Journal of South American Earth Sciences 81 (2018) 66e77

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences

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Provenance analysis of the Pliocene Ware Formation in the Guajira Peninsula, northern Colombia: Paleodrainage implications

* Nicolas Perez-Consuegra a, b, , Mauricio Parra a, Carlos Jaramillo b, Daniele Silvestro c, d, Sebastian Echeverri a, e, Camilo Montes f, g, Jose María Jaramillo h, Jaime Escobar b, i a Institute of Energy and Environment, University of Sao Paulo, 055108-010 Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil b Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Box 0843-03092, Balboa, Ancon, Panama c Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden d Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Gothenburg, Sweden e Instituto de Geoci^encias, Universidade de Sao~ Paulo, Rua do Lago 562, 05508-080 Sao~ Paulo, SP, Brazil f Department of Geological Sciences, Yachay Tech University, San Miguel de Urcuquí, Ecuador g Departamento de Geociencias, Universidad de los Andes, Bogota, Colombia h GMAS, Calle 62 # 3-24, Bogota DC, Colombia i Universidad del Norte, Km 5 Vía Puerto Colombia, Barranquilla, Colombia article info abstract

Article history: The Cocinetas Basin in the Guajira Peninsula, the northernmost tip of South America, today has a dry Received 5 July 2017 climate with low rainfall (<500 mm/yr), a long dry season (>ten months) and no year-long rivers or Received in revised form permanent standing bodies of fresh water. In contrast, the fossil and geological record indicate that the 2 November 2017 Cocinetas Basin was much wetter during the Miocene-Pliocene (~17e2.8 Ma). Water needed to sustain Accepted 2 November 2017 the paleofauna could either have originated from local sources or been brought by a larger river system Available online 8 November 2017 (e.g. proto Magdalena/Orinoco river) with headwaters either in Andean ranges or the Guyana shield. We present a provenance study of the Pliocene Ware Formation, using petrographic analysis of conglomerate Keywords: Provenance clasts and heavy minerals, and U-Pb dating of 140 detrital zircons. Clasts and heavy minerals are typical Pliocene of ensialic metamorphic and igneous sources. The detrital zircon age distribution indicates the Guajira Colombia ranges as the most probable sediment source. The overall results indicate that the fluvial system of the Paleogeography Ware Formation drained the surrounding ranges. The water was probably derived by local precipitation Guajira Peninsula onto the Guajira peninsula. Detrital geochronology © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Heavy minerals

1. Introduction fossil and geological records indicate that the Cocinetas Basin was much wetter during the Miocene-Pliocene (~17e2.8 Ma) (Aguilera Northern South America has a long history of mountain building et al., 2013; Cadena and Jaramillo, 2014; Forasiepi et al., 2014; and sedimentary basin formation driven by the interaction among Hendy et al., 2015; Jaramillo et al., 2015; Moreno et al., 2015; the Caribbean, Nazca and South American plates (e.g., Pindell et al., Amson et al., 2016; Carrillo-Briceno~ et al., 2016; Moreno-Bernal 2005). The Cocinetas Basin, located in the Guajira Peninsula (Figs. 1 et al., 2016; Suarez et al., 2016; Aguirre-Fernandez et al., 2017; and 2), records an Eocene to Pliocene sedimentary sequence that Perez et al., 2017). could help us understand the landscape evolution of northwestern The Guajira Peninsula is currently isolated from the major river South America (Jaramillo et al., 2015). This region has a very dry systems of northern South America (e.g. Magdalena, Amazon and climate with low rainfall (<500 mm/yr) and a very long dry season Orinoco rivers) by its bounding mountain ranges, which include the (>ten months), and it lacks all-year-long rivers or standing bodies Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (SNSM), the Perija Range and the of fresh water (e.g., Pabon-Caicedo et al., 2001). In contrast, the Merida Andes (Fig. 1A). Water supplies needed to sustain the Cocinetas Miocene-Pliocene fauna could either have originated from local precipitation and rivers from the Guajira ranges (Figs. 1 * Corresponding author. Current affiliation: Department of Earth Sciences, Syr- and 2) or have been brought by a larger river system, e.g. proto acuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA. Magdalena or proto Orinoco rivers, with headwaters either in E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Perez-Consuegra). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2017.11.002 0895-9811/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Fig. 1. Topography of northern South America showing major mountain ranges and possible sediment sources including Central and Eastern cordilleras, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (SNSM), Perija range, Merida Andes and Guiana Craton. Dashed line represents the shoreline during glacial times. (A) Yellow lines indicate drainage divides for the Mag- dalena, Orinoco and Amazon basins, and blue lines indicate main modern river systems. (B) Possible scenarios for freshwater fish dispersal in the Pliocene. (1) Proto-Orinoco river drains into the Caribbean through a lowland depression in the Merida Andes. (2) The proto Magdalena River drains into the Maracaibo region. This proto Magdalena would be connected to cis-Andean drainages through an opening in the southern Eastern Cordillera. (3) The freshwater plume of a proto Orinoco river delta would have allowed fish to migrate into the Maracaibo region (Guajira and Falcon). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) 68 N. Perez-Consuegra et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 81 (2018) 66e77

