Late Prehistoric Oneota Population Movement Into the Central Plains

Late PrehistoricOneota Population Movement into theCentral Plains

Lauren W. Ritterbush and Brad Logan

ABSTRACT

The White Rock phase is an intrusive Late Prehistoric archaeological complex in the central Plains. It shows clear ties to the Oneota tradition of the upper Midwest. Population movement best explains the presence of this Oneota complex in the Plains. Interpretations of seasonal mobility or migration are evaluated through analysis of White Rock phase assemblages. Evidence for garden ing and lithic material use patterns suggest permanent or year-round occupation of the central Plains resulting from the Oneota migration.

Keywords: White Rock phase; Oneota; Late Prehistoric; migration; lithic raw materials.

Archaeological studies of central Plains pre BACKGROUND a history commonly employ comparative approach The White Rock phase includes archaeologi which cultural is through continuity perceived. cal assemblages from sites in north-centralKansas Anomalous receive limited attention, assemblages and southern Nebraska (Figure 1) (Logan 1995, in a lack of of these data into resulting integration 1998a). The settlement pattern associated with An iswhat was regional syntheses. example origi this phase appears to be one of extensive perma defined as theWhite Rock (Rusco nally aspect nent or semi-permanent villages on upland ridges 1960; Wedel 1986:134-135). Recent reassess above White Rock Creek, a tributaryof the Re ment of this has resulted archaeological complex publican River, and temporary camps on terraces in its redefinition as theWhite Rock (Lo phase along other tributaries thereto and along the 1995, 1998a). The of this gan importance phase Solomon River (Rusco 1960; Blakeslee 1999). lies in its association with the Oneota tradition Artifact assemblages include small triangular ar and its in theLate Prehistoric temporal placement row points, end scrapers, beveled and unbeveled It has been that theWhite Rock period. suggested knives, celts, a variety of bifaces, retouched and the remains of an Oneota popu phase represents utilized flakes, abraders, grinding slabs, anvils, lation that into the central Plains migrated during hammerstones, grooved mauls, bone tools (includ the fourteenth century 1995, 1998a). (Logan ing scapula hoes, awls, flakers, and worked ribs), Given the of movement of a implications foreign disk pipes, and pottery. In general, this tool inven into the it is vital to evaluate population region, tory corresponds to those found at Oneota sites this This evaluation involves iden interpretation. outside the central Plains. White Rock ceramics theWhite Rock as a site-unit tifying phase provide clear evidence of ties between theWhite intrusionand the form of movement it population Rock phase and Oneota tradition. reflects. These build a foundation for analyses Despite long recognition and study of Oneota future of the process of Oneota study migration, assemblages elsewhere in the upperMidwest, that expansion, and the complex cultural dynamics of archaeological manifestation remains poorly the central Plains during theLate Prehistoric pe defined. This stems in large part from its broad riod.

Lauren W. Ritterbush, Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506 Brad Logan, Museum ofAnthropology, University ofKansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045

Plains Anthropologist, Vol. 45, No. 173, pp. 257-272,2000 257

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temporal and spatial range. Oneota sites date be form of population movement is commonly based tweenAD 1000 and the early historic period and on the identification of an intrusive population or are commonly found in the Prairie Peninsula of site-unit intrusion (Willey et al. 1956; Rouse Iowa, Illinois,Wisconsin, southernMinnesota, and 1958,1986; Haury 1958). Rouse (1958:64) suggested northernMissouri (Boszhardt et al. 1995; Gib that the following five stepsmust be followed: bon n.d.; Green 1995; 1998a). Additional Henning in order to demonstrate adequately that mi remains have found in areas been considered pe gration has taken place: 1) identify the migrat ripheral to this Oneota heartland (such as the ing people as an intrusive unit in the region it has trace this unit back to its centralMinnesota woodlands, northeasternPlains, penetrated; 2) homeland; 3) determine that all occurrences of central Plains) (Bozell and Carlson 1999; Gibbon the unit are contemporaneous; 4) establish the The artifactsmost com 1995; Henning 1998a). existence of favorable conditions for migration; monly used to identifyOneota sites are ceramics. and 5) demonstrate that some other hypothesis, as or are such independent invention diffusion of In general these shell-tempered, smooth traits, does not better fit the facts of the situa surfaced with rounded bases. globular jars They tion. may be undecorated or decorated with trailed lines, or a similar inhis identi punctates, tool impressions. Walnut Decorated Haury applied approach fication of at Point of Pines, Arizona. Lip ware fromWhite Rock phase sites is clearly migration comparable to Oneota ceramics (Logan 1995, A migration is the probable, though not the 1998a; Marshall 1969; Rusco 1960). This simi only, explanation in the archaeological record of past people: larity can be explained through the process of

migration (Logan 1995,1998a). 1) if there suddenly appears in a cultural con Migration is defined "as a permanent or tinuum a constellation of traits readily identifiable as semipermanent change of residence" (Lee new, and without local prototypes, and 2) [i]f the products of the immigrant group not only re 1966:49). Archaeological interpretation of this flect borrowed elements from the host group,

NEBRASKA \. \/A :0L0RAD1 V\ _1QWA_ %\ j \ MISSOURI

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ V^^^^

_| KANSAS_ 1_I I

Figure 1.Geographical distribution ofWhite Rock sites in southern Nebraska and north-central Kansas.

