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Mutagens in Surface Waters: a Review

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Mutagens in Surface Waters: a Review Mutation Research 567 (2004) 109–149 www.elsevier.com/locate/reviewsmr Community address: www.elsevier.com/locate/mutres Review Mutagens in surface waters: a review Takeshi Ohea,*, Tetsushi Watanabeb, Keiji Wakabayashic aDepartment of Food and Nutrition, Kyoto Women’s University, 35 Kitahiyoshi-cho, Imakumano, Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto 605-8501, Japan bDepartment of Public Health, Kyoto Pharmaceutical University, 5 Nakauchicho, Misasagi, Yamashina-ku, Kyoto 607-8414, Japan cCancer Prevention Basic Research Project, National Cancer Center Research Institute, 1-1 Tsukiji 5-chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan Received 29 March 2004; received in revised form 24 August 2004; accepted 25 August 2004 Available online 21 November 2004 Abstract A review of the literature on the mutagenicity/genotoxicity of surface waters is presented in this article. Subheadings of this article include a description of sample concentration methods, mutagenic/genotoxic bioassay data, and suspected or identified mutagens in surface waters published in the literature since 1990. Much of the published surface water mutagenicity/ genotoxicity studies employed the Salmonella/mutagenicity test with strains TA98 and/or TA100 with and/or without metabolic activation. Among all data analyzed, the percentage of positive samples toward TA98 was approximately 15%, both in the absence and the presence of S9 mix. Those positive toward TA100 were 7%, both with and without S9 mix. The percentage classified as highly mutagenic (2500–5000 revertants per liter) or extremely mutagenic (more than 5000 revertants per liter) was approximately 3–5% both towards TA98 and TA100, regardless of the absence or the presence of S9 mix. This analysis demonstrates that some rivers in the world, especially in Europe, Asia and South America, are contaminated with potent direct- acting and indirect-acting frameshift-type and base substitution-type mutagens. These rivers are reported to be contaminated by either partially treated or untreated discharges from chemical industries, petrochemical industries, oil refineries, oil spills, rolling steel mills, untreated domestic sludges and pesticides runoff. Aquatic organisms such as teleosts and bivalves have also been used as sentinels to monitor contamination of surface water with genotoxic chemicals. DNA modifications were analyzed for this purpose. Many studies indicate that the 32P-postlabeling assay, the single cell gel electrophoresis (comet) assay and the micronucleus test are sensitive enough to monitor genotoxic responses of indigenous aquatic organisms to environmental pollution. In order to efficiently assess the presence of mutagens in the water, in addition to the chemical analysis, mutagenicity/ genotoxicity assays should be included as additional parameters in water quality monitoring programs. This is because according to this review they proved to be sensitive and reliable tools in the detection of mutagenic activity in aquatic environment. Many attempts to identify the chemicals responsible for the mutagenicity/genotoxicity of surface waters have been reported. Among these reports, researchers identified heavy metals, PAHs, heterocyclic amines, pesticides and so on. By combining the blue cotton hanging method as an adsorbent and the O-acetyltransferase-overproducing strain as a sensitive strain for * Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 75 531 7124; fax: +81 75 531 7170. E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Ohe). 1383-5742/$ – see front matter # 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.mrrev.2004.08.003 110 T. Ohe et al. / Mutation Research 567 (2004) 109–149 aminoarenes, Japanese researchers identified two new type of potent frameshift-type mutagens, formed unintentionally, in several surface waters. One group has a 2-phenylbenzotriazole (PBTA) structure, and seven analogues, PBTA-type mutagens, were identified in surface waters collected at sites below textile dyeing factories and municipal wastewater treatment plants treating domestic wastes and effluents. The other one has a polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) skelton with nitro and amino substitution group and it was revealed to be 4-amino-3,30-dichloro-5,40-dinitrobiphenyl derived from chemical plants treating polymers and dye intermediates. However, the identification of major putative mutagenic/genotoxic compounds in most surface waters with high mutagenic/genotoxic activity in the world have not been performed. Further efforts on chemical isolation and identification by bioassay-directed chemical analysis should be performed. # 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Mutagenicity/genotoxicity assays; Mutagens; Surface waters; Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs); Heterocyclic amines (HCAs); PBTA-type mutagens; 4-Amino-3,30-dichloro-5,40-dinitrobiphenyl Contents 1. Introduction . .................................................................. 