Andean ranges or in the Guiana Craton, respectively (Fig. 1), a the middle and a coquina at the top. The Ware Formation was setting similar to the modern Nile river, which has its headwaters in deposited in a fluvio-deltaic setting (Hendy et al., 2015; Moreno the humid mountains of Ethiopia and crosses the Sahara Desert, et al., 2015). bringing water and humidity into its delta in the Mediterranean Sea, hundreds of kilometers away (e.g., Garzanti et al., 2006; 2. Methods Dumont, 2009). Pliocene fossil fish found in Cocinetas have affin- ities to modern faunas of the Amazon-Orinoco river system Several samples were collected for a variety of analyses. We (Aguilera et al., 2013), suggesting a riverine connection between used six-digit identification numbers (IDs) to label field localities. the Cocinetas/Falcon basin and the Amazon-Orinoco drainage basin Each individual rock collected also has a unique ID number from the during the Pliocene (Aguilera et al., 2013). In contrast, geological Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI), together with the data indicate that the Merida Andes had already been uplifted by locality ID (Table S1, SOM). Information on the stratigraphic sec- the Pliocene, separating drainages on the two sides of the range tions, locality, and sample ID data can be consulted from Moreno (e.g., Parnaud et al., 1995; Audemard and Audemard, 2002; et al. (2015). We did conglomerate clast counting at four different Audemard M., 2003; Bermúdez et al., 2010). The Perija range, localities (100 clasts per locality; Table S1 and S2, SOM). Samples SNSM and Guajira ranges also had been uplifted by the Pliocene were collected from basal conglomerates at four localities of the (e.g., Kellogg, 1984; Zapata et al., 2009; Bayona et al., 2011; Cardona Ware Formation: Flor de la Guajira (STRI locality 290080; N et al., 2011a; Ayala et al., 2012)(Figs. 1 and 2). 11.8801 W 71.4772), Yotojoro area (STRI locality 290839; N Was the water needed to sustain the Cocinetas Pliocene fauna 11.9471 W 71.3085), Bahia Cocinas (STRI locality 640006, N locally derived or transported to the basin from a long distance? 11.8314 W 71.3853) and Puerto Lopez (STRI locality 290836; N Was there a fluvial connection between the Cocinetas Basin during 11.9587 W 71.2399). We analyzed eight samples for heavy min- the Pliocene and cis-Andean (e.g. drainages east of the Andes) erals petrography (Table S1 and S3, SOM). Six of these samples were drainages? In order to answer these questions, we performed a collected from different stratigraphic levels of the Ware Formation provenance analysis of the fluvial strata of the Pliocene Ware For- stratotype section (STRI locality 390075; N 11.8487 W 71.3243). mation (3.2e2.8 Ma). We performed a petrographic analysis of The two remaining samples were collected from a basal conglom- heavy minerals and conglomerate clasts and dated 140 detrital eratic sandstone in the Flor de la Guajira locality and from a modern zircons using U-Pb e Laser-ICPMS. If sediments of the Ware For- river sandy channel (STRI locality 640008; N 11.9572 W 71.3032). mation were locally derived, we would expect textural immaturity Two samples from the Ware stratotype section were used to obtain and Jurassic (200-150 Ma; Cardona-Molina et al., 2006), Permo- zircons for U-Pb dating (Table S1, S4, SOM). Triassic (300-250 Ma), 500-400 Ma (“Proto andean”; Weber et al., 2010) and Grenvillian (1250-850 Ma) (Cordani et al., 2005; 2.1. Conglomerate clast counts Cardona-Molina et al., 2006) detrital zircon ages, as these are the ages of the exposed basement in the peninsula. If sediments had A total of 100 clasts were collected at each locality using the been transported for a long distance, we would expect textural ribbon method (Howard, 1993). This technique consists in counting maturity and either Cretaceous (~90-70 Ma) detrital zircon ages if individual clasts within a specified area. The area must have di- the source is the Central/Eastern cordilleras (Villagomez et al., mensions significantly larger (5) than the longest axis of the 2011; Pepper et al., 2016; Jaramillo et al., 2017), or 2.5e1.5 Ga largest clast in the sample (Howard, 1993). Clasts <2 cm in size ages if the source is the Craton (Gaudette et al., 1978; Priem et al., were excluded from the analysis. Clasts were observed and iden- 1982; Gaudette and Olszewski, 1985; Santos et al., 2003; Ibanez- tified under a binocular microscope. Thin sections of some of the Mejia et al., 2011; Bonilla-Perez et al., 2013; Reis et al., 2013)(Fig. 2). clasts were done to aid in the identification. Clasts were classified into seven categories including quartzite, mica-schist, quartz are- 1.1. Geology of the Guajira Peninsula nites, lithic arenites, mudstone, micrite and sparitic limestone.

