coatings
Review Electrodeposited Hydroxyapatite-Based Biocoatings: Recent Progress and Future Challenges
Mir Saman Safavi 1, Frank C. Walsh 2, Maria A. Surmeneva 3, Roman A. Surmenev 3,* and Jafar Khalil-Allafi 1,*
1 Research Center for Advanced Materials, Faculty of Materials Engineering, Sahand University of Technology, Tabriz P.O. Box 51335-1996, Iran; [email protected] 2 Electrochemical Engineering Laboratory, National Centre for Advanced Tribology, Faculty of Engineering and the Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK; [email protected] 3 Physical Materials Science and Composite Materials Center, Research School of Chemistry & Applied Biomedical Sciences, National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, P.O. Box 634050 Tomsk, Russia; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] (R.A.S.); jallafi@yahoo.de (J.K.-A.)
Abstract: Hydroxyapatite has become an important coating material for bioimplants, following the introduction of synthetic HAp in the 1950s. The HAp coatings require controlled surface rough- ness/porosity, adequate corrosion resistance and need to show favorable tribological behavior. The deposition rate must be sufficiently fast and the coating technique needs to be applied at different scales on substrates having a diverse structure, composition, size, and shape. A detailed overview of dry and wet coating methods is given. The benefits of electrodeposition include con- trolled thickness and morphology, ability to coat a wide range of component size/shape and ease of industrial processing. Pulsed current and potential techniques have provided denser and more uniform coatings on different metallic materials/implants. The mechanism of HAp electrodeposition
is considered and the effect of operational variables on deposit properties is highlighted. The most recent progress in the field is critically reviewed. Developments in mineral substituted and included
Citation: Safavi, M.S.; Walsh, F.C.; particle, composite HAp coatings, including those reinforced by metallic, ceramic and polymeric Surmeneva, M.A.; Surmenev, R.A.; particles; carbon nanotubes, modified graphenes, chitosan, and heparin, are considered in detail. Khalil-Allafi, J. Electrodeposited Technical challenges which deserve further research are identified and a forward look in the field of Hydroxyapatite-Based Biocoatings: the electrodeposited HAp coatings is taken. Recent Progress and Future Challenges. Coatings 2021, 11, 110. Keywords: bioactivity; biocompatibility; coating; corrosion; electrodeposition; hydroxyapatite https://doi.org/10.3390/ coatings11010110
Received: 24 December 2020 1. Introduction Accepted: 15 January 2021 Published: 19 January 2021 A bioimplant is a material, device, or tissue, which is inserted into the body during a surgical procedure to replace or repair the damaged component. In general, the aim of
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral bioimplantation is to restore or improve the performance of damaged tissue. The implanted with regard to jurisdictional claims in material should show high biocompatibility, excellent corrosion resistance, and adequate published maps and institutional affil- mechanical durability. The primarily requirement for selection of globally used implants iations. remains biocompatibility. Materials can remain temporarily or permanently in the patient’s body. A conventional classification for implants can be proposed according to the type of constituent material as: (i) Metallic, (ii) ceramic, (iii) polymer, (iv) composite, or (iv) natural. Depending on the targeted application, the shape, and size of an implant can be varied in a wide range, e.g., pin, plate, or screw. Table1 lists examples of implant materials [1–5]. Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Metallic components hold a dominant position in the global implant market followed This article is an open access article by ceramics and polymers. A significant increase in the market of all types of the implants distributed under the terms and is forecast by 2022 and the market for metallic implants will extend rapidly. The global im- conditions of the Creative Commons plant market is predicted to be $116 billion in 2022. The market value is doubled compared Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// to the preceding 6 years. While there is a broad spectrum of implants classified according to creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ their function, dental, facial, spinal, ophthalmic, stents, and orthopedic implants dominate 4.0/). the global market and their growth is accelerating faster than the others [2].
Coatings 2021, 11, 110. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings11010110 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/coatings Coatings 2021, 11, 110 2 of 62
Table 1. Some examples of implants based on their constituent material.
