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Home , Garden, Garden design, Landscape, Landscape architecture

CHAPTER SIX

The History of and the Evolution of the Environment

Elena Micoulina

There exist a number of fundamental of the fomnation of the image, works on the history of the art oflaying since this image will be the expression out and gardiens which give an of an attitude towards ata given excellent picture of the subject based stage in the development of civiliza- on a comparison between contempo- tion. An "image" in architec- rary works and works belonging to the ture is something specific to its own different stages in the development of field. which they are the final outcome. How- AlI , whether natural or ever, in such books the finished gardens artificial, create a certain aesthetic im- are considered independently of the pression, either an accidentally fonned progressive changes made by man in image or one intentionally designed by his treatment of the naturallandscape. an artist. Taken together, the individual When analysing this approach one may images of actuallandscapes will serve compare it with that adopted by some to give a general picture of the man- researcherstowards certain well-known made or agriculturallandscapes of their architectural works. which used to be period. And the original creation in viewed as though they existed inde- garden will be either a reflec- pendently of the immediate townscape, tion of various aspects of this contem- wherea$in reality the history of a town' s porary landscape or a rejection of them. development will fumish the clue to ln their tum, the existent gardens of better understanding of the changes in original design win conectively pro- its composition and the inclusion of duce an overall image of the gardens new town-planning features and new characteristic of a given school in a structures. given age. ln this respect, landscape architec- Different creative approaches to the ture theory has not kept pace with town- environment win produce different planning theory , since it contiunes to be general images, each with its specific based on the study of individual works. features. ln the process of historical We are in need of a single theory of development, each approach has been and enabling us to deter- embodied in a number of styles. mine, for each period in history , the An objective analysis ofthese differ- relation between the individual workof ent types of collective or general image landscape and the man- and their emergence under given his- ~;: made landscapeand environment. Such torical conditions can provide an effec- a theory would involve an investigation tive instrument for an understanding of " 71 Elena Micoulina

the laws of garden design. great of the past created by If .we take the general imag,e as a the brotherhood of peoples of the USSR. criterion when classifying our s1Jlbjects This policy provides us with extensive of research, we can cover the problem opportunities for preserving and restor- on a broad scale and draw comparisons ing works of as between garden design as it developed monuments of the past which, in view in different countries and under differ- of their particular nature, are also in ent natural and historical conditions. fact a part of our country's national The adoption of this method 'by no .Their rational utilization bas means involves rejection of other ap- become especially important in that proaches to classification and analysis, they offer us a substantial amount of least of all those based on the general spacesuitable for use by the public for laws goveming the formation of style rest and recreation. However, this her- in architecture and in garden-design itage of works of landscape architec- and on the public role and functions of ture is no less important as a factor in gardens. But in analysing garden-de- the reconstruction of towns and areas,a sign in thelightofthe transformation of task Dow assuming ever-increasing im- the environment from one period to portance. The principles established in another we are discovering new and this paper may be applied in this latter more generallaws. field both to the planning itself and to The method of research adopted the theoretical research connected with consists in systematic comparison of it. the use made of natural surroundings I. Processes in the Formation of the (i.e. the formation of the man-made Environment as reflected in the Art landscape) with the same process as of Garden Design reflected in the.theory and practice of It shoulcibe noted that there are signifi- garden-designing. Individual works cant differences between man's per- were chosen for analysis in thelight of ception of a and bis their importance in the general picture perception of a landscape made by man. of development. Quite apart from other The impact of a naturallandscape is considerations, this bas made possible a matter of overall perception of what is an exploration of the process by which first and foremost an assemblage of certain images periodically recur and diverseand sometimescontrastingtypes the discovery of the reasons for this offeature.Only some man- made - phenomenon. scapesoffer a harmonious impression .The practical significance of this pa- (one of the reasonsbeing the adaptation per derives from the nature ofprlesent- of individual features to suit given pur- day tasks in connection with the preser- poses instead of treatment of the land- vation of the historical and architec- scapeas a single whole). Hence one of tural heritage. Ever since the Soviet the most important tasks in the creative state came into existence, the party and sectorof the landscapearchitecture field the Government have steadily pursued- bas always been harmonization of sur- as they are still doing today-a policy of roundings and the creation of a con- conservation and ration al utilization of certed unit y conciliating conflicting the country , s natural resources, and demands. protection of its historic heritage of ln the presentpaper we have attemped

