UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO Crossing the Rural-Urban
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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO Crossing the Rural-Urban Divide in Twentieth-Century China A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by Jeremy Brown Committee in charge: Professor Joseph W. Esherick, Co-Chair Professor Paul G. Pickowicz, Co-Chair Professor Takashi Fujitani Professor Richard Madsen Professor Nayan Shah 2008 Copyright Jeremy Brown, 2008 All rights reserved. The dissertation of Jeremy Brown is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm: Co-Chair Co-Chair University of California, San Diego 2008 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Signature Page...............................................................................................................iii Table of Contents ..........................................................................................................iv Abbreviations ................................................................................................................vi List of Maps.................................................................................................................viii List of Tables.................................................................................................................ix Note on Sources.............................................................................................................. x Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................xiii Vita .............................................................................................................................xvii Abstract......................................................................................................................xviii 1. City and Countryside in Chinese History: An Introduction ....................................... 1 2. Lines Drawn, Lines Crossed: Rural and Urban in 1950s Tianjin............................. 42 3. Tianjin’s Great Leap: Urban Survival, Rural Starvation.......................................... 89 4. Drastic Measures: The Great Downsizing of 1961-1963 ....................................... 120 5. Uninvited Guests: The Four Cleanups and Urban Youth in Tianjin’s Hinterland............................................................................................................... 165 6. Unfit for the City: The Deportation of Political Outcasts during the Cultural Revolution.............................................................................................................. 215 7. Neither Urban nor Rural: In-Between Spaces in the 1960s and 1970s .................. 265 8. Staging Xiaojinzhuang: The Urban Occupation of a Model Village, 1974-1978 ................................................................................................ 313 9. Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 360 Map 1.......................................................................................................................... 366 iv Map 2.......................................................................................................................... 367 Map 3.......................................................................................................................... 368 Map 4.......................................................................................................................... 369 Bibliography............................................................................................................... 370 v ABBREVIATIONS APA Author’s personal archive GJG:1 Gao Jianguo 高建国. “Xiaojinzhuang de chenfu” 小靳庄的沉浮 [The rise and fall of Xiaojinzhuang]. Pt. 1. Sanyue feng 15 (February 1986): 3-17. GJG:2 Gao Jianguo 高建国. “Xiaojinzhuang de chenfu” 小靳庄的沉浮 [The rise and fall of Xiaojinzhuang]. Pt. 2. Sanyue feng 16 (March 1986): 6- 20. HDA Hexi District Archive (Tianjin) HPA Hebei Provincial Archive (Shijiazhuang) HZDSJ Tianjin shi nongcun hezuo zhi fazhan shi bianji bangongshi 天津市农 村合作制发展史编辑办公室, ed. Tianjin shi nongcun hezuo zhi dashiji: 1949-1987 天津市农村合作制大事记 [Chronology of the Tianjin village cooperative system, 1949-1987]. Tianjin: Tianjin shi nongye hezuo zhi fazhan shi bianji bangongshi, 1988. NBCK Neibu cankao 内部参考 [Internal reference] NCS Tianjin gongnong lianmeng nongmuchang shizhi bangongshi 天津工农 联盟农牧场史志办公室. Gongnong lianmeng nongchang shi 工农联 盟农场史 [History of the worker-peasant alliance farm]. Tianjin, 1992. MWG Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao 建国以来毛泽东文稿 [Mao Zedong’s manuscripts since the founding of the People’s Republic of China]. 13 vols. Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1987-1998. RMRB Renmin ribao 人民日报 [People’s Daily] TJJG Zhonggong Tianjin shiwei dangshi ziliao zhengji weiyuanhui 中共天 津市委党史资料征集委员会, Tianjin shi dang’anguan 天津市档案馆, eds. Tianjin jieguan shilu 天津接管史录 [History of the takeover of Tianjin]. 2 vols. Beijing: Zhonggong dang shi chubanshe, 1991, 1994. TJRB Tianjin ribao 天津日报 [Tianjin Daily] TJWB Tianjin wanbao 天津晚报 [Tianjin Evening News] vi TMA Tianjin Municipal Archive WDGW Song Yongyi 宋永毅, ed. Zhongguo wenhua da geming wenku 中国文 化大革命文库 [Chinese Cultural Revolution database]. Hong Kong: Xianggang Zhongwen daxue Zhongguo yanjiu fuwu zhongxin, 2002. CD-ROM. ZGSX Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao dangshi jiaoyan er shi 中共中央党校 党史教研二室. Zhongguo gongchandang shehuizhuyi shiqi wenxian ziliao xuanbian 中国共产党社会主义时期文献资料选编 [Selected documentary materials from the Chinese Communist Party’s socialist period]. N.p., 1987. ZYWX Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi 中共中央文献研究室, ed. Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian 建国以来重要文献选编 [Selected important documents since the founding of the People’s Republic of China]. 20 vols. Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1992-1998. vii LIST OF MAPS Map 1. Tianjin, circa 1915, indicating foreign concessions....................................... 366 Map 2. Tianjin municipality, 1960............................................................................. 367 Map 3. Tianjin’s western suburbs, including the Worker-Peasant Alliance State Farm. ....................................................................................... 368 Map 4. Part of Hebei province, including Gengle and Shexian, 1976 ....................... 369 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Population Moving in and out of Tianjin’s Urban Districts, 1951-1957 ....... 81 Table 2. Population Moving in and out of Tianjin’s Urban Districts, 1956-1963 ....... 92 Table 3. Temporary Population in Tianjin, 1956-1960................................................ 92 Table 4. People Deported from Tianjin During the Cultural Revolution................... 225 Table 5. Outcomes for 78 deportees from Tianjin, through 1972 .............................. 238 Table 6. Production and Profit at the Tianjin Ironworks............................................ 301 Table 7. Population Moving in and out of Tianjin’s Urban Districts, 1961-1978 ..... 363 ix NOTE ON SOURCES I was shuffling through a thin pile of red guard leaflets at Tianjin’s famed antique market during my first research trip to the city when a man sidled up to me and asked, “Are you interested in Cultural Revolution materials? I have much more at home than what you will find here. Come with me, my house is just around the corner.” My decision to follow the man opened up a world of unique sources at least as rich as anything I was allowed to view in the archives. Over the past ten years, government offices and factories have moved to better facilities, discarding tons of historical files in the process. Many were pulped, but others made their way to the marketplace by way of paper recyclers and book dealers. I frequented Tianjin’s used book markets weekly and befriended dealers who specialized in documents, letters, and diaries from the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. I gave them my phone number, described my research interests (I said wanted to see anything related to city people going to villages and village people going to cities during the Mao Zedong period), and asked the peddlers to contact me when they had a particularly interesting new gunny sack of papers. The documents and letters I collected in Tianjin greatly enriched my dissertation and make up the primary source base for Chapter 6, on the Cultural Revolution. Citing such sources is not as straightforward as providing a file number for archival documents or publication information for openly published sources. In the footnotes, I have denoted these unique sources with the abbreviation “APA” x (Author’s Personal Archive), and have provided as much information as possible regarding authorship and dates. I conducted more than one hundred oral history interviews. Some were brief exchanges, others became extended friendships and included multiple meetings over many hours. My conversations in village homes, taxi cabs, and fancy city restaurants supplemented and complicated the written sources I found. People’s memories of moving between city and countryside during the Mao era were often at odds with official and non-official documents. Thankfully, many people were glad to share their stories and experiences with me—they were waiting for someone to ask. Some complained that their children did not care about the past or did not believe what they had been through. Except for public figures who were openly identified in newspapers during the Mao period, all names have been changed. I used personal networks to find interview subjects;