Implant Material Examples Ref. Ti and its alloys such as Ti6Al4V, NiTi, Co-Cr alloy, stainless Metallic [2] steel and Mg Ceramic Calcium phosphates, zirconia, silicon, and alumina [3] Polyester, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), Polymer polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) [1] and polyurethane (PU) Calcium phosphates/collagen and Composite [4] carbon-fiber/polyetheretherketone (PEEK) Natural Bone, tissue, and skin [6]
In spite of attractive properties, including good corrosion resistance, moderate biocom- patibility and high mechanical properties, implants, in particular metallic ones, suffer from multiple drawbacks associated with both short/long-term application which limited the successful function of these materials within the service condition such as: (i) Inappropriate biocompatibility; releasing metallic ions which are toxic to living cells and tissue. This is the case for NiTi, Ti6Al4V and stainless steel in which release of Ni, Al, V, Mo, and Cr ions can cause a variety of diseases from cancer to Alzheimer’s disease and bronchitis [7–11]. (ii) Insufficient bioactivity; in which the implanted material may be unable to stimulate bone formation and healing, degrading the implantation process. This is a known problem with stainless steel. Mg alloys such as AZ91 and AZ31, which have received much attraction for biomedical applications within the recent years, commonly suffer from poor corrosion resistance that may degrade their bioactivity [12–15]. The bone/implant interface plays a vital role in determining durability, integrity, and final success and has become a major criterion in the selection of an implant material. Factors such as surface topography, roughness, morphology, and chemical composition strongly affect osseointegration. Such considerations highlight the need to offer strategies to overcome the challenges. Surface modification of implants is well-accepted as a key solution in addressing these problems [16–21]. Many implants demand a biocompatible and bioactive coating layer which is adherent to the substrate. A variety of coating methods is available, depending on economic and technical considerations. Generally, calcium phosphate (CaP) ceramic coatings suits well for this purpose and bears multiple advantages over other coatings that have been proposed for stimulating osseointegration of the implant. The family of CaP encompasses four main members, namely dicalcium dihydrogen phosphate or brushite (DCPD), octacalcium phosphate (OCP), hydroxyapatite (HAp), and tricalcium phosphate (TCP). Among these phases, HAp with Ca/P molar ratio of 1.67 has the highest biocompatibility arise from its similar composition to the natural bone along with favorable surface chemistry supporting the bone development. In addition, it has the highest stability in the physiological condition, while DCPD has the highest solubility. Such desirable characteristics enable synthetic HAp in a vast spectrum of biomedical fields, such as orthopedics and orthodontics [22–40]. Some of the outstanding advantages of CaP ceramics as a protective coating for a variety of metallic implants can be summarized as: (i) Acceptable biological performance embracing biocompatibility, i.e., allowing the human body cell to remain viable, grow, and properly carry out its duties in addition to offering suitable bioactivity, including encouraged formation of apatite, as the main constituent of bone and tooth. (ii) Improved corrosion behavior, not only to prolong the service lifetime of the implant through preventing the failure of the protected implant but also suppresses the toxic ions that may be released from the surface of metallic implant [41–43]. Coatings 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 64
(i) Acceptable biological performance embracing biocompatibility, i.e., allowing the hu- man body cell to remain viable, grow, and properly carry out its duties in addition to offering suitable bioactivity, including encouraged formation of apatite, as the main constituent of bone and tooth. (ii) Improved corrosion behavior, not only to prolong the service lifetime of the implant through preventing the failure of the protected implant but also suppresses the toxic Coatings 2021, 11, 110 ions that may be released from the surface of metallic implant [41–43]. 3 of 62 HAp coatings require controlled porosity, surface roughness, adequate corrosion re- sistance,HAp and coatings favorable require tribological controlled behavior; porosity, the surfacedeposition roughness, rate must adequate be sufficiently corrosion fast andresistance, the coating and favorabletechnique tribologicalsuited to different behavior; scales. the The deposition major issue rate mustassociated be sufficiently with cal- ciumfast and phosphate the coating coatings technique is their suited poor to adhesi differenton to scales. underlying The major metallic issue substrate associated due with to thecalcium large phosphate difference coatingsbetween istheir their thermal poor adhesion expansion to underlyingcoefficients. metallic Another substrate challenge due is naturalto the large dissolution difference of free between HAp particles, their thermal which expansion may become coefficients. a third-party Another agent challenge in dete- riorationis natural of dissolution the femoral of head free component HAp particles, and implant. which may The become brittle nature a third-party of HAp agentcan also in restrictdeterioration the application of the femoral of this headbioactive component ceramic andin load-bearing implant. The applications, brittle nature such of as HAp arti- ficialcan also hip restrictimplants the [44–46]. application In conclusion, of this bioactive a hybrid ceramic system incontaining load-bearing an inner applications, metallic substratesuch as artificial such as hip Ti coated implants with [44 an–46 outer]. In conclusion,layer including a hybrid HApsystem holds the containing promise anto innersolve themetallic problems substrate outlined such asabove Ti coated since withit has an bo outerth favorable layer including mechanical HAp holdsbehavior the promiseand ad- vancedto solve biological the problems characteristics outlined above [47–49]. since Advances it has both in favorablethe field of mechanical bioactive HAp behavior coatings and withadvanced improved biological mechanical characteristics and corrosion [47–49]. performance Advances in thedo fieldnot come of bioactive easy. An HAp enormous coatings researcheswith improved have mechanicalbeen made since and corrosion early 1950s performance to achieve the do present not come millstones. easy. An A enormous timeline forresearches the development have been of made electrochemically since early 1950s deposited to achieve HAp the coatings present is millstones. illustrated A in timeline Figure 1.for the development of electrochemically deposited HAp coatings is illustrated in Figure1.
