Contemporary Chinese Fiction Writers

In the years since the death of , interest in Chinese writers and Chinese literature has risen significantly in the West. In 2000, Gao Xingjian became the first Chinese writer to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature, followed by in 2012, and writers such as Ha Jin and Da Sijie have also become well known in the West. Despite this progress, the vast majority of Chinese writers remain largely unknown outside China. This book introduces the lives and works of 80 contemporary Chinese writers and focuses on writers from the “Rightist” generation (Lu Wentu, , Zhang Xianliang), writers of the Red Guard generation (Han Shaogong, Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi), and post- writers, as well as others. Unlike earlier works, it provides detailed, often first-hand biographical information on this wide range of writers, including their career trajectories, major themes, and artistic characteristics. Each entry includes a critical presentation and evaluation of the writer’s major works, and those translated into English. There is also a selected bibliography of publications that includes works in Chinese and books available in English. Offering a valuable contribution to the field of contemporary Chinese literature, by making detailed information about Chinese writers more accessible, this book will be of interest to students and scholars of Chinese literature, contemporary literature, and Chinese studies.

Laifong Leung taught Chinese literature, language, and calligraphy at the University of Alberta, Canada. This page intentionally left blank 1EEE 2 3 4 5111 6111 7111 Contemporary Chinese 8 9 10 1 Fiction Writers 2 EEE3 4 Biography, Bibliography, 5 6111 7 and Critical Assessment 8 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 Laifong Leung 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 50 1 2 3EEEE First published 2017 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Names: Leung, Laifong, 1948– author. Title: Contemporary Chinese fiction writers : biography, bibliography, and critical assessment / Laifong Leung. Description: Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York : Routledge, 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2015049688| ISBN 9780765617606 (hardback) | ISBN 9781315719504 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Authors, Chinese—Biography—Dictionaries. | Chinese fiction—20th century—Bio-bibliography. Classification: LCC PL2442 .L38 2016 | DDC 895.13/509—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015049688

ISBN: 978-0-7656-1760-6 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-71950-4 (ebk)

Typeset in Sabon and Frutiger by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO:

THE LATE PROFESSOR MICHAEL FUTRELL, who urged me to write this book

PROFESSOR ANDREW PARKIN, who gave me confidence

MY LATE FATHER, SHEK JIM LEUNG, who helped me in his own way

MY BROTHER, RON LEUNG, who supported me throughout

MY HUSBAND, RANDY LOUIS, who stood by me all the way along

MY SON RICHARD LOUIS, who patiently waited for me to complete the book This page intentionally left blank Contents

List of Writers ix

Preface and Acknowledgments xiv

Introduction 1

Contemporary Chinese Fiction Writers A–Z 9

Chronology of Important Events since 1911 347

List of Journals and Newspapers 350

Glossary of Names and Terms 353

Bibliography 361

Index 371 This page intentionally left blank Writers

WRITERS IN ALPHABETICAL (f) ORDER Writer from North Pole Village

Ah Cheng (m) Cong Weixi (m) “King of Chess” Gulag Survivor (m): Dai Houying (f) Half Hui and Half Tibetan From Fervent Red Guard to Critic of Mao Bai Hua (m) Deng Youmei (m) Braving through Political Campaigns Re-imaging Old Beijing Bei Cun (m) Fang Fang (f) A Christian Writer Constructing the “Landscape” of Wuhan (m) Feng Jicai (m) Portraying Women and Blind People Rescuing Human Nature and Folk Culture Can Xue (f) Gao Xiaosheng (m) Probing the Subconscious and the Grotesque Writing Satire and Fantasy Chen Cun (m) Gao Xingjian (m) Subverting the Grand Narrative Nobel Prize Winner, Novelist, and Chen Jiangong (m) Playwright From the Coal Mine to the Beijing Alleys (m) Chen Ran (f) A Member of the Literati with Avant-Garde A Sensitive Feminist Characteristics (m) Han Shaogong (m) Constructing the White Deer Plain Rustication and Root-Searching Cheng Naishan (f) He Liwei (m) Nostalgia for Old Shanghai Innovator of Narrative Language Chi Li (f) (m) Capturing the Rhythm of the City A Member of the Peasant Literati in Xi’an x LIST OF WRITERS

Jiang Rong (m) Lu Xing’er (f) Playing with Wolves Promoting Women’s Self-empowerment Jiang Zilong (m) Lu Xinhua (m) Forerunner of Reform Literature Father of Scar Literature Kong Jiesheng (m) (m) From Canton to Washington, DC Caught between Rural and Urban Lao Gui (m) Ma Yuan (m) A Rebel Creator of Labyrinths Li Hangyu (m) (m) Searching Roots in Folk Culture Pioneer of Spy Fiction Li Rui (m) Mo Yan (m) Digging the Deep Earth Nobel Prize Winner from the Liang Xiaosheng (m) Land of Red Sorghum An Idealist from Qiu Huadong (m) Lin Bai (f) A City “Intruder” A Feminist Wanderer from Guangxi Shen Rong (f) Lin Jinlan (m) From Propaganda to Satire A Wise Man Knowing the Art of Emptiness Shi Tiesheng (m) Liu Cixin (m) Not Confined to a Wheelchair A Star in Chinese Science Fiction (m) Liu Heng (m) An Energetic Storyteller from Suzhou From Fiction to Film to Drama Tashi Dawa (m) Liu Qingbang (m) Writing Tibet and Its Soul King of Short Fiction Tie Ning (f) Liu Shaotang (m) A Versatile Writer of the Rural and Preserving Tales Along the Grand Canal the Urban (m) (f) A Humanist from Small Town Flexible and Prolific Writer from Shanghai (m) Wang Meng (m) Pioneer of Scar Literature Forever a Young Man (m) Wang Shuo (m) Piercing through Officialdom and History Not Only a “Hooligan Writer” Lu Tianming (m) Wang Zengqi (m) Fearless Writer of Anti-corruption Fiction Merging with Nature and the Void Lu Wenfu (m) Xu Kun (f) Connoisseur of Suzhou Between Beijing and Shenyang LIST OF WRITERS xi

Xu Xiaobin (f) (m) Not Just a Feminist Writer Escaping from the Plateau Yan Lianke (m) Zhu Lin (f) An Exuberant Peasant-soldier Writer Giving Voice to Women and the Juvenile Yang Xianhui (m) Zhu Xiaoping (m) Chronicling the Gulag and the Famine An Outsider in Mulberry Tree Village Ye Guangqin (f) (f) A Manchu Princess A Woman Literati Member and Modernist Ye Xin (m) Writing Rustication and Shanghai WRITERS ARRANGED IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER Yu Hua (m) BY YEAR OF BIRTH Obsessed with Paranoia, Violence, and Suffering Wang Zengqi (1920–1998; m) Merging with Nature and the Void Zhang Chengzhi (m) Red Guard and Muslim Lin Jinlan (1923–2009; m) A Wise Man Knowing the Art of Emptiness (f) An Angry Feminist Gao Xiaosheng (1928–1999; m) Writing Satire and Fantasy Zhang Kangkang (f) A Trendsetter and More Lu Wenfu (1928–2005; m) Connoisseur of Suzhou (m) A Fierce Critic of Corruption Zong Pu (b. 1928; f) A Woman Literati Member and Modernist (m) A Member of the Literati from Shandong Bai Hua (b. 1930; m) Braving through Political Campaigns Zhang Xian (m) Sympathizer with Women’s Plight Deng Youmei (b. 1931; m) Re-imaging Old Beijing Zhang Xianliang (m) Prominent Writer of the Chinese Gulag Cong Weixi (b. 1933; m) Gulag Survivor Zhang Xin (f) Portraying Women Entrepreneurs Wang Meng (b. 1934; m) in Canton Forever a Young Man Zhang Xinxin (f) Zhang Xian (1934–1997; m) Restless Woman on the Road Sympathizer with Women’s Plight Zheng Wanlong (m) Liu Shaotang (1936–1997; m) Seeking Roots in Gold Mines and Minorities Preserving Tales Along the Grand Canal Zheng Yi (m) Shen Rong (b. 1936; f) A Flexible Rebel and Thinker From Propaganda to Satire xii LIST OF WRITERS

