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University of Oklahoma Graduate College UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE OKLAHOMA’S NEWER NEW DEAL THE OKLAHOMA INDIAN WELFARE ACT OF 1936 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY By JON S. BLACKMAN Norman, Oklahoma 2009 OKLAHOMA’S NEWER NEW DEAL THE OKLAHOMA INDIAN WELFARE ACT OF 1936 A DISSERTATION APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY BY __________________________ Dr. Warren Metcalf, Chair __________________________ Dr. Albert Hurtado __________________________ Dr. Lindsay Robertson __________________________ Dr. Robert Griswold __________________________ Dr. Jerry Bread © Copyright by JON S. BLACKMAN 2009 All Rights Reserved. Acknowledgements While it remains impossible to mention and thank all who contributed in one way or another to this project, there are a several who went the extra mile in helping me and I would be remiss if I did not publicly state my deep appreciation for their efforts. While living in Provo over a decade ago, Dr. Thomas Pearcy, then at BYU, challenged me by asking, “Why don’t you just sit on one of my classes?”; then “Why don’t you take a course of two?”; then “You know Jon you ought to go for a masters.”; followed in two years with, “Jon you can’t do much in history with just a masters degree, you really ought to think about a PhD.” Now at the end of that long road he encouraged me to follow, I remain extremely grateful for his encouragement and wise counsel. While at Brigham Young, my thesis committee chair was Dr. Brian Q. Cannon, who taught, guided, and passed on his passion for historical inquiry. In 1998, I moved to Norman to begin my doctoral studies and soon met Dr. Warren Metcalf who has been a constant source of guidance, constructive criticism, and encouragement during my doctoral program. A semester paper in Dr. Albert Hurtado’s seminar on the West pointed me in the direction of my dissertation subject. Dr. Lindsey Robertson actually suggested the topic of the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act. Dr. Terry Rugeley’s constant salutation over several years, “Mr. Blackman, how is the dissertation coming?” was a source of motivation. While in the research phase, I was privileged to be guided by several accomplished researchers. Bill Welge at the Oklahoma Historical Society guided iv me and patiently answered my every question. Carolyn Hanneman is a sparkling gem at the Carl Albert Center on the OU campus. Her constant help, suggestions, and guidance helped me tremendously to navigate through a number of legislative collections housed there. John Lovett, at the Western History Collection on the OU campus showed me how to navigate their many collections, constantly gave me pointers on where to look and what to look at, and help to make a relaxed setting with his warm and friendly personality and sense of humor. I have only mentioned a few individuals out of many who guided, suggested, and encouraged me along the way. I will always be grateful for their assistance and encouragement. Lastly I must mention my family. First of all, my wife Maureen not only sacrificed so much to help me realize my dream, she also edited, suggested, praised, and motivated me all along the journey. Finally, my son Jon, so wise for his years, always encouraged me with a “Dad, you can do it!” attitude. A brief mention here does so little to convey strong feelings of gratitude I hold for each of you. v Table of Contents Introduction . .1-15 Chapter 1. Indian Territory . .16-31 Chapter 2. Life in the New Home . .32-47 Chapter 3. The Winds of Change . .48-81 Chapter 4. The Indian New Deal . 81-119 Chapter 5. Oklahoma’s Newer New Deal . .120-162 Chapter 6. Revival . .163-211 Conclusion . .. 212-229 Bibliography . 230-238 Appendix The Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act of 1936 . 239-241 vi Abstract Historians contend that the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA), enacted in 1934 forever changed the direction of federal Indian policy. The Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act (OIWA) passed two years later in 1936 helped transform life for Oklahoma Indians. Scholars have explored and written extensively about the IRA. However, they have focused little attention on the OIWA. This study contends the OIWA proved as transformative for Oklahoma Indians as the IRA did for Indians across the country. To appreciate fully the Indian New Deal, one must understand the OIWA. Indian voice is integral to this study as a means to fully appreciate the rapid changes most Oklahoma Indians experienced over the short period during the Great Depression and World War II era. This study explores Oklahoma Indians and how the OIWA impacted their social, political, and economic institutions, and along with other forces helped propel them into the evolving urban and industrialized society that emerged following World War II. vii Introduction In 1836 during the Mashpee Revolt in Massachusetts, William Apes, a Pequot religious figure published his famous “Eulogy on King Philip.” The year 1836 witnessed