258

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but as a unmis also, lingering effect, preserve be considered once an instance of prehistoric takable elements from their own pattern. migration has been shown to be themost likely The probability that the phenomena out for a mani lined above do indeed represent a migration, explanation particular archaeological rather than some other force that induces cul festation.Analysis of thisprocess provides insight ture is increased: change, into the context of the population movement, the obstacles faced, and effects on themigrating, con 1) if identification of an area is possible in which this constellation of traits was the normal tact,original, and more distant populations. These pattern, and 2) if a rough time equivalency be studies must draw not only on the particular tween the "at home" and the displaced expres evidence associated with population movement, sions of the similar complexes can be estab but also on general principles of migration (An lished (Haury 1958:1). thony 1990,1997; Lee 1966; Lewis 1982). The above statements illustrate how Rouse The goal of this research is to initiate the study (1958) and Haury (1958) sought to identify of Oneota movement into the central Plains the identification prehistoric migrations through throughevaluation of the archaeological evidence of intrusive units. These unitsmust archaeological formigration. It reviews theWhite Rock phase as share at least some characteristics with defining an intrusive archaeological complex with ties to units outside the Rouse contemporaneous region. the contemporaneous Oneota tradition (cf. Logan added that evidence for "favorable (1958:64-66) 1995, 1998a; Logan and Banks 1994). Alterna conditions for must be shown. Al migration" tive explanations for Oneota traits in the central this is a laudable favorable though point, identifying Plains are considered in light of available data. conditions or causes for is an migration extremely WHITE ROCK PHASE AS AN difficult task for the researcher with dealing prehis INTRUSIVE UNIT toric people. This is due in large part to themany factors (economic, social, ideological) and The Late Prehistoric period in the central most individual perspectives thataffect the complex de Plains is commonly identified with the cision-making process of migration and limits of Central Plains tradition.The White Rock phase, thearchaeological record (Anthony 1990:898-899, however, is also associated with this place and 1997). Favorable conditions formigration can be time.Geographically, theWhite Rock phase and viewed as push and pull factors, as well as pos theCentral Plains traditionoverlap innorth-central sible obstacles perceived by thepotential migrants Kansas and southernNebraska (Figures 1 and 2). for thearea of origin, area of destination, and inter The Smoky Hill and Upper Republican (here in vening space (Anthony 1990; Lee 1966). cluding Solomon River) phases of the Central are Rouse's (1958) last step echoed an introductory Plains tradition situated, in part, in the same statementby Haury (1958:1) that"[t]he archaeolo region as theWhite Rock phase. Contemporaneity gistmust, in the course of his analysis, sortout the is suggested by radiocarbon dates; however, clues which trulyreflect population movement from careful consideration of these dates and their sta those which may be due to othermechanisms of tistical ranges suggests limited overlap (Blakeslee cultural transmission and change." A variety of 1994; Logan 1995, 1998a). Despite their spatial and cultural processes (such as diffusion, exchange and possibly partial temporal coincidence, the short-termpopulation movements such as resource White Rock phase is distinctly different from the procurement tripsor visiting) can produce intrusive Central Plains tradition.The formal contrast be tween or anomalous cultural traits in the archaeological these archaeological complexes is evident record.As a result, careful evaluation of different through a review of them. The most distinctive lines of archaeological evidence is needed to test differences are in certain artifact classes (prima thehypothesis ofmigration, as well as alternative rily ceramics, but also general characteristics of hypotheses. thechipped stone assemblage, arrow points,mauls, The identification of past migrations should and pipes) and settlementand subsistence patterns. be part ofmuch broader analyses of theprocess of Regional ceramic variability exists within the migration and its ramifications.Much remains to Central Plains tradition; however, themost com 259

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\ Itskarj^^-rv [I Nebraska \^ffte^/Ver ^?-^^^ ) ^_^_M / NEBRASKA \. \ \ J ^OLORADcJUPPer S \ \) I Republicaji^^V^s?%\ \ \A__ j XYT MISSOURI I %{ /Republic^n^ver *^Sf~^x \N\

-Hill

_j KANSAS_j_) ._

Figure 2. Distribution of theNebraska, Smoky Hill, Upper Republican (including Solomon River), and Itskari phases of theCentral Plains tradition.

mon characteristics of Upper Republican and White Rock ceramics clearly differ from those Smoky Hill pots include a globular to subconoidal associated with the Central Plains tradition.The shape with rounded shoulders and a cord formerhave a smooth exterior surface that is some roughened surface that occasionally was times simple-stamped or cord-marked.They are thin smoothed. Rim form varies from straight to with shell, sand or grit temper. Jars appear to have slightly flaring simple and collared varieties. been globular with generally high, straight to or Some pots have undecorated loop straphandles. slightly flaring rims.As implied in the name given Decoration ismost often confined to the rim, lip, by Rusco (1960:30) to this rim type,Walnut Deco or both and consists of horizontal incised lines, rated Lip, themost common form of decoration is pinching, and finger or tool impressions. Sherd applied to the top or inside of the lip and consists thickness varies between and on single pots but is of tool impressions or incisions (Figure 3a). Other more often relatively thick rather than delicately decoration is found on theupper body and handles thin.Crushed sherds, grit,or sand was used as tem and includes trailedor incised parallel lines or chev per. rons sometimes combined with sets of punctates A second type of pottery is found at certain (Figure 3) (Logan 1995,1998a; Rusco 1960). Central Plains tradition sites, especially of the Because other industries of theCentral Plains Smoky Hill phase (Beck 1995; Scott 1995). This tradition andWhite Rock phase share similar in pottery is smooth-surfaced and shell-tempered. ventories, they are more difficult to differentiate. Forms include jars, beakers and water bottles For example, both include scapula hoes, triangular (Scott 1995:49). Jars commonly have short rolled arrow points, beveled and unbeveled knives, and rims and shoulder decorations consisting of sets planoconvex end scrapers. Despite general simi of incised diagonal lines arranged as alternating larities in tool inventories, direct comparison of triangles. assemblages from the two complexes reveals no 260

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table differences. The overall impression one gets associated with both complexes but have different ofWhite Rock phase chipped stone tools, for in forms.A variety of elbow pipes has been found at stance, is of preference for informal tools or those Central Plains traditionsites. Smoky Hill phase ex "with littleor no effortexpended in theirproduc amples include simple carved stone and ceramic tion" (Andrefsky 1994:22). This is readily apparent forms (Fosha 1994:64; Ritterbush and Logan in theanalysis ofWhite Rock arrow points, which 1992:114-116,130-131; Johnson 1973:288-289). Up are frequentlyunnotched and formed throughmini per Republican examples include ceramic and mal retouch of one or more edges of a thin flake carved stone elbow pipes, as well as pebble pipes (Owada and Ritterbush 1999). This contrastswith (Kivett andMetcalf 1997:122-126). Those found at the predominant form of Central Plains tradition White Rock sites are markedly different, consist arrow points that are side notched or side-and ing of disk pipes carved from red pipestone. Such basally notched and were clearly produced through pipes are considered an Oneota horizon stylemarker greater effort (e.g., multistage production of bifa (Henning 1998b: 11). cial and invasively retouched preforms thatwere Contrasts between theWhite Rock phase and laternotched). Central Plains tradition are also seen in settlement Differences between the tool inventories of and subsistence patterns. Central Plains tradition these two complexes are also apparent in the pres populations were sedentary, living in substantial ence or absence of certain tools. For instance, permanent or semi-permanent daub or earth struc grooved mauls, common atWhite Rock sites, are tures.These habitations were commonly scattered absent at Central Plains tradition sites. Pipes are as single lodges or small clusters of lodges along