Zhang Xianliang (1936–2014; m) Chen Jiangong (b. 1949; m) Prominent Writer of the Chinese Gulag From the Coal Mine to the Beijing Alleys Zhang Jie (b. 1937; f) Li Rui (b. 1949; m) An Angry Feminist Digging the Deep Earth Dai Houying (1938–1996; f) Liang Xiaosheng (b. 1949; m) From Fervent Red Guard to Critic of Mao An Idealist from Harbin Gao Xingjian (b. 1940; m) Lu Xing’er (1949–2004; f) Nobel Prize Winner, Novelist, and Playwright Promoting Women’s Self-empowerment Jiang Zilong (b. 1941; m) Lu Yao (1949–1992; m) Forerunner of Reform Literature Caught between Rural and Urban Chen Zhongshi (b. 1942–2016; m) Ye Xin (b. 1949; m) Constructing the White Deer Plain Writing Rustication and Shanghai Feng Jicai (b. 1942; m) Zhu Lin (b. 1949; f) Rescuing Human Nature and Folk Culture Giving Voice to Women and the Juvenile Liu Xinwu (b. 1942; m) Zhang Kangkang (b. 1950; f) Pioneer of Scar Literature A Trendsetter and More Lu Tianming (b. 1944; m) Liu Qingbang (b. 1951; m) Fearless Writer of Anti-corruption Fiction King of Short Fiction Zheng Wanlong (b. 1944; m) Jia Pingwa (b. 1952; m) Seeking Roots in Gold Mines and Minorities A Member of the Peasant Literati in Xi’an Cheng Naishan (1946–2013; f) Kong Jiesheng (b. 1952; m) Nostalgia for Old Shanghai From Canton to Washington, DC Jiang Rong (b. 1946; m) Zhou Daxin (b. 1952; m) Playing with Wolves Escaping from the Plateau Yang Xianhui (b. 1946; m) Zhu Xiaoping (b. 1952; m) Chronicling the Gulag and Famine An Outsider in Mulberry Tree Village Lao Gui (b. 1947; m) Can Xue (b. 1953; f) A Rebel Probing the Subconscious and the Grotesque Zheng Yi (b. 1947; m) Han Shaogong (b. 1953; m) A Flexible Rebel and Thinker Rustication and Root-Searching Ah Cheng (b. 1948; m) Ma Yuan (b. 1953; m) “King of Chess” Creator of Labyrinths Ye Guangqin (b. 1948; f) Shi Tiesheng (1953–2010; m) A Manchu Princess Not Confined to a Wheelchair Zhang Chengzhi (b. 1948; m) Xu Xiaobin (b. 1953; f) Red Guard and Muslim Not Just a Feminist Writer LIST OF WRITERS xiii

Zhang Xinxin (b. 1953; f) Liu Zhenyun (b. 1958; m) Restless Woman on the Road Piercing through Officialdom and History Chen Cun (b. 1954; m) Wang Shuo (b. 1958; m) Subverting the Grand Narrative Not Only a “Hooligan Writer” He Liwei (b. 1954; m) Yan Lianke (b. 1958; m) Innovator of Narrative Language An Exuberant Peasant-soldier Writer Liu Heng (b. 1954; m) Alai (b. 1959; m) From Fiction to Film to Drama Half Hui and Half Tibetan Lu Xinhua (b. 1954; m) Tashi Dawa (b. 1959; m) Father of Scar Literature Writing Tibet and Its Soul Wang Anyi (b. 1954; f) Yu Hua (b. 1961; m) Flexible and Prolific Writer from Shanghai Obsessed with Paranoia, Violence, and Suffering Zhang Ping (b. 1954; m) A Fierce Critic of Corruption Chen Ran (b. 1962; f) A Sensitive Feminist Zhang Wei (b. 1954; m) A Member of the Literati from Shandong Liu Cixin (b. 1963; m) A Star in Chinese Science Fiction Zhang Xin (b. 1954; f) Portraying Women Entrepreneurs in Canton Su Tong (b. 1963; m) An Energetic Storyteller from Suzhou Fang Fang (b. 1955; f) Constructing the “Landscape” of Wuhan Bi Feiyu (b. 1964; m) Portraying Women and Blind People Liu Xinglong (b. 1956; m) A Humanist from Small Town Chi Zijian (b. 1964; f) Writer from North Pole Village Mo Yan (b. 1956; m) Nobel Prize Winner from the Land of Red Ge Fei (b. 1964; m) Sorghum A Member of the Literati with Avant-Garde Characteristics Chi Li (b. 1957; f) Capturing the Rhythm of the City Mai Jia (b. 1964; m) Pioneer of Spy Fiction Li Hangyu (b. 1957; m) Searching Roots in Folk Culture Bei Cun (b. 1965; m) A Christian Writer Tie Ning (b. 1957; f) A Versatile Writer of the Rural and Xu Kun (b. 1965; f) the Urban Between Beijing and Shenyang Lin Bai (b. 1958; f) Qiu Huadong (b. 1969; m) A Feminist Wanderer from Guangxi A City “Intruder” Preface and Acknowledgments

My interest in contemporary Chinese literature began after I joined a group of 18 students from Vancouver to make a seven-week tour of China in summer 1976. In late 1978, I came across some literary magazines in Chinatown publishing an entirely different kind of story than I had read before, which was known as Scar Literature. I started subscribing to the magazines and reading stories pouring out of China. Little did I know that this hobby would later become my long-term academic interest. The Chinese literary scene has been very vibrant since the early 1980s, as evidenced by the emergence of a large number of writers and their works, journals, literary prizes, and writers’ training programs. Yet, for obvious reasons, Chinese writers are largely unknown outside the country. With Gao Xingjian winning the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2000, and Mo Yan winning in 2012, the need to counteract this seemed to be on the rise. This book will introduce to English readers 80 contemporary Chinese writers who emerged or re-emerged after Mao’s death (1976) and have been active on the Chinese literary scene since. Instead of just giving a brief description of each writer, I have attempted to construct the trajectories of their life and work, highlighting the major characteristics and themes, and judging them against the development of 20th-century Chinese literature. I hope this will give readers a deeper impression of the writers. Though this approach involved a great deal of reading, the process was very fruitful. The idea of writing a book that would introduce contemporary Chinese writers and their works to English speakers began in 1985 when I started teaching courses on post-Mao literature at the University of Alberta. In 1994, my book Morning Sun: Interviews with Chinese Writers of the Lost Generation (M.E. Sharpe), which includes 26 accomplished writers from the Maoist generation, was my first attempt in that direction. Owing to my teaching and administrative commitments, I could not devote my energy fully to this project until I took early retirement from the University of Alberta in 2008. In the process of writing this book, I was again distracted by an urgent task to contribute to and edit the book Zhongjia wenxue jiaoliu shi (History of Literary Interactions between China and Canada, 2015), so that Canada could be included in the 17-volume project. After completing that task, I resumed work on this book until its completion in winter 2015. Thanks to the research grants from the Arts Faculty in the University of Alberta and the SSRHC grants during my tenure at the university, I was able to make research trips to China during my tenure and hire student assistants. I wish to thank Feng Junli, Zhang Yin and Liu Xinhui for their assistance. I also benefited from the encouragement of my former colleagues at the University of Alberta, particularly the late Karl Kao, Richard John Lynn and Jack Jennshann Lin. My visit to the Academy of Social Sciences in Beijing in 1986 with the Bilateral Exchange Program between China and Canada opened doors to Chinese literary circles for me. I have benefited greatly from the help of many scholars, critics, and writers. The late Mr Xu Juemin, director of the Institute of Chinese Modern and Contemporary Literature in the Academy of Social Sciences, introduced me to many writers and critics; the late Mr Gan Cui, section chief of the material room at the Academy, PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENT xv helped me locate articles otherwise impossible to find before the Internet age; Mr Bai Ye, an expert in contemporary Chinese literature continuously updated me with his annual publication of the Zhongguo wenqing baogao (Annual Report on Chinese Literature) and generously gave me his set of Chinese Literature Almanacs; Mr Chen Juntao, critic and editor, was always available for consultation. Mr He Zhenbang, teacher and mentor of numerous writers at the Lu Xun Literary Institute, has given me very good advice. Many critics have, in various ways, offered me intellectual stimulation: Meng Fanhua, Zhang Zhizhong, He Shaojun, Bi Guangming, Fan Xing, and many others. Chen Jiangong, writer and former head of the Modern Chinese Literature Museum, has given me generous help in the process. I am indebted to many writers who provided me with information on their life and work when I asked for them. My interactions with them over the years have remained a valuable part of my life. A few writers have passed away. I will always remember a dumpling dinner with Liu Shaotang in his Beijing home, just a month before he had a stroke; my visit to Lin Jinlan’s residence a few months before he passed away; a walk along the Bund with Lu Xing’er, a year before her untimely death; the afternoon tea with Cheng Naishan in Shanghai, two years before she died; and the visits to the late Shi Tiesheng’s place by the Lama Temple. For many years, I made use of opportunities such as conferences, research trips, and student study programs in China to interact with Chinese writers such as Chi Zijian in Harbin; Chen Zhongshi and Ye Guangqin in Xi’an; Chi Li and Fang Fang in Wuhan; Jiang Zilong in Tianjin; Li Hangyu in Hangzhou; Lu Xing’er, Wang Anyi, Ye Xin, and Zhu Lin in Shanghai; Zhang Wei in Ji’nan; and Liu Heng, Mo Yan, Zhang Kangkang, Jiang Rong, Xu Kun, Xu Xiaobin, Yan Lianke, Zhou Daxin, and many more in Beijing. As co-founder of the Chinese Canadian Writers’ Association (1987), I have had the opportunity to meet Chinese writers during their visits to Canada, such as Ge Fei, Liu Zhenyun, Liu Qingbang, and Wang Meng. Knowing the writers personally allows me to get a glimpse of their temperament. What they told me about themselves and their work constitutes valuable first-hand material for understanding their work. After following their writing for many years, in writing the entries, I have been able to trace a trajectory of their writing career, highlight the significant works and major characteristics, and place them in the historical context of 20th-century Chinese literature, instead of just mentioning one or two representative works, as seen in existing books on the topic. Throughout the years, I have benefited from the books of many sinologists; just to name a few: Professors Michael Duke, Perry Link, Geremie Barmé, Jeffry Kinkley, Howard Goldblatt, David Der- wei Wang, Michael Hochx, the late Helmet Martin, and many more. I am also deeply grateful to my dear old friend, the late Professor Michael Futrell, expert in Russian and Soviet literature, who gave me so much intellectual inspiration. Not satisfied with what I told him about Chinese literature, he urged me to write this book. Professor Andrew Parkin, former Head of the English Department at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and a poet and novelist in his own right, was generous with his time and knowledge. I am very grateful to his critical reading of many entries in this book. The opinions of both these professors were valuable, as this book was written for non-experts also. I am thankful to fellow writers in the Thursdays Writing Collective of Vancouver East: Kevin Spenst, Joan Flood, and Elee Gardiner, for being my first readers. I have also benefited from the editorial suggestions of poet Joanne Arnott of the Writers’ Studio at Simon Fraser University and the Carnegie Center. Professors Jan Walls and Yvonne Walls gave me encouragement throughout. My alumnus friend Howard Chu, whom I had not seen for decades since our days at the University of British Columbia, suddenly showed up with a generous check when he heard that I had taken early retirement to write this book. I thank him with all my heart. His support allowed me to employ two more students, Xiang Ran and Vanessa Jan, in the later stages of the project. I am also indebted to the Asian Library at the University of British Columbia for its large collection. My heartfelt gratitude goes to my friend Mrs Françoise Lentsch, an expert in indexing, who generously offered to help me with the meticulous work. My late father, Mr Shek Jim Leung, was supportive of my research. Before the arrival of the Internet, it was a big job just to track down the vast number of publications by the writers. My father came to my rescue. He treated writing the bibliography cards as practicing Chinese calligraphy. The result was boxes and boxes of cards for my use. He could hardly have known that these cards would have many functions: to form the trajectories of the writers’ works and to provide the original sources of the works. He indeed helped me realize my scholarly practice. Translators, students, xvi PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENT scholars, and interested readers can use them to locate the sources. My engineer brother, Ron Leung, read most of the entries and asked questions that made me clarify the meaning. My husband, Randy Louis, and my son, Richard, have been part of this process throughout the years. Words cannot express my gratitude to them. I wish to thank the journal Chinese Literature Today of Oklahoma University for permission to reuse the article “Yan Lianke: A Writer’s Moral Duty” (Winter/Spring, 2011). I would like to thank George Warburton, Project Manager at Florence Production Ltd, for his careful editing. Last but not least, I am grateful to Rebecca Lawrence of Routledge for all her expert help throughout the production process.