72 17 to show four different approaches to the the surrQundings of an architectural visual aspect of garden-design, based work -a further extension of the build- on four initial principles namely: ing and a means of giving it a special I. creation of a landscapein accordance distinction and importance. with the laws of architectural com- The functions of the architectural position. garden are as varied as those of a build- 2. organization of a landscape on the ing. Most surviving works oflandscape basis of a visible rational principle architecture belong precisely to this (deriving from its productive func- group. tion). It might be weIl here to list the gen- 3. direct reproduction of the natural eral features of gardens of this type: features of the landscape (primarily a. Dominant role of architectural struc- its ). tures and members in the composi- 4. representation of an existent land- tion of the whole. scape, either real or imaginary . b. Particular attention paid to varia- Having listed fout conceptions of tions in as the most "architec- garden design, we are now in a position tural" aspect of the landscape; al- to ask a number of ,questions: . most exclusively decorative use of a. Do all these approaches equally ex- for accentuating aspects of the press an objective process of reflec- architectural design. tion of the environment in the artist's c. Disregard of the natural creative consciousness? ofvegetation, except insofar as veg- b. Aie all of them equally prornising etation is amenable and adaptable to from the point of view of further artificial, architectural shapes. development of the creative outlook d. Use of the same principles oflayout in landscape architecture? and spatial composition for external ln order to answer these questions it as for internaI . is essential to analyse the history of e. Predominance of the "non-produc- landscape architecture as the history of tive" principle in the composition of the general image of the garden as it can the garden and its systern of visual be ascertainedin its variations from age effects. to age. Such an aIialysis may be based The second type of garden is treated on a certain number of works of land- as an ideal version of a cultivatedplot; scape architecture forming part of the a harmonious combination of human international heritage and on historical effort and natural forces produces an records describing works belonging to impression of equilibrium as a basis for a variety of periods. the visual image of the garden. 2. The general Image of the Garden It is possible, with the aïd of the at different stages in history surviving gardens and the available de- The "architectural" type of garden scriptions and pictorial records, to list design was basedon mathematicallaws the following features as generally as expressed in the system of architec- characteristic of gardens of this type: tural proportions adopted. The garden a. Layout involving a number of sepa- was thought of as a medium for serving rate plots, thesizeandshapeofwhich certain essential purposes, primarily were dictated by economic or by recreation. At the saInetime it provided agricultural considerations. 73 b. Existence of an individual "water artificial or canaIs imitating factor", since the system of use, and natural or and providing hence the , of the garden de- suitable conditions for the growing pended entirely on its water supply of . c. Paying of more than usual attention and system. to the natural peculiarities of the c. Use oftrees as standard elements in the design of the spatial structure of vegetation. which it is eamestly sought to preserve notwithstanding the garden. d. Isolation of each plot from the rest differences in environement. d. Attempts at achieving the illusion of ("gardens inside the garden") and of the garden as a whole from the area greater size. combined with appar- ent isolation (for example: planting outside. e. Subordination of the recreational to along what looks like the boundary of a "wild ... dense .. the utilitarian function (for example, provision of seats in the of a etc.) e. Predominance of decorative func- vine or fruit-, etc.) tions. apparent in the . the A third type is the "naturaI" garden, choice of locations for planting. and based on the preservationof nature or its re-creation by direct reproduction of the attempts at "disguising.. the more natural features. This is considered to un attractive plots. be the most recent type of garden it The fourth approach is based on the developed as a reaction against the idea that a garden is an imitative work process of urbanization and the subse- of art. quent worldwide exploitation of natu- We may say that such imitativeness raI resources. There are practically no is particularly to be found at periods when the direct connection with proto- surviving gardens of this type dating types has been lost. The gardens of this from remote periods in history .Doubt- type have their sourcesnotin nature but less those artificial landscape which in conventionally romantic . or were created on an analogy with exist- ent ones and under the same natural and sometimesin literary descriptions. They conditions frequently "dis- may be designed on one of two differ- solved" into their surroundings, while ent principles. each involving a given those laid out in unfavourable sur- attitude towards movement in space. They may either fo11ow clearly traced roundings proved to be short-Iived, quickly lost their "naturaI" aspect and itineraries. each offering a succession of views. in which case they are per- perished. ceived as a series of pictures. or else the The general principles und,erlying the characteristic appearance of such movement may be free. in arbitrary gardens may be outlined as follows: directions. so that the spectatorviewing the whole composition seesa vllCÏety of a. Useofvegetationasthefactordeter- miningthegarden'sappearance, with combinations of volumes and spaces. Despite the formaI diversity of such plants grouped either on the princi- gardens. there are a number of general pIe of recreating those combinations which exist in nature,or else with a principles determining their system of view to colour effects. : b. Composition as a whole centred on a. Underlying their composition there ~ 74 The History of Gardens and dIe Evolution ofthe Environment ,.".-

