Introduction

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Notes

Introduction

1. Xiaosheng Liang, Yi ge hongweibing de zibai (Confession of a Red Guard) (Beijing: Wenhuayishu chubanshe, 2006), 216. The English translation is a slightly revised version of Ban Wang, The sublime figure of history: Aesthetics and politics in twentieth-century China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997), 198. Liang does not make the date clear in his account, which however matches the situation of Mao’s sixth inspection on the Red Guards on November 3, 1966. For details of this inspection, see Hong Zeng, ed. Tiananmen wangshi zhuizong baogao (Accounts of the past events at Tiananmen square) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxuan chubanshe, 2010), 402–03. 2. Wang, The sublime figure of history: Aesthetics and politics in twentieth-century China, 201, 17. 3. Many revolutionary rituals were as half-hearted as the political study sessions that Su Xiu, a dubbing actor and director, experienced at the Shanghai Film Studio during the Cultural Revolution Period. Wang sees such study sessions as an integral part of “a high tide of rituals and rites” that the Chinese engaged in “with an enthusiasm that was as blind as it was sincere, as irrational as it was earnest” (ibid., 215–16.). According to Su’s account, however, no one took these sessions seriously. They made good use of the boring time by secretly or openly playing games; Xiu Su, Wo de peiyin shengya (My dubbing career) (Shanghai: Wenhui chubanshe, 2005), 20–21. This book, especially in chapter six, discusses more examples of the rituals that simply went through motions or even invited dissidence. 4. My narrative of Liang’s experience in this section is based on Liang, Yi ge hongweibing de zibai (Confession of a red guard), 159–223. 5. Ibid., 164. 6. Ibid., 163. 7. Ibid., 215–17. 8. Ibid., 163. 9. Ibid., 218. 10. “Propaganda” (xuanchuan) was a highly positive word in the revolutionary context. 11. I capitalize the word “Rightist,” because being “Rightist” or “Leftist” had its specific meaning in the revolutionary context. In Michael M. Sheng’s words, 184 NOTES

being Rightist meant “being less committed to the revolution or uncertain about one’s communist identity,” while being Leftist meant “being less tact- ful or having too much revolutionary zeal to be patient;” Michael M. Sheng, Battling Western imperialism: Mao, Stalin, and the United States. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997), 12–13. 12. NCNA, “Shanghai renda yubei huiyi douzheng Zhang Luo lianmeng zai Shanghai de zhuyao gugan, Sun Dayu mianhongerchi choutaibilu (At the preparatory meeting of the Shanghai People’s Congress, [people] fought against a core member of the Zhang [Bojun] and Luo [Longji] Coalition, Sun Dayu, who ﬂushed with shame and completely acted like a fool),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), August 22 1957. 13. J. R. Townsend, Political participation in communist China (Berkeley: Univer- sity of California Press, 1969) 74. 14. Shaoguang Wang, Failure of charisma: The cultural revolution in Wuhan (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1995) 21. 15. Zedong Mao and Tse-tung Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. III (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1967) 119. 16. Mitch Meisner, “Dazhai: The mass line in practice,” Modern China,4,no.1 (1978): 57. 17. Mao and Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. III, 12, 315. Zedong Mao and Tse-Tung Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. V (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1977) 184. 18. “Zhongguo gongchandang zhongyangweiyuanhui guanyu wuchanjieji wen- huadageming de jueding (Decision of the CCP’s Central Committee concerning the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), August 9, 1966. 19. Yibo Bo, Ruogan zhongda juece yu shijian de huigu (Reﬂections on certain major policy decisions and events) (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1991), 263. Mao and Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. V 168. 20. Marc Blecher, “Consensual politics in rural Chinese communities: The mass line in theory and practice,” Modern China, 5, no. 1 (1979): 105–126. 21. Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao (Writings of Mao Zedong since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China) vol. 12 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1998), 71. 22. Stuart R. Schram, The Thought of Mao Tse-Tung (Cambridge (Cambridgeshire); New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 145. Skinner and Winckler’s original model falls short in recognizing the agency of the masses. It char- acterizes the masses as passively responding to leaders’ initiatives, having choices only on a continuum from compliance to passive resistance. But the disturbance-order cycle is still a precise term to describe power dynamics played out under the Maoist rulership. 23. M. Oksenberg, “Occupational groups in Chinese society and the cultural revolution,” in The Cultural revolution: 1967 in review, four essays, Edited by Chang, Chun-shu, James Crump, and Rhoads Murphey (University of Michigan: Center for Chinese Studies, 1968), 2. NOTES 185

24. Words often attributed to Lenin in Maoist China. 25. The Gang of Four is the name given to the political faction officially blamed for the Cultural Revolution. For more about them, see the concluding chapter. 26. Qing Jiang, “Lin Biao tongzhi weituo Jiang Qing tongzhi zhaokai de budui wenyigongzuo zuotanhui jiyao (Summary of the forum on the work in literature and art in the armed forces with which comrade Lin Biao entrusted comrade Jiang Qing),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), May 29, 1967. 27. Laikwan Pang, Building a new China in cinema: The Chinese left-wing cinema movement, 1932–1937 (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2002), 142. 28. Rick Altman, Film/Genre (London: BFI Publishing, 1999), 144–65. 29. Qing Jiang, “Guanyu dianying wenti (On the film Issue) (May 1966),” in Fandong yingpian Wu Xun Zhuan Liao Yuan pipan cailiao (Criticism materials of reactionary films The Life of Wu Xun and The Ablaze Prairie), Edited by Beijing dianyingxueyuan jinggangshan wenyibingtuan hongdaihui (Beijing: Beijing dianyingxueyuan jinggangshan wenyibingtuan hongdaihui, May 1967), 17. 30. In the field of history, Franz Schurmann noticed the limitation that the adjec- tive “communist” may place on our understanding of China as early as in 1968. In the wake of the Cultural Revolution, he amended his influential work Ideology and Organization in Communist China and claimed,

If I were to give the book a new title today, I would call it Ideology, Organiza- tion, and Society in China. The original title testiﬁes to the weight I assigned ideology and organization, and to China’s Communist character. However, due weight must now be given to the resurgence of the forces of Chinese society;

Franz Schurmann, Ideology and organization in communist China,2ded. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), 504. 31. In Chinese, a commonly used term for this cinema happens to be also “revolutionary cinema” (geming dianying). But like “communist cinema” in English, “revolutionary cinema” in Chinese is usually associated with a static understanding, namely that the cinema transmits a definite “revolutionary” ideology. If the “communist” world is the other to the capitalist, then the “revolutionary” period is the other to the post-revolutionary era in China. The book seeks to reveal precisely the complexities, diversities, and dynamics obscured and concealed by such otherness. 32. Debo Ma and Guangxi Dai, “Chen Huangmei zai shiqi nian, jian ping ‘zhuanjiapai’ yu ‘zuo’ pai de luxianzhizheng (Chen Huangmei during the 17 years: On the conflicts between the ‘specialists’ and the ‘Leftists’),” Dangdai dianying (Contemporary cinema), no. 2 (1993): 62. 33. W. J. F. Jenner, “Book review: Chinese cinema: Culture and politics since 1949 by Paul Clark,” The China quarterly, no. 121 (1990): 140. 34. Wang, The sublime figure of history: Aesthetics and politics in twentieth-century China 123. 186 NOTES

35. Paul Clark, Chinese cinema: Culture and politics since 1949, Cambridge studies in film (Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 24–55. 36. Paul Pickowicz, China on film: A century of exploration, confrontation, and controversy (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2012), 189–212. 37. Clark, Chinese cinema: Culture and politics since 1949, 117. 38. Pickowicz, China on film: A century of exploration, confrontation, and controversy, 195, 206, 08. 39. Zhang Yingjin also points out this issue in his comments on the book; Yingjin Zhang, Screening China: Critical interventions, cinematic reconfigurations, and the transnational imaginary in contemporary Chinese cinema (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Center for Chinese Studies, 2002), 53. 40. Pickowicz, China on film: A century of exploration, confrontation, and controversy 209. 41. Oksenberg, “Occupational groups in Chinese society and the Cultural Revolu- tion,” 2. 42. Gina Marchetti, “Action-Adventure as ideology,” in Cultural politics in contemporary America, ed. Ian H. Angus and Sut Jhally (New York: Routledge, 1989), 185. 43. Yomi Braester, “The political campaign as genre: Ideology and iconography during the Seventeen Years Period,” Modern language quarterly, 69, no. 1 (2008): 119–140. Tina Mai Chen, “Textual communities and localized practices of film in Maoist China,” in Film, history and cultural citizenship: Sites of production, ed. Tina Mai Chen and David S. Churchill (New York: Routledge, 2007): 61–80. Paul Clark, The Chinese cultural revolution: A history (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008). 44. Altman, Film/Genre, 15. 45. Ibid., 215. 46. Stuart Hall, Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices (London; Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage in association with the Open University, 1997), 45. 47. Altman, Film/Genre 214. 48. Michel Gordon Colin Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings, 1972–1977 (New York: Pantheon Books, Edition: 1st American ed., 1980), 98. 49. Yomi Braester has done a pioneering work to introduce the Altmanian model to the study of revolutionary cinema; Braester, “The political campaign as genre: Ideology and iconography during the Seventeen Years Period.” 50. Anita Chen, “Dispelling misconceptions about the Red Guard Movement: The necessity to re-examine cultural revolution factionalism and periodization,” Journal of contemporary China, 1, no. 1 (1992): 61–85. 51. For more details about these official claims, see the concluding chapter. 52. Yomi Braester and Tina Mai Chen, “Film in the People’s Republic of China, 1949–1979: The missing years?,” Journal of Chinese Cinemas,5,no.1 (2011): 7. NOTES 187