Notes about Spelling and Arrangement

1. With a few exceptions, such as Chiang Kaishek and Kuomingtang (KMT), all the Chinese place names and people’s names are given in . Because of the large number of homonyms in Chinese, for clarity, Chinese characters are provided when the Pinyin names first appear. Also, when the writers are mentioned, their names are given in full, surname first and then personal name. 2. For scholarly purposes, the author has tried to give the original source when a piece of work is mentioned. Otherwise, the source will be given in the notes. 3. In the list of writers, the writers are arranged first alphabetically and then by age. This layout is necessary because the lives of these Chinese writers and their works have been variously affected by the nation’s tumultuous history and excessive political campaigns. Readers may find some similarities among those from the same generation. Readers may also read according to gender, which is marked by “m” (male) or “f” (female) after the name. Introduction

The international profile of contemporary Chinese literature rose significantly with Gao Xingjian (高行健; b. 1940) and Mo Yan (莫言; b. 1956) winning the Nobel Prize in Literature in the years 2000 and 2012, respectively. In the West, however, the achievements of most contemporary Chinese writers have remained largely unknown. People outside China only come to know a handful of these writers, primarily through such occasional international prizes and film adaptations. Even scholars and students in the field might find it difficult to identify them or find biographical and critical information. As a scholar and teacher in contemporary Chinese literature, I feel strongly that it is my obligation to make a contribution to this field of study and make information about Chinese writers more accessible to academics, students, and interested readers beyond the borders of China.1 This book introduces the lives and works of 80 significant contemporary Chinese fiction writers who emerged or re-emerged after Mao’s death (1976). My choice of fiction writers is based on the fact that fiction in the form of short stories, novellas, and novels is the most suitable literary genre for a wide range of contents and stylistic experimentation. As in all communist countries, literature was viewed and used as a political tool. In China, this utilitarianism of literature can be traced to Lenin’s 1905 speech, “Party Literature and Party Organization,” and later, more directly, to Mao’s Talks in Yan’an on Literature and Art (Zai Yan’an wenyi zuotan hui shang de jianghua, 在延安文艺座谈会上的讲话, 1942, hereafter referred to as Yan’an Talks). The word “contemporary” thus needs reconsideration. Although many literary historians treat 1949, the founding year of the People’s Republic of China, as the beginning of contemporary Chinese literature, in fact, it began as early as 1942 in the districts ruled by the Chinese Communist Party (hereafter, CCP). Mao’s Yan’an Talks set up the policy that “literature and art serve politics.” Any deviation could result in punishment, in the form of exile, labor reform, imprisonment, or death. After 1949, the CCP launched a series of campaigns to consolidate party leadership in the cultural sector. For instance, the film The Biography of Wu Xun (Wu Xun Zhuan, 武训传, 1951) was attacked for its promotion of bourgeois reformism, theoretician Hu Feng (胡风, 1902–1986) for his “subjective realism” (1953), veteran writer Ding Ling (丁玲, 1904–1986) for her “petty-bourgeois” idea of “one-book-ism” (writing for fame instead of for the masses, 1954), and academic scholar Yu Pingbo (俞平伯, 1900–1990) for his biographical approach (influenced by Hu Shi’s 胡适 [1891–1962] Western method of scholarship, 1955) to the study of Dream of the Red Chamber. In 1956, in view of the Hungarian Uprising and Khrushchev’s speech attacking Stalin, the CCP launched the Hundred Flowers Campaign in which people were encouraged to speak up. However, in response to the widespread criticism, Mao launched the Anti-Rightist Campaign in 1957 in order to, according to the party rhetoric, “entice the snakes out of the caves.” Hundreds of thousands were condemned. Many writers were labeled as Rightists and sent to exile, labor reform, or prison. They were silenced, and most were not rehabilitated until 1979. After the Anti-Rightist Campaign, Chinese writers in general were reluctant to write. A brief period of relaxation came in 1961, when Premier Zhou Enlai (周恩来, 1898–1976) gave a speech to intellec- tuals promising some freedom and partially rehabilitating some Rightists. However, this relaxation proved to be very brief because, in 1963, a new campaign condemning the notion of “writing 2 INTRODUCTION middle characters” (xie zhongjian renwu, 写中间人物, that is, characters that are neither perfect heroes nor villains, but are capable of change) was launched. After the Cultural Revolution broke out in 1966, Chinese literary production was reduced to a small number of propagandistic works. Eight Model Revolutionary Plays were performed throughout the nation. Drama and novel writing had to follow the dictates of “Three Prominences” (san tuchu, 三突出), which requires positive characters to be made prominent among all characters, positive heroes to be made prominent among all positive characters, and the principal hero to be made prominent among all positive heroes. From 1966 to 1976, all the literary organizations were shut down, and most writers were either exiled, sent to labor camps, imprisoned, or killed. Real literature ceased to exist. After Mao’s death (September 9, 1976) and the subsequent arrest of the “Gang of Four” (Zhang Chunqiao, 张春桥, Yao Wenyuan, 姚文元, Wang Hongwen 王洪文, and Jiang Qing, 江青) in the following month, the extreme policies of the Cultural Revolution began to be refuted. After a transitional period, since 1979, under the more pragmatic new leadership of Deng Xiaoping, Chinese writers who had endured Mao’s disastrous, destructive sociopolitical campaigns were finally able to vent their long- suppressed opinions and emotions, unleashing their creative energy like the eruption of a dormant volcano. New writers emerged. The magnitude and momentum generated were unprecedented in Chinese literary history. Large numbers of literary journals resumed publication, and many new ones appeared at the national, provincial, and city levels. Many foreign works were translated and published. New literary trends appeared one after another: Scar Literature, which deals with the harm caused by the Cultural Revolution; Reflective Literature, which reveals the human disasters caused by the extreme politics under the CCP; Reform Literature, which uncovers the problems of modernization such as in state-run enterprises; Root-Searching Literature, which explores the positive or negative aspects of Chinese cultural heritage, folk culture, and mysticism; Avant-garde Literature, which experiments with modernist concepts and techniques; New Realism, which stresses ordinary people’s everyday life; Feminist Fiction, which focuses on the plight of women; New Historical fiction, which deconstructs traditional and communist orthodox history; New Rural fiction, which deals with the new situations in rural villages after the collapse of the People’s Commune System; Anti-corruption fiction, which exposes official corruption; and many more. In the 21st century, Workers’ Literature is emerging in coastal cities, with writers who are migrant workers. Spy Fiction and science Fiction became very popular. These trends attracted many practitioners, generating tremendous vigor and diversity. Since the early 1980s, Chinese writers have consciously subverted the orthodox communist literary dogmas and socialist realism and turned to seek new ways of expression. The influx of translated works by James Joyce, Franz Kafka, William Faulkner, Jorge Luis Borges, and Gabriel García Márquez particularly have influenced their writing, such as, notably, Wang Meng’s adaptation of “stream of consciousness” and Ma Yuan’s 马原 (b. 1953) use of labyrinth structure. Chinese writers do not completely abandon their literary tradition. In fact, they are mostly familiar with the classical Chinese novels and draw inspiration from famous works such as Strange Tales from the Chinese Studio (Liuzhai zhiyi, 聊斋志异). In fact, they have synthesized the foreign and the native in the creative process. For instance, Mo Yan (b. 1956) makes use of magic realism in his Red Sorghum (Honggaoliang, 红高粱, 1988), but he also employs couplets as chapter titles in Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out (Shengsi pilao, 生死疲劳, 2006), a form taken from classical vernacular fiction. Lin Jinlan (林斤谰, 1920–2009) borrows the aesthetics of “emptiness” in Chinese painting in the construction of his short stories. Feng Jicai (冯骥才, b. 1942), Liu Qingbang (刘庆邦, b. 1951), and Tie Ning (铁凝, b. 1957) make effective use of the idea of “poetic eye” (shiyan, 诗眼) as a key motif in their short fiction. At the practical level, until only recently, most Chinese professional writers belonged to one of two governing organizations: the Union of Chinese Writers and Artists (abbreviated as Wenlian, 文联) and the Chinese Writers’ Association (abbreviated as Zuoxie, 作协). Both of them have branches in the municipalities (for instance, Beijing and Shanghai) and at provincial and city levels. During the Maoist period, they were in charge of keeping writers in line politically and providing for their practical needs. One important task has been to train and nurture young writers. As early as January 1951, a writers’ training organization called Central Literature Institute, 中央文学研究所, was founded to train young writers recruited from across the country, particularly those from worker–peasant–soldier backgrounds. In 1954, it was listed under the Chinese Writers’ Association and renamed the Literature Training INTRODUCTION 3