Figure 3. Rim (a) and upper body (b) sherds from theWhite Rock site (14JW1). 261

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stream valleys. These settings provided easy ac two attributes, temper and exterior surface treat cess to a wide variety of resources, such as arable ment, provide a contrast between White Rock and land, water, and aquatic and riparian habitats, as many otherOneota ceramics (e.g.,Wedel 1959:612). well as nearby upland prairies. Distributed in and Early analyses ofWhite Rock assemblages identi between theFlint Hills and theHigh Plains, Smoky fied a predominance of sand or grit temper (Rusco Hill and Upper Republican siteswere well situated 1960; Neuman 1963; Marshall 1969). This differs with respect to quality lithicmaterials, especially from the characteristic shell temper inOneota ce FlintHills (Permian-age) cherts andNiobrara jasper ramics (Overstreet 1997; Henning 1998a; Gibbon (Smoky Hills silicified chalk). The Central Plains n.d.; Betts 1999). Shell temperalso is found inWhite traditionpeople lived as sedentary hunter-gatherer Rock ceramics, yet was documented in relatively gardeners who depended on a wide variety of small quantities byMarshall (1969) at theGlen El readily available local resources. der site, by Neuman (1963) at theWhite Rock, Focal bison hunting marks the subsistence Intermill, andWarne sites, and by Rusco (1960) at patternof theWhite Rock phase (Logan 1995,1998a, theBlue Stone, Glen Elder, andWhite Rock sites.A 1998b). Although evidence forgardening has been significantly higher proportion of shell-tempered found at the largerWhite Rock sites, garden pro ceramics was found inmore recently recovered duce may have served as a supplement to wild samples from theWhite Rock site (Wininger and resources. Emphasis on bison hunting impliesmo Logan 1995; Logan 1998a). Temper typemay be bility, reflected by unsubstantial house structures less meaningful as a cultural signature than as a and short-term campsites. Vestiges of houses at reflection of environmental constraints or adaptive theWhite Rock site consist of two areas of choices. Although mussels are not absent from the postmolds scattered around a hearth (Rusco 1960). central Plains, theirquantity may have been limited These post-supported lodges were probably cov compared tomore eastern prairie regions. Empha ered with hides, mats, bark, or other perishable sis on bison huntingmay have diminished use of material. White Rock sites include both short-term freshwater clams as a food source and the poten campsites (e.g., Green Plum and Blue Stone sites) tially related use of shell as a temperingagent. Raw and more permanent settlements (e.g., theWarne material availability (e.g., clay types) andmanufac andWhite Rock sites). The latteroccupy extensive turing techniques may have played a role in the areas of uplands above White Rock Creek. decision to use sand rather than shell temper in the use have ONEOTA TIES central Plains. Finally, characteristicsmay influenced selection of temperingmaterials. A vari The nature ofWhite Rock contrasting phase ety of factors, such as strength(impact and thermal and Central Plains tradition and their assemblages shock resistance) and permeability,may have been modes of show that theWhite adaptation clearly importanthere (Betts 1999; Bronitsky and Hamer Rock is a site-unit intrusion.Due to the lack phase 1986; Schiffer 1990). Shell tempermay not have been of visible ties to the Central Plains re tradition, necessary, for instance, ifpots were not used for searchers of theWhite Rock have looked phase intensive boiling. This may have been the case if eastward to theOneota traditionof theupper Mid bison meat was a more common food than corn, west for materials 1995, comparable (Logan and itwas prepared using alternativemethods, such Marshall Neuman 1963; Rusco 1998a; 1969; as drying, roasting, or pit boiling. The increased Wedel The most obvious 1960; 1959:612-614). incidence of thermal shock expected formore per similarities between these are in the complexes meable sand- or grit-tempered ceramics may have ceramics. Common characteristics of bothWhite been countered by a texturedexterior surface, such Rock and Oneota wares are thin,smooth-surfaced, as simple-stamping or cord-roughening (Betts 1999; with or tool on globular jars finger impressions Schiffer 1990). the and trailed or incised line on the lip designs White Rock rim sherds are consistently sometimes combined with shoulder, punctates smooth while body sherds are occasionally (Figure 3). simple-stamped or cord-roughened and often Despite overwhelming ceramic similarities, smoothed over. Neither of these traitscan be con 262

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sidered specifically or exclusively a Central Plains In terms of subsistence, Oneota people were tradition trait.Cord-roughening occurs at many hunters,fishers, gatherers, and farmerswho used a Oneota sites, including Leary, Dixon, and others wide variety of resources. Although White Rock (Hill andWedel 1936:35; Fishel 1995:48, subsistence appears todiffer from thisgeneral pat 1999:64; Harvey 1979:66; Henning 1995:74-75; tern in that itemphasizes bison hunting, this is not Boszhardt 1998:213; Moffat 1998:178-180; completely unexpected for an Oneota population. Nolan and Conrad 1998:135-139; Jackson Wide variation in Oneota subsistence is evident 1998:99). One cord-roughened vessel fragment and likely due to the flexibility of Oneota popula from theWhite Rock phase Green Plum site tions in adapting to theirspecific ecological settings illustrateshow Walnut Decorated Lip ceramics can (Henning 1998a:348). Bison hunting was part of include this attribute (Rusco 1960:32-33, 89 the subsistence activities ofmany Oneota popula Plate 6A). This vessel has a cord-roughened body tions, especially the western Oneota (Henning and a smoothed shoulder.The rim isdecorated with 1998c; Fishel 1999). Increased emphasis on this parallel diagonal trailed lines formingfilled triangles. activity allowed Oneota migrants to adapt success Parallel diagonal and vertical tool impressions occur fully to the central Plains. on the lip and lip interior respectively. These Recently obtained radiocarbon dates from the attributes are comparable to those on Walnut White Rock andWarne sites (Table 1) have led to Decorated Lip rim sherds. Other cord-roughened reevaluation of the previous temporal placement body sherds inWhite Rock phase assemblages of White Rock materials (Logan and Banks may be from vessels showing similar rim to body 1994:70-75; Logan 1995:99-101, 1998a). The variability. suggested range of ca. AD 1300-1450 corre White Rock and Oneota assemblages show sponds with a portion of thebroader temporal span considerable overlap not only in ceramics, but in of theOneota tradition (ca. AD 900-1700). This other artifact types.As noted above, White Rock range closely overlaps the occupations of several chipped stone tools include a high frequency of western Oneota sites, particularlyLeary and Dixon informal tools. This compares favorably with the in extreme southeastern Nebraska and northwest "simple" or "expedient" lithic technology of the ern Iowa respectively (Boszhardt et al. 1995; Oneota tradition (Finney and Crawford 1999; Gib Fishel 1999:48-50; Logan 1995:99-101, 1998a; bon n.d.). Overall the chipped stone, groundstone, Logan and Banks 1994:70-72). The radiocarbon and bone industries compare in terms of general assays demonstrate contemporaneity between the inventories and technology. Specific artifact types White Rock phase and Oneota tradition. inWhite Rock have assemblages frequently EXPLAINING ONEOTA IN THE inOneota These include equivalents assemblages. CENTRAL PLAINS simple unnotched arrow points, grooved mauls, The White Rock is a site-unit and catlinite disk pipes (Gibbon n.d.; Henning phase clearly intrusion in the central Plains associated with the 1998a; Overstreet 1997).