Chapter 1

1. Yanyuan is gender-neutral, and so is the word “actor” in this book. When necessary, I use “female actor” or “male actor” to indicate gender. 2. Andrew Jones has an insightful discussion of this usage of the word “yellow” in Chinese media culture. See Andrew F. Jones, Yellow music: Media culture and colonial modernity in the Chinese Jazz age (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001). 3. Zongying Huang, “Liang zhong wenhua (Two cultures),” Dazhong dianying (Mass cinema), June 1, 16, July 5, 1950. 4. Chaoguang Wang, “Zhongguo yingping zhong de meiguo dianying, 1895– 1949 (American films in Chinese movie reviews, 1895–1949),” Meiguo yanjiu (American Studies Quarterly), no. 2 (1996): 78–92. Jishun Zhang, “Cultural consumption and popular reception of the West in Shanghai, 1950–1966,” The Chinese historical review, 12, no. 1 (2005): 97–126. 5. Zhang, “Cultural consumption and popular reception of the West in Shanghai, 1950–1966,” 107. 6. In a 2008 interview, Huang stated that she quit because she “was not able to play worker/peasant/soldier characters well.” See Yisheng Luo, “Ting Huang Zongying laoren tan wangshi (Listen to Madame Huang Zongying tell past stories),” Qilu wanbao (Qilu evening news), November 17, 2008. 7. Shaoguang Wang, Failure of charisma: The Cultural revolution in Wuhan (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 21. 8. The actual line between “the two kinds of cinema” was of course much more blurred than Huang claims in the essay. For a discussion of the deep and complex interconnections between the Chinese progressive cinema and what Huang calls the “yellow cinema,” see Laikwan Pang, Building a new China in cinema: The Chinese left-wing cinema movement, 1932–1937 (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2002). 9. Zhao’s autobiography in Dazhong dianying (Mass cinema), January 1, 1951, 30. 10. The Imperial Bank of China, The Ningbo Commercial Bank, The National Industrial Bank of China, The Jianye Bank, and The Sin Hua Bank: Banking Services. Advertisement. Dazhong dianying (Mass cinema),April 25, 1951. 11. Paul Pickowicz is one of the few scholars who have ever mentioned Song Jingshi. Yet he quickly dismisses the film as “quite forgettable,” and believes that “Zheng Junli clearly passed the test by mastering the CCP’s official position on the actual peasant rebellion led by Song Jingshi”; Paul Pickowicz, China on film: A century of exploration, confrontation, and controversy (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2012), 195. 12. Scholars have used different terms, such as “the Leftists” and “the specialists” (zhuanjia pai), to describe the dichotomy of Yan’an versus Shanghai or a similar dichotomy of politics versus art. See, for example, Debo Ma and Guangxi Dai, “Chen Huangmei zai shiqi nian, jian ping ‘zhuanjiapai’ yu ‘zuo’ pai de 188 NOTES

luxianzhizheng (Chen Huangmei during the 17 years: On the conflicts between the ‘specialists’ and the ‘Leftists’),” Dangdai dianying (Contemporary cinema), no. 2 (1993): 56–62. 13. Paul Clark, Chinese cinema: Culture and politics since 1949, Cambridge studies in film (Cambridge (Cambridgeshire); New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 190. 14. The Talks listed the four parts of revolutionary literature and art as literature, theater, music and painting. Film received merely a passing mention in the Talks when Mao compared the living Lenin with Lenin in film. This trivial comparison was deleted from the Talks in 1953. 15. Zhonggong zhongyang wenjian xuanji (Selected documents of the CCP’sCentral committee), vol. 17 (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1992), 421. 16. Yaping Ding, ed. Bainian zhongguo dianying lilun wenxuan (Selected articles on film theory during the recent one hundred years), 2 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 2002), 346. 17. Zhonggong zhongyang wenjian xuanji (Selected documents of the CCP’sCentral Committee), vol. 18 (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1992), 420. 18. The narrative of the shooting and revision process of TheLifeofWuXunin this section is based on Sun’s account; Yu Sun, Dalu zhi ge (Song of the highway) (Taipei: Yuanliu chuban gongsi, 1990), 179–205. 19. Ibid., 181–83. 20. Ibid., 193–96. 21. One month later, this article was reprinted in the People’sDaily. Ji Jia, “Buzuweixun de Wu Xun (Wu Xun shall not be exemplary),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), May 17, 1951. 22. “Yinggai zhongshi wuxun zhuan de taolun (We should pay attention to discussion of the film The Life of Wu Xun),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), May 20, 1951. The editorial appeared anonymously, but it was widely known that it was written by Mao. 23. See, for example, Yulu Ke, “Ping dianying Guan lianzhang (A review of the film Platoon Commander Guan),” Wenyi bao (Literary gazette),4,no.5 (1951): 20–21; Xuexing Zhang, “Ping Guan lianzhang (A review of Platoon Commander Guan),” Wenyi bao (Literary gazette), 4, no. 5 (1951). 24. See, for example, Clark, Chinese cinema: Culture and politics since 1949, 48–52; Yingjin Zhang, Chinese national cinema (New York: Routledge, Edition: 1st ed., 2004), 194–99; Kei Shu, “Cangsang renjian sishi nian: Sun Yu yu Wu Xun Zhuan (Ups and downs during the forty years: Sun Yu and TheLifeofWu Xun),” in Dalu zhi ge (Song of the highway), (Taipei: Yuanliu chuban gongsi, 1990): 259–269. 25. Dafeng Zhong and Xiaoming Shu, Zhongguo dianying shi (A history of Chinese cinema) (Beijing: Zhongguo guangbo dianshi chubanshe, 1995), 89. 26. Qizhi, Mao Zedong shidai de renmin dianying (People’s cinema during the Maoist era) (Taipei: Xiuwei zixun keji gufen youxiangongsi, 2010), 96. NOTES 189

27. Di Wu, ed. Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, 3 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 2006), 124. 28. Ibid., 169, 225. 29. Yonglie Ye, Jiang Qing zhuan (Biography of Jiang Qing) (Beijing: Zuojia chubanshe, 1993), 221. Ross Terrill, Madame Mao: The white boned demon,Rev.ed. (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999), 181. 30. Ji Jia, Song Jingshi qiyi gushi (Stories of Song Jingshi’srebellion)(Beijing: Zhongguo qingnian chubanshe, 1956). 31. Sun, Dalu zhi ge (Song of the highway), 205. 32. Ibid., 203. 33. Ibid., 205. 34. Hairuo Zeng, “TV Documentary on Song Jingshi,” in Dianying chuanqi (Film legends), (2007). 35. Baichen Chen, “Congying jilue (A brief memoir on my ﬁlm career),” Dushu (Reading), July 10, 1982. 36. See People’sDailyAugust 24, 1951:3; August 28, 1951:3; September 11, 1951:2; January 14, 1952:3. 37. Dianfei Zhong, “Fufu jinxingqu shi yi bu huai dianying (The march of a couple is a Bad Film),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), August 28, 1951, p. 3. 38. Dali Zheng and Jing Li, “Wo de fuqin Zheng Junli (My father Zheng Junli),” Sanlian shenghuo zhoukan (Sanlian life weekly), January 2008. Zeng, “TV Documentary on Song Jingshi.” 39. Zeng, “TV Documentary on Song Jingshi.” 40. There was a plan to ask Zhao Dan to play Wu Xun again in Song Jingshi as a reactionary antagonist. But at the last minute Chen Baichen removed Wu Xun from the script with the approval of Jiang Qing. The alleged reason was that Wu was born much later than Song and therefore could not have met him; Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 1, 169. 41. See Mao’s speech in Zedong Mao and Tse-tung Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse- Tung., vol. III (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1967), 271–74. Mao gave this speech on June 11, 1945. The historical investigation of Wu Xun claims that Song Jingshi joined the Taiping army around 1863. 42. NCNA, “Wenhuabu jiang zai sanshisan ge chengshi juban xinpianzhanlanzhou (The Ministry of Culture will hold ‘New Film Exhibition Weeks’ in 33 cities),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), Feburary 23, 1956. 43. Bo Chen, ed. Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), 2 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), 430. 44. Junli Zheng, “Women zai tansuo zhong qianjin (We are advancing by trial and error),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 3 (1957): 16. 45. Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 1, 169. Chen does not mention the name of the ofﬁcial, who should be Mo Wenhua, vice president of the Political College of the PLA. See Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 1, 430. 190 NOTES