is a complicated scheme of move- periods in history , the fonner process ment dictated either by the layout of cornes to be reflected in the latter. We the walks or by the garden' s orienta- are visibly in the presence of two regu- tion in space. larphenomena fully in keeping with the b. There are no clear divisions which laws goveming the reflection of reality might suggest a deliberately planned in art, i. e. : and harmoniously composed park or I. New processes by which the land- garden. scapeis altered, each of which marks c. There is no central feature in the the beginning of a period in the his- design, whose architectural elements tory of man's influence on his envi- are treated as parts of a spatial ronment, necessarily find their artis- structure based on contrasts between tic expression in the fonn of out- solid volumes (banks, large tree- standing works of garden design. covered areas, clumps of ) and 2. Such works do not generally appear empty spaces (stretches of water, until a few decades after the intro- clearings, paved areas.) duction of the new processes in d. They are designed as enclosed areas question. inside park fences, to avoid interfer- This second phenomenon is prob- ence with their imitative character ably to be explained by the fact that a on the part of a reallandscape outside. certain period of must elapse for e. Their appearance has an artificial there to be general awareness of the character deriving from idealized, changes taking place in the environmet literary notions of nature and reality and for an attitude to emerge in thec which contrast with the nature and mind of the public. reality of the real world. Man-made landscapes created as a A historical analysis will show that result of the adoption of new-found creative landscape architecture has processes have occationally been 10- continued to develop in accordancewith cated in the immediate vicinity of gar- these four trends, which exist dens, but more often they have been simulaneously. The trend which will totally separate. The further develop- dominate in any given country will be a ment of society has often accelerated matter of the conditions of its historical changes already in progress or brought development, its specific natural fea- direct changes in existent landscapes. tures and landscape and the peculiari- Yet even the most "mobile" man-made ties of its national , while their landscapes, which have changed over influence on one another has a positive and over again to suit new require- effect, one cannot replace another, since ments, have always evolved, at each each equally reflects given laws gov- stage, in the light of the conditions eming utilizationof the environ ment. existing at the preceding stages;in other 3. Comparative analysis of the His- words, each landscape has had its own tory ofGarden Design and ofChanges history as a developing phenomenon. in the Landscape. The notion of "historic landscape" If we compare the process of graduaI has thus emerged within the context of emergence of a man-made landscape the history of landscape architecture with the development of original gar- and its emergance reflects the exten- den design, we will find that, at aIl sion of the scope of research on the ~ 75 Elena Micoulina