Figure 1. A timeline for the development of electrochemically deposited hydroxyap-atite (HAp) coatings.
In view view of of the the above above challenges, challenges, the the focus focus of ofthis this review review is on is onthe theformation formation and andde- taileddetailed analysis analysis of operating of operating factors factors affecting affecting the final the final characteristics characteristics of the of pure the pureHAp HApcoat- ings.coatings. The final The finalperformance performance of mineral-substituted of mineral-substituted HAp HAp will also will be also reviewed, be reviewed, highlight- high- inglighting the role the of role substituted of substituted minerals. minerals. Finally, Finally, the characteristics the characteristics of the of electrodeposited the electrodeposited par- ticle-reinforcedparticle-reinforced HAp HAp coatings coatings will will be be overviewed overviewed as as a afunction function of of included included particle. An overview of studies on electrodeposition of HApHAp coatings is given, while those using other types of calcium phosphates are excluded. 2. Common Deposition Techniques 2. Common Deposition Techniques A variety of laboratory and industrial scale techniques have been proposed for depo- A variety of laboratory and industrial scale techniques have been proposed for dep- sition of coatings to improve the mechanical, anti-corrosion, and biological performance of osition of coatings to improve the mechanical, anti-corrosion, and biological performance the implants. Each technique has its benefits and limitations, it is important to be aware of the implants. Each technique has its benefits and limitations, it is important to be aware of the relative merits of these coating techniques and the resultant deposit characteristics. of the relative merits of these coating techniques and the resultant deposit characteristics. In particular, not all coating techniques are suited to large or production scale processing. In particular, not all coating techniques are suited to large or production scale processing. Although many papers have discussed the operating principles behind coating techniques, a concise overview provides background.
2.1. Dry Techniques Dry techniques refer to methods in which the precursor particles are directly coated onto substrates without the need for solvent(s). Thermal spraying including plasma spraying, flame spraying, and high velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) spraying as well as physical vapor deposition (PVD), such as magnetron sputtering, fall under the category of dry coatings [50]. Coatings 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 64
Although many papers have discussed the operating principles behind coating tech- niques, a concise overview provides background.
2.1. Dry Techniques Dry techniques refer to methods in which the precursor particles are directly coated onto substrates without the need for solvent(s). Thermal spraying including plasma spraying, flame spraying, and high velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) spraying as well as phys- Coatings 2021, 11, 110 ical vapor deposition (PVD), such as magnetron sputtering, fall under the category of4 dry of 62 coatings [50]. • Thermal Spraying • Thermal Spraying Thermal spraying has found vast applications in multiple fields of surface engineer- ing, especiallyThermal sprayingbioceramic has coatings. found vast In general, applications this inprocess multiple includes fields the of surface high speed engineering, spray- ingespecially of the molten bioceramic or semi-molten coatings. In general,particles this toward process a substrate, includes thehere high implant, speed to spraying produce of thethe coatings molten or up semi-molten to 0.2 mm particlesthickness. toward A wide a substrate, variety of here materials, implant, including to produce pure the coatingsmetals, up to 0.2 mm thickness. A wide variety of materials, including pure metals, ceramics, alloys, ceramics, alloys, and composites can be thermally spayed on substrates. Thermal spraying and composites can be thermally spayed on substrates. Thermal spraying methods can be methods can be classified depending on heating sources used for melting the precursor classified depending on heating sources used for melting the precursor [51–53]. A schematic [51–53]. A schematic of thermal spraying is shown in Figure 2. of thermal spraying is shown in Figure2.