46. Chen, “Congying jilue (A brief memoir on my film career).” 47. Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 1, 163–68. 48. Ibid., 127. 49. Ibid., 169. 50. Terrill, Madame Mao: The white boned demon, 178–80. 51. Ye, Jiang Qing zhuan (Biography of Jiang Qing), 223–28. 52. Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 1, 170. 53. Zheng, “Women zai tansuo zhong qianjin (We are advancing by trial and error),” 15–16. 54. Ibid., 16–17. 55. Bing Xiao, “Dianying juben de yinmu tixian: ping dianying juben he dianying Song Jingshi (The way to film a script: A review of the film script and the film Song Jingshi) (1957),” in Chen Baichen ping zhuan (A critical biography of Chen Baichen), ed. Hong Chen (Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe, 1998), 397–402. 56. Zheng and Li, “Wo de fuqin Zheng Junli (My father Zheng Junli).” Zeng, “TV Documentary on Song Jingshi.” 57. Zedong Mao and Tse-Tung Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. V (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1977), 185.

Chapter 2

1. The literal meaning of yang is “foreign.” But in Chinese this word is used as an antonym of “rustic.” It conveys a cosmopolitan vision rather than simply referring to foreignness. 2. Wei Guo, “Wo zenyang zoujin yingtan de damen: huiyi wo de laoshi Shi Dongshan (How I entered the gate of film industry: Remembering my mentor Shi Dongshan),” in Shidongshan yingcun (Remembering Shi Dongshan and his films), ed. Li Daoxin Zhao Xiaoqing (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 2003), 405. 3. Zhao Yigong’s interviews with Guo Wei (April 24 and July 28, 2003). My thanks to the production team of the TV documentary series Film Legends (Dianying chuanqi), and particularly their primary correspondent Zhao Yigong and their team leader Cui Yongyuan, for allowing me to use the interviews. 4. Jihua Cheng, Shaobai Li, and Zuwen Xing, Zhongguo dianying fazhanshi (A history of the development of Chinese cinema), 2nd ed., 2 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1963; repr., 2005), 11. 5. Guo, “Wo zenyang zoujin yingtan de damen: huiyi wo de laoshi Shi Dongshan (How I entered the gate of film industry: Remembering my mentor Shi Dongshan),” 415, 31. 6. Huangmei Chen, “Jianjue ba diao yinmu shang de baiqi:1957 nian dianying yishupian zhong cuowu sixiang qingxiang de pipan (Resolutely wrench out the White Flags on the silver screen: A critique of mistaken ideological tendencies in 1957 films),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), December 2, 1958. NOTES 191

7. Shuli Zhao, Zhao Shuli wenji (Selected works of Zhao Shuli) (Beijing: Gongren chubanshe, 1980), 1723. 8. The idea of the two-line struggle can be traced back to Lenin’s 1915 article “On the Two Lines in the Revolution.” The extensive use of this phrase in the CCP’s parlance began in the Yan’an Rectiﬁcation Movement (1942–1944). A book entitled The Two Lines (Liangtiao luxian), for example, was a required study material for all CCP members in Yan’an in 1943. 9. Zhao, Zhao Shuli wenji (Selected works of Zhao Shuli), 1724. 10. Ibid., 1482. 11. Liqun Qian, 1948: tiandixuanhuang (1948: The sky is black and the earth is yellow) (Jinan: Shandong jiaoyu chubanshe, 1998), 236. 12. Hanbin Deng, “Sanliwan: dui nongcun hezuoshe zhi minjian ke’nengxing de zhenmi shuxie (Sanliwan village: Meticulous writing on the grassroots possibilities of agricultural cooperation),” (2005), http://ows.cul-studies.com/ Article/literature/200503/972.html. 13. Shuli Zhao and Shu-li Chao, Sanliwan village, trans. Gladys Yang (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1964), 193–97. 14. Corruption of the CCP cadres who have gained their power during the land reform is a major concern that Zhao repeatedly expresses in his works, including the 1943 novella TheTaleofLiYoucai’sRhymes(Li Youcai banhua)andthe 1948 novella The Upright Need Not Fear the Crooked (Xie bu ya zheng). 15. Zhao and Chao, Sanliwan Village, 257. 16. Huamin Gao, Nongye hezuohua yundong shimo (A history of the campaign for agricultural collectivization) (Beijing: Zhongguo qingnian chubanshe, 1999), 42. 17. Zhao and Chao, Sanliwan village: 200–01. Translation slightly revised according to the Chinese original and American spelling norms. 18. Ibid., 238–39. 19. For more details about the debate over the Changzhi experiments and Mao and Zhao’s interventions, see Gao, Nongye hezuohua yundong shimo (A history of the campaign for agricultural collectivization), 35–45. 20. Nongye jitihua zhongyao wenjian huibian (A compendium of important documents on agricultural collectivization): 1949–1981, vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1982), 37–44. 21. Ibid., 104–09. “Zhongguo gongchandang zhongyang weiyuanhui guanyu chungeng shengchan gei ge ji dangwei de zhishi (Directive on spring sowing by the CCP’s Central Committee to Party committees of all levels),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), March 26, 1953. 22. Zedong Mao and Tse-Tung Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. V (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1977), 135, 38. 23. Nongye jitihua zhongyao wenjian huibian (A compendium of important documents on agricultural collectivization): 1949–1981, vol. 1, 225. 24. Mao and Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. V, 186. 25. Nongye jitihua zhongyao wenjian huibian (A compendium of important documents on agricultural collectivization): 1949–1981, vol. 1, 277–79. 192 NOTES

26. For details of the changes of Mao’s view during this period and his clash with Deng, see Yibo Bo, Ruogan zhongda juece yu shijian de huigu (Reflections on certain major policy decisions and events) (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1991), 326–75. 27. Ibid., 345. 28. Mao and Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. V, 184, 85, 90. 29. Gao, Nongye hezuohua yundong shimo (A history of the campaign for agricultural collectivization), 287. 30. Mao and Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. V, 196–97. 31. Zhao, Zhao Shuli wenji (Selected works of Zhao Shuli), 1891. 32. Zhao and Chao, Sanliwan village, 181–82. 33. Dongshan Shi, “Guanyu jinhou yige shiqi nei dianying de zhuti he gongzuo de judian (On the subjects of films and the focus of film work from now on),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), July 6, 1949. Dongshan Shi, “Muqian dianying yishu de zuofa (Present methods of filmmaking),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), August 7, 1949. Dagong, Zai juying zhouhui shang ting Shi Dongshan baogao ceji (Lis- tening to Shi Dongshan’s talk at a weekly meeting of film and stage play artists), Shidongshan yingcun (Remembering Shi Dongshan and His Films), vol. 2 (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 2003), 50–52. 34. Shi, “Muqian dianying yishu de zuofa (Present methods of filmmaking).” 35. Gang Huang, Zai dianying gongzuo gangwei shang (At the post of film work), (Shanghai: Xinwenyi chubanshe, 1952), 59. 36. Shi, “Muqian dianying yishu de zuofa (Present methods of filmmaking).” 37. A three-month long nationwide debate on the question, “whether or not [we] can write about the petty bourgeoisie” in new literature and art, initiated by the Shanghai based Wenhui Daily (Wenhui bao) in August 1949, made the doubting voices very clearly heard. 38. Huang, “Dui zai dianying gongzuo zhong guanche Mao Zhuxi wenyi fangxiang bixu you zhengque lijie (The implementation of Chairman Mao’s direction of literature and art in film work must be understood correctly),” 52. 39. The criticism of Shi’s articles and speeches has led scholars to believe that Shi was not credited for directing New Heroes and Heroines. See, for example, Tony Rayns and Scott Meek, Electric Shadows: 45 Years of Chinese Cinema,BFI dossier (London: British Film Institute, 1980), Biography (bio). B8. Shi’s name in fact appears in large font in opening credits of the film as the scriptwriter and director. For directing this film, Shi won a special Honorary Director Award at the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival in 1951 and, posthu- mously, a 1949–1955 Excellent Film Award issued by the Ministry of Culture in 1957. Articles written at the time of the release of the film all credited it to Shi. 40. Shi died in 1955. At the time he was holding several high-level positions in cultural and political institutions, and was about to be appointed the first president of the Beijing Film Academy. It has long been suspected that Shi committed suicide to protest against the pressure on him to denounce his long- time friend Hu Feng. But that was politics behind closed doors. The official NOTES 193