evolution oflandscape in the course of the remains of the gardens of the coun- history. try residencesofMarkovo and Kryvitsy. Bach historic landscape, like any Ry analysing the above mentioned other historical , embodies four groups -each of which is charac- in a special way and bya special proc- terized by a given type of general aspect ess a givenstage in the development of -and viewing them in the light of the society. Under the heading of "historic development ofhuman use of the envi- landscape" we may in fact include not ronment, it has been possible to work only historic gardens but a great many out a classification for aIl gardens of other historical monuments or monu- original design. This is intended to ments of the past. embrace gardens of aIl types,whatever The gardens laid out in the past have their natural surroundings, climatic always had a given spatial relationship conditions and related urban layout. to the surrounding landscape. their size and function or their period. This could be of two sorts: For purposes of logical classifica- a. The garden was a focal point, an tion one single criterion was adopted, embodiment of the essence of the namely, relation to the environment. surrounding landscape and its struc- Tomeet this requirement, itwas neces- tural centre, deriving its characteris- sary to leave aside any attempt to view tic appearancefrom the peculiarities the development of garden design as a of its surroundings; reflection of the development of archi- b. The garden was an element designed tecture. and any analysis of form and to contrast with its surroundings, in aspe~t in architecture and garden de- which case its appearancewas a re- sign according to period (. flection oflandscape or architectural baroque, classical, etc.). features which had little in common 4. Influence of the historical herit- with these. age on the formation of modern Where a park or garden is laid out attitudes. round a farmstead, the influence of the Roth in the academic and the practi- surrounding fields remains clearly vis- cal sense, the historical heritage in the ible. With rare exceptions, thisis troe of field of garden design is being treated in almost all Russian gardens, irrespecti- an essentially new way. Research and vely of the group they may belong to. planning are for the most part con- All of them -kolomenskoye, cemed with the protection and restora- Lefortovo, Archangelskoye and the rest tion of existing historic gardens. -were initially laid out in the light of their visual relationship with their sur- . The listing and classification ofhis- toric gardensare done in different ways roundings. according to country ; the cri teria for the Russian gardenslaid out in the vicin- assessmentof their importance and state ity of towns were regarded as focal of repair, as weIl as the method of points in the generallayout which de- approach to their restoration and pro- termined the spectator' s spatial percep- tection, also vary from one country to tion of the entire historic townscape. the next. However, there is one central An example of this is the section of the document -the world List of Historic Moscow valley as seen in con- Gardens drawn up by the ICOMOSI junction with the town ofBrofifiitsy and IFLA Commit tee for Historic Gardens 76 -which can be regarded as a basis for an ture, extension of scale, or omission of analysis of the surviving gardens of the certain details of the decoration, the past. result being a new general appearance AlIlandscapes, including works of distinct from the original one. landscape , are moving and The appearanceof any work ofland- unstable things. They constantI y change scape architecture is, we have said, with the passing of time, taking differ- something unstable. The perception and ent forms, and "ageing". Changes in interpretation of the appearanceof any deliberately designed landscapesoccur concrete phenomenon will vary as a in the course of their natural develop- result of physical changes, social and ment and as a result of the dying-off of economic reorganization and the evo- their vegetation. AIl existent works of lution of ~ublic opinion. As a result, landscape architecture have lived -de- this appearanceas it were finds a of pending on their age -through five or its own and can influence the subse- six different stages in the history of quent development of landscape. their vegetation. The more stable fea- A particularly important aspect of tores -water, and the physical features historic gardens has always been their of the ground -will u ndergo less change, role in the improvernent of aesthetic but they too are governed by the natural standards in . laws of graduaI change in landscape. Frorn an analysis and study of the As a result, the garden seen by each peculiarities of the development of gar- successivegeneration is somewhat dif- den design as seen in the vast field ferent from that seenby its predecessor. covered by those gardens which have The process ofadapting a--gardento . corne down to us, wehave been able to new types of use regularly involves draw the following conclusions; substantial alterations. These may be a. The present -day outlook of the divided up as folIows: should involve a radically a. radical alteration with a view to a new conception of the heritage of deliberate change in appearance or parks and gardens, suited to bath the composition. theoretical and the practical tasks of b. interference due to the put ting up of the present day. new buildings on the site. b. The characteristic appearanceof any c. alterations due to the building of garden of original design is always roads and the creation of public utili- the outcorne of given solutions to a ties. nurnber of special problems con- d. changes due to an increase in the nected with the treatment of nature; number of visitors. this is clear frorn a retrospective The most complex problem relating analysis of those historic gardens to general appearanceis that of restora- still in existence. tion or reconstruction of the individu al c. The historic gardens of each period work. One may find quite a number of are in a given style in the history of works whose characteristic appearance architecture corresponding to a given has been altered through restoration, use of space. Taken together they and this is a constantly growing ten- provide a historically-based general dency today, typica1 aspects of which image of the garden as designed at are simplification of the original struc- that period. 77