FigureFigure 2. 2. TheThe schematic schematic illustration illustration of of thermal thermal spraying. spraying. During plasma spraying, which is carried out either in atmosphere or vacuum en- During plasma spraying, which is carried out either in atmosphere or vacuum envi- vironment, a direct current (DC) is established between the electrodes using a plasma ronment, a direct current (DC) is established between the electrodes using a plasma form- forming gas such as helium, argon, or hydrogen. This can melt or semi-melt the precursor ing gas such as helium, argon, or hydrogen. This can melt or semi-melt the precursor since since the temperature may reach <16,000 ◦C. These particles enter the gun to be sprayed the temperature may reach <16,000 °C. These particles enter the gun to be sprayed from a from a nozzle toward the substrate. Plasma spraying is the most commonly used thermal nozzle toward the substrate. Plasma spraying is the most commonly used thermal spray- spraying technique for deposition of HAp coatings [54–56]. The thickness of HAp coat- ing technique for deposition of HAp coatings [54–56]. The thickness of HAp coatings fab- ings fabricated by this method is on a micron-scale. For instance, plasma sprayed HAp ricated by this method is on a micron-scale. For instance, plasma sprayed HAp coatings coatings by Vahabzadeh et al. [57] had a thickness of 150 µm, while those produced by by Vahabzadeh et al. [57] had a thickness of 150 µm, while those produced by Lynn et al. Lynn et al. [58] were 5–50 µm thick. [58] wereIn flame 5–50 sprayedµm thick. industrial applications over a century, a partially melted precursor by theIn flame flame sprayed is blown industrial toward the applications substrate. ov Theer a flame century, containing a partially a mixture melted ofprecursor oxygen byand the fuel, flame e.g., is propaneblown toward is prepared the substrate. in front ofThe gun flame nuzzle. containing Using thisa mixture process, of itoxygen is possible and fuel,to control e.g., propane the temperature is prepared by settingin front the of gun oxygen/fuel nuzzle. Using ratio. this The process, coated material it is possible may to be controlpost-heated the temperature by the flame by when setting deposition the oxygen/fu is finishedel ratio. [59 The–61 ].coated material may be post- heatedHVOF, by the a flame well-developed when deposition technique is finished for deposition [59–61]. of HAp, involves combustion of fuelHVOF, gases such a well-developed as hydrogen, liquefiedtechnique petroleum for deposition gas (LPG)of HAp, or paraffininvolves withcombustion oxygen of to fuelfabricate gases molten such as particles, hydrogen, which liquefied can reach petroleum supersonic gas speed(LPG) after or paraffin passing with the combustion oxygen to fabricatechamber molten to a nozzle. particles, The which type of can used reach fuels supersonic determines speed the after temperature passing the of thecombustion chamber, where it can vary in the range of 2700–3100 ◦C[62–64]. • Physical Vapor Deposition
PVD encompasses a variety of deposition processes employed to fabricate thin films and protective coatings on electrically conductive substrates. The technique is performed in a high vacuum chamber in which a condensed-phase material (target) transform to vapor-phase via sputtering or evaporation, followed by transferring the resultant vapor- phase at the atomic level through an inert atmosphere. Eventually, a condensed film is deposited on the substrate. Coatings 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 64
chamber to a nozzle. The type of used fuels determines the temperature of the chamber, where it can vary in the range of 2700–3100 °C [62–64]. • Physical Vapor Deposition PVD encompasses a variety of deposition processes employed to fabricate thin films and protective coatings on electrically conductive substrates. The technique is performed in a high vacuum chamber in which a condensed-phase material (target) transform to va- Coatings 2021, 11, 110 por-phase via sputtering or evaporation, followed by transferring the resultant vapor-5 of 62 phase at the atomic level through an inert atmosphere. Eventually, a condensed film is deposited on the substrate. Recently,Recently, magnetronmagnetron sputteringsputtering hashas attractedattracted muchmuch attentionattention andand developeddeveloped rapidlyrapidly forfor HApHAp coatings.coatings. ThisThis methodmethod isis oftenoften includedincluded underunder thethe umbrellaumbrella ofof PVDPVD techniquestechniques and enables the fabrication of coatings with a composition almost the same as that of the and enables the fabrication of coatings with a composition almost the same as that of the target, allowing excellent adhesion to the substrate [65–69]. Figure3 provides a schematic target, allowing excellent adhesion to the substrate [65–69]. Figure 3 provides a schematic of the PVD process for deposition of HAp coatings. of the PVD process for deposition of HAp coatings.