press announced his death as due to illness, offering him condolence and high respect. 41. Huang, “Dui zai dianying gongzuo zhong guanche Mao Zhuxi wenyi fangxiang bixu you zhengque lijie (The implementation of Chairman Mao’s direction of literature and art in film work must be understood correctly),” 59. 42. Guo Wei emphasized in an interview: “[Taking Mount Hua by Strategy] would have been a film about a group of indistinguishable characters if I had not shot it as a thriller. When making revisions, I realized that I must solve the problem [of the original film] by turning it into thriller.” See Hairuo Zeng, “TV Documentary on Taking Mount Hua by Strategy,” in Dianying chuanqi (Film Legends) (2005). Guo mentioned “revisions” here, because he shot Taking Mount Hua by Strategy twice. Inspectors of the Film Bureau considered the first version of the film an artistic and technical failure. They ordered Guo to revise it heavily. Shi Dongshan offered Guo much-needed support and helped him with the revisions. See Guo, “Wo zenyang zoujin yingtan de damen: huiyi wo de laoshi Shi Dongshan (How I entered the gate of film industry: Remembering my mentor Shi Dongshan),” 430–31. 43. Shadan, “Dong Cunrui: Zhenshi chuangzao de jingdian (Dong Cunrui: A classic film based on true stories),” Dazhong dianying (Mass cinema), no. 8 (2006): 36–39. 44. Xuexing Zhang, “Ping Guan lianzhang (A review of Platoon Commander Guan),” Wenyi bao (Literary gazette), 4, no. 5 (1951): 18. Yulu Ke, “Ping dianying Guan lianzhang (A review of the film Platoon Commander Guan),” Wenyi bao (Literary gazette), 4, no. 5 (1951): 20–21. Qizhi, Mao Zedong shidai de renmin dianying (People’s cinema during the Maoist era) (Taipei: Xiuwei zixun keji gufen youxiangongsi, 2010), 97–98. 45. Qizhi, Mao Zedong shidai de renmin dianying (People’s cinema during the Maoist era): 283–86; “Guanyu gaijin dianying zhipian gongzuo ruogan wenti de baogao (A report on the improvement of several issues in the film production work),” (Beijing: Wenhua bu dianying ju (the Film Bureau of the Ministry of Culture), 1957). Before this reform, filmmakers at the state-owned studios did not need to worry about financial gains and losses of their films at all. For details, see Chapter 3. 46. Su Hu, “Yigu fandang anliu de fanlan—chi yi Sha Meng weishou de fandan- gjituan (An overflowing anti-Party undercurrent: Denouncing the anti-Party group led by Sha Meng),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 9 (1957): 13–16. 47. See, for example, Hairuo Zeng, “TV Documentary on Blooming Flowers and the Full Moon,” in Dianying chuanqi (Film Legends), (2004). 48. “Lingzhi” and “Yusheng” are spelled as “Ling-chih” and “Yu-sheng” in the original translation. Zhao and Chao, Sanliwan Village, 190–91. 49. For a discussion on Shi Dongshan’s pursuit of formal beauty in filmmaking, see Xiao’ou Shu, “Shi Dongshan de zaoqi dianying chuangzuo yu ‘weimeizhuyi’ (Shi Dongshan’s early filmmaking career and ‘aestheticism’),” Dianying yishu (Film art), no. 4 (1996): 59–63. 194 NOTES

50. Qizhi, Mao Zedong shidai de renmin dianying (People’s cinema during the Maoist era), 343. 51. Zhao, Zhao Shuli wenji (Selected works of Zhao Shuli) 1888. 52. Zhao and Chao, Sanliwan village, 31. 53. Literary scripts are, as Paul Clark explains, “hybrid literary versions of what will be or has been filmed.” (Paul Clark, “The Film Industry in the 1970s,” in Popular Chinese literature and performing arts in the People’s Republic of China, 1949–1979, ed. Bonnie S. McDougall and Paul Clark (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 189.) Publication of literary scripts was popular in early PRC because it satisfied the need of those who wanted to watch a film but did not have a chance to watch it in the movie theatre. 54. This is a combined quote from the following three sources: Wei Guo, “Huahaoyueyuan dianying wenxue juben (Literary script of Blooming Flowers and the Full Moon),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 6 (1957): 45. Wei Guo, Huahao yueyuan dianying wancheng jingtou juben (Shooting script of Blooming Flowers and the Full Moon) (Changchun: Chuangchun Film Studio (Mimeograph with no clear date), circa. 1957), 9. Wentao, “Lichang, fencun he quwei (Position, propriety and taste),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 4 (1959): 70. 55. Shen, “Dianying gongzuozhe 1957 nian de dongxiang (Interviews with people working in film on their plans in 1957),” Dazhong dianying (Mass cinema), no. 1 (1957): 10. 56. NCNA, “Changying ‘xiaobailou’ fandang jituan qiongxunji’e, Sha Meng Guo Wei Lü Ban shuaidui xiang dang chongfeng, tichu yitao zibenzhuyi gangling wangxiang ba dianying shiye tuixiang qitu (The ‘anti-Party clique in the Lit- tle White Building’ of the Changchun Film Studio is extremely vicious; Sha Meng, Guo Wei, and Lü Ban are leading their team to charge against the Party; in the vain hope of pushing the film cause to a wrong path, they have proposed a set of capitalist programs.),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily),September3, 1957. 57. Hanwei Dang dui dianying shiye de lingdao xubian (Defend the leadership of the Party in the film work: Continuation). (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1958), 52. 58. As explained in the introduction, the Maoist mass line policy enforcers needed to mobilize the masses to denounce the politically erroneous PRC-made films. Rather than controlling the accessibility of the films, they sought instead to direct audiences’ thoughts about them. For this reason, the Maoist period often saw films released to be criticized. Chapter 6 discusses this practice in detail. 59. Dun Tao, “Huahaoyueyuan pipan (Criticism of Blooming Flowers and the Full Moon),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 3 (1959): 68. 60. Ibid. Qin Su, “Gaoju hongqi, dapo dali (Holding the red flag high, let great demolition lead to great establishment),” Wenyi bao (Literary gazette),no.17 (1958): 32. NOTES 195

61. Wentao, “Lichang, fencun he quwei (Position, propriety and taste),” 69, 70. 62. Su, “Gaoju hongqi, dapo dali (Holding the red flag high, let great demolition lead to great establishment),” 32. 63. Tao, “Huahaoyueyuan pipan (Criticism of Blooming Flowers and the Full Moon),” 68. 64. Su, “Gaoju hongqi, dapo dali (Holding the red flag high, let great demolition lead to great establishment),” 32. 65. Tao, “Huahaoyueyuan pipan (Criticism of Blooming Flowers and the Full Moon),” 68; Wentao, “Lichang, fencun he quwei (Position, propriety and taste),” 69. Both Fan and Ma fall into the category of the “middle peasants” in the CCP’s land reform and collectivization. A classical definition of the “middle peasants” can be found in Vladimir Il’ich Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 29 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1972), 246–47. 66. Huangmei Chen, “Jianchi dianying wei gongnongbing fuwu de fangzhen (Insist on the policy that film must serve the workers, the peasants, and the soldiers),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), February 25, 1957. 67. Hanwei Dang dui dianying shiye de lingdao xubian (Defend the leadership of the Party in the film work: Continuation), 49. 68. Chen, “Jianjue ba diao yinmu shang de baiqi:1957 nian dianying yishupian zhong cuowu sixiang qingxiang de pipan (Resolutely wrench out the White Flags on the silver screen: a critique of mistaken ideological tendencies in 1957 films).” 69. Tushou Chen, “1959 nian dongtian de Zhao Shuli (Zhao Shuli during the winter of 1959),” in Bujin weile ji’nian (Not only for commemoration) (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 2007), 530. 70. Huangmei Chen and Wenshu Yuan, “Dui 1957 nian yixie yingpian de pingjia wenti (On the evaluation of some films produced in 1957),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), March 4, 1959. 71. Di Wu, ed. Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, 3 vols., vol. 2 (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 2006), 411–12. 72. Qing Jiang, “Lin Biao tongzhi weituo Jiang Qing tongzhi zhaokai de budui wenyigongzuo zuotanhui jiyao (Summary of the forum on the work in literature and art in the armed forces with which comrade Lin Biao entrusted comrade Jiang Qing),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), May 29, 1967. 73. “Yizhu fandui nongcun shehuizhuyi geming de da ducao (A big Poisonous Weed opposing the socialist revolution on the countryside),” in Dianying geming (Film revolution) (Jilin: Jilinsheng gongnongbing dianying geming lianluozhan, 1968), 8. 74. Chen, “Jianjue ba diao yinmu shang de baiqi:1957 nian dianying yishupian zhong cuowu sixiang qingxiang de pipan (Resolutely wrench out the White Flags on the silver screen: A critique of mistaken ideological tendencies in 1957 films).” Chen and Yuan, “Dui 1957 nian yixie yingpian de pingjia wenti (On the evaluation of some films produced in 1957).” 196 NOTES

