CHAPTER SIX The History of Gardens and the Evolution of the Environment Elena Micoulina There exist a number of fundamental of the fomnation of the garden image, works on the history of the art oflaying since this image will be the expression out parks and gardiens which give an of an attitude towards nature ata given excellent picture of the subject based stage in the development of civiliza- on a comparison between contempo- tion. An "image" in landscape architec- rary works and works belonging to the ture is something specific to its own different stages in the development of field. which they are the final outcome. How- AlI landscapes, whether natural or ever, in such books the finished gardens artificial, create a certain aesthetic im- are considered independently of the pression, either an accidentally fonned progressive changes made by man in image or one intentionally designed by his treatment of the naturallandscape. an artist. Taken together, the individual When analysing this approach one may images of actuallandscapes will serve compare it with that adopted by some to give a general picture of the man- researcherstowards certain well-known made or agriculturallandscapes of their architectural works. which used to be period. And the original creation in viewed as though they existed inde- garden design will be either a reflec- pendently of the immediate townscape, tion of various aspects of this contem- wherea$in reality the history of a town' s porary landscape or a rejection of them. development will fumish the clue to ln their tum, the existent gardens of better understanding of the changes in original design win conectively pro- its composition and the inclusion of duce an overall image of the gardens new town-planning features and new characteristic of a given school in a structures. given age. ln this respect, landscape architec- Different creative approaches to the ture theory has not kept pace with town- environment win produce different planning theory , since it contiunes to be general images, each with its specific based on the study of individual works. features. ln the process of historical We are in need of a single theory of park development, each approach has been and garden design enabling us to deter- embodied in a number of styles. mine, for each period in history , the An objective analysis ofthese differ- relation between the individual workof ent types of collective or general image landscape architecture and the man- and their emergence under given his- ~;: made landscapeand environment. Such torical conditions can provide an effec- a theory would involve an investigation tive instrument for an understanding of " 71 Elena Micoulina the laws of garden design. great monuments of the past created by If .we take the general imag,e as a the brotherhood of peoples of the USSR. criterion when classifying our s1Jlbjects This policy provides us with extensive of research, we can cover the problem opportunities for preserving and restor- on a broad scale and draw comparisons ing works of landscape architecture as between garden design as it developed monuments of the past which, in view in different countries and under differ- of their particular nature, are also in ent natural and historical conditions. fact a part of our country's national The adoption of this method 'by no resources.Their rational utilization bas means involves rejection of other ap- become especially important in that proaches to classification and analysis, they offer us a substantial amount of least of all those based on the general spacesuitable for use by the public for laws goveming the formation of style rest and recreation. However, this her- in architecture and in garden-design itage of works of landscape architec- and on the public role and functions of ture is no less important as a factor in gardens. But in analysing garden-de- the reconstruction of towns and areas,a sign in thelightofthe transformation of task Dow assuming ever-increasing im- the environment from one period to portance. The principles established in another we are discovering new and this paper may be applied in this latter more generallaws. field both to the planning itself and to The method of research adopted the theoretical research connected with consists in systematic comparison of it. the use made of natural surroundings I. Processes in the Formation of the (i.e. the formation of the man-made Environment as reflected in the Art landscape) with the same process as of Garden Design reflected in the.theory and practice of It shoulcibe noted that there are signifi- garden-designing. Individual works cant differences between man's per- were chosen for analysis in thelight of ception of a natural landscape and bis their importance in the general picture perception of a landscape made by man. of development. Quite apart from other The impact of a naturallandscape is considerations, this bas made possible a matter of overall perception of what is an exploration of the process by which first and foremost an assemblage of certain images periodically recur and diverseand sometimescontrastingtypes the discovery of the reasons for this offeature.Only some man- made land- phenomenon. scapesoffer a harmonious impression .The practical significance of this pa- (one of the reasonsbeing the adaptation per derives from the nature ofprlesent- of individual features to suit given pur- day tasks in connection with the preser- poses instead of treatment of the land- vation of the historical and architec- scapeas a single whole). Hence one of tural heritage. Ever since the Soviet the most important tasks in the creative state came into existence, the party and sectorof the landscapearchitecture field the Government have steadily pursued- bas always been harmonization of sur- as they are still doing today-a policy of roundings and the creation of a con- conservation and ration al utilization of certed unit y conciliating conflicting the country , s natural resources, and demands. protection of its historic heritage of ln the presentpaper we have attemped 72 17 to show four different approaches to the the surrQundings of an architectural visual aspect of garden-design, based work -a further extension of the build- on four initial principles namely: ing and a means of giving it a special I. creation of a landscapein accordance distinction and importance. with the laws of architectural com- The functions of the architectural position. garden are as varied as those of a build- 2. organization of a landscape on the ing. Most surviving works oflandscape basis of a visible rational principle architecture belong precisely to this (deriving from its productive func- group. tion). It might be weIl here to list the gen- 3. direct reproduction of the natural eral features of gardens of this type: features of the landscape (primarily a. Dominant role of architectural struc- its vegetation). tures and members in the composi- 4. representation of an existent land- tion of the whole. scape, either real or imaginary . b. Particular attention paid to varia- Having listed fout conceptions of tions in level as the most "architec- garden design, we are now in a position tural" aspect of the landscape; al- to ask a number of ,questions: . most exclusively decorative use of a. Do all these approaches equally ex- water for accentuating aspects of the press an objective process of reflec- architectural design. tion of the environment in the artist's c. Disregard of the natural properties creative consciousness? ofvegetation, except insofar as veg- b. Aie all of them equally prornising etation is amenable and adaptable to from the point of view of further artificial, architectural shapes. development of the creative outlook d. Use of the same principles oflayout in landscape architecture? and spatial composition for external ln order to answer these questions it as for internaI space. is essential to analyse the history of e. Predominance of the "non-produc- landscape architecture as the history of tive" principle in the composition of the general image of the garden as it can the garden and its systern of visual be ascertainedin its variations from age effects. to age. Such an aIialysis may be based The second type of garden is treated on a certain number of works of land- as an ideal version of a cultivatedplot; scape architecture forming part of the a harmonious combination of human international heritage and on historical effort and natural forces produces an records describing works belonging to impression of equilibrium as a basis for a variety of periods. the visual image of the garden. 2. The general Image of the Garden It is possible, with the aïd of the at different stages in history surviving gardens and the available de- The "architectural" type of garden scriptions and pictorial records, to list design was basedon mathematicallaws the following features as generally as expressed in the system of architec- characteristic of gardens of this type: tural proportions adopted. The garden a. Layout involving a number of sepa- was thought of as a medium for serving rate plots, thesizeandshapeofwhich certain essential purposes, primarily were dictated by economic or by recreation. At the saInetime it provided agricultural considerations. 73 b. Existence of an individual "water artificial ponds or canaIs imitating factor", since the system of use, and natural rivers or lakes and providing hence the plan, of the garden de- suitable conditions for the growing pended entirely on its water supply of plants. c. Paying of more than usual attention and drainage system. to the natural peculiarities of the c. Use oftrees as standard elements in the design of the spatial structure of vegetation. which it is eamestly sought to preserve notwithstanding the garden. d. Isolation of each plot from the rest differences in environement.