The Guajira Peninsula comprises three small mountain ranges 2.2. Heavy mineral analysis (Cocinas, Jarara and Macuira) surrounded by Cenozoic sedimentary basins (Fig. 2). These ranges are formed by three lithostratigraphic Heavy mineral separation was carried out by first sieving 200 g belts that include, from south to north (Fig. 2): (1) a weakly of sample into the 63e125 mm fraction. Samples were subsequently deformed Mesozoic volcano-sedimentary sequence similar to the dried and passed through 2.9 g/cm3 Methyl iodide (diluted) to southeastern SNSM foothills and Perija Range (MacDonald, 1964); separate the lighter minerals from the heavier suite. Heavy mineral (2) a Grenvillian and Late Paleozoic to Triassic metamorphic analysis was carried out through optical microscopy identification sequence (Alvarez, 1967; Cordani et al., 2005; Cardona-Molina of individual grains. The ribbon method was used for counting 300 et al., 2006; Weber et al., 2010) intruded by Upper Jurassic plu- grains per sample (Mange and Maurer, 1992). Heavy minerals were tons (Cardona-Molina et al., 2006); and (3) a belt of Upper Creta- categorized into three tectonic domains following Feo-Codecido ceous greenschists intercalated with mafic-ultramafic plutonic (1956) and Pettijohn et al. (1987): (1) Magmatic arc domain: rocks (Alvarez, 1967; Weber et al., 2010). In the Cabo de la Vela apatite, biotite, hornblende, sphene; (2) Ultramafic and mafic region, there are Cretaceous mafic and ultramafic rocks that crop domain: augite, serpentine, olivine, picotite, pleonaste, spinel and out as isolated remnants (Fig. 2; Alvarez, 1967; Weber et al., 2009). diopside; (3) Ensialic metamorphic domain: garnet, staurolite, During the Eocene, the interaction between the Caribbean and sillimanite, kyanite and andalusite. South American plates caused strike-slip displacement of the Cuisa fault (Fig. 2; Hernandez et al., 2003) and normal faulting of blocks 2.3. U-Pb detrital geochronology which led to the uplift of the Guajira Peninsula ranges and the formation of the pull-apart Cocinetas Basin (Zapata et al., 2014; We dated 145 zircons and obtained 140 concordant ages from Moreno et al., 2015). The youngest strata of the Cocinetas Basin two samples (STRI 39929 [n ¼ 68] and 38930 [n ¼ 72]; Table S4, correspond to the 25 m thick, late Pliocene (3.5e2.8 Ma), Ware SOM) at two different stratigraphic levels of the lower Pliocene Formation (Hendy et al., 2015; Moreno et al., 2015), which consists Ware Formation. Zircon crystals were extracted from heavy mineral of conglomerates at the base, coarse sandstones and mudstones in samples using the Franz magnetic separator and 3.4 g/cm3 Methyl N. Perez-Consuegra et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 81 (2018) 66e77 69