Chapter 3

1. Fang Song, “TV Documentary on The Man Unconcerned with Details,” in Dianying chuanqi (Film legends) (2006). 2. Qizhi, Mao Zedong shidai de renmin dianying (People’s cinema during the Maoist era) (Taipei: Xiuwei zixun keji gufen youxiangongsi, 2010), 96. 3. Other Shanghai film artists who went to Yan’an around the same time include Yuan Muzhi, Chen Bo’er, Wu Yinxian, Tian Fang, Wang Bing, Qian Xiaozhang, Wang Yang, and Xu Xiaobing. 4. Di Wu, ed. Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, 3 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 2006), 220. 5. Interview of Lü Ban’s son, Lü Xiaoban, in Song, “TV Documentary on The Man Unconcerned with Details.” 6. Ibid. 7. Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 1, 222. 8. Bo Chen ed., Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonghe juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Comprehensive records) 2 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), 6. 9. Daoxin Li, “Cansheng de tizhi he jianbai de ren (The bitterly victorious institution and the gradually defeated people),” Dianying yishu (Film Art),no.5 (2012): 112–13. This article cites a number of internal, hard-to-find documents of the Changchun Film Studio. It informs my historical narrative of this conference and Lü Ban’s later efforts to organize and re-organize the Spring Comedy Society. 10. Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 1, 348–61. 11. Hanwei Dang dui dianying shiye de lingdao xubian (Defend the leadership of the party in the film work: Continuation) (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1958), 88–89. 12. English translation in Peter Kenez, Cinema and Soviet society from the revolution to the death of Stalin (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2001), 219. 13. For details of the plan, see Bo Chen, ed. Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), 2 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), 401–02. 14. See Xingliang Hu, “1949–1976 zhong wai xiju jiaoliu gailun (A survey of the exchange activities in theater between China and other countries from 1949 to 1976),” Wenyi zhengming (Contentions in literature and art), no. 3 (2006): 118. 15. For more details of these frictions, see Mercy Kuo, Contending with contradictions: China’s policy toward Soviet Eastern Europe and the origins of the Sino- Soviet split, 1953–1960 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2001); Lengxi Wu, Shi nian lunzhan: 1956–1966 zhong su guanxi huiyilu (Ten years of debate: A NOTES 197

memoir on the Sino-Soviet relationship from 1956 to 1966) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1999). 16. Huang Dai, Jiusiyisheng: wo de “Youpai” li cheng (Surviving all perils: My experiences as a Righitst) (Beijing: Zhongyang bianyi chubanshe, 1998), 27–58. Binyan Liu, A higher kind of loyalty: A memoir by China’s foremost journalist (New York: Pantheon Books, 1990), 62–77. 17. Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian (Selected important documents since the establishment of the PRC), 20 vols., vol. 10 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1994), 154. 18. Nongye jitihua zhongyao wenjian huibian (A compendium of important documents on agricultural collectivization): 1949–1981, vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1982), 655–64. 19. Zedong Mao and Tse-Tung Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. V (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1977), 332–421. 20. Ibid., 373. “Beijing” is spelled as “Peking,” and “Yan’an” is spelled as “Yenan” in the original English translation. 21. Ibid., 374–75. 22. Dingyi Lu, “Baihua qifang, baijia zhengming (Let a hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred schools contend),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), June 13, 1956. 23. Mao and Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. V, 345. This English translation translates Mao’s word “ge diao,” which means “to remove through a revolution,” only partially as “to remove.” 24. Sanmu, “Cisheng cangmang: guanyu Pu Xixiu (A life in the mist: on Pu Xixiu),” Wenshi jinghua (Selected readings on literature and history), no. 11 (2004): 30–31. 25. Zhucheng Xu, “Yang mou: 1957 (Open scheming: 1957),” in Jingji lu: jiyi zhong de fan youpai yundong (A thorny road: Memoirs on the Anti-Rightist Campaign), ed. Han Niu and Jiuping Deng (Beijing: Jingji ribao chubanshe, 1998), 269. 26. FangzaoYao,“‘Dianying luogu’ da fengbo (The great disturbance of the ‘gangs and drums at the movies’),” in Jingji lu: jiyi zhong de fan youpai yundong (A thorny road: Memoirs on the Anti-Rightist Campaign), ed. Han Niu and Jiuping Deng (Beijing: Jingji ribao chubanshe, 1998), 394. 27. Ibid., 394–95. Xuepeng Luo, “Zhong Dianfei he dianying de luogu (Zhong Dianfei and gongs and drums at the movies),” Yanhuang chunqiu (China through the ages), no. 12 (2001). 28. In 1951, for example, the Film Bureau planned to produce 18 films, among which three to four were to be of “battle subjects,” four to five of “construction subjects,” two were to “represent the land reform,” one to two were to represent “new inventions,” two were to be on world peace and against U.S. imperialism, two were to “represent internationalism,” one was to “represent ethic issues,” one was to represent “cultural construction,” one was to be “on the children,” one was to be on history, and on cadres’ working style “there can be one as well.” See Qizhi, Mao Zedong shidai de renmin dianying (People’s cinema during the Maoist era): 46. In May 1953, Zhou Yang acknowledged that “the leadership on the creation of film scripts has violated the law of creation 198 NOTES

by ordering [scriptwriters] to write on given topics and setting a time limit for them to fulfill their writing assignments;” Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 1, 346. 29. Zhenchang Tang, “Gaijin shengao zhidu (Improve the film script inspection system),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), November 17, 1956. 30. Chuan Shi, “ ‘Shiqinian’ shiqi zhongguo dianying tizhi yu guanzhong xuqiu (Chinese film institution and the needs of Chinese audience during the period of the ‘seventeen years’),” Dianying yishu (Film Art), no. 4 (2004): 49. 31. See the film title list in Jingliang Chen and Jianwen Zou, eds., Bai nian zhongguo dianying jingxuan (The best of centennial Chinese cinema), vol. 2, 1 (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 2006), 361–66. I do not count some of the listed films because they are too short to be considered feature- length. 32. Fangyu Shi, “Xuyao hehu yishu guilü de lingdao (We need a leadership that obeys the law of art),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), November 17, 1956. 33. Liting Chen, “Daoyan yinggai shi yingpian shengchan de zhongxin huanjie (Directors should work at the center of film production),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), November 23, 1956. Jingbo, “Baozheng dianying jishu de zhiliang (Ensure the technical quality of films),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), November 26, 1956. Shangyi Han et al., “Mianxiang yishu (For art),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), November 27, 1956. 34. Mubai, “Paishe guocheng zhong de qingguijielü (Restrictions in the shooting process),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), November 26, 1956. 35. Jinglu Sun, “Zui zhongyao de shi guanxin ren (Caring for the people is the most important),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), November 20, 1956. 36. Leyan, “Yanyuan de kunao (Actors’ frustration),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), December 10, 1956. 37. Sun, “Zui zhongyao de shi guanxin ren (Caring for the people is the most important).” 38. While many professional actors, especially the former movie stars, had valid reasons to believe such preference for non-professionals created “waste,” some new talents did emerge among the non-professionals. The losses and gains of the Chinese cinema for having the new faces in lieu of the old ones deserve a separate examination. This research focuses instead on the consequences of the professionals’ frustration for what they saw as a “waste” of their talent. 39. Yunzhu Shangguan, “Rang wushu maicang de zhubao faguang (Let the buried treasures shine),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), November 21, 1956. Shi Shu, “Wo de yaoqiu (My demands),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), November 21, 1956. Fei Han, “Meiyou xiju keyan (Nocomedytoplayin),”Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), November 30, 1956. 40. Chen, “Daoyan yinggai shi yingpian shengchan de zhongxin huanjie (Directors should work at the center of film production).” 41. Xing Li, “Guanzhong xuyao kan shenmeyang de yingpian (What films does the audience want to watch?),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), December 17, 1956. 42. The couplet is quoted in Yi ( ) Chen, “Wo ye xiangdao dianying de wenti (I am too thinking about the film issue),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), January 23, NOTES 199