Table 1. Radiocarbon dates fromWhite Rock Phase sites1.

Site -Fea. No. Lab No. C14 Age_A.D. C13/C12_Calibrated Age2 14JW24-1 Beta-53612 660?80 1290 N/A 1283 (1302) 1400 14JW1-4 Beta-65893 720?70 1230 24.7 1261 (1288) 1373 - 14JW1 4 Tx-7984 510?40 1440 -24.6 1407 (1426) 1439 - 14JW1 8 Beta-73924 390?60 1560 -26.3 1443 (1478) 1631 - 14JW1 8 Tx-8193 720?50 1230 -24.5 1276 (1288) 1300

1 From Logan 1998a. 2 Stuiver and Pearson 1993; one sigma age range and (intercept)_ 263

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Oneota tradition.The intrusivenature of theWhite nesota woodlands [Gibbon 1995]), the virtual lack Rock phase, its similarity toOneota manifestations of non-Oneota (e.g., Central Plains tradition) traits to the east, and its contemporaneity with the latter inWhite Rock assemblages makes these explana suggest an actual movement of Oneota people. tions unlikely. Other explanations, however, can also be advanced The site-unit (rather than trait-unit) intrusion to explain the apparent relationship between the of theWhite Rock phase provides support for the White Rock phase and Oneota tradition.These in more plausible explanation of Oneota population clude diffusion, exchange, and different forms of movement into the central Plains. Population population movement, such as seasonal or occa movement can take various forms. As stated ear sional travel, as opposed to permanentmigration. lier,migration is a form of population movement In his analysis of theGlen Elder site (14ML1), that involves "a permanent or semipermanent aWhite Rock phase site along the Solomon River change of residence" (Lee 1966:49). This defini inKansas, Marshall (1969:89-90) presented two tion implies a move of relatively large distance possible explanations forOneota manifestations in and definitiveness (Tilley 1978:50). Less perma the central Plains. The first implies migration nent population movements are sometimes referred ("group thatpenetrated theCentral Plains"), while to simply as a formof mobility, althoughmore pre the second referred to intensive acculturation ("in cise definitions can further classify population digenous Central Plains group that has been so movements (e.g., Tilley 1978:48-57). A form of strongly influenced by theOneota culture that the populationmovement termedcircular migration may original cultural context is beyond recognition" explain Oneota presence in the central Plains. Cir [Marshall 1969:89]). The latterwas not supported cularmigration is frequentmovement between two byMarshall because of ormore places (Gmelch 1980:136; Tilley 1978:52 53). This include seasonal or cyclical move [t]he restricted spatial distribution and tem might ment associated with such as poral position of the known [White Rock phase! particular activities, components plus evidence of limited contact procurement of bison products or preferred lithic with other known cultural complexes (Marshall materials. 1969:89-90). Analogies for circular or seasonal migration Additional support is themagnitude of simi into the Plains from the east exist from historic laritiesbetween theWhite Rock phase and Oneota times. The eighteenth to early nineteenth century tradition.Although diffusion of traits commonly Kansa, a Dhegiha Siouan-speaking group, trekked occurs as a result of direct or indirectcultural inter westward from theirpermanent villages along the action, acculturation to the point of complete or lower Missouri River for annual bison hunts near complete loss of identity is improbable. (Unrau 1971:38-39; Norall 1988:61,138). A simi Oneota traitshave been found in other regions lar pattern of long-distance bison hunts in the peripheral to theOneota heartland. Gibbon (1995) central Plains may have existed for theLate Prehis suggested that conquest and alliance building, toric Oneota. In his interpretation of Dixon, an shiftingethnic boundaries and styles, or exchange Oneota site in northwestern Iowa, Fishel may explain these occurrences. The former two (1995:86-91, 1996, 1999) suggested that its in mechanisms of change are, like acculturation, habitants participated in communal bison hunts forms of diffusion that are expected to affect in thatmay have taken them into the central Plains. dividual traits or sets of traits, rather than entire Another Oneota group, represented by the cultural identities.Likewise, exchange would plau White Rock phase (Logan 1995; Logan and Banks or this area of Kansas and Nebraska at sibly result in the appearance of new objects 1994), occupied this time. While trade between these two groups styles, but would not alter the entire assemblage [Dixon residents andWhite Rock people] is possible, and settlement and subsistence of the re patterns an alternative hypothesis has been suggested that ceiving population. Although one ormore of these this area of central Kansas and Nebraska was where theDixon inhabitants held their com processes may have served as important mecha hypothesized munal bison hunts (Fishel 1995:91,1999:129). nisms of Oneota expansion into certain regions (potentially thenortheastern Plains or centralMin 264

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are as This interpretationof circular migration was sites interpreted permanent settlements. Per based in part on the high percentage of lithic manence is suggested by their large and varied materials from thecentral Plains represented in cer archaeological assemblages, apparent remains of tain chipped stone tool categories (e.g., scrapers) houses (14JW1), numerous storage and refuse in the Dixon site assemblage (Finney and pits, and evidence of gardening. Although the in Crawford 1999; Fishel 1995,1996,1999). Although substantial and ambiguous nature of the structures Fishel did not state that theWhite Rock remains and other characteristics of these sites (e.g., their were those ofDixon hunters, itmight be construed extensive nature) could be explained in terms of from the above that the White Rock phase either temporary (but repeated) or permanent use, represents seasonal or occasional excursions from it is difficult to imagine temporary occupation in western Iowa into the central Plains by these association with gardening. Evidence for garden people. One possible explanation for theWhite ing consists of charred corn kernels (Neuman Rock phase, therefore, is that this archaeological 1963:291-292; Rusco 1960:50) and the frequent complex represents the remains of activities occurrence of scapula tools, including hoes and associated with circular (rather than permanent) squash knives (Anderson 1994; Logan 1995; migration ofOneota people. Marshall 1969; Neuman 1963; Rusco 1960). An To evaluate this hypothesis, we must deter isolated find of two bison scapula hoes on the mine whetherWhite Rock sites (or the region in floodplain ofWhite Rock Creek below theWhite which they are distributed) were occupied year Rock sitemay mark the location of gardens used round. Seasonal bison hunts (circular migration) by that site's occupants (Logan and Hedden would result in temporary or seasonally occupied 1992:34-35). Given the requirements of planting, sites. The Green Plum and Blue Stone sites of the hoeing, protecting plants from pests, harvesting, White Rock phase are interpreted by Rusco and processing (husking, drying, threshing, etc.) (1960) as temporary camps used while hunting garden produce (cf.,Wilson 1987), at least semi was bison. Recent reanalysis of the Glen Elder site permanent occupation necessary. (14ML1) suggests that this also may have been a Permanent (year-round) occupation of the temporary camp (Blakeslee 1999). The White central Plains by Oneota migrants is suggested not Rock (14JW1) and Warne (14JW2/14JW24) only by evidence for gardening, but also by the clear adaptation made 0.8 -j-.--.-.-----. by themigrants to the 0.699 region in termsof lithic 0.7-^ resources. Analysis of the chipped stone 0.6-^-: tools and debris sur recovered during 0.5-^ face inspection and excavation of the 0.4-B^^B White Rock site (14JW1)in the 1930s 0.3-^ reveals dependence on - central Plains lithic 0.2-^- materials. Of the 938 lithic artifacts in this 0.1-^-^-^ assemblage, nearly o -I-^-1-^-1-^-1 70% are of Niobrara Hill si Niobrara jasper Flint Hills cherts Other jasper (Smoky licified chalk) (Figure Figure 4. Frequencies of lithic raw materials in theWhite Rock site (14JW1) assemblage recov 4). Niobrara jasper, ered during the 1930s (n=938). from the Cretaceous 265