FigureFigure 3.3. AA schematicschematic illustrationillustration ofof physicalphysical vaporvapor depositiondeposition (PVD)(PVD) processprocess forfor depositiondeposition ofof HApHAp coatings.coatings.
2.2.2.2. Wet TechniquesTechniques WetWet techniquestechniques includingincluding sol-gelsol-gel andand electrochemicalelectrochemical depositiondeposition taketake thethe advantagesadvantages ofof lowlow productionproduction cost cost and and high high flexibility, flexibility, which which make make them them as as a promisinga promising alternative alternative to dryto dry ones ones [70 [70].]. • Sol-Gel • Sol-Gel Sol-gel is largely used for deposition of HAp coating onto a variety of implants that Sol-gel is largely used for deposition of HAp coating onto a variety of implants involves two successive steps including (i) preparation of a sol which is a colloidal sus- that involves two successive steps including (i) preparation of a sol which is a colloidal pension containing dissolved precursor in a solvent and (ii) fabrication of gel through suspension containing dissolved precursor in a solvent and (ii) fabrication of gel through polycondensation of the prepared sol. In general, the sol-gel route can be carried out in an polycondensation of the prepared sol. In general, the sol-gel route can be carried out in an aqueous- or alcohol-based medium. In addition, the precursors used in this method are aqueous- or alcohol-based medium. In addition, the precursors used in this method are alkoxide or non-alkoxide. Alkoxide precursors are more volatile. To prepare the sol used alkoxide or non-alkoxide. Alkoxide precursors are more volatile. To prepare the sol used for deposition of HAp coatings, Ca and P precursors should be added to an appropriate for deposition of HAp coatings, Ca and P precursors should be added to an appropriate solvent consisted of ethanol and a minute amount of water. The aim behind addition of solvent consisted of ethanol and a minute amount of water. The aim behind addition of water is to promote the hydrolysis of the sol. The commonly used precursors for calcium water is to promote the hydrolysis of the sol. The commonly used precursors for calcium and phosphorous during sol preparation are calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2) and phosphorus pentoxide (P4O10) or triethyl phosphite (P(OEt)3;C6H15O3P), respectively [29,71–75]. The prepared sol can be applied on the substrate either by dip-coating or spin-coating approaches. While dip-coating includes three steps of dipping, withdrawing, and drying; spin-coating refers to a method in which the sol is applied on the center of a spinning substrate until it spreads and fully coats the substrate [76,77]. Figure4 schematically shows a spin-coating process for fabrication of HAp coating. Coatings 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 64
and phosphorous during sol preparation are calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2) and phosphorus pentoxide (P4O10) or triethyl phosphite (P(OEt)3; C6H15O3P), respectively [29,71–75]. The prepared sol can be applied on the substrate either by dip-coating or spin-coating approaches. While dip-coating includes three steps of dipping, withdrawing, and drying; spin-coating refers to a method in which the sol is applied on the center of a spinning Coatings 2021, 11, 110 6 of 62 substrate until it spreads and fully coats the substrate [76,77]. Figure 4 schematically shows a spin-coating process for fabrication of HAp coating.
Figure 4. Schematic illustration of the spin-coating process for fabrication of HAp coating. Figure 4. Schematic illustration of the spin-coating process for fabrication of HAp coating.