1957. The deficit amount is quoted from Bo Chen ed., Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: faxing fangying juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Distribu- tion and projection), 3 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), 24. 43. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: faxing fangying juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Distribution and projection) vol. 1, 24. 44. Dianfei Zhong, “Dianying de luogu (Gongs and drums at the movies),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), December 21, 1956. The article appeared as written by a “commentator of Literary Gazette (Wenyibao pinglunyuan).” 45. “Weishenmo hao de guochanpian zheyang shao? (Why are there so few good PRC-made films?),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), November 14, 1956. 46. Producing films in the remote mountainous area of Yan’an, early CCP film artists and workers relied exclusively on a mobile film projection team to show films to soldiers and peasants. See Zhuqing Wu, Zhongguo dianying de fengbei: Yan’an dianyingtuan gushi (A monument of Chinese cinema: Stories of the Yan’an film group) (Beijing: Zhongguo renmin daxue chubanshe, 2008), 116–32. The Northeast Studio had 17 mobile projection teams showing films for peasants and soldiers in 1948. See Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), June 22, 1948, 2. There were about 100 mobile projection teams in 1949. The number reached 1076 in 1953. See Renmin ribao (People’sdaily) March 1, 1950, 3; January 12, 1954, 3. 47. Tao Zhou, “Fangyingyuan de yijian he kunao (Opinions and frustrations of a projectionist),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), December 8, 1956. 48. Bo Chen, ed. Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: faxing fangying juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Distribution and projection), 3 vols., vol. 2 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), 806. 49. Ibid., 1, 24. 50. The Bicycle Thief was released in China in October 1954; Zuguang Wu, “Dongrenxinxian de yingpian: Yidali jinbu yingpian ‘Tou zixingche de ren’ guanhou (A touching film: a review of the Italian progressive film Bicycle Thief ),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), October 25, 1954. 51. “Yindu dianying zhou jiang zai wo guo ershi ge chengshi juxing (The Indian Film Week will be held in 20 cities of our country),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), April 1, 1955. “Yindu gongheguo dianying zhou shengli jieshu (Film Week of the Republic of India ended victoriously),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily),October 24, 1955. 52. Ten major Chinese cities hosted the Japanese and the French Film Weeks respectively in June and October 1956, and Beijing hosted the Italian Film Week from October to November in 1957. “Shi da chengshi jiang juxing ‘Riben dianying zhou’ (The Japanese Film Week will be held in ten major cities),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), May 23, 1956. “Wo guo ge da chengshi jiang juxing Faguo dianyingzhou (The French Film Week will be held in major cities of our country),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), October 10, 1956. “Yidali dianying zhou jijiang zai jing juxing (The Italian Film Festival will be held in Beijing),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), October 26, 1957. 200 NOTES

53. “ ‘Faguo dianying zhou’ guanzhong da sanbanwan renci; faguo dianying daibiaotuan dao shanghai fangwen (Audiences of the French Film Week reached three million; the French Film Delegation is visiting Shanghai),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily) November 4, 1956. “Guochan yingpian shangzuolü qingkuang buhao (The box-office records of the PRC-made films are not good),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), November 14, 1956. 54. Jihua Cheng, Shaobai Li, and Zuwen Xing, Zhongguo dianying fazhanshi (A history of the development of Chinese cinema), 2nd ed., 2 vols., vol. 2 (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1963; repr., 2005), 222. 55. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: faxing fangying juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Distribution and projection), vol. 1, 26. 56. Yihai Ding, “Guochan yingpian de quedian (Problems of PRC-made films),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), November 14, 1956. Several other articles in the Few Good discussion also mention the popularity of re-screened Chinese progressive films. 57. Baichen Chen, “Cong he shuo qi (Where should I start?),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), December 13 1956. Chen’s original wording for “the imported progressive films” is “films like Spring (Chun)andAutumn (Qiu),” both of which are Hong Kong imported progressive films (made in 1953 and 1954, respectively) that achieved significant box-office success in the PRC in 1956. 58. Li, “Guanzhong xuyao kan shenmeyang de yingpian (What films does the audience want to watch?).” Chen Baichen used the word “star” in a similar way in his above-mentioned contribution to the discussion. Chapter 5 discusses the star culture in the PRC further. 59. Han, “Meiyou xiju keyan (Nocomedytoplayin).” 60. Shangguan, “Rang wushu maicang de zhubao faguang (Let the buried treasures shine).”; Sun, “Zui zhongyao de shi guanxin ren (Caring for the people is the most important).” 61. Gong Wang, “Dianying shiye zouguo de yiduan wanlu (A wrong way for the development of cinema),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), November 28, 1956. 62. Yu Sun, “Zunzhong dianying de yishu chuantong (Respect the Legacy of Film Art),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), November 29, 1956. 63. Hui Shi, “Zhongshi zhongguo dianying de chuantong (Value the legacy of Chinese film),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), December 3, 1956. 64. Ibid. 65. Lu, “Baihua qifang, baijia zhengming (Let a hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred schools contend).” 66. Yang Zhou, Zhou Yang wenji (Collected works of Zhou Yang), 5 vols., vol. 2 (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1984), 408. Yang Zhou, “Rang wenxue yishu zai jianshe shehuizhuyi weida shiye zhong fahui juda de zuoyong (Let literature and art play a huge role in the great task of socialist construction),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), September 25, 1956. 67. Sun, “Zunzhong dianying de yishu chuantong (Respect the Legacy of Film Art).” 68. Zhong, “Dianying de luogu (Gongs and drums at the movies).” 69. Director Lu Ren at the Shanghai studio took over the project and completed the adaptation in 1957. For a description of Lü Ban’s adaptation of NOTES 201

Playing a Vertical Bamboo Flute Horizontally and the conflicts it generated, see Anping Zhu, “Dongxiao hengchui duo kanke (The checkered career of Playing a Vertical Bamboo Flute Horizontally),” Dazhong dianying (Mass cinema), June 15, 2010. 70. Fangzao Yao, “Gaijin dianying shiye de zhongda cuoshi (Important measures to improve the film work),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), December 23, 1956. The CCP’s Central Committee approved the reform plan on February 5, 1957; see the internal document cited in Qizhi, Mao Zedong shidai de renmin dianying (People’s cinema during the Maoist era): 286. 71. Yao, “ ‘Dianying luogu’ da fengbo (The great disturbance of the ‘gangs and drums at the movies’),” 398. 72. Xuepeng Luo, “Zhong Dianfei yu ‘dianying de luogu’ (Zhong Dianfei and ‘gongs and drums at the movies’),” Bai nian chao (Hundred-year changes),no.5 (2008): 57–60. 73. Zedong Mao et al., The secret speeches of Chairman Mao: From the hundred flowers to the great leap forward, Harvard contemporary China series (Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies/Harvard University: Dis- tributed by Harvard University Press, 1989), 168. 74. Ibid., 167. 75. Ibid., 168–70. 76. Ibid., 253. 77. Fangzao Yao and Yang Zhou, “Zhou Yang tongzhi da benbao jizhe wen (Inter- view of comrade Zhou Yang by a staff corrspondent),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), April 9, 1957. 78. Hanwei Dang dui dianying shiye de lingdao xubian (Defend the leadership of the Party in the film work: Continuation), 103, 07. 79. Mao used this expression to criticize CCP authorities’ suppression of criticism in a talk delivered in March 1957; Mao and Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse- Tung, vol. V, 432. 80. Hanwei Dang dui dianying shiye de lingdao xubian (Defend the leadership of the Party in the film work: Continuation), 103. 81. “Tongzhan bu zhaokai de minzhu renshi zuotanhui zuotian jixu juxing (The symposium of democratic party representatives, convened by the United Front Work Department, continued yesterday).”, Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), June 2, 1957. 82. Quotes are taken from Zhou Dajue’s poster “lun ‘jieji’ de fazhan (On the development of ‘class’),” printed in Han Niu and Jiuping Deng, eds., Yuan shang cao: Jiyi zhong de fan youpai yundong (Wild grass: Remembering the anti-rightist campaign) (Beijing: Jingji ribao chubanshe, 1998), 166–71. A number of other posters aired the same view. See, for example, the posters written by Shen Dike and Qian Ruping in the same book. 83. Jieying Zhong, “Wo yu Luo Lan zai dafengchao zhong (Luo Lan and I in the big unrest),” in Jiyi (Remembering), ed. Xianzhi Lin and Dening Zhang (Beijing: Gongren chubanshe, 2002), 62, 64. Zheng Zhu, 1957 nian de xiaji: cong baijiazhengming dao liang jia zhengming (The summer of 1957: From a hundred schools to two schools) (Zhengzhou: He’nan renmin chubanshe, 202 NOTES