Fig. 2. Geological map of the Guajira Peninsula with sample localities (modified Gomez et al., 2015b; Irving, 1972) and major faults (Cuisa and MF: Macuira fault). Topography of the Guajira Peninsula in the upper right corner, with the location of the Macuira, Jarara and Cocinas ranges and the Cocinetas Basin. Lithology: met: Metamorphic; sed: Sedimentary; volc: Volcanic and intr: Intrusive. iodide. Zircon grains were mounted into epoxy resin discs and older grains. In U-Pb ages younger than 300 Ma, the discordance or observed under transmitted light (TL) and cathodoluminescence inverse discordance was not evaluated, whereas for grains older (CL) (Figure S1, SOM). UePb age determinations by laser-ablation than 300 Ma, those with discordances greater than 25% and inverse multicollector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer discordance greater than 10%, or error greater than 10%, were dis- (LAICPMS) were carried out at the Institute of Geosciences, Uni- carded. The interpretations on the detrital zircon ages are based in versity of Sao~ Paulo. The choice of spot sites was guided by CL identifying populations with at least three grains to prevent over imaging. The U-Pb isotope analyses were performed on zircon interpreting outliers that may arise from Pb loss. grains using a Thermo-Fisher Neptune laser-ablation multicollector We created a dataset of 228 published U-Pb zircon ages from inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer equipped with a bedrock samples of six regions that could have been sediment 193 Photon laser system. The analytical routine followed a pro- sources for the Ware Formation sediments, including the Central cedure that starts with three measurements of the Gem zircon (GJ- and Eastern cordilleras, the Merida Andes, the SNSM, the Guajira 1) standard, followed by measurements of two blanks and two ranges, and the Guiana Craton (Fig. 1 and Table S5, SOM). This data National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) 612 stan- set includes 160 U-Pb ages compiled by Gomez et al. (2015a) and 68 dards. After these steps, a sequence of 13 analyses of unknown U-Pb ages compiled in this study (Table S5, SOM) (Gaudette et al., zircons was performed, then two more analyses of GJ-1, two blanks 1978; Priem et al., 1982; Gaudette and Olszewski, 1985; Dorr€ and two NIST 612. These raw data were then corrected for back- et al., 1995; Restrepo, 1995; Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997; Schneider ground, instrumental mass bias drift and common Pb (Siqueira Santos et al., 2000; Ordonez-Carmona,~ 2001; Cardona-Molina, et al., 2014). Grain ages were filtered using standard methodolo- 2003; Jimenez Mejia, 2003; Cordani et al., 2005; Correa et al., gies (Gehrels et al., 2008). Due to the magnitude of uncertainties 2006; Cardona-Molina et al., 2006; Vinasco et al., 2006; Ibanez-~ inherent to U-Pb ages, a cut-off of 1000 Ma was chosen for selecting Mejia et al., 2007; Mejía Herrera et al., 2008; García et al., 2009; the 206 Pb/238U age in younger grains and the 206Pb/207 Pb in Mantilla F. et al., 2009; Duque, 2010; Giraldo-Arroyave, 2010; 70 N. Perez-Consuegra et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 81 (2018) 66e77

Horton et al., 2010; Jimenez, 2010; Bustamante et al., 2010; true age falls within the temporal range with 95% probability. Thus, Restrepo-Pace and Cediel, 2010; Cardona et al., 2010, 2011b; Weber the probability density of the age of a sample is modeled by a et al., 2010, 2014; Ibanez-Mejia et al., 2011; Leal-Mejía, 2011; normal distribution with mean equal to the midpoint of the range Mantilla Figueroa et al., 2011, 2012, 2013; Restrepo et al., 2011; mx ¼ (amax e amin)/2 and standard deviation set to sx ¼ (amax e Villagomez et al., 2011; Bayona et al., 2012; Bonilla-Perez et al., amin)/(2 1.96). 2013; Cochrane, 2013; Reis et al., 2013; van der Lelij, 2013; Cuadros We indicate the N samples of unknown origin as Z ¼ {z1, …,zN}, et al., 2014; Baquero et al., 2015; Zuluaga et al., 2015; van der Lelij and the M samples within a source as S ¼ {s1, …,sM}. The function et al., 2016; Jaramillo et al., 2017). g(t) describing the probability of obtaining a sample of age t that We decided to compare the detrital ages of the Ware Formation originated from a source S (Fig. 3A and B) derives from the sum of with bedrock U-Pb samples, because modern-river data is not the normal densities associated with each of the samples from the available from all of the possible sources (i.e., mountain ranges). source S: There are published detrital zircon U-Pb ages for 12 modern rivers in the region of interest (Goldstein et al., 1997; Bande et al., 2012; 1 XM gðtÞ¼ ð ½fðt; m ; s Þ þ yðt; T ; T Þ (1) Nie et al., 2012; Pepper et al., 2016). Only eight of these rivers M þ 1 i i min max were sampled at points that drain catchments of a single source i¼1 region including one detrital sample from a river that drains the where f(m , s ) is the probability density function of a normal dis- northern Central Cordillera (Sinu river; Pepper et al., 2016), three i i tribution with mean m and standard deviation s , describing the detrital samples draining the eastern flank of the Central Cordillera i i age range of sample i. To account for the possibility that the sam- (Nie et al., 2012), two detrital samples draining the western flank of ples within a source do not represent the full set of ages charac- the Eastern Cordillera (Nie et al., 2012) and two detrital samples terizing the source, we add a uniform distribution with density draining the eastern flank of the Eastern Cordillera (Bande et al., y(T ,T ), with arbitrary boundaries encompassing the entire 2012). Four detrital samples belong to catchments that contains min max time range of interest. This uniform distribution provides a back- several of our defined sources and thus are not suitable for the ground probability that can help us to identify samples with un- analysis: three detrital samples come from the Magdalena river at known source (see below) and to avoid numerical problems due to or near the delta (Pepper et al., 2016) and one detrital sample near-zero probabilities. The function g(t) is normalized by dividing comes from the Orinoco river (Goldstein et al., 1997). The detrital by the sum of the integrals of the normal and uniform densities (i.e. samples from the Magdalena river are within a catchment that M þ 1). includes the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the Central and The probability that a sample z (e.g., Ware Formation detrital Eastern cordilleras. The detrital sample from the Orinoco river is i zircon) originated from S is calculated by integrating the product within a catchment that includes the Merida Andes, Guiana Craton between the function g(t) describing the samples in S (Eq. (1)) and and the Eastern Cordillera. Furthermore, there are no detrital the normal density modeling the age of the sample z (Fig. 3C and modern river samples from catchments of three of our possible i D): source areas including Guajira ranges, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the Merida Andes. Using a probabilistic analysis with an ZTmax incomplete set of sources is not informative for our research ð j Þ¼ ð Þfðm ; s Þ question. P z S g t z z dt (2)