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Niobrara Formation, is exposed in parts of north White Rock people inhabited the central Plains western Kansas and extreme south-central on a permanent or semi-permanent basis. The Nebraska (Wright 1985) (Figure 5).Western White heavy dependence on Niobrara jasper and Flint Rock phase campsites liewithin the source area of Hills cherts, however, is striking in contrast to the thisquality lithicmaterial. The abundance of bison paucity of eastern lithic materials. If Oneota bone and worked and unworked pieces of jasper at people were using the central Plains only for sea theGreen Plum and Blue Stone sites indicates that sonal activities, we would expect them to have these sites were associated with both bison hunt carried toolsmade ofmaterials derived from their ing and lithic procurement (Rusco 1960). Jasper area of origin, generally defined as the Prairie used at themore permanent villages innorth-central Peninsula and itswestern boundary with the cen Kansas was probably broughtfrom these or similar tral Plains. camps and nearby quarries. Lithic materials from the Prairie Peninsula The second most common lithicmaterial rep and eastern edge of the central Plains have been resented in theWhite Rock site assemblage is identified in theWhite Rock site assemblage, but Flint Hills chert (Figure 4). Nearly 21% of the in very low frequencies. Less than two percent of lithics come from outcrops of Permian deposits the lithics are from eastern sources, including in theFlint Hills physiographic region, which ex Pennsylvanian and Mississippian deposits. They tends from near the present Nebraska-Kansas includeNehawka, Winterset or Stoner, Burlington, border, across eastern Kansas, into Oklahoma and otherwhite unidentified cherts.Nehawka chert (Figure 5). This material also may have been ob is found in northwesternMissouri, southwestern tained as part of an embedded strategy associated Iowa, southeastern Nebraska, and northeastern with bison hunting in theFlint Hills. Kansas (Blackman 1907; Holen 1991). Winterset The predominance ofNiobrara jasper may re and Stoner cherts (whichmay be indistinguishable flect a preference for this lithic material and from one another) also outcrop in that region common western movements of White Rock (McLean 1998). Burlington, a white fossiliferous people. Another indication of possible western chert, is exposed in more eastern deposits in orientation is the presence of exotic lithic southeastern Iowa, northeastern and centralMis materials from beyond the central Plains. Chal souri, and west-central Illinois (McLean 1998; cedonies (including Flattop and a banded variety) Morrow 1984, 1994). Less than one percent of and petrifiedwood in theWhite Rock site assem theWhite Rock lithics are unidentified white blage likely derive from sources in northeastern cherts. Although their source cannot be pin Colorado, western Nebraska, eastern Wyoming, pointed, such cherts are not common in the central or theWhite River Badlands of southwestern Plains and are likely from that region east of the South Dakota (Hoard et al. 1993; Miller 1991; White Rock core area (McLean 1999). McLean 1999). Other western lithic materials Tools made of eastern lithicsmay have been have been identified at theWarne site.A purplish brought to the central Plains by Oneota migrants quartzite derives from theHartville Uplift of east or through exchange with eastern Oneota popula ernWyoming (Logan 1995:98). Four small flakes tions. If theWhite Rock phase reflects circular of obsidian fromWarne have been traced to the migration, a higher percentage of materials from Malad region of southeastern Idaho, while two oth the east would be expected. Seasonal migrants, ers have been traced to Obsidian Ridge inNew such as hunters of herd animals, would be expected near Mexico (Hughes 1994, 1995; Logan et al. n.d.). to gear up for their travels at or their home These exotic lithics indicate travel or contact with village using locally available materials. Ifwe as populations having access to these northwestern, sume that the point of origin of Oneota people western, and southwestern sources (Ritterbush traveling into the central Plains was present-day 1999; Logan et al. n.d.). southeastern Nebraska (e.g., the Leary site), we The clear preference for central Plains mate would expect fossiliferous cherts from Pennsyl rials, along with connections to more western vanian deposits to be well represented. These lithic sources, does not show conclusively that the include Argentine,Winterset, Stoner,Westerville, 266

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NEBRASKAN \

J \ MISSOURI | %\ ^^J^epublican^^

Figure 5. Source areas of (B) Niobrara jasper (Smoky Hill silicified chalk) and (A) Flint Hills cherts. (Modified from Holen [1991:400].)

Plattsmouth, Nehawka, and other cherts (Holen Hills silicified sediment and Knife River flintfrom 1983, 1991; McLean 1998; Morrow 1984, 1994; thenorthwest, and FlintHills cherts (FlintHills Green, Reid 1980, 1984). Only two artifactsmade from Florence D, Florence B, undifferentiatedPermian) or Winterset Stoner chert and possibly five arti andNiobrara jasper (SmokyHill silicifiedchalk) from facts ofNehawka chert have been identified in the thecentral Plains (Finney and Crawford 1999). Trav White Rock assemblage. elers from northwestern Iowa may have carried Travelers originating in northwestern Iowa central Plains lithicsback into thatregion resulting the be more to (e.g., Dixon site) would difficult in assemblages that appear in part to be locally identify.Outcrops of lithicmaterials suitable for derived. These same assemblages, however, would occur chipped stone tool manufacture do not in also contain a wide variety of nonlocal lithics com that region. Redeposited materials of relatively parable to those found at Oneota sites in their are poor quality the only locally available lithics homeland. The Dixon site assemblage, for instance, (Anderson 1978; Finney and Crawford 1999; contained Burlington chert in frequencies of 47%, a Fishel 1996). As result, Oneota occupants of 10%, and 7% of the arrow points, scrapers, and this region were dependent on nonlocal materials other tools (bifaces, drills, beveled knives) respec were that likely obtained through trade and travel. tively (Finney and Crawford 1999). This, as well as Identification of the Dixon site lithics confirms other lithic materials would be expected at the use occu the of nonlocal materials by itsOneota central Plains campsites of travelersfrom Dixon or pants (Finney and Crawford 1999). Among these similarwestern Iowa sites. are some of the above-mentioned Pennsylvanian There may be other possible explanations for cherts from south of the region, Burlington chert the low percentage of eastern materials in the from the southeast, Hixton silicified sandstone White Rock site lithic assemblage. One is that the and Grand Meadow chert from thenortheast, Bijou seasonal travelers did not gear up until they had 267