Institute, 文学讲习所. This organization was shut down during the Cultural Revolution and reopened in 1979. It was then renamed the Lu Xun Literary Institute (Lu Xun wenxueyuan, 鲁迅文学院). Writers were recommended to receive training while being paid by their original work units. In the late 1980s, to elevate the education standard of the writers, the Lu Xun Literary Institute collaborated with Beijing Normal University to jointly offer a graduate program in creative writing. Mo Yan, for instance, received a Master’s degree from this program. Writers who have attained professional status would receive a basic salary from their respective writers’ association and get to keep the royalties from their own publications. Beginning in the 1990s, with the development of a market economy and the mass media, Chinese writers began to pay more attention to the taste of the readers than of the leadership. Since the 1990s, as state support for professional writers has declined, many writers have become profitably involved in the media, either as TV or film scriptwriters, for their own works or for others’. The first to become a scriptwriter was Zhang Xian (张弦, 1934–1997), who wrote the film script for his story “The Corner Forsaken by Love” (Bei aiqing yiwang de jiaoluo, 被爱情遗忘的角落, 1979). Those who came after him and became high-paid scriptwriters include Liu Heng (刘恒, b. 1954) and Liu Zhenyun (刘震云, b. 1958). Zhang Xin (张欣, b. 1954), Fang Fang (方方, b. 1955), and Chi Li (池莉, b. 1957) also have had their stories turned into television series or films. In retrospect, after Mao’s death, the Chinese cultural renaissance, in which literature plays an important role, was manifested in three phenomena: first, the emergence of a large number of writers from diverse backgrounds; second, the tremendous output and wide range of subject matter; and third, multifarious narrative techniques. In the past 30 or more years, Chinese writers have achieved a great deal and have, in many ways, surpassed the output of the first three-quarters of the 20th century. I have chosen writers for this book according to several criteria (see below). The emphasis is on writers who have enriched, defined, and helped shape/reshape the direction of contemporary Chinese literature. That is, writers who have contributed significantly to the construction of the field. Some writers were chosen for more than one criterion. Owing to the restraints of space and time, I have had no choice but to leave out many deserving writers for the time being. In addition, a number of impressive young writers will have to be put aside for future studies. These are the criteria:

1. They have played a historically significant role: for instance, Liu Xinwu (刘心武, b. 1942), who published “The Class Teacher” (Banzhuren, 班主任, 1977), the first story critical of the dogma- tism in education during the Cultural Revolution; and Lu Xinhua (卢新华, b. 1954), whose story “The Scar” (Shanghen, 伤痕, 1978) gave the name to the literary trend. 2. They are conspicuously innovative in style: for instance, Wang Meng’s (王蒙, b. 1934) first exper- imentation with “stream-of-consciousness”; Can Xue’s (残雪, b. 1953) subversive narration; Ma Yuan’s (b. 1953) use of narrative labyrinth; and He Liwei’s (何立伟, b. 1954) invigoration of the Chinese literary language. 3. Their works have aroused controversy: for instance, Bai Hua (b. 1930), whose film script “Bitter Love” (Kulian, 苦恋, 1979) was the first work to be attacked nationwide in the post-Mao literary scene; and Dai Houying’s (戴厚英, 1938–1996) novel Stones of the Wall (Ren a, ren, 人啊！人, 1980), which stirred up nationwide discussion on humanism. 4. They have broadened the scope of subject matter and theme: for instance, Cong Weixi’s (b. 1933) and Zhang Xianliang’s (张贤亮, 1936–2014) gulag fiction; Lu Tianming’s (陆天明, b. 1946) anti- corruption novels; Liang Xiaosheng’s (梁晓声, b. 1949) fiction on rustication; Ye Guangqin’s (叶广芩, b. 1948) novels about Manchu royal families; Mo Yan’s (b. 1956) and Yan Lianke’s (b. 1958) regional fiction set in their hometowns; Tashi Dawa’s (扎西达娃, b. 1959) and Alai’s (阿来, b. 1959) Tibetan stories; Liu Cixin’s (刘慈欣, b. 1963) science fiction; Mai Jia’s (麦家, b. 1964) spy fiction; and Chen Ran’s (陈染, b. 1962) and Lin Bai’s (林白, b. 1958) “private” fem- inist stories. This category of writer makes up the largest number in the book.

Writers who are from Taiwan and Hong Kong, as well as overseas writers originally from China who write in another language, or have become known in China while living abroad, are not included: for instance, Bai Xianyong (白先勇, b. 1937), Ha Jin (哈金, b. 1956), Yan Geling (严歌苓, b. 1957), and Hong Ying (虹影, b. 1962). Their literary achievements should be dealt with in a separate project. 4 INTRODUCTION

However, writers who were already well known and had made their impact on contemporary Chinese literature before their exile are not excluded, such as Nobel Prize winner Gao Xingjian (高行健, b. 1940), Zheng Yi (郑义, b. 1947), and Kong Jiesheng (孔捷生, b. 1952). Internet writers are not included.2 In the following, I attempt to give a general overview of these writers in several groups according to their respective backgrounds and experiences in the context of China’s recent history. This is based on the fact that, in China, politics has impacted the lives of its people so profoundly that writers tend to share their fortune, or mostly likely misfortune, which appears variously in their writing. This explains why it is not possible to totally detach their lives from their works, particularly for writers affected by Mao and his rule. (For younger generations born after the 1980s, it might be a different story.) One should keep in mind that every writer is unique in his or her own way. One should also keep in mind that Chinese writers can be viewed from a variety of perspectives, such as region, gender, education, and many combinations of content and style.

Victims of the Hundred Flowers Campaign: Bear witness to the Gulag and suffering

The first group of writers included in this book were born in the 1920s and 1930s. During their growing-up years, they experienced World War II and the Civil War. For instance, Wang Zengqi (汪曾祺, b. 1920) and Zong Pu (宗璞, b. 1928) fled from the coastal cities to Kunming, Yunnan Province. Wang Zengqi attended the National Southwestern Union University, and Zong Pu, with her mother and siblings, traveled to be reunited with her father, the philosopher professor Feng Youlan (冯友兰, 1895–1990). Their war experiences later became valuable sources for their writing. There were writers who worked for the underground communists: for instance, Deng Youmei (邓友梅, b. 1931) was a messenger for the New Fourth Route Army and was sent to do hard labor by the Japanese until the end of the war. This horrific experience later appeared in a number of his works. Wang Meng (王蒙) was a young Bolshevik and became a cadre in the Communist Youth League. There were the young newspaper reporters Bai Hua (白桦, b. 1930) and Lu Wenfu (陆文夫, 1928–2005), and enthusiastic literary youths such as Gao Xiaosheng (高晓声, 1928–1999), Cong Weixi (从维熙, b. 1933), Liu Shaotang (刘绍棠, 1936–1997), Zhang Xian, and Zhang Xianliang. During the Hundred Flowers Campaign in 1956, they were encouraged to express their views, but all were persecuted in the 1957 Anti-Rightist Campaign. It was not until 1979 that they re-emerged on the literary scene. Drawing on their painful experiences, former Rightist writers wrote many significant works in contemporary Chinese literature, such as the gulag chronicles.