1998). 299. Shu Ding, “Beida zai 1957 (Beijing University during 1957),” http://www.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/wk_wzdetails.asp?id=4279. 84. Liu, A higher kind of loyalty: A memoir by China’s foremost journalist, 76. Trans- lation slightly revised according to the original Chinese version; Binyan Liu, Liu Binyan zizhuan (An autobiography of Liu Binyan) (Hong Kong: Xingguang Press, 1990), 97. 85. Mao noted at the time: “Summer vacation is approaching. College students in Beijing, Shanghai and other cities will go back home. Some of them will run here and there to make troubles. You should take initiative and get ready to appropriately deal with them”; Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao (Writings of Mao Zedong since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China),vol.6 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1998), 492. 86. Xianzhi Pang and Chongji Jin, Mao Zedong zhuan:1949–1976 (Biography of Mao Zedong: 1949–1976) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2004), 696. 87. Mao and Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. V, 440–41. 88. 552,877 is the post-Mao official figure, which some argue is an underestima- tion. See Henry Yuhuai He, Dictionary of the political thought of the People’s Republic of China (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2001). 115. 89. Mao and Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. V, 455. This translation transliterates the Wenhui Daily as Wen Hui Pao. 90. “Dongyuan qilai, tou ru zhandou! (Get mobilized to fight!),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 7 (1957): 1. 91. NCNA, “Lü Ban shi ge fandang daoyan (Lü Ban is an anti-Party director),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), August 20, 1957. NCNA, “Changying ‘xiaobailou’ fandang jituan qiongxunji’e, Sha Meng Guo Wei Lü Ban shuaidui xiang dang chongfeng, tichu yitao zibenzhuyi gangling wangxiang ba dianying shiye tuixiang qitu (The ‘anti-Party clique in the Little White Building’ of the Changchun Film Studio is extremely vicious; Sha Meng, Guo Wei, and Lü Ban are leading their team to charge against the Party; in the vain hope of pushing the film cause to a wrong path, they have proposed a set of capitalist programs.),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), September 3, 1957. 92. See a partial record in Hanwei Dang dui dianying shiye de lingdao xubian (Defend the leadership of the Party in the film work: Continuation), 67. 93. See a summary of the criticism in ibid., 71–86. 94. Mao and Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. V, 359. 95. Chen Huangmei confirms this in Huangmei Chen and Wenshu Yuan, “Dui 1957 nian yixie yingpian de pingjia wenti (On the evaluation of some films produced in 1957),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), March 4, 1959. 96. Bo Chen ed., Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), 2 vols., vol. 2 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), 637. 97. Zheng particularly made a furious attack at two fellow Shanghai directors, Wu Yonggang and the above mentioned Shi Hui. Both Wu and Shi were active Few Good discussion participants calling for a revival of Shanghai. Hanwei Dang dui dianying shiye de lingdao xubian (Defend the leadership of the Party in the film work: Continuation), 14–24. Junli Zheng, “Tan Shi Hui de fandong yishu NOTES 203

guandian (On the reactionary artistic views of Shi Hui),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 1 (1958). 98. The other co-director of the film, Cai Chusheng, was also a leading critic of the Rightists, especially Lü Ban and Zhong Dianfei. Among other articles and talks, he waged a long-winded, down-to-detail attack at The Unfinished Comedies, and was particularly sensitive to Lü’s attempt to revive Shanghai “yellow” cinema and music; Hanwei Dang dui dianying shiye de lingdao xubian (Defend the leadership of the Party in the film work: Continuation), 67–100. Unlike Zheng and other fellow Shanghai directors, Cai became a high-level cultural bureau- crat immediately after the founding of the PRC. He was a powerful official rather than a marginalized Shanghai artist, and did not direct any films in the PRC until 1962.

Chapter 4

1. “Da guimo de shouji quanguo min’ge (Extensively collect folk poems nationwide),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), April 14, 1958. 2. Although a literal translation of the Chinese word min’ge is “folk songs,” “folk poetry/poems” is more accurate in this context, because most of the poems were not set to music. 3. “Anhui sheng souji min’ge jin san wan (Almost thirty thousand folk poems have been colleced in the Anhui province),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), June 9, 1958. 4. “Min’ge zhi hai Neimenggu yao souji qianwan shou minge (Ten million folk poems will be collected in the Inner Mongolia, known as the ‘sea of folk poems’),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), June 9, 1958. 5. Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1958–1960 (Wuhan: Gang’ersi Wuhandaxue zongbu, Zhongnanminyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, and Wuhanshiyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, 1968), 41, 63, 84. 6. Ibid., 42. 7. “Yao fandui baoshou zhuyi, ye yao fandui jizao qingxu (It is necessary to oppose both impetuosity and conservatism),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), June 20, 1956. 8. Lengxi Wu, Yi Mao Zhuxi: wo qinshen jingli de ruogan zhongda lishi shijian pianduan (Remembering Chairman Mao: Fragments of certain major historical events which I personally experienced) (Beijing: Xinhua chubanshe, 1995), 49–50. 9. “Jianshe shehuizhuyi nongcun de weida gangling (A great program for the construction of socialist countryside),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), October 27, 1957. “Fadong quanmin, taolun sishi tiao gangyao, xianqi nongye shengchan de xin gaochao (Mobilize all people, discuss the 40 programs, and create a new peak of agricultural productions),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily),November 13, 1958. Before these two editorials, the phrase “(great) leap forward” was used mainly to praise past achievements. See, for example, “Da yuejin de 204 NOTES

yinian (A year of great leap forward),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), June 29, 1957. 10. Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1958–1960, 6–9, 30, 42, 341–42. 11. Zhiyuan Cui, “Guanyu liangjiehe chuangzuo fangfa de lishi kaocha yu fansi (A reflective history of the creative method of the combination of Revolution- ary Romanticism and Revolutionary Realism),” Hebei shifan daxue xuebao: zhexue shehui kexue ban (Journal of the Hebei Normal University: Philosophy and Social Sciences), 27, no. 1 (2004): 44. This remark and its slight variations are quoted in a number of Chinese and English scholarly articles and books. Yang Lan’s article “ ‘Socialist Realism’ versus ‘Revolutionary Realism Plus Revolutionary Romanticism,’” in In the CCP Spirit: Socialist realism and literary practice in the Soviet Union, East Germany and China, ed. Hilary Chung and Falchikov Michael (Amsterdam; Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1996), for example, quotes a marginally different version of this remark from Yafu Wang, Hengzhong Zhang, and Lifan Ding, Zhongguo xueshujie dashi ji (A chronicle of events in Chinese academic circles): 1919–1985 (Shanghai: Shanghai shehui kexueyuan chubanshe, 1988). Zhou Yang’s article also confirms that Mao made a remark of this sort. The original source, however, remains unclear. 12. Yang Zhou, “Xin min’ge kaichuang le shige de xin daolu (New folk poems have opened a new path for poetry),” Hong qi (Red flag), no. 1 (1958): 35. 13. Andrey Zhdanov, “Soviet literature: The richest in ideas, the most advanced literature,” in Soviet Writers’ Congress 1934: The debate on socialist realism and modernism in the Soviet Union. Edited by Gorky, Maksim and H G. Scott (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1977), 21–22. 14. Hilary Chung and Falchikov Michael eds., In the Party spirit: Socialist realism and literary practice in the Soviet Union, East Germany and China (Amsterdam; Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1996). 16. Both this official definition of SR and its revision discussed later in this chapter emerged amid clashes among multiple positions taken by Soviet politicians, writers and critics. Due to the scope of this research, I cannot discuss those debates in detail. 15. Yang Zhou, China’s new literature and art: Essays and addresses (Beijing: For- eign Languages Press, 1954), 87–88. The Chinese original was published in the People’sDailyon January 1, 1953. 16. Chung and Michael, In the Party spirit: Socialist Realism and literary practice in the Soviet Union, East Germany and China, 16. Emphases original. 17. Zhou, China’s new literature and art: Essays and addresses, 95. Emphasis added. 18. Chung and Michael, In the Party spirit: Socialist Realism and literary practice in the Soviet Union, East Germany and China, 16. 19. Marek Bartelik, “Concerning Socialist Realism: Recent publications on Russian art,” Art journal, 58, no. 4 (1999): 92. 20. Katerina Clark et al., Soviet culture and power: A history in documents, 1917– 1953, Annals of Communism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 162–64. NOTES 205