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reached the central Plains, stopping perhaps in the central Plains during the Late Prehistoric period. northernFlint Hills tomanufacture tools of Per While "favorable conditions" formigration may mian cherts before proceeding westward to the have included abundant bison and quality lithic source area ofNiobrara jasper. Although thismay sources in the central Plains, relying on these as be plausible, it seems unlikely that seasonal mi pull factors to explain the cause of migration is grantswould not already be carrying a fairly large probably simplistic. Such conditions may also have number of artifactsmade at theirpoint of origin. been set by the abandonment of the region by Cen The very limited representation in theWhite Rock tralPlains traditiongroups. However, it is not yet site assemblage ofmaterials from thePrairie Pen clear thatwhat became theWhite Rock core area insula and itswestern border, combined with the was vacant upon their arrival. Neither is there clear preference forNiobrara jasper and Flint Hills anything other than circumstantial evidence to sup cherts supports an interpretationof permanent or port the inference of an aggressive displacement semi-permanent Oneota migration into the cen of Central Plains tradition groups by theWhite tral Plains. Rock immigrants (cf. Logan 1998a:263-264). SUMMARY The formof Oneota population movement into the central Plains is interpretedas a permanent or Recent reassessment of theWhite Rock ar semi-permanent, rather than circular or seasonal, resulted in definition of the chaeological complex migration. The possibility thatOneota people from White Rock 1995, 1998a). The phase (Logan hy the Prairie Peninsula and its western boundary that this evidence of an pothesis phase represents traveled occasionally into the central Plains Oneota has been evaluated in of migration light (including theWhite Rock area) forbison hunting, the of and its into concept migration integration lithic procurement, or trade is not ruled out. research. As noted earlier, archaeological Haury However, archaeological evidence from themost (1958:1) stated that is "if there migration probable extensive White Rock sites supports a more plau appears in a cultural continuum a con suddenly sible interpretationof migration for theWhite Rock stellation of traits identifiable as new, and readily phase. Gardening and dependence on local or near true without local prototypes." This is certainly local lithicmaterials to thenear exclusion of eastern in the central Plains where the "new" White Rock lithicsprovides evidence of permanent or semiper without local or, in phase appears any prototype, manent occupation of the central Plains. other words, "as an intrusive unit in the appears Understanding Oneota migration in thecentral This intrusive cultural region" (Rouse 1958:64). Plains is critical to interpretingLate Prehistoric cul manifestation can be traced, at least to generally, tural dynamics of the Plains and adjacent Prairie its eastern homeland. The White Rock phase pre Peninsula. Likewise, it brings us closer to under serves "unmistakable elements" from its pattern standing the broader process of Oneota expansion of the Oneota tradition. origin (Haury 1958:1), (Benn 1989; Gibbon 1995).Migration theoryas de theWhite Rock the Temporally, phase overlaps veloped in other social sciences outlines some of Oneota of the not too distant occupations Leary the general principles associated with this cultural and Dixon sites et al. 1995; Fishel (Boszhardt process (Lee 1966; Lewis 1982). Integrationof these 1999; 1995:99-101, 1998a; and Logan Logan principles into archaeological research provides Banks The site-intrusive, rather than 1994:70-72). insight to the context of past migrations, the trait-intrusive et al. nature of the (Willey 1956), associated decision-making process, and the White Rock for movement phase argues population implications and ramifications of population move rather than some "other mechanism of cultural ment (Anthony 1990, 1997). It is our hope that transmission and 1958:1; Rouse change" (Haury continued analysis of Late Prehistoric Oneota and 1958). Plains contexts and assemblages will culminate in The site-intrusive Oneota remains of the explication of processes of regional culture change, White Rock the that phase support interpretation includingmigration. an Oneota population moved into the heart of the

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Blakeslee, Donald J. 1994 Reassessment of Some Radiocarbon Dates from Recent research into the White Rock phase has been the Central Plains. Plains Anthropologist 39: in the Grand Island Office of the Bureau supported part by 203-210. of Reclamation and particularly by the administrative 1999 Glen Elder of the efforts of Bob Biasing. Analysis of the 1930s White Rock Revisited:Re-Analysis Origi nal Collections. at the 57,h site assemblage was made possible through collection loans Paper presented Annual Plains Conference, from the Kansas State Historical Society to the University Anthropological Sioux Falls, South Dakota. of Kansas Museum of Anthropology and subsequently to the Archaeology Lab of Kansas State University. Isaku Boszhardt, Robert F. Owada and Janice McLean assisted with lithic material 1998 Oneota Horizons: A La Crosse Perspective. The Wis a identification of this collection with funding provided by consin Archeologist 79:196-226. Kansas State University Small Research Grant. Artifacts Boszhardt, Robert F, Wendy Holtz, and JeremyNienow were illustrated by Sarah Moore, while the maps were 1995 A Compilation of Oneota Radiocarbon Dates as of prepared with the original assistance of Linda Greatorex 1995. In Oneota Archaeology:Past, Present, and and more recently by Bryan Ferguson of theKSU GISS AL Lab. Future, edited byW Green, pp. 203-227. Office of This manuscript has benefited from the comments of reviewers the State Archaeologist Report 20,University of Dale R. Henning and Joseph A. Tiffany, as well as those of PA Iowa, Iowa City. editor Linea Sundstrom. We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the aforementioned institutions and individuals. Bozell, Rob and Gayle Carlson 1999 Oneota inNebraska with an Emphasis on theEigh REFERENCES CITED teenth Century Transition to Post-Contact Siouan Tribes. Paper presented at the 57th Annual Plains Sioux South Da Anderson, Duane C. Anthropological Conference, Falls, kota. 1978 AboriginalUse ofTongue River Silica inNorthwest Iowa. Plains Anthropologist 23:149-157. Bronitsky, Gordon and Robert Hamer 1986 inCeramic The Effects of Anderson, Robert P. Experiments Technology: Various Materials on and Ther 1994 Faunal Analysis of Feature 4,14JW1. InWhite Rock Tempering Impact mal-Shock Resistance. American 51:89 Revised: Archaeological Investigation of theWhite Antiquity 101. Rock and Warne Sites, Lovewell Reservoir, Jewell County, Kansas, edited by B. Logan, pp. 56-67. Uni Finney, Fred A. with George T. Crawford of Museum of versity Kansas, Anthropology Project 1999 Chipped Stone Assemblage. In Bison Hunters of Report Series 85, Lawrence. theWestern Prairies, edited by R. L. Fishel, pp. 51 59. Office of the State 21, Andrefsky,William, Jr. Archaeologist Report of Iowa, Iowa 1994 Raw-Material Availability and theOrganization of University City. Technology. American Antiquity 59:21-34. Fishel, Richard L. (Ed.) 1999 Bison Hunters the Western Prairies: Archaeo Anthony, David W. of at theDixon Site (I3WD8), 1990 Migration in Archaeology: The Baby and the logical Investigations Iowa. Office of the State Archae Bathwater. American Anthropologist 92:895-914. Woodbury County, ologist Report 21, University of Iowa, Iowa City. 1997 Prehistoric Migration as Social Process. InMigra Fishel, Richard L. tions and Invasions inArchaeological Explanation, 1995 Excavations at the Dixon Site edited by J.Chapman and H. Hamerow, pp. 21-32. (I3WD8): BAR International Series 664. Correctionville Phase Oneota inNorthwest Iowa. Office of the State Archaeologist Contract Comple Beck, Margaret E. tionReport 442, University of Iowa, Iowa City. 1995 "Mississippian" Ceramics in the Central Plains 1996 Dixon to toWhite Rock: A for Tradition: Petrographic Analysis and Interpretive Leary Hypothesis Oneota Fourteenth Communal Bison Hunts. Models. Unpublished MA thesis, Department of Century at the 54th Annual Plains Anthro Anthropology, University of Kansas, Lawrence. Paper presented pological Conference, Iowa City. Benn, David W. Fosha, Michael 1989 Hawks, Serpents, and Bird-Men Emergence of the 1994 A Case Hill Vari Oneota Mode of Production. Plains Anthropolo Studyof Inequality Among Smoky ant MA gist34:233-260. Populations. Unpublished thesis, Depart ment of Anthropology, University of Kansas, Colin M. Berts, Lawrence. 1999 Shell Temper and theOneota Tradition. Paper pre Gibbon, sented at the 64* Annual Meeting of the Society for Guy 1995 Oneota at the Trade, Political and American Archaeology, Chicago, Illinois. Periphery: Power, Ethnicity inNorthern Minnesota and on theNorth Blackman,E.E. eastern Plains in the Late Prehistoric Period. In 1907 Nehawka Flint Quarries. Records of thePast 6:103 Oneota Archaeology: Past, Present, and Fu 110. 269