We developed a probabilistic framework to infer the provenance Tmin of a set of zircons of unknown origin given a set of potential source We emphasize that this approach enables us to infer the prov- regions (i.e., different mountain ranges). A sample is defined here as enance probabilities, while explicitly incorporating dating un- the radiometric age of an individual zircon crystal. The term source certainties associated to both the unknown sample and the set of refers to the mountain range from which a zircon could have been samples included in the source. Based on Eq. (2), we can compute derived. the likelihood of a set of samples Z given a source S as: The main outputs of this analysis are as follows: (1) The likeli- hood of a set of samples (i.e., detrital zircon ages from a sedimen- YN tary unit, in this case the Ware Formation) given each source ð j Þ¼ ð Þ P Z S P zijS (3) region. Likelihoods can be directly compared to assess which source i¼1 best explains the distribution of ages measured in the analyzed set of samples. (2) The relative probability for each sample to have The likelihoods of the set of samples of unknown origin condi- originated in each of the possible sources. (3) The identification of tional on different sources are then compared to assess which of samples that are not adequately explained by any of the samples in the different sources (e.g., mountain ranges) is more likely to have the range of sources. (4) The likelihood of a mixed model that al- generated the samples. lows each sample to have a different origin. This model does not After calculating the likelihood of a sample z conditional of all assign each sample to a source, but rather it integrates out the available sources using Eq. (2), we compute the relative probability uncertainties around the provenance of the samples and estimates of origin from each source. For example, the relative probability the relative contribution of each source to the analyzed set of that a sample z (a single detrital zircon) originated in source Sj samples. All inferences about the age ranges explicitly incorporate (where j represents different sources regions e.g., Merida Andes) is the uncertainty around the dating of each sample (error for the given by: individual age of a zircon crystal). The approach is implemented in P zS ProvenanceFinder, an R script available at: https://github.com/dsi relP zjS ¼ P j (4) j K lvestro/ProvenanceFinder. i¼1P z Sj Each sample (either from the Ware Formation or one of the sources) is assigned a temporal range defined by a minimum and where K is the number of available sources. maximum age (amin,amax), which reflects the dating uncertainty. Based on Eqs. (1) and (2), the probability of a sample z will be We consider the minimum and maximum ages of a sample as the similar to the background probability, if there is negligible temporal 0.025 and the 0.975 quantiles of a normal distribution, so that its overlap between z and the samples in the source Sj. In this case, the N. Perez-Consuegra et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 81 (2018) 66e77 71