• Electrochemical Deposition • Electrochemical Deposition Electrochemical deposition can be subdivided into electroless (autocatalytic) deposi- Electrochemicaltion, electrophoretic deposition candeposition be subdivided (EPD) and the into main electroless theme of this (autocatalytic) review, electrodeposi- deposi- tion, electrophoretiction (ED). deposition Electrodeposition (EPD) and has thebecome main more theme interesting of this for review,development electrodeposition of high perfor- mance HAp deposits. Non-metallic substrates, such as polymer mesh or porous ceramics (ED). Electrodepositioncan be metallized has become by electroless more interesting deposition fo forllowing development appropriate of sensitization high performance and acti- HAp deposits. Non-metallicvation pretreatment substrates, [78,79]. such as polymer mesh or porous ceramics can be metallized by electrolessEPD is often deposition performed followingin a two-electrode appropriate cell at a constant sensitization cell voltage. and It activation is a well- pretreatment [78known,79]. colloidal technique for fabrication of ceramic coatings in which the charged sus- EPD is oftenpended/dispersed performed inparticles a two-electrode move through a cell liquid at medium a constant to deposit cell onto voltage. the conductive It is a substrate. Usually, the suspended particles size should not exceed 30 µm in size [80,81]. well-known colloidalEPD makes technique it possible for to fabricationdeposit both pure of ceramic HAp and coatings HAp-based in composite which the coatings charged on suspended/dispersedmetallic particles implants. moveThe commonly through used a liquid chemicals medium for preparation to deposit of onto HAp the electrolyte conduc- tive substrate. Usually,within EPD the process suspended encompass particles HAp particles, size should a solvent not and exceed a dispersant. 30 µm inCommonly, size [80, 81n- ]. EPD makes it possiblebutanol and to deposit triethanolamine both pure serve HApas solvent and and HAp-based dispersant, respectively composite [82,83]. coatings A con- on ventional arrangement for EPD of HAp coatings is shown in Figure 5. metallic implants. The commonly used chemicals for preparation of HAp electrolyte within EPD process encompass HAp particles, a solvent and a dispersant. Commonly, n-butanol and triethanolamine serve as solvent and dispersant, respectively [82,83]. A conventional arrangement for EPD of HAp coatings is shown in Figure5. It is to be noted that Figure5 presents a schematic of cathodic EPD since the positively charged particles move toward the cathode, i.e., negatively charged electrode. EPD of negatively charged particles is known as anodic EPD [81]. Electrodeposition, a widely used surface engineering technique, refers to a process in
which the anode material dissolves by applying an electrical current, followed by moving is worth noting that anodes may be sacrificial or inert. At the cathode/electrolyte interface, ions are reduced and a coating with a desired composition is deposited on the surface of cathode. Electrodeposition can also be carried out by anodic oxidation of solution species. The electrolyte provides an electrical circuit between the electrodes in the cell [84–93]. Electrodeposition offers promising horizons to fabricate HAp coatings as an alternative for dry techniques, especially plasma spraying. During electrodeposition of HAp, calcium- containing and phosphorous-containing salts are dissolved in water to prepare electrolyte. This technique takes the advantages of pH-dependent solubility of calcium phosphate salts. Recently, many attempts have been made to optimize operational parameters. In the next section, the mechanisms governing the deposition of coating during the electrodeposition process are treated comprehensively [94]. Table2 summarizes the major advantages and limitations of techniques used for fabrication of HAp biocoatings. Coatings 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 64 Coatings 2021, 11, 110 7 of 62
Figure 5. A schematic illustration of the conventional set-up for electrophoretic deposition (EPD) Figure 5. A schematic illustration of the conventional set-up for electrophoretic deposition (EPD) of of HAp coatings. HAp coatings. It is to be noted that Figure 5 presents a schematic of cathodic EPD since the positively Table 2. The advantagescharged and particles limitations move of toward the techniques the cathode, used i.e., negatively for fabrication charged of electrode. HAp biocoatings EPD of neg- [95–99]. atively charged particles is known as anodic EPD [81]. Deposition TechniqueElectrodeposition, Thickness a widely used surface engineering Advantages technique, refers to a process Limitations in which the anode material dissolves by applying an electrical current, followed by mov- ing is worth noting that anodes may be sacrificial or inert. At the cathode/electrolyteRelatively in- poor adhesion to terface, ions are reduced and a coating with a desired composition is depositedthe substrate, on the formation of High deposition rate, low cost, surface30–200 of cathode.