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of Kansas Publication in ture, edited by W. Green, pp. 175-199. Office of versity Anthropology 19, Lawrence. the State Archaeologist Report 20, University of Iowa Iowa, City. Hughes, Richard E. 1994 of Obsidian Artifacts from theWarne Lo n.d. Oneota. In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited Sourcing and Lovewell by P. Peregrine. Kluwar Academic, New York, in cality (14JW8 14JW24), Reservoir, Kansas. InWhite Rock Revised: In press. Archaeological vestigation of the White Rock and Warne Sites, Gmelch, George Lovewell Reservoir, Jewell County, Kansas, 1993, 1980 Return Migration. Annual Review of Anthropology by B. Logan andW. E. Banks, pp. 80-83. University 9:135-159. of Kansas Museum of Anthropology Project Re Green, William (Ed.) port Series 85, Lawrence. 1995 Oneota Archaeology: Past, Present, and Fu 1995 Sourcing of Two Obsidian Artifacts from the ture. Office of the State Archaeologist Report Warne Site (14JW8), Lovewell Reservoir, Kan 20, University of Iowa, Iowa City. sas. In Phasing in White Rock: Archaeological Harvey, Amy E. Investigation of theWhite Rock and Warne Sites, 1979 Oneota Culture inNorthwestern Iowa. Office of Lovewell Reservoir, Jewell County, Kansas, 1994 the State Archaeologist Report 12, University of 1995, edited by B. Logan, pp. 120-121. Univer Iowa, Iowa City. sity of Kansas Museum of Anthropology Project Report Series 90, Lawrence. Haury,EmilW. 1958 Evidence at Point of Pines for a Prehistoric Migra Jackson, Douglas K. tion from Northern Arizona. InMigrations inNew 1998 Settlement on the Southern Frontier: Oneota Occu World Culture History, edited by R. H. Thompson, pations in theAmerican Bottom. The Wisconsin Ar pp. 1-6. University of Arizona Social Science Bulle cheologisn9:93-U6. tin27. Johnson, Alfred E. Henning, Dale R. 1973 Archaeological Investigations at the Budenbender 1995 Oneota Evolution and Interactions: A Perspective Site, Turtle Creek Reservoir, North-Central Kansas, from theWever Terrace, Southeast Iowa. InOneota 1957. Plains Anthropologist 18:271-299. Archaeology: Past, Present, and Future, edited by Kivett, Marvin F. and George S. Metcalf W. Green, pp. 65-88. Office of the State Archaeolo 1997 The Prehistoric People of theMedicine Creek Res gist Report 20, University of Iowa, Iowa City. ervoir, Frontier County, Nebraska: An Experiment 1998a The Oneota Tradition. In Archaeology on theGreat inMechanized Archaeology (1946-1948). Plains Plains, edited byW. R. Wood, pp. 345-414. Univer Anthropologist Memoir 30. Press of Kansas, Lawrence. sity Lee, Everett S. 1998b Managing Oneota: A Reiteration and Testing of 1966 A Theory ofMigration. Demography 3:47-57. The Wis Contemporary Archeological Taxonomy. Lewis, G. J. consin Archeologist 79:9-28. 1982 Human Migration: A Geographical Perspective. 1998c Oneota: The Western Manifestations. The Wiscon Croom Helm, London. sin Archeologist 79:238-247. Logan, Brad Hill, A. T. andWaldo R. Wedel 1995 Phasing inWhite Rock: Archaeological Investiga 1936 Excavations at theLeary Indian Village and Burial tion of the White Rock and Warne Sites, Lovewell Site, Richardson County, Nebraska. Nebraska His Reservoir, Jewell County, Kansas, 1994-1995. Uni toryMagazine 17:2-73. versity of Kansas Museum of Anthropology Project Series 90, Lawrence. Hoard, Robert J., JohnR. Bozell, Steven R. Holen, Michael D. Report Glascock, Hector Neff and J.Michael Elam 1998a Oneota Far West: The White Rock Phase. The Wis 1993 Source Determination ofWhite River Group Silicates consin Archeologist 79:248-267. from Two Sites in theGreat Plains. Archaeological 1998b The Fat of theLand: White Rock Phase Bison Hunt American Antiquity 58:698-710. ing and Grease Production. Plains Anthropologist Holen, Steven R. 43:349-366. 1983 Lower Loup Lithic Procurement Strategy at theGray Logan, Brad andWilliam E. Banks Site, 25CXI. Unpublished MA thesis, Department 1994 White Rock Revised: Archaeological Investigation of Anthropology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln. of theWhite Rock and Warne Sites, Lovewell Reser 1991 Bison Hunting Territories and Lithic Acquisition voir, Jewell County, Kansas, 1993. University of among the Pawnee: An Ethnohistoric and Archaeo Kansas Museum of Anthropology Project Report logical Study. In Raw Material Economies among Series 85, Lawrence. Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers, edited by A. Logan, Brad and John G. Hedden Montet-White and S. Holen, pp. 399-411. Uni 1992 Archaeological Survey of Lovewell Reservoir,