The In-Between Writers: Starting anew without Mao

The second group of writers were born in the late 1930s and early 1940s. They were too young to get caught in the Anti-Rightist Campaign in 1957 and too old to be Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution. They began publishing in the early 1960s in the aftermath of the Great Leap Forward disaster. Because of heavy censorship, these writers could only produce works following the prevailing party line. Only after the death of Mao were they able to write more honestly. Liu Xinwu published a number of stories in the 1960s and early 1970s following the party line, until he could not bear it any longer and took advantage of the first sign of relaxation to publish his landmark story “The Class Teacher” (Banzhuren, 1977), which made him the first writer to criticize the Cultural Revolution. Later, Liu Xinwu boldly acknowledged that his early works were “childish” and “embarrassing” (p. 149).3 Zheng Wanlong, in an interview, confessed that:

What I wrote during the Cultural Revolution was not literature at all. But at that time, there was no other way. There could be only that kind of work in that era. It was the tragedy of the era, and of myself. (p. 253)4 INTRODUCTION 5

Many writers in this group managed to attend college. For instance, Shen Rong (谌容, b. 1936) learned Russian in college and became a teacher of the language. Her experience with intellectuals became the source for her fiction. Zhang Jie (张洁, b. 1937) gained a degree in economics, which gave her the qualifications to write about the inner workings of state enterprise and reform. A writer who gained tremendously from a college education is Gao Xingjian, the 2000 Nobel Laureate in Literature. He learned French in college. His linguistic ability allowed him to keep abreast of Western literature, and he emerged as a forerunner of the Chinese avant-garde movement.

The Lost Generation: From Red Guard to sent-down youths to writer

The third group of writers encompasses those born between the late 1940s and the late 1950s. They were indoctrinated by Maoism from childhood to youth. In 1966, when called upon to rebel, they immediately turned into Mao’s fervent followers. However, the Red Guard Movement soon degenerated into intense factional fighting. Finally, they were sent down to the countryside in the Rustication Movement, formally launched on December 22, 1968. It has been estimated that more than 17 million young people were sent to villages or military farms. They were supposed to “set roots” in the countryside, to become a “new generation of cultured peasants.” They were referred to as Zhiqing (知青, educated youth). From fervent Red Guard to rusticated youth, this generation experienced a drastic change in fate. The most devastating was the loss of education. Years of rustication disillusioned them. The irony was that, through this “re-education” campaign, they were exposed personally to the dim reality of rural China. It is thus no surprise that they are the main proponents of Root-Searching Literature. The Zhiqing generation and the Rightist writers constitute two main forces in the Chinese literary scene.

Writers of Rural Origin: From the village to the army/ coal mine and to the city

There is a distinctive group of writers of rural origin who joined the army to escape rural poverty, received education there, and rose to prominence because of their talent. These writers have a profound understanding of rural China, and, thus, their portrayal of rural China is from an insider’s perspec- tive rather than an outsider’s perspective, such as that of the Zhiqing writers. They are the key writers of China’s regional literature. They often use their hometown as a fictional setting, as seen in Mo Yan’s Gaomi (高密) in Shandong Province, Yan Lianke’s (阎连科, b. 1958) Yaogou Gully (瑶沟), and Zhou Daxin’s (周大新, b. 1952) Nanyang Basin (南阳盆地) in Henan Province. There are also writers from a rural background who made their career in the city through attending university and their literary success. Outstanding examples include Jia Pingwa (贾平凹, b. 1952), Lu Yao (路遥, 1949–1992), and Liu Zhenyun (b. 1958). Lurking beneath the works of these writers, one often finds a profound sense of resentment against the government’s strict, unfair division of the people into rural and urban categories. At the same time, one also finds their deep attachment to their rural roots, which become a rich impetus for regional literature. The paradox of some of these writers is that they live in the city, but they continuously set their fiction in rural China.

Writers Born in the 1960s: Growing up in the Cultural Revolution

This group of writers were children when the Cultural Revolution broke out. They innocently watched the violent struggles and human evils. Those from “bad” backgrounds were condemned, along with their families. All this left a deep impression on them. One manifestation of such in their work is the recurrence of evil and violence, as typically reflected in the works of Yu Hua (余华, b. 1962) and Su Tong (苏童, b. 1963). 6 INTRODUCTION

One advantage enjoyed by this group of writers concerns the better educational opportunities they had than were possible for the slightly older Zhiqing. Many of them entered university in the early 1980s, which coincided with the thaw and, along with it, the influx of foreign ideas through translations and the media. Many Chinese writers in the 1980s were influenced by such figures as Sartre, Kafka, García Márquez, and Borges. It is thus not surprising that these writers became the first to experi- ment with the avant-garde in the mid-1980s. Their writings subvert the conventional pattern, not only of expression, but also of preconceived concepts and practices, traditional or communist. Bei Cun (北村, b. 1965), a representative of this group, even writes about religious themes. But there are exceptions, as shown in Chi Zijian’s (迟子建，b. 1964) works, which tend to be detached from the actualities of the Cultural Revolution.

Women Writers: Shades of feminist writing

The desexualized, socialist realist depiction of “women upholding half of the sky” of the Maoist period has totally diminished. Chinese women writers from all ages occupy an important position in post- Mao literature. Zong Pu (b. 1928) was among the earliest to experiment with modernist techniques. Shen Rong and Zhang Jie, both born in the 1930s, were among the earliest female writers of critical realism. Zhang Jie particularly emerged as an early feminist writer in the late 1970s. Lin Bai (b. 1958) and Chen Ran (b. 1962) made use of “private” feminist fiction to deconstruct the dominant discourse of the male ruling apparatus. Using the body as the site of expression, they explore female subjectivity and sexual identity. Some Chinese women writers, however, refuse to be labeled by gender. Zhang KangKang (张抗抗, b. 1950), for instance, prefers to be referred to as a “writer,” not a “female writer.” Fang Fang (方方) and Chi Li (池莉) were both pioneers of the trend of New Realism in the late 1980s. Their shift from the high-flown, abstract nature of grand narratives to everyday living reflects their female vision of space. It signals the return to the concreteness of life rather than revolutionary male rhetoric.

Other Writers: Unique backgrounds and subject matter

There are also writers who are unique in the sense that they do not particularly share certain experiences, except for an overall milieu. Standing out among them are writers of mixed background, for instance, Tashi Dawa and Alai. Tashi Dawa has a Tibetan father and Chinese mother, and Alai has a Tibetan father and Hui mother. Both writers identify themselves as Tibetan and share a passion to write about their cultural heritage and criticize its lack of drive for modernization. Tashi Dawa is remarkable in his avant-garde experiment, which skillfully combines magic realism with Tibetan religious life. Alai’s works carry a sense of quietude and mysticism. There are also female writers with unique backgrounds. For instance, Shanghai writer Cheng Naishan’s (程乃珊, 1946–2013) grandfather was director of the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, and she had overseas connections. Her upper-class upbringing, English education, and Hong Kong connection had a great influence on her fiction. Guangzhou writer Zhang Xin is able to depict the white-collar ladies and female entrepreneurs of this city, which is heavily influenced by Hong Kong. Ye Guangqin, the daughter of a Manchu royal family, focuses on the tragic misfits of her siblings, against the turbulent Chinese history. My theoretical viewpoint for dealing with these writers and their works does not derive from a single perspective, but is rather a synthesis of several—biographical, textual, and historical. Despite Western critics’ recent efforts to proclaim the “death” of the author, it is important to offer biographical information on writers who are little known, if known at all. It is all the more relevant for Chinese writers whose lives and work are closely involved in the changing social and political situations. They create out of the context in which they live. My own orientation might be called empirical and pluralistic. For evaluation, besides examining the writers’ overall developments in subject matter, narrative style, and ideas, I have considered several areas. For instance, I look at how they challenge the dominant power; how they deal with the memory INTRODUCTION 7 of the past (particularly the Anti-Rightist Campaign and the Cultural Revolution) and Chinese tradition; how they view gender; and how they respond to social changes, from the planned economy to the market economy. I also situate each writer in the context of contemporary Chinese literature in particular, and in the historical development of 20th-century Chinese literature in general. As mentioned above, there are different ways of organizing the material. I have arranged the writers alphabetically to give flexibility to readers. I have also provided a list arranged by year of birth. Because there are many homonyms in the Chinese language, I have included the Chinese characters beside the Pinyin romanization. For each entry, I have attempted to give a trajectory of the writer’s writing career and organize the presentation by theme or style, depending on the characteristics of the writer. Representative works will be highlighted. When a work is mentioned, I have tried to give the source, if known, of its first appearance. I believe this will more accurately reflect the stages of development of the writer concerned. As most works will be new to readers, I have tried to provide necessary content, besides the critical evaluation. Owing to my long-term involvement in the field, I have been able to obtain first-hand biographical material from some of the writers. The book can be read with my earlier book, Morning Sun: Interviews with Chinese Writers of the Lost Generation (1994), which includes 26 writers from the Maoist generation. I have expanded the content of some of them to reflect the further development of some writers. Despite their achievements, Chinese writers have to face censorship. There are still taboos, such as the Tian’anmen Incident of 1989 and in-depth exploration of the Cultural Revolution. The intentional erasing or suppression of memory of the leadership has caused great damage to the breadth and depth of writing. Obvious consequences include gaps in narration and characters’ deliberate lack of memory. Frequently, one finds an obvious skip from the 1980s to the 1990s, as if the Tian’anmen Incident had never happened. There are problems stemming from the writers themselves. Although Chinese writers are not short of moral preoccupations in their work, there is a need for deeper probing of humanity and philosophical contemplations. Also, on reading a large number of works, one finds a repetition of content and style. One explanation may come from the lack of originality and individuality, from a writer’s desire to be part of a popular trend, or to cater to the market. It may not be a cause for complaint, but I found that some writers write too fast and too much, leading to a decline in quality in some works. The role of literature in the Chinese nation occupies a more important role than one would imagine in the West. In traditional China, literary figures were highly respected, in bad times or good times. During the Maoist period, Chinese writers were regarded as part of the propaganda machine. During the 1980s, they were revered as heroes for their taboo-breaking works. In the recent 30 and more years, the return of literature to literature itself has taken a winding but rewarding path. Even though the tide of the market economy has seemingly pushed them aside, they know what their role is, and that’s what matters.