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d. Present-day histories of garden de- g. At the present stage in thehistory of sign do not give a description of the landscape aichitecture and the de- objective development of the vari- velopment of its theoretical basis it ous creative trends -a development is Dot enough merely to analyse the which will naturally be irregular -but design of the individual work, or describe only its individu al phasesin even that of a whole series. The their respective historical and social attempt must be made to discover contexts, and it is these individual the principles determining its ap- phases which primarily attract the pearance, which will be a reflection attention of researchesrs. This ac- of its role in the ~evelopment of counts for the tendency to concen- attitudes towards art and towards the trate on individu al gardens and to environment. underestimate the correlation be- h. The historical period under review tween the development oflandscape has seen the development of four architecture and the treatment of the main trends in landscape natural Landscape,while at the same architecture.These four trends will time underestimating the extent to emerge most convincingly ifwe ex- which that naturallandscape is amine a few outstanding works of steadily transfonned by the hand of garden design in conjunction with man. the lesser gardens of the same peri- e. A typical feature of art history re- ods which we might calI their search -including research in the satellites.These minor gardens will history oflandscape architecture -is reveal the general trend more clearly the tendency to concentrate on indi- than will single works isolated from vidual works of the past. In this way their historical context. a work acquires as it were a static i. Eachof these four trends is charac- image "preserved" in a theoretical terized by a given idea of what a universe, whereas in the mind of the garden shold be, which is expressed public and in contemporary archi- in the quintes sential image of each. tectural practice it has acquired a We thus have the architectural gar- new life. den, the ration al garden, the "natu- f. It is impossible to make an objective raI" garden and the imitative or "pic- assessmetof the artistic value of a turesque" garden. AIl four are based work oflandscape architecture with- on objective principles of treament out making allowance for the fact of nature and harmonious correla- that its appearanceis something un-- tion between nature and man. stable,that it undergoeschanges with j. If we accept this thesis of the si- the passing of time as a result of the multaneous existence of these four purposes it is made to serve. the trends in garden design we can dis- alterations occurring in its surround- cover a correlation between the ings and the changes in the ,attitude process of utilization of man-made of the public; its appearancewill be space amd the general manDer in determined by the fact that jt forms which it is reflected in the garden as part of the general image belonging a . Hence historical and to the works of its particular cat- theoretical researchin garden design egory. may help to solve present-day prob-

78 '"' lems rela-ting to the rational forma- tion of the environment. k. There is a close connection between historical analysis of the laws gov- erning the creation of visual effects in landscape architecture and the forecasting of their future develop- ment. It is possible to picture the development of landsape architec- ture as a continuous and permanent process, belonging to the past but at the same time oriented towards the future. When seen as a part of this process of development each indi- vidual garden or group of gardens acquires a new significance as a cen- tre which, at a given moment in history, has been the focal-point of the man-nature relationship.

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