21. See, for example, Yang Zhou, Zhou Yang wenji (Collected works of Zhou Yang), 5 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1984), 58–73. 22. Ibid., 105–06, 10, 12–14. 23. Ibid., 2: 409–10. 24. Ibid., 1: 114. Emphases original. 25. Ibid., 2: 408. 26. Shehuizhuyi xianshizhuyi lunwenji (Selected essays on socialist realism), 2 vols., vol. 1 (Shanghai: Xinwenyi chubanshe, 1958), 493. Emphasis original. 27. Ibid., 526. 28. Yiwenshe ed., Baowei shehuizhuyi xianshizhuyi (Defending Socialist Realism) (Beijing: Zuojia chubanshe, 1958). 29. Xiancai Yang ed., Gongheguo zhongda shijian jishi (A record of the major events in the PRC), 3 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1998), 640–48. 30. Mao first announced this goal during his visit to the Soviet Union in November, 1957. See Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1949–1957. (Wuhan: Gang’ersi Wuhandaxue zongbu, Zhongnanminyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, and Wuhanshiyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, 1968), 251–52. 31. Lanxi Wang, “Yingjie dianying shiye de xin shiqi (To meet the new period of film work),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 7 (1958): 9. 32. “Ji dianying zhipian shengchan cujin huiyi (A report on the meeting to promote film production),” Dazhong dianying (Mass cinema), March 26, 1958. 33. Benkan pinglunyuan. “Women de dianying luogu qiao qilai le (We have begun beating gongs and drums at movies),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 4 (1958): 2. Qizhi, Mao Zedong shidai de renmin dianying (People’s cinema during the Maoist era) (Taipei: Xiuwei zixun keji gufen youxiangongsi, 2010), 359–61. 34. “Women de dianying luogu qiao qilai le (We have begun beating gongs and drums at movies),” 3. 35. Wang, “Yingjie dianying shiye de xin shiqi (To meet the new period of film work),” 8. 36. I do not count the Tibet region (difang) and its adjacent Chamdo region (diqu) in the 27. The PRC regarded both as provincial-level administra- tive regions but called and treated them differently than the provinces, direct-controlled municipalities, and autonomous regions. Given the PRC’s troubled control over Tibet and Chamdo at the time, it was also unlikely the plan would include them. I do not count Taiwan, which the PRC of course claimed to be one of its provinces. I count Tianjin, which was however downgraded from a direct-controlled municipality to a prefecture-level city in 1958. 37. These three studios changed from organs of the Ministry of Culture to those of their respective provincial/municipal governments in 1957 and 1958; Chuan Shi, “ ‘Shiqinian’ shiqi zhongguo dianying tizhi yu guanzhong xuqiu 206 NOTES

(Chinese film institution and the needs of Chinese audience during the period of the ‘seventeen years’),” Dianying yishu (Film art), no. 4 (2004). 38. See annals of Chinese film studios in Bo Chen ed., Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zhipian juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Film production) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2006). 39. Di Wu ed., Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, 3 vols., vol. 2 (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 2006), 185. 40. Huangmei Chen and Fangyu Shi eds., Dangdai zhongguo dianying (Con- temporary Chinese cinema), 2 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongguo shehuikexue chubanshe, 1989), 171. 41. Zhou made the claim when giving a talk on August 11, 1965. See a transcript of the talk in Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 2, 496. 42. Some also referred to this new genre as the “new art film.” The three terms were used interchangeably after Zhou’s talks. In September, on a forum hosted by the journal Chinese Cinema, Chen Huangmei and most other participants made clear that the term should be “documentary-style art film.” Some openly expressed their doubt about the term “artistic documentary:” “Are there non-artistic documentaries?” After this forum, “documentary- style art film” became the standard term. See “Dangqian dianying chuangzuo wenti zuotanhui (Discussion forum on the issue of film creation at the present time),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 10 (1958): 4–9. Zhou’s attitude toward such reversion was unclear in 1958. In the 1965 talk, he would criticize Chen’s “distortion” of his original meaning. But at the time Chen could be easily blamed for many wrongdoings for having already been brought down. 43. Ibid. 44. Yuxin Chen, Rongkui Ren, and Yi Xin, “Tan yingpian shezhizu zhong dang de gongzuo (OntheParty’sworkinfilmcrews),”Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 1 (1959): 3. 45. Sangchu Xu and Chuan Shi, Ta bian qingshan ren wei lao: Xu Sangchu koushu zizhuan (Crossing these green hills adds nothing to one’s years: An oral memoir of Xu Sangchu) (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 2006), 154. Mingsheng Tang, Kuayue shiji de meili: Qin Yi zhuan (A cross-century beauty: Biography of Qin Yi) (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 2005), 184–86. 46. Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 2, 271. 47. “Dangqian dianying chuangzuo wenti zuotanhui (Discussion forum on the issue of film creation at the present time).” 48. Ibid., 4. 49. As a result of the GLF, the actual third five-year plan began three years later than planned. 50. “Shisanling shuiku: shoudu renmin dayuejin de biaozhi (The Shisanling reservoir: A symbol of the Great Leap Forward of the people of the capital),” Shuili fadian (Hydraulic electrogenerating), no. 13 (1958). NOTES 207

51. Zhenkui Gao, “Manhua Shisanling shuiku jianshe kaifa licheng (On the construction and development process of the Shisanling reservoir),” Beijing shuili (Beijing water resources), no. 3 (1995): 45. 52. Youlin Li, “Chunjie bu tinggong, jiajin gan gongcheng (Work non-stop during the spring festival to speed up the construction),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), February 17, 1958. 53. Ran Wei, “Zhou zongli yu Shisanling shuiku jianshe (Prime Minister Zhou and the construction of the Shisanling reservoir),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), February 24, 1991. 54. Gao, “Manhua Shisanling shuiku jianshe kaifa licheng (On the construction and development process of the Shisanling reservoir),” 46–47. Tong li Xu, “Rizhenwanshan de Shisanling shuiku (The gradually perfected Shishanling reservoir),” Beijing shuili (Beijing water resources), no. 1 (1996): 51–52. 55. Xu, “Rizhenwanshan de Shisanling shuiku (The gradually perfected Shishanling reservoir),” 51–52; Wei, “Zhou zongli yu Shisanling shuiku jianshe (Prime Minister Zhou and the construction of the Shisanling reservoir).” 56. Zhen Peng, “Zai Shisanling shuiku luocheng dianli dahui shang Peng Zhen shizhang de jianghua (Mayor Peng Zhen’s talk at the commissioning ceremony of the Shisanling reservoir),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), July 2, 1958. 57. NCNA, “Mao Zhuxi he quanti zhongwei canjia laodong (Chairman Mao and all the Central Committee members partipated in the labor),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), May 26, 1958. 58. “Shisanling shuiku jiben jiancheng, jinri xiawu juxing shengda luocheng dianli (The Shisanling reservoir has been basically completed. A grand commissioning ceremony will be held this afternoon.),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), July 1, 1958. 59. “Geguo zhuhua shijie deng canguan Shisanling shuiku gongdi (Foreign diplo- mats visited the Shisanling reservoir construction site),” Renmin ribao (Peo- ple’s daily), March 6, 1958; “Bolan guibin canguan Shisanling shuiku gongdi (Honored visitors from Poland visited the Shisanling reservoir construction site),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), March 23, 1958; “Luoma’niya zhengfu daibiaotuan canguan Shisanling shuiku gongdi (Delegation of the goverment of Romania visited the Shisanling reservoir construction site),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), April 5, 1958; “A Lian junshi youhao fanghua daibiaotuan canguan dianziguan chang, tanke xuexiao he Shisanling shuiku gongdi (United Arab Republic Military Friendship Delegation to China visited the factory of electron tubes, the tank school, and the construction site of the Shisanling reservoir),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), April 7, 1958; “Sulian deng xiongdi guojia waijiao renyuan dao Shisanling shuiku gongdi canjia yiwu laodong (Diplomas of the Soviet Union and other brother countries participated in the voluntary labor at the Shisanling reservoir),