Notes 1. The following books contain information about 20th-century playwrights, poets, and fiction writers from main- land China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong and include some post-Mao writers: for instance, Bonnie S. McDougall and Kam Louie’s The Literature of China in the Twentieth Century. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997; Yang Li’s A Biography Dictionary of Modern Chinese Writers. Beijing: New World Press, 1994; and Li-Hua Ying’s The A to Z of Modern Chinese Literature. Plymouth, UK: Scarecrow Press, 2010. 2. For a study of China’s Internet literature, see Michael Hockx, Internet Literature in China. New York: Columbia University Press, 2015. 3. “Guanyu ‘Banzhuren’ de huiyi” (关于“班主任,” 的回忆, Recollection of “The Class Teacher”) in Liu Xinwu zishu (刘心武 自述, In Liu Xihnwu’s Own Words). Zhengzhou: Daxiang chubanshe, 2002, pp. 146–152. 4. Laifong Leung, Morning Sun: Interviews with Chinese Writers of the Lost Generation. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994, pp. 251–258. This page intentionally left blank References

Contents

This page intentionally left blank Bibliography

This bibliography includes: Biddle, Arthur W., Gloria Bien, and Vinay Dharwadker (eds.), Contemporary Literature of Asia. Upper • books and journals containing the writers’ Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996. works (mainly short stories and novellas) in Chau, W.C. (ed.), Prize-winning Stories from China, English translation; 1980–1981. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1985. • selected Chinese books about the writers’ Chen, Jianing (ed.), Themes in Contemporary Chinese lives and works; Literature. Beijing: New World Press, 1993. • books where the stories/novellas (except those Chen, Xiaomei (ed.), The Columbia Anthology of with journal citations) discussed in the entries Modern Chinese Drama. New York: Columbia can be found; University Press, 2010. • selected books in English on contemporary Cheung, Martha, and Jane C.C. Lai (eds.), An Oxford Chinese literature. Anthology of Contemporary Chinese Drama. Hong Kong and New York: Oxford University Press, Note: Chinese novels in monograph form and 1997. general books in Chinese on contemporary Cheung, Martha (trans.), Homecoming? and Other Chinese literature and articles are not included. Stories. Hong Kong: Renditions, 1992. The year of publication of the novels is given in China Perspectives bracket in the text. Chinese Literature Chinese Literature Today Choa, Carolyn, and David Su Li-Qun (eds.), The Picador BOOKS AND JOURNALS Book of Contemporary Chinese Fiction. London: CONTAINING THE WRITERS’ Picador, 1998. WORKS Choa, Carolyn, and David Su Li-Qun (eds.), The Vintage Book of Contemporary Chinese Fiction. New York: Anderson, Hugh (ed.), A Wind across the Grass: Modern Vintage Books, 2001. Chinese Writing with Fourteen Stories. Ascot Vale, Contemporary Chinese Women Writers II. Beijing: VIC: Red Rooster Press, 1985. Chinese Literature, 1991. Barmé, Geremie, and Bennet Lee (eds.), The Wounded: Datlow, Ellen, and Terri Windling (eds.), The Year’s Best New Stories of the Cultural Revolution, 77–78. Fantasy and Horror: Third Annual Collection. New Hong Kong: Joint Publishing, 1979. York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990. Batt, Herbert (ed.) Tales of Tibet: Sky Burials, Prayer Duke, Michael S. (ed.), Contemporary Chinese Litera- Wheels, and Wind Horses. Lanham, MD: Rowman ture: An Anthology of Post-Mao Fiction and Poetry. & Littlefield, 2001. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1985. Best Chinese Stories, 1949–1989. Beijing: Chinese Duke, Michael S. (ed.), Worlds of Modern Chinese Literature Press, 1989. Fiction: Short Stories & Novellas from the People’s Bian, Ying (ed.), The Time is Not Yet Ripe: Contempor - Republic, Taiwan & Hong Kong. Armonk, NY: ary China’s Best Writers and Their Stories. Beijing: M.E. Sharpe, 1991. Foreign Languages Press, 1991. Eastern Horizon 362 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Fang, Zhihua (trans. and ed.), Chinese Short Stories of Renditions the Twentieth Century: An Anthology in English. Roberts, R.A., and Angela Knox, with an introduction New York and London: Garland, 1995. by Frances Wood, One Half of the Sky: Selection Gernant, Karen, and Chen Zeping (trans. and eds.), from Contemporary Women Writers of China. Tibetan Soul: Stories. Hawaii, HI: University of London: Heinemann, 1987. Hawai’i Press, 2012. Roberts, Rosemary (ed.), Contemporary Chinese Goldblatt, Howard (ed.), Chinese Literature for the Women Writers III. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press, 1980s: The Fourth Congress of Writers & Artists. Panda Books, 1993. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1982. Sciban, Shu-Ning, and Fred Edwards (eds.), Dragonflies: Goldblatt, Howard (ed.), Chairman Mao Would Not Be Fiction by Chinese Women in the Twentieth Century. Amused: Fiction from Today’s China. New York: Ithaca, NY: East Asia Program, Cornell University, Grove Press, 1995. 2003. King, Richard (ed.), Living with Their Past: Post-Urban Sieber, Patricia (ed.), Zhang Jingyuan (trans.), Red is Not Youth Fiction. Hong Kong: Renditions Paperbacks, the Only Color: Contemporary Chinese Fiction on Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, 2003. Love and Sex between Women, Collected Stories. Kingsbury, Diana B. (comp. and ed.), I Wish I Were a Lanham, MD, and Boulder, CO: Rowman & Wolf: The New Voices in Chinese Women’s Littlefield, 2001. Literature. Beijing: New World Press, 1994. Siu, Helen, and Zelder Stern (eds.), Mao’s Harvest: Kitchin, Aileen T. (adapted), Out of Mao’s China: Voices from China’s New Generation. New York: Translation from the Chinese. New York: Popular Oxford University Press, 1983. Library, 1960. Siu, Helen (comp. and ed.), Furrows: Peasants, Intellectuals, and the State: Stories and histories Lau, Joseph S.M. and Howard Goldblatt (eds.), The from modern China. Stanford, CA: Stanford Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature University Press, 1990. (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press, Six Contemporary Chinese Women Writers IV. Beijing: 2007. Chinese Literature Press, 1995. Lee, Yee (ed.), The New Realism: Writings from Stewart, Frank (ed.), Song of the Snow Lion. Hawaii, HI: China after the Cultural Revolution. New York: University of Hawaii Press, 2000. Hippocrene Books, 1983. Street Wizards and Other New Folklore. Beijing: Foreign Li, Ziliang (ed.), Six Contemporary Chinese Women Languages Press, 2009. Writers IV. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press, Sze, Arthur (ed.), Chinese Writers on Writing. San 1995. Antonio, TX: Trinity University Press, 2010. Link, Perry (ed.), Stubborn Weeds: Popular and Tai, Jeanne (trans. and ed.), Spring Bamboo: A Controversial Chinese Literature after the Cultural Collection of Contemporary Chinese Short Stories. Revolution. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University New York: Random House, 1989. Press, 1983. Tam, Kwok-kan, Terry Siu-Han Yip, and Wimal Link, Perry (ed.), Roses and Thorns: The Second Dissanayake (eds.), A Place of One’s Own: Stories Blooming of the Hundred Flowers in Chinese Fiction, of Self in China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. 1979–80. Berkeley, CA: University of California New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Press, 1984. Tam, Kwok-kan (ed.), Soul of Chaos: Critical Liu, Nienling (ed.), The Rose Colored Dinner: New Perspectives on Gao Xingjian. Hong Kong: Chinese Works by Contemporary Chinese Women Writers. University of Hong Kong Press, 2001. Hong Kong: Joint Publishing, 1988. Traeholt, Anne-Marie, and Mark Kruger (trans. and Manoa eds.), Contemporary Chinese Women Writers, II. Martin, Helmut, and Jeffrey Kinkley (eds.), Modern Beijing: Chinese Literature Press, 1991. Chinese Writers: Self-Portrayals. Armonk, NY: M.E. W. J.F. Jenner (ed.), Fragrant Weeds: Chinese Stories Sharpe, 1992. Once Labeled as “Poisonous Weeds”. Hong Kong: Mu, Aili, Julie Chiu, and Howard Goldblatt (trans. Joint Publishing, 1983. and eds.), Loud Sparrows: Contemporary Chinese Wang, Mason Y. (ed.), Perspectives in Contemporary Short-Shorts. New York: Columbia University Press, Chinese Literature. University Center, MI: Green 2006. River Press, 1983. Pathlight: New Chinese Writing, 1 (2012); 2 (2012). Wang, Jing (ed.), China’s Avant-garde Fiction: An Prize-winning Stories from China, 1978–1979. Beijing: Anthology. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, Foreign Languages Press, 1981. 1998. BIBLIOGRAPHY 363