Fig. 3. Visualization of the probability analysis. (A) and (B) show the likelihood surfaces or Probability Density functions (black lines) of two potential sources, each with three zircon ages (samples). The age ranges of the zircons (which define the width of the normal densities combined in the likelihood surface) are shown as blue bars at the bottom of the plots. The red dashed line shows the Probability Density Function describing the estimated age of a zircon z of unknown provenance. The product of the source (black) and the sample (red) Probability Density functions is displayed in (C) and (D) (blue shaded areas). The likelihood of z conditional on a source is computed by integrating the functions displayed in (C) and (D). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) contribution of the normal densities is close to zero: probabilities for different sources. The aim of the mixed model is therefore to calculate the likelihood of the entire set of samples XM while accounting for the possibility that samples have different ½fð ; m ; s Þz z i i 0 provenances, but without assigning the samples to any particular i¼1 source. Instead, we calculate the probability that a sample origi- nated from any of the sources, thus integrating out the un- and therefore the probability of the sample z is mostly determined certainties. This probability is equal to a sum of probabilities by the density of the background uniform distribution y(Tmin, weighted by a vector of parameters w ¼ {w1, …,wK}: Tmax): XK TmaxZ PðzjS ; …; SK ; w ; …; wK Þ¼ P zjSJ 1 1 1 PðzjSÞz vðt; Tmin; TmaxÞdt (5) j¼1 M þ 1 XK Tmin ; wj where wj Here we consider as unidentifiable the origin of a sample with a j¼1 probability that differs by less than 5% from the background ¼ 1 (6) probability (Eq. (5)), because none of the source samples are suf- ficiently similar to explain its age. The likelihood of the set of samples Z is computed as a product We implemented a mixed model to allow samples in the set Z to of probabilities over all samples (as in Eq. (3)), assuming the same have different sources of origin. Although we can use the relative weights across all samples. The vector of weights w is optimized to probabilities of the samples (Eq. (4)) to assess the most likely source maximize the likelihood of the entire set of samples and it thus for each sample, we expect to observe quite frequently substantial expresses the relative contribution of each source to the set of uncertainties around the assignment of a sample to a particular samples Z. In other words, the estimated weights indicate the source. These uncertainties are reflected in similar relative proportions of samples that are inferred to have originated from 72 N. Perez-Consuegra et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 81 (2018) 66e77 each source. second-best likelihood score among individual sources, seems to We implemented an additional test to verify the effect of sample have contributed as little as 6.8% of the Ware Formation samples. size on the robustness of the results. We used a Jackknife sub- sampling algorithm to randomly reduce the size of both the Ware 4. Discussion Formation data and data of all the potential sources. The number of samples kept in the Jackknife analysis matched that of the smallest The conglomerate clasts are dominated by metamorphic and data set in the considered set (n ¼ 20). After subsampling, we sedimentary (siliciclastic and calcareous) clasts, which suggests repeated the likelihood calculation (Eqs (2) and (3)) and ranked the metamorphic sources as well as reworking of older sedimentary sources by their probability to explain the results from the Ware units. The composition of the heavy mineral suite suggests ensialic Formation. We repeated this procedure 10,000 times and metamorphic and igneous rock sources (Fig. 4B and C), typical of computed for each source the frequency of being selected as the the eastern side of the Guajira ranges (Fig. 2)(MacDonald, 1964; best region of origin of the detrital zircon ages. Lockwood, 1965). The general high textural immaturity of the heavy mineral samples of the Ware Formation indicates that sedi- 3. Results ments had low abrasion and short transport from nearby sources. The modern heavy mineral sample from an eastern Guajira catch- 3.1. Petrography ment shows a similar distribution to the samples from the Ware Formation except for the absence of zircon (Fig. 4B). Garnet and Conglomerate clast samples (n ¼ 4) are dominated by quartzite sillimanite are present in both the modern and Ware Formation (mean ¼ 61.2, SD ¼ 11.1), quartz arenites (mean ¼ 17.7, SD ¼ 3.8), samples, indicating metamorphic sources (Feo-Codecido, 1956). micrite (mean ¼ 11.7, SD ¼ 7), lithic arenites (mean ¼ 4.7, SD ¼ 9.5), The U-Pb age distribution of the Ware Formation detrital zircons mica-schist (mean ¼ 3, SD ¼ 3), and very small amounts sparitic (Fig. 5) also suggests that the most likely sediment source for the limestone fragments (mean ¼ 1, SD ¼ 2) and mudstones Cocinetas Basin during the Pliocene was the Guajira ranges (Figs. 5 (mean ¼ 0.5, SD ¼ 1) (Fig. 4A and Table S2, SOM). Some quartzite and 6; log likelihood of 1198). A local source of sediments for the clasts contained accessory garnet crystals. fluvial system of the Ware Formation suggests that the water Heavy minerals from the Ware Formation (n ¼ 7) are dominated needed to sustain the abundant paleofauna of the Cocinetas Basin by epidote (mean ¼ 30.38%, SD ¼ 6.96%), zircon (mean ¼ 17.76%, (Moreno et al., 2015) was probably precipitated from water vapor SD ¼ 4.81%), garnet (mean ¼ 12.04%, SD ¼ 9.78%) and apatite condensation above the Guajira peninsula, rather than brought by a (mean ¼ 8.76%, SD ¼ 5.75%) (Fig. 4B and Table S3, SOM). The major river system from distant headwaters. modern sample is dominated by epidote (33.6%) hornblende (33%), Aguilera et al. (2013) suggested, on the basis of fish fossil taxa and garnet (16%) (Fig. 4B). Heavy minerals are mostly from an with Orinoco/Amazon affinities found in the late Pliocene Ware ensialic metamorphic domain (mean ¼ 69.1%; SD ¼ 19.4%) and (Cocinetas Basin) and San Gregorio (Falcon Basin) formations magmatic arc domain (mean ¼ 30.8%; SD ¼ 19.4%) (Fig. 4C). There (Fig. 1A), that a paleo-Orinoco could have flowed across the Merida are no mafic or ultramafic heavy minerals such as augite, serpen- range, connecting the Orinoco region with the Caribbean Falcon tine, olivine, picotite, pleonaste and diopside. and Cocinetas basins. We see no evidence, however, of texturally mature sediments indicating a long-distance transport of sedi- 3.2. U-Pb geochronology ments, and the zircon age distribution indicates that the Ware Formation has a low probability of being derived from the Guiana The age distribution of the 140 zircons of the Ware Formation craton or Merida Andes (Figs. 5 and 6). Furthermore, paleogeo- shows Jurassic (200-150 Ma), Permo-Triassic (350-200 Ma), Cry- graphic reconstructions indicate the Merida Andes had been ogenianeCarboniferous (“proto Andean”; 800-350 Ma), Ectasian e uplifted enough to block the flow of the proto-Orinoco by the late Cryogenian (“Grenvillian”; 1250e800 Ma) and OrosirianeEctasian Miocene (~10 Ma) (e.g., Díaz de Gamero, 1996; Guzman and Fisher, (Mesoproterozoic and Paleoproterozoic; 2000e1250 Ma) pop- 2006; Escalona and Mann, 2011) or even since the Oligocene e ulations (Fig. 5A). Only one zircon out of 140 has a Cretaceous age, early Miocene (e.g., Rod, 1981; Rincon et al., 2014). The flow of the therefore we do not consider it as a statistically significant popu- Orinoco river into the Atlantic Ocean since the Oligocene is sup- lation. Paleogene zircons are absent (Fig. 5 and Table S4, SOM). ported by provenance studies in Trinidad (Xie and Mann, 2014). The provenance analysis indicates that the Guajira ranges are How to explain, then, the presence of Orinoco-derived fresh- the single source that best explains the set of the Ware Formation water fish in the Cocinetas Basin if the Ware Formation fluvial zircons, with a log likelihood of 1198.361 (Table 1, Fig. 6). This system was local and mostly restricted to the Guajira ranges? We value of log likelihood is 66.5 units higher than the next best fitting propose two hypotheses: (1) Pliocene marine currents could have source (i.e. SNSM), indicating that it is strongly preferred over the pushed the freshwater plume of the Orinoco delta (Warne et al., other sediment source alternatives (Table 1, Fig. 5, SOM). The 2002) to the west, allowing freshwater fish to continually move Guajira ranges were selected as the most likely source over 65% of from the Orinoco drainage into Maracaibo drainages (Guajira and the times with the use of the Jackknife technique. The relative Falcon; Fig. 1B). This setting could be similar to the modern coastal probabilities show that there is substantial uncertainty around the rivers in the Guiana region (e.g., Essequibo river), which are isolated exact assignment of samples to one particular source and only 3.6% from the Amazon drainage basin by ~1200 km but hold several of the samples could be attributed to a source with a certainty species of freshwater fish that are also present in the Amazon river greater than 95%. Furthermore, we identified four zircon ages (3%) drainage (e.g., Arapaima gigas, Osteoglossum bicirrhosum, Pygocen- that could not be adequately explained by any of the sampled trus nattereri, Colomesus asellus and Phractocephalus hemioliopterus; sources (Table S6, SOM). (Hardman and Lundberg, 2006; Lima and Ribeiro, 2011). Fresh- The mixed model obtained the best fit, with a log-likelihood water fish colonized Guiana either by migrating through the ma- 126.1 units higher than that of the Guajira ranges alone. Based on rine currents that deflect northward the massive plume of the the weights estimated for each source, we infer that 33.6% of the Amazon river delta or by the capture of a tributary river from the samples have a Guajira origin, whereas the provenance of the Amazon basin by a coastal river of Guiana (e.g., Cardoso and remaining 66.4% is scattered among the other sources in smaller Montoya-Burgos, 2009). 2) A proto Magdalena could have flowed proportions (Table 1). The SNSM source, which obtained the into the Maracaibo region (Fig. 1B; Duque-Caro, 1990) and formed N. Perez-Consuegra et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 81 (2018) 66e77 73