110 2. Sample concentration of surface waters for mutagenicity/genotoxicity assays ........................ 115 3. Review of published mutagenicity/genoxicity assessment data of surface waters . .................... 122 3.1. Salmonella/mutagenicity data..................................................... 122 3.1.1. Mutagenic features of surface waters with Salmonella typhimurium TA98 and TA100 ....... 122 3.1.2. Mutagenic features of surface waters with nitroreductase- and/or O-acetyltransferase-overexpressing strains . ..................................... 127 3.2. SOS chromotest/umu-test and other bacterial assay. ..................................... 128 3.3. DNA adduct formation ......................................................... 129 3.4. DNA strand breaks . ......................................................... 131 3.5. Micronucleus induction ......................................................... 133 3.6. Other assessment methods . ..................................................... 135 4. Suspected or identified mutagens in surface waters . ......................................... 136 5. Summary . ...................................................................... 138 5.1. Mutagenic/genotoxic bioassay data on surface waters .................................... 138 5.2. Suspected or identified mutagens/genotoxins in surface waters. ............................ 141 6. Conclusion ...................................................................... 141 Acknowledgements . .................................................................. 142 References.......................................................................... 142 1. Introduction which contain many unknown compounds, are used as a source of drinking water, as well as for agricultural, Surface waters, such as rivers, lakes and seas, recreational and religious activities around the world. receive large quantities of waste water from industrial, Consequently, water pollution can be a serious public agricultural, and domestic sources, including muni- health and aquatic ecosystem problem [1–6]. The US cipal sewage treatment plants. These surface waters, EPA’s Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) for 2001 T. Ohe et al. / Mutation Research 567 (2004) 109–149 111 Table 1 Toxics release inventory (TRI) total surface water discharges and total air emissions for all chemicals by industry in the United States in the year of 2001a Industry type Total water releases (Â103 kg) Total air emissions (Â103 kg) Chemical and allied products 26117.1 103348.6 Food and related products 25018.2 25463.3 Primary metal smelting and processing 20262.5 26132.9 Petroleum refining and related industries 7752.9 21849.6 Paper and allied products 7500.9 71283.5 Electric, gas, and sanitary services 1596.5 325492.4 Electronic and other electrical equipment 1332.2 5770.3 Fabricated metal products 790.8 18346.9 Photographic, medical, and optical goods 646.1 3250.9 Coal mining and coal mine services 344.8 348.7 Tobacco products 241.7 1130.3 Metal mining (e.g., Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn, Au, Ag) 193.8 1294.8 Transportation equipment manufacture 89.9 30251.4 Textile mill products 79.6 2603.9 Stone, clay, glass, and concrete products 73.5 14181.8 Leather and leather products 56.6 547.7 Plastic and rubber products 32.2 34973.1 Solvent recovery operations (under RCRAb) 10.7 442.0 Lumber and wood products 9.0 13825.1 Industrial and commercial machinery 8.2 3755.7 Petroleum bulk stations and terminals 5.1 9600.4 Chemical wholesalers 0.8 569.0 Furniture and fixtures 0.3 3548.9 Printing, publishing, and related industries 0.1 8750.2 Apparel <0.1 155.7 No reported SIC code 483.2 1528.3 Miscellaneous manufacturing 16.6 3068.5 Total 100153.0 761763.6 a http://www.epa.gov/triexplorer/industry.htm. b The US Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. reported that more than 100,000 metric tonnes of activity as shown in Table 2 [8–10]. These carcinogens chemicals are released into surface waters and are categorized into two types: persistent compounds, approximately 762,000 metric tonnes of chemicals which include metals and polycyclic aromatic are emitted into the atmosphere annually by industrial compounds; and volatile compounds. Most chemicals use in the United States as shown in Table 1 [7]. This emitted into the atmosphere eventually reach the data show that large quantities of toxic materials are ground or surface waters through deposition, so these routinely released directly or indirectly (via airborne TRI results show that surface waters are readily emission) into aquatic systems after industrial usage. contaminated with a variety of known mutagenic or Table 1 also notes that more than fifty percent
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