Wasafiri Country: On Chi Zijian). Harbin: Yan, Haiping (ed.), Theater and Society: An Anthology renmin chubanshe, 2002. of Contemporary Chinese Drama. Armonk, NY: Feng Jicai (冯骥才). Wo shi Feng Jicai: Feng Jicai zibai M.E. Sharpe, 1998. (我是冯骥才：冯骥才自白, I am Feng Jicai: In Feng Yu, Shiao-Ling (ed.), Chinese Drama after the Cultural Jicai’s Own Words). Beijing: Tuanjie chubanshe, Revolution, 1979–1989. Lewiston, ME: Edwin 1996. Mellen Press, 1996. Gao Jian (高见), Han Shaogong pingzhuan (韩少功评传, Zhang, Jingyuan (trans.) and Patricia Sieber (ed.), Red Critical Biography of Han Shaogong). Zhengzhou: Is Not the Only Color: Contemporary Chinese Henan wenyi chubanshe, 2008. Fiction on Love and Sex between Women, Collected Gao Xingjian (高行健), Meiyou zhuyi (没有主义, No Stories. Lanham, MD, and Boulder, CO: Rowman isms). Hong Kong: Tiandi tushu chuban youxian & Littlefield, 2001. gongsi, 2000. Zhao, Henry (ed.), The Lost Boat: Avant-garde Fiction Han Shaogong (韩少功), Miandui kongkuo er shenmi de from China. London: Wellsweep Press, 1993. shijie (面对空阔而神秘的世界, Facing a Large and Zhao, Henry, and John Cayley (eds.), Abandoned Wine: Mysterious World). Hangzhou: Zhejiang wenyi Chinese Writing from Today, 2. London: Wellsweep, chubanshe, 1986. 1996. He Huoren (何火任). Zhongguo dangdai mingzuojia Zhao, Henry, Yanbing Chen, and John Rosenwald xiaozhuan (中国当代名作家小传, Brief Biographies of (eds.), Fissures: Chinese Writing Today. Brookline, Famous Contemporary Chinese Writers). Beijing: MA: Zephyr Press, 2000. Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 1990. Zhong, Ren, and Yu Zhiyang (trans. and eds.), He Shaojun (贺绍俊), Tie Ning pingzhuan(铁凝评传, Hometowns and Childhood. San Francisco, CA: A Critical Biography of Tie Ning). Zhengzhou: Long River Press, 2005. Zhengzhou Daxue chubanshe, 2005. Zhu, Hong (trans. and ed.), The Serenity of Whiteness: He Zhenbang (何镇邦) and Li Guangding (李广鼎), Stories by and about Women in Contemporary Mingjia ceying (名家侧影, Profiles of Famous Writers). China. New York: Ballantine Books, 1991. Ji’nan: Shandong wenyi chubanshe, 4 vols., Zhu, Hong (trans. and ed.), Spring of Bitter Waters: 1998–2000, 2002. Short Fiction from Today’s China. London: Allison Hong Zhigang (洪治刚), Yu Hua pingzhuan (余华评传, & Busby, 1989. Critical Biography of Yu Hua). Zhengzhou: Zhengzhou Daxue chubanshe, 2005. Jiang Zilong (蒋子龙), Wo shi Jiang Zilong (我是蒋子龙, SELECTED CHINESE BOOKS I Am Jiang Zilong). Beijing: Tuanjie chubanshe, ABOUT THE WRITERS’ LIVES 1996. AND WORKS Jiemin (洁泯). Dangdai Zhongguo zuojia bairen zhuan (当代中国作家百人传, Biographies of One Hundred Bai Hua, Bai Hua suibi (白桦随笔, Jottings by Bai Hua). Contemporary Chinese Writers). Beijing: Qiushi Shanghai: Zhishi chubanshe, 1995. chubanshe, 1989. Chen Juntao (陈骏涛), Jingshen zhi lü: Dangdai zuojia Li Xing (李星) and Sun Jianxi (孙见喜), Jia Pingwa fangwen lu (精神之旅：当代作家访问录, Spiritual pingzhuan (贾平凹评传, Critical Biography of Jia Journey: Interviews with Contemporary Writers). Pingwa). Zhengzhou: Zhengzhou daxue chubanshe, Nanning: Guangxi shifan daxue chubanshe, 2004. 2005. Cong Weiix (从维熙), Wo shi Cong Weixi (我是从维熙, Liu Shaotang (刘绍棠), Wo shi Liu Shaotang (我是刘 I am Cong Weixi). Beijing: Tuanjie chubanshe, 绍棠, I am Liu Shaotang). Beijing: Tuanjie chubanshe, 1996. 1996. Dai Houying (戴厚英), Xinzhong de fen: zhi youren de Liu Xinwu (刘心武), Liu Xinwu zishu (刘心武自述, In xin (心中的坟：致友人的信, Grave in My Heart: Letter Liu Xinwu’s Own Words). Zhengzhou: Daxiang to a Friend). Shanghai: Fudan daxue chubanshe, chubanshe, 2002. 1996. Mai Jia (麦家), Rensheng zhongtu (人生中途, In the Deng Enbo (邓恩波). Liu Shaotang quanzhuan (刘绍棠全 Middle of My Life). Hangzhou: Zhejiang wenyi 传, A Complete Biography of Liu Shaotang). Beijing: chubanshe, 2009. Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 2006. Muzhai (木斋), Yu Zhongguo zuojia duihua (与中国作家 Fang Zhoujin (方舟金). Beiguo de jingling: Chi Zijian lun 对话, Dialogues with Chinese Writers). Beijing: (北 国 的 精 灵 ： 迟 子 建 论 , Spirit of the Northern Jinghua chubanshe, 1999. 364 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Pan Xulan (潘旭澜, ed.), Xin Zhongguo wenxue cidian Twentieth Century Chinese Writers). Beijing: (新中国文学词典, Literary Names and Terms of Zhongyang bianyi chubanshe, 1998. New China). Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, Ye Guangqin (叶广芩), Meiyou riji de Luofu He (没有日 1993. 记的罗敷河, The Luofu River and Me). Changchun: Shen Rong (谌容), Shen Rong suibi (谌容随笔, Random Jilin renmin chubanshe, 1998. Notes by Shen Rong). Shanghai: Zhishi chubanshe, Zhang Kangkang (张抗抗), Da huang bing he (大荒冰河, 1994. The Wilderness and Icy River). Changchun: Jilin Shi Tiesheng (史铁生), Yiqian de shi (以前的事, Things renmin chubanshe, 1998. from the Past). Shanghai: Dongfang tushu chuban Zhang Xianliang (张 贤 亮 ), Zhang Xianliang tan zhongxin, 2006. chuangzuo (张 贤 亮 谈 创 作 , Zhang Xianliang on Shi Shuqing (施叔青). Wentan fansi yu qianzhan: Shi Writing). Yinchuan: Ningxia Daxue Xuebao Shuqing yu dalu zuojia duihua (文坛反思与前瞻：施叔 chubanshe, 1985. 青与大陆作家对话, Literary Reflection and Prospects: Zhao Zhizhong (赵志忠, ed.), 20 shiji Zhongguo shaoshu 世纪中国少数民族 Dialogues between Shi Shuqing and Mainland minzu wenxue baijia pingzhuan (20 文学百家评传 Writers). Hong Kong: Mingbao chubanshe, 1989 , Critical Biographies of 100 Ethnic Su Tong (苏童), Zhishang meinü (纸上美女, Beautiful Minority Writers of 20th Century China). Shenyang: Women on Paper). Taipei: Maitian chubanshe, 2000. Liaoning minzu chubanshe, 2007. 照春 高洪波 Tie Ning (铁凝), Tie Ning suibi (铁凝随笔, Random Zhao, Chun ( ) and Gao Hongbo ( , (ed.), 中 国 作家大辞典 Jottings by Tie Ning). Shanghai: Zhishi chubanshe, Zhongguo zuojia da cician ( , Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese Writers). 1995. Beijing: Zhongguo wenlian chubanshe, 1999. Tu, Guangqun (涂光群). Wushi nian wentan qinli ji Zheng Yi (郑义), Lishi de yibufen: Yongyuan jibuchu de (五十年文坛亲历记, Personal Records from Fifty Years shiyi feng xin (历史的一部分：永远寄不出的十一封信, of the Chinese Literary Field), 2 vols. Shenyang: Part of History: Eleven Unsent Letters). Hong Kong: Liaoning jiaoyu chubanshe, 2005. Tianyuan shuwu; Taipei: Wanxiang tushu chuban Wang Meng (王蒙). Wo shi Wang Meng (我是王蒙, I am gongsi, 1992. Wang Meng). Beijing: Tuanjie chubanshe, 1996. Zhu Dake (朱大可), Wu Xuan (吴炫), Xu Jiang (徐江), Qin Wang Nengxian (王能宪) and Chen Juntao (陈骏涛), Bazi (秦巴子) et al. (eds.), Shi zuojia pipan (十作家批 Zuji: zhuming zuojia fangwen lu (足迹：著名作家访问 判, Criticisms on Ten Writers). Xi’an: Shaanxi Shifan 录, Footprints: Interviews with Famous Writers). Daxue chubanshe, 1999. Beijing: Zhongguo gongren chubanshe, 2011. Zhu Wei (朱伟), Zuojia biji ji qita (作家笔记及其他, Notes Wang Shuo (王朔), Wang Shuo: dashi haishi pizi? on Writers and Others). Nanjing: Jiangwu renmin (王 朔：大 师 还 是 痞 子 ？ , Wang Shuo: Master or chubanshe, 2006. Ruffian?). Beijing: Yanshan chubanshe, 1993. Zong Pu (宗璞, Tiexiao ren yu (铁萧人语, Words from an 王朔 王朔：随笔集 Wang Shuo ( ), Wang Shuo: Suibiji ( , Iron Flutist). Shenyang: Chunfeng wenyi chubanshe, Wang Shuo: Collected essays). Kunming: Yunnan 1994. renmin chubanshe, 2003. Wang Shuo (王朔), Wo Shi Wang Shuo (我是王朔, I am Wang Shuo). Beijing:Yanshan chubanshe, 1993. BOOKS WHERE THE STORIES/ Wang Yaping (王亚平), Li Xing (李星), and Li Guoping NOVELLAS (EXCEPT THOSE (李国平), Lu Yao pingzhuan (路遥评传, Critical Biog- WITH JOURNAL CITATIONS) raphy of Lu Yao). Xi’an: Taibai wenyi chubanshe, DISCUSSED IN THE ENTRIES 1997. CAN BE FOUND Wei Jianguo (韦 建国), Li Jikai (李 继 凯 ), Chang 畅广元 Guangyuan ( ) et al. Shaanxi Dangdai zuojia yu The author has tried her best to give the original 陕西当代作家与世界文学 shijie wenxue ( , Contempor- source of the discussed stories/novellas/novels, ary Shaanxi Writers and World Literature). Beijing: published in literary magazines, journals, or news- Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 2004. papers. Where the original sources are not avail- Xing Xiaoli (邢小莉) and Li Jianjun (李建军, eds.), Lu Yao able, they can be found in the following books by pinglun ji (路遥评论集, Critical Essays on Lu Yao). the writers themselves, with a few exceptions. Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 2007. Yang Shousen (杨守森), Ershi shiji Zhongguo zuojia Ah Cheng, Ah Cheng Xiaoshuo (阿城小说, Ah Cheng’s xintaishi (二十世纪中国作家心态史, Mental History of Fiction). Taipei: Haifeng chubanshe, 1989, 3rd ed. BIBLIOGRAPHY 365