Fig. 4. Summary of petrographic results. (A) Conglomerate clast counts of four samples from the Ware Formation (100 clasts counted per sample). (B) Heavy mineral counts of one modern river sample and seven samples from the Ware Formation (300 grains per sample; results are normalized to 100). (C) Provenance domain discrimination of heavy minerals of Ware. Categories include (1) Magmatic arc domain: apatite þ biotite þ hornblende þ sphene; (2) Mafic and ultramafic domain: augite þ serpentine þ olivine þ picotite þ pleonaste þ diopside; (3) Ensialic metamorphic domain: garnet þ staurolite þ sillimanite þ kyanite þ andalusite. (D) Pictures of selected clast from the conglomerate samples. (E) Selected common heavy minerals. an extensive coastal plain where multiple small rivers, including course toward the west, leaving its sedimentary load in the lower the Cocinetas Basin drainage, would have converged. This coastal Magdalena Valley Basin (Bernal-Olaya et al., 2015) as in the modern plain would have expanded during the sea level drops of the Plio- setting (Smith, 1986). cene (Fig. 1B), some of which reached 50 m (Miller et al., 2005). This model would require the proto Magdalena River to be connected in 5. Conclusion the south to the Amazon/Orinoco basins (Fig. 1B; Ujueta, 1999). The modern Magdalena has a marked elbow near El Banco (N 8.97,W Our integrated provenance analysis indicates that sediments of 73.86 ) where it turns west, draining into the Momposina the Pliocene Ware Formation were derived mostly from local depression and afterward into the Caribbean (Smith, 1986). During sources within the Guajira Peninsula ranges. Precipitation above the late Pliocene, the proto Magdalena River could have followed a the Guajira Peninsula would have allowed a local fluvial system to fl fl path toward the northeast, owing through the at valley in be- thrive and sustain the diverse paleofauna recorded in the Cocinetas tween the SNSM and Perija Range (Fig. 1B) and draining into the basin. Maracaibo region (Fig. 1B; Duque-Caro, 1990). Post-Pliocene (<2.8 Ma) deformation in the Cerrejon thrust (e.g., Kellogg, 1984; Montes Acknowledgments et al., 2010) or Oca Fault (e.g., Audemard M., 1996) would have tilted the valley, causing drainage reversal and blocking the incursion of This work was part of We thank GMAS Lab for sample prepa- the proto Magdalena in the Maracaibo region and changing its rations and Miguel Basei at CPGeo for his help with the 74 N. Perez-Consuegra et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 81 (2018) 66e77

