0 200 400 km

The mineral resources of Egypt.

and resulted in the expulsion of the and the Egypt’s neighbours creation of an empire in the New Kingdom. By the Ramesside period, Egypt had become more and their resources cosmopolitan and the relationships with foreign The isolation of the Nile valley by the deserts, the countries varied. Some, like the Hittites, were cataracts and the sea meant that Egypt had long considered equal superpowers; others were influenced been self-sufficient. Egypt felt superior to all other and controlled, such as Syria-Palestine; others still countries, which were considered as part of the chaos. were trading partners, such as Crete and Cyprus. The This is reflected in the collective name used for natural resources of Egypt, particularly grain, natron foreign lands, Pesdjet, or ‘The Nine Bows’. The invasion and precious metals, allowed the pharaoh to trade of northern Egypt by the Hyksos, at the end of the and participate in gift exchanges with some of its Middle Kingdom, shattered Egypt’s sense of security natron A naturally occurring salt used in the process of mummification. It was found in the Wadi Natrun, to the north-west.

The geographical environment 7 neighbours. Egypt lacked large timber, iron, silver, tin and lead. Diplomatic marriages to foreign princesses Critical inquiry were also used to ensure peaceful relations with some surrounding countries. Refer to the text and Source 1.1. Some of Egypt’s important trading links included 1 Account for the varying attitude of Egypt to the following countries: surrounding countries. • Nubia to the south, was a rich source of gold, 2 Draw up a mind map showing the countries that cereals and cattle as well as giving access to Egypt traded with or received tribute from. African trade including ivory, ebony, incense, Colour-code them to show the difference. myrrh, aromatic wood, leopard skins, giraffe skins 3 Make a list of imported goods and their sources. 4 Research and try to describe what these goods and ostrich eggs. may have been used for. • Palestine possessed few resources that the Egyptians wanted, but the area was important for its transit corridors providing communications and trade routes with the people further north in Syria and Mesopotamia. • Byblos on the Syrian coast had the resource of Significant sites cedar wood. During the Ramesside period the The natural resources of Egypt not only shaped the Egyptians and the Hittites, from Hatti further to beliefs and world view of the people, but also allowed the north, struggled for supremacy over the area. the pharaohs, as controllers of Kmt, to show their Ramesses II signed a treaty and married a Hittite strength, control and organisational skills through princess to cement the alliance. Merenptah building programs. This led to a number of major sites supplied grain to the Hittites when they were of importance in ancient Egypt. Often the extent and stricken by famine. quality of pharaohs’ building works is an indicator • Cyprus was a major source of copper via trade or of their wealth and power. The extent of Ramesses II diplomatic gifts. Copper was needed to make bronze. and III’s building programs reflect the prosperity and • Merchant ships from the Aegean plied the triangle importance of their reigns. of sea lanes between Crete and Greece, Syria and the Nile delta. Egyptian emmer-wheat and barley Per-Ramesses were exchanged for spices, unguents, oil, opium In the early nineteenth dynasty, the administrative and exotic manufactured goods. capital was Memphis, while Thebes remained the religious capital. During the Ramesside period there Egypt’s many resources brought her into contact was a determined attempt to spread the power with other people who wished to invade and settle in amongst the gods. Ramesses II extended Seti I’s the lush delta areas. The Libyans attempted to invade summer palace to create a new administrative city in a number of times from the west, forcing more the eastern delta—it was called Per-Ramesses. It was fortresses to be built in the western desert to protect described by the scribes as ‘beauteous of balconies, Kmt. Merenptah and Ramesses III both had had to dazzling with halls of lapis and turquoise’. It had fight off invasions by the Sea Peoples. military barracks, the ‘marshalling place of your chariotry, mustering place of your infantry, the mooring for your marines’. There were also temples, a jubilee hall for the celebration of Ramesses’ 14 Sed festivals, administrative buildings and offices, a glaze factory, a recreational lake and a zoological garden, where the bones of African animals were found. It also had a harbour, which gave access via the delta to the unguent Soft substance used as an ointment or for Mediterranean Sea, which enabled troops and tribute lubrication. to be transported. It was strategically placed to enable Sea Peoples A collection of peoples from all over the intervention in the northern areas. Mediterranean who sometimes made piracy a way of life, but more commonly wandered across many countries in search of safe places to live.

8 Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Egypt—Ramesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX Source 1.9 Ramesses built two large rock-cut temples at Temple Abu Simbel in Nubia. They were carved into the of Ptah sandstone cliff and both have an interior pillared N Military hall with a shrine at the rear. The smaller one was Jubilee Nile Halls dedicated to his wife Nefertari as the goddess Hathor. Temple of of Temple She stands on either side of the facade with her s of er at Wadjet husband and children. The larger of the temples is W High officials dedicated to Ptah, Re, Amun and Ramesses himself Military ilitary ris? M Princes Ava as a god. The facade has four seated statues of Palace Well Ramesses, each 20 metres high. The pillared hall has Work ers of

shops Wat inscriptions detailing the battle of Kadesh. The temple Dyn. 12 Stores Glaze site works Military Temple was designed so that twice a year the sun would shine ? of Ra Town ce en into the shrine (30 metres into the mountain) and Port sid Re Town he light up the statues of the gods. Lake of t Temple AVARIS In 1966 an international effort relocated both of Astarte temples on a man-made mountain above the water Temple of Seth level of the Aswan dam.