Alai, Baodao (宝刀, Precious Sword). Beijing: Zuojia Chen Ran, Chen Ran zixuan ji (陈染自选集, Self-selected chubanshe, 2009. Works by Chen Ran). Beijing: Xiandai chubanshe, Alai, Kongshan (空山, Empty Mountain, 1). Beijing: 2006. Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 2005. Chen Ran, Zuichun li de yangguang (嘴唇里的阳光, Alai, Kongshan (3), Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, Sunshine between the Lips). Wuhan: Changjiang 2007. wenyi chubanshe, 1992. Alai, Yueguang xia de yinjiang (月光下的银匠, Silver- Chen Zhongshi, Chen Zhongshi duanpian xiaoshuo smith in the Moonlight). Wuhan: Changjiang wenyi xuancui (陈忠实短篇小说选粹, Selected Short Stories of chubanshe, 1999. Chen Zhongshi). Xi’an: Xi’an chubanshe, 1993. Bai Hua, Bai Hua de kulian shijie (白桦的苦恋世界, Bai Chen Zhongshi, Chen Zhongshi wenji (陈忠实文集, Hua’s World of Unrequited Love). Taipei: Caifeng Collected Works of Chen Zhongshi), 5 vols. Xi’an: chubanshe, 1982. Taibai chubanshe, 1996. Bai Hua, Bai Hua juan (白桦卷, Bai Hua’s Works). Hong Chen Zhongshi, Chuxia (初夏, Early Summer). Shanghai: Kong: Action in Supporting Chinese Writers Group Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1986. in Hong Kong, 1981. Cheng Naishan, Dingxiang bieshu (丁香别墅, Lilac 金 沙 江的怀念 Bai Hua, Jinsha Jiang de huainian ( , Mansion). Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, Memories of Gold Sand River). Beijing: Zhongguo 1986. qingnian chubanshe, 1956. Cheng Naishan, Ni hao, Pake (你好，帕克, How are you? 白桦小说选 Bai Hua, Bai Hua xiaoshuo xuan ( , Selected Gregory Peck). Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, Stories of Bai Hua). Chongqing: Sichuan renmin 1989. chubanshe, 1982. Chi Li, Chi Li wenji (池莉文集, Collected Works of Chi Bai Hua, Bai Hua de zhongpian xiaoshuo (白桦的中篇小 Li), 6 vols. Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1995. 说, Novellas by Bai Hua). Beijing: Zhongguo wenlian Chi Li, Chi Li wencun (池莉文存, Works by Chi Li). chubanshe, 1985. Nanchang: Baihuazhou wenyi chubanshe, 2000. Bei Cun, Gongmin Kaien (公民凯恩, Citizen Kaien). Chongfang de xianhua (重放的鲜花, Fragrant Flowers Urumqi: Xinjiang renmin chubanshe, 2002. Bloom Again). Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, Bei Cun, Mazhuo de aiqing (玛卓的 爱情, The Love Story 1979. of Mazhuo). Wuhan: Changjiang wenyi chubanshe, Cong Weixi, Cong Weixi wenji (丛维熙文集, Collected 1994. Works of Cong Weixi), 8 vols. Beijing: Huayi Bi Feiyu, Qingyi (青衣, The Moon Opera). Wuhan: chubanshe, 1996. Changjiang wenyi chubanshe, 2001. Cong Weixi, Zouxiang hundun (走向混沌, Entering Can Xue, Changfa de zaoyu (长发的遭遇, Changfa’s Chaos). Hong Kong: Tiandi tushu gongsi, 1990. Encounters), Beijing: Huawen chubanshe, 2002. Dai Houying, Rendao yu Foyuan (人道与佛缘, Human Can Xue, Huangni Jie (黄泥街, Yellow Mud Street). Ways and Buddhist Karma). Shanghai: Shanghai Wuhan: Changjiang wenyi chubanshe, 1996. renmin chubanshe,1999. Chen Cun, Wuding shang de jiaobu (屋顶上的脚步, Steps on the Roof). Wuhan: Changjiang wenyi chubanshe, Deng Youmei, Deng Youmei duanpian xiaoshuo xuan 邓友梅短篇小说选 1992. ( , Selected Short Stories by Deng Chen Cun, Zoutong Daduhe (走通大渡河, Walking across Youmei). Beijing: Beijing chubanshe, 1981. 邓友梅 Dadu River). Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, Deng Youmei, Deng Youmei xiaoshuo jingxuan ( 小说精选 1986. , Best Stories by Deng Youmei). Chengdu: Chen Jiangong, Miluan de xingkong (迷乱的星空, The Sichuan renmin chubanshe, 1999. 方方文集：埋伏 Enchanting Starry Sky). Tianjin: Baihua wenyi Fang Fang, Fang Fang wenji: Maifu ( , chubanshe, 1981. Collected Works of Fang Fang: Ambush). Nanjing: Chen Jiangong, Danfeng yan (丹凤眼, Phoenix Eyes). Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1995. Taipei: Linbai chubanshe, 1988. Fang Fang, Fang Fang wenji: Baimeng (方方文集：白梦, Chen Jiangong, Qianke (前 科 , Criminal Records). Collected Works of Fang Fang: White Dreams), Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1991. Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1995. Chen Ran, Chen Ran zuopin zixuan ji (陈染作品自选集 Fang Fang, Fang Fang wenji: Fengjing (方方文集：风景, 1, Self-selected Works by Chen Ran, vol. 1). Beijing: Collected Works of Fang Fang: Landscape). Nanjing: Guangming ribao chubanshe, 1996. Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1995. Chen Ran, Chen Ran zuopin zixuanji (陈染作品自选集 2, Fang Fang, Fang Fang wenji: Xiong’an (方方文集：凶案, Self-selected Works by Chen Ran, vol. 2). Beijing: Collected Works by Fang Fang: Murder). Nanjing: Guangming ribao chubanshe, 1996. Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1995. 366 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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