µm for Electrodeposition thermal can also be carried out by anodic oxidationamorphous of solu- structure, coarse Thermal spraying improved corrosion resistance, tionspraying species. and The lesselectrolyte than 20providesµm an electrical circuit between the electrodesgrains, in the cell lack of uniformity, (plasma spraying) rapid bone healing, and low [84–93].for Electrodeposition plasma spraying offers promising horizons to fabricate HAp coatings asinability an al- to fabricate risk of degradation of coating. ternative for dry techniques, especially plasma spraying. During electrodepositioncomposite of coating and HAp, calcium-containing and phosphorous-containing salts are dissolved in water tocrack pre- formation. pare electrolyte. This technique takes the advantages of pH-dependent solubilityExpensive, of cal- line of sight cium phosphate salts. Recently, many attempts have been made to optimize operational technique, time consuming, parameters. In the next section, the mechanismsHigh adhesion, governing dense the deposition coating, of coating dur- PVD (sputter coating) 0.5–3.0 µm low deposition ing the electrodeposition process are treatanded uniformity comprehensively in thickness. [94]. Table 2 summarizes the major advantages and limitations of techniques used for fabrication of HAp biocoat-rate, amorphous ings. coatings produced. Requires precise control of Ability to coat substrates with Table 2. The advantages and limitations of the techniques used for fabrication of HAp biocoatings [95–99]. reaction environment, complex geometries, low pilot-scale production; high Deposition temperature, high purity, Sol-gelThickness 0.5–2.0Advantagesµm Limitations cost of precursors, porous Technique uniform coating, moderate 30–200 µm for structure, poor tribological Thermal High deposition rate, low cost, Relativelyadhesion, poor adhesion and excellent to the substrate, formation of thermal spraying properties and a need spraying improved corrosion resistance, amorphouscorrosion structure, resistance. coarse grains, lack of uniformity, and less than 20 for post-treatments. (plasma rapid bone healing, and low risk of inability to fabricate composite coating and crack µm for plasma spraying) degradation of coating. Uniform thickness,formation. fast spraying deposition, simple procedure, low cost, ability to coat Requires post-sintering; EPD 0.1–2.0 mm substrates with complex deposit has a crack- geometries, and possibility for containing microstructure.
the incorporation of reinforcing agents. Low temperature, uniform Poor adhesion, difficulty in coatings, rapid coating controlling electrolyte ED 0.05–0.5 mm process, and possibility to parameters, and residual incorporate stress in deposits. reinforcing agents. Coatings 2021, 11, 110 8 of 62
3. Pure HAp Biocoatings 3.1. Mechanisms of HAp Electrodeposition During electrodeposition, the following reactions may be occurred at the surface of the cathode submerged in the salt-containing aqueous electrolyte (without H2O2)[11,100,101]:
− − O2 + 2H2O + 4e → 4OH (1)
− − 2H2O + 2e → H2 + 2OH (2) + − 2H + 2e → H2 (3) − − 2− H2PO4 + OH → HPO4 + H2 (4) − − 3− HPO4 + OH → PO4 + H2 (5)
Equation (2) corresponds to the reduction of H2O which results in formation of hydrogen bubbles near the working electrode. As hydrogen is one of the products of Equations (2) and (3), the local pH of the electrolyte solution in the vicinity of the cathode increases. The increased pH level provides a suitable substrate for acid–base reactions, as stated in Equation (4). An increase in concentration of OH− ions can lead to the increased number of hydrogen phosphate and phosphate ions through Equations (4) and (5), i.e., 2− 3− reduction reactions of HPO4 and PO4 . It can be stated that the sudden increase in pH is responsible for nucleation and growth of CaP phases. In other words, the spontaneous diffusion of OH− ions from surface of the cathode toward bulk electrolyte results in pH change at electrode/electrolyte interface. Electron transfer at the electrode/electrolyte 2− interface contributes to dissociation of the HPO4 ion. The increased pH level may lead to other reactions [102–104]:
− − 2− H2PO4 + OH → HPO4 + H2O (6)
2− − 3− HPO4 + OH → PO4 + H2O (7) During deposition, ions present in the electrolyte, such as Ca2+ and H+, move toward 2− the cathode due to the electric field gradient, while existing HPO4 ions remain in the diffusing layer due to the differential concentration between the surface of cathode and the bulk electrolyte. As the distance from the surface of electrode increases, the concentration 2− of these ions may increase. Differential concentration can act as driving force for HPO4 ions to diffuse through bulk electrolyte toward diffusion layer to achieve the surface of cathode. Figure6 schematically illustrates the movement of ions toward the cathode during Coatings 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 64 electrodeposition [105–107].
Figure 6. Schematic illustration of the proposed model for movement and deposition of the ions during the electrodepo- sitionFigure process. 6. Schematic illustration of the proposed model for movement and deposition of the ions during the
electrodeposition process. Calcium ions react with HPO and PO ions to form various calcium phosphates phases, including DCPD, OCP, HAp, and TCP [108,109].