Per-Ramesses. Source 1.10 Critical inquiry

Refer to Source 1.9. 1 Describe the main features of Per-Ramesses. 2 What is the importance of the four military barracks? 3 How many temples are situated in the city? How does this reflect the religious policy of Ramesside kings? 4 Ramesses II established a large glaze works, which produced tiles—some with aquatic motifs were found. What do you think they were used for? 5 Assess the advantages of having the Nefertari and Hathor’s temple at Abu Simbel. administrative centre close to the Mediterranean.

Valleys of the Kings Temples and Queens Ramesses still had to appease the religious capital Most of the pharaohs of the New Kingdom were Thebes, whose main god was Amun. He completed buried in the , west of Thebes. the decoration of the Hypostyle hall, begun by his The valley, with two main branches, was isolated from grandfather and father, at the temple of Amun at the community and overlooked by a pyramid-shaped . He built in front of the temple of Amun at peak sacred to the cobra goddess Meretseger, ‘She Luxor, adding a colonnade adorned with statues of Who Loves Silence’. The entrances to the tombs were himself, an entrance (third) pylon with obelisks and sealed and necropolis police patrolled the valley. Their more large statues of himself. The inscriptions on the mortuary temples, where offerings were left and they walls include the Hymn to Ramesses and the account of were worshipped, were built separately, closer to the the battle of Kadesh. He also built his mortuary temple, west bank of the Nile. the Ramesseum, on the west bank at Thebes.

The geographical environment 9 FYI Source 1.13 Necropolis comes from the Greek and literally means ‘city of the dead’.

Source 1.11

Ramesses III offering incense and water to the gods, in the tomb of his son in the Valley of the Queens.

The Valley of the Kings. These tombs were built by the workers of Deir el-Medina—a town of artisans set up by Source 1.12 at the beginning of the eighteenth dynasty. They lived in a walled village on the edge of the desert on the west bank at Thebes. They walked over the mountain to work in either the Valley of the Kings, to the north, or the Valley of the Queens, to the south. They continued to excavate and decorate royal tombs throughout the Ramesside period, although economic difficulties in the later Ramesside period resulted in the first recorded strike in history. Officials in the Ramesside period were either buried in the northern cemetery at Saqqara or in rock-cut tombs in the cliffs west of the river at Thebes.

The west bank at Thebes showing the fertile agricultural Source 1.14 land, Ramesses II’s mortuary temple and the cliffs with rock-cut tombs of the nobles.

During the Ramesside period the queens and many of their offspring were buried in the Valley of the Queens, about two kilometres south of the Valley of the Kings. One of the largest and most beautiful is the tomb Ramesses II built for his principal wife Nefertari. It has many features of a king’s tomb. The colour is particularly vivid in this tomb and that of Ramesses III’s son, Amun-hir-khopershef. The walled village of Deir el-Medina with the temple to the left and their tombs in the cliff face to the right.

10 Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Egypt—Ramesside Society, Dynasties XIX and XX 4 Try to imagine you are an ancient Egyptian. How Critical inquiry could you survive in an environment with no rain, except destructive torrential rains every 5 to 10 Refer to Sources 1.10 to 1.14. years? What would you have to rely on the river 1 Explain why more than one god was worshipped for, and what difficulties might you have accessing at Ramesses II’s temple at Abu Simbel. the water? 2 What is the significance of Ramesses II 5 Identify the countries that Egypt had contact with. appearing among the gods? Group them according to the type of contact. 3 Assess the advantages of the location of the 6 Research the Hittites and Ramesses II’s relationship village of Deir el-Medina. with their royal family. Research the impact the 4 Analyse and evaluate the advantage of separating death of the Hittite king Muwatallis had on the burials of the kings (in the Valley of the Kings) and their mortuary temples (where offerings Hittite–Egyptian relations. were left by the living). 7 Research the Great Harris Papyrus that records 5 Go to hi.com.au/ancient to find links Ramesses III’s battles against the Libyans, the Sea to the Valley of the Kings. Peoples and the Bedouin. Further explorations Viewing Culminating the inquiry Egypt: The Gift of the Nile, BBC, London, 1989. This video focuses on the geography of Egypt and the annual inundation, particularly the importance of the river for 1 Collate your answers to the focus questions agriculture and transport. (Duration: 20 mins.) presented at the beginning of this chapter. 2 Frame a hypothesis based on the importance of the geography, topography and natural resources Reading of ancient Egypt from the evidence. Bradley, P., Ancient Egypt Reconstructing the Past, 3 Create a graphic overview or plan based on the Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999. importance of the Nile to ancient Egyptian Hikade, T., ‘Economic Aspects of the New Kingdom: society. 4 Identify the sources you will use to support your The Expeditions to the Copper Mines of the Sinai’, argument. Bulletin of the Australian Centre for (BACE), 5 Present the ancient attitude to the natural vol. 9, 1998, pp. 43–52. environment by writing hymns to Hapi and Seth. Kitchen, K.A., Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II, Aris & Phillips Ltd, Warminster, 1982. Shaw, I., ‘Surveying at the Edges of Egypt: The Archaeology of Pharaonic Mining and Quarrying’, BACE, vol. 4, 1993, pp. 51–4. Review and revise Silverman, D. (ed.), Ancient Egypt, Duncan Baird Publishers, London, 1997. Activities Websites The following activities will help you revise and extend Follow the hi.com.au/ancient link to see Mysteries of your knowledge of the geographical environment of Egypt—a National Geographic film. Ramesside Egypt. 1 Analyse why Egypt has been referred to as ‘the gift Web links of the Nile’. For a full list of relevant websites go to 2 Assess the reliability of Herodotus as a source. hi.com.au/ancient. 3 Research how the Aswan High Dam has changed the natural environment of modern Egypt. Draw up a list of advantages and disadvantages of the dam.

The geographical environment 11