Fig. 5. (A) Probability density function (PDF) plots created with ProvenanceFinder (R). PDF's were built using the bedrock U-Pb ages dataset for the six possible source areas (black lines): Guajira ranges n ¼ 23, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta n ¼ 27, Eastern Cordillera n ¼ 65, Merida Andes n ¼ 22, Central Cordillera n ¼ 71 and Guiana Craton n ¼ 20. The probability density function for the detrital zircon U-Pb ages of the Ware Formation n ¼ 140 (single ages) is shown in the background of each source plot (red dashed lines). (B) Likelihood of the Ware Formation samples (i.e., U-Pb detrital zircon ages) conditional on different potential sources (i.e., U-Pb bedrock zircon ages; Methods, Eqs (2) and (3)). Each blue curve represents the product between the PDF of one of the sources with the PDF of the Ware Formation. The integral of the blue curve represents the probability that the detrital zircon ages of the Ware Formation originated from a given source (Figure C, D). Vertical axis is in log-likelihood units. The plots are arbitrarily truncated at a log-likelihood of 12 and thus display only the highest peaks (while the entire area was integrated to calculate the likelihood values reported in Table 1). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

geochronology. We thank Ana Maria Goes, Paulo C. Giannini, Fed- Table 1 erico Moreno, Sergio Ando, Andres Cardenas, Sebastian Zapata, Summary of the probability analysis. Log likelihoods are computed for each source German Bayona, Austin Hendy and Felipe Lamus for helpful dis- and for the mixed model. The weights estimated under the mixed model indicate cussions and recommendations. We thank the team of paleontol- the fraction of samples of the Ware Formation, which are likely to have originated fi from each source. ogist and geologist who helped us in the eld during the 2013e2014 field trips to the Guajira Peninsula. NP was financed by Source Log likelihood Estimated weights Fondo Corrigan ACGP-ARES. JE was partially funded by Colciencias (mixed model) grant 121566044585 “Causas y consecuencias de la aridificacion de Guajira ranges 1198.361 33.6% ecosistemas húmedos tropicales. Una mirada climatica y geologica SNSM 1264.902 6.80% durante el Neogeno de Suramerica ”. CJ was funded by the Smith- Eastern Cordillera 1279.95 15.4% sonian Institution, the National Geographic Society, the Anders Merida Andes 1332.285 14.8% Foundation, 1923 Fund, Gregory D. and Jennifer Walston Johnson, Central Cordillera 1370.773 12.8% Guiana Craton 1408.765 16.3% and the National Science Foundation (Grant EAR 0957679). DS Mixed model 1072.245 received funding from the Swedish Research Council (2015-04748) N. Perez-Consuegra et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 81 (2018) 66e77 75

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