implementation of Andrew Jackson’s removal policy. Apes wrote a speech Metacom might have given in the 1640s during the King Philip War. To rally his people, Metacom stated, Brothers—you see this vast country before us the Great Spirit gave to our fathers . and you now see the foe before you, that they have grown insolent and bold; that all our ancient customs are disregarded; that treaties made by our fathers and us are broken . Brothers these people from the unknown world will cut down our groves, spoil our hunting and planting grounds, and drives us and our children from the graves of our fathers, and our council fires, and enslave our women and children.1 Almost a century later in 1934, Franklin Roosevelt in an effort to build congressional support for the Wheeler-Howard Bill sent a message to Congress. His words seem a call to restructure the world forced upon Native Americans by white Americans during the previous 300 years. In part, Roosevelt stated, It is in the main a measure of justice that is long overdue. We can and should, without further delay, extend to the Indian the fundamental rights of political liberty and local self-government and the opportunities of education and economic assistance that they require in order to attain a wholesome American life.2 The Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) became law in June of 1934 and marked a major shift in federal Indian policy. The disastrous allotment policy 1 Daniel K. Richter, Facing East from Indian County A Native History of Early America, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), 147. 2 U. S. House of Representatives, Congressional Record, 7 June 1934, Washington, DC: GPO, 1934, 7807. 1 instituted in the 1887 ended. Indian policy now focused on consolidation of Indian land, organization of tribal government, and economic development. Many scholars consider the IRA to have been the most important piece of federal legislation dealing with Indian affairs of the twentieth century. Closely tied to the IRA was another piece of legislation enacted in 1936. The Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act (OIWA) brought the benefits of the IRA to Oklahoma Indians along with other significant gains. While the IRA continues to receive a great deal of attention by scholars, the OIWA has been virtually ignored. This study focuses on the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act, its origins, enactment, implementation, and impact. The Oklahoma congressional delegation exempted Oklahoma Indians from most provisions of the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. Yet, just two years later, the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act was enacted, providing virtually all benefits contained in the IRA and then some. In 1934, Elmer Thomas, Oklahoma Senator, became chair of the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, while fellow Oklahoman Will Rogers, the Honorable not the humorist, served as chair of the House Committee on Indian Affairs. Senator Thomas proved instrumental in blocking application of the IRA for Oklahoma Indians in June of 1934. Ironically just, two years later Thomas and Rogers co-sponsored a “Newer New Deal” for Oklahoma Indians in the form of the Thomas-Rogers Bill known after its enactment in 1936 as the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act. 2 The OIWA was one of several significant pieces of Indian legislation enacted during the 1930s, known collectively as the Indian New Deal. Other acts included the Pueblo Relief Act (1933), the Johnson O’Malley Act (1934), the Indian Reorganization Act (1934), the Indian Arts and Crafts Act (1935), and the Alaska Reorganization Act (1936). Except for an article, “John Collier and the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act,” written by Peter M. Wright over thirty years ago and a chapter, titled “The New Deal for Indians” written by Carter Blue Clark, and contained in a book edited by Arrell Gibson in 1986, little scholarly interest has been concerned with the OIWA. The OIWA has fallen under the radar screen of scholarly attention. Wright offered an excellent legislative history of the OIWA, but his article remains just that, a legislative history. With the passage of over three decades, it now seems incomplete and offers little substantive Indian voice. Clark’s article is a useful but partial exploration of both the IRA and the OIWA. This dissertation will examine the background, enactment, and implementation of the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act.3 The Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act of 1936, a New Deal measure aimed specifically at Oklahoma Indians, provides an important chapter in understanding the reform efforts of Commissioner of Indian Affairs, John Collier, in the Sooner state. Secondly, this dissertation explores the OIWA from several perspectives. The Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act of 1936 was a New Deal measure aimed specifically at Oklahoma Indians. Additionally, this dissertation focuses 3 Peter M.
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