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at the 21st Annual Flint Hills Ar Jewell County, Kansas, 1991. University of Kan presented Conference, Lawrence, Kansas. sas Museum of Anthropology Project Report chaeological Series 77, Lawrence. Reid, Kenneth C. 1980 Cherts of the Forest Logan, Brad, Richard E. Hughes, and Dale R. Henning Upper Pennsylvanian City Basin: Missourian Plains n.d. Western Oneota Obsidian: Sources and Implications. Stage. Anthropologist 25:121-134. Plains Anthropologist, in press. Fusulinacean of Cherts Marshall, James O. 1984 Sourcing Late Paleozoic in the Western Midwest. In Prehistoric Chert 1969 The Glen Elder Focus: The Cultural Affiliations of Studies the Archeological Material from the Glen Elder Site, Exploitation: from Midcontinent, edited B. M. Butler and E. E. 253 14ML1. University of Nebraska, Department of An by May, pp. 270. Center for thropology. Submitted toNational Park Service, Mid Archaeological Investigations Occasional 2. west Region, U.S. Department of the Interior Paper under the Inter-Agency Archeological Salvage Ritterbush, Lauren W. Contract No. 14-10-0232-730 Program, (1963). 1999 Plains Adaptation Reflected inWhite Rock Phase at An McLean, Janice A. Lithic Technology. Paper presented the 64th 1998 Lithic Raw Material Use at theDB Site. In Prehis nual Meeting of the Society forAmerican Archaeol Illinois. toric Settlement of the Lower Missouri Uplands: ogy, Chicago, The View DB Fort Kan from Ridge, Leavenworth, Ritterbush, Lauren W. and Brad Logan edited B. 167-197. of sas, by Logan, pp. University 1992 Analysis of Three Smoky Hill Variant Sites inNorth Kansas Museum of Anthropology Project Report Central Kansas: The Schultz Archaeological Series Lawrence. 98, Project, Phase II. University of Kansas Museum of Series Lawrence. 1999 Personal communication, University of Kansas Anthropology Project Report 78, Museum of Lawrence. Anthropology, Rouse, Irving Inference Miller, James C. 1958 The ofMigrations fromAnthropological Evidence. In inNew World Culture His 1991 Lithic Resources. InPrehistoric Hunters of theHigh Migrations edited R. H. 63-68. Univer Plains, 2nd ed, edited by G. C. Frison, pp. 449-476. tory, by Thompson, pp. Academic Press, New York. sity of Arizona Bulletin 29, University of Arizona Press, Tucson. Moffat, Charles R. 1986 in 1998 Oneota in theCentral Des Moines Valley. The Wis Migrations Prehistory: Inferring Population Movement Cultural Remains. Yale consin Archeologist 79:165-195. from University Press, New Haven. Morrow, Toby Keihl 1984 Raw Material Descriptions (Appendix A). In Iowa Rusco, Mary 1960 The White Rock The of Nebraska Projectile Points, by Toby Morrow, pp. 99-104. Of Aspect. University of Note Book Lincoln. fice of the State Archaeologist, The University of Laboratory Anthropology 4, Iowa Iowa, City. Schiffer,Michael B. 1990 The Influence of Surface Treatment on Ef 1994 A Key to the Identification of Chipped-Stone Raw Heating fectiveness of Ceramic Vessels. Journal Archaeo Materials Found on Archaeological Sites in Iowa. of Science 17:373-381. Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society 41:108 logical 129. Scott, Frederick William Neuman, Robert W. 1995 Tradeware in the Central Plains Tradition: Steed Kisker and of theCen 1963 Archeological Salvage Investigations in the Presence, Influence, Joining Lovewell Reservoir Area, Kansas. Bureau of Ameri tral Plains Tradition. The Kansas Anthropologist 16:46-68. can Ethnology Bulletin 185, River Basin Survey Pa Smithsonian pers 32, Institution,Washington. Stuiver, Minze and G. W. Pearson Nolan, David J. and Lawrence A. Conrad 1993 High-Precision Calibration of theRadiocarbon Time A.D. 1950-500 B.C. and B 1998 Characterizing Lima Lake Oneota. The Wisconsin Scale, 2500-6000 .C.Radio cordon 35:1-23. Archeologist 79:117-146.

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Wedel, Waldo R. Wilson, Gilbert L. 1959 An Introduction to Kansas Archeology. Bureau 1987 Buffalo Bird Woman's Garden. Minnesota Histori of American Ethnology Bulletin 174, cal Society, St. Paul. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Wininger, Derek C. and Brad Logan 1986 Central Plains Prehistory: Holocene Environ 1995 Ceramic Assemblage. In Phasing in White Rock: ments and Culture Change in the Republican Archaeological Investigation of theWhite Rock and River Basin. University of Nebraska Press, Lin Warne Sites, Lovewell Reservoir, Jewell County, coln. Kansas, 1994-1995, edited by B. Logan, pp. 56 64. University of Kansas Museum of Anthro Willey, Gordon R., Charles C. Di Peso, William A. pology Project Report Series 90, Lawrence. Ritchie, Irving Rouse, John H. Rowe, and Donald W. Lathrap Wright, Carl M. 1956 An Archaeological Classification of Culture Con 1985 The Complex Aspects of the "Smoky Hill Jasper," tact Situations. In Seminars in Archaeology: Now Known as Niobrarite. Journal of theKansas 1955, edited by R. Wauchope. Memoirs of the Anthropological Association 5(3):87-90. Society for American Archaeology \\.Ameri can Antiquity 22(2)pt.2:l-30.

Request forMaterials Plains Anthropological Society Archives

The Plains Anthropological Society Archives was developed following discussions at the 1985 Plains Conference in Iowa City. The purpose of theArchives is to assemble and maintain materials related to the Plains Anthropological Society, thePlains Anthropological Conference, and theirhistory. The Archive is permanently located at theUniversity of South Dakota. The Archive is seeking records, photographs, correspondence, and other pertinent documents for curation. Please contact the archivist before sending materials.

Amy Cooper Special Collections Archivist USD Special Collections I.D.Weeks Library 414 E. Clark Street VerniilUon,SD 57069 (605)677-5450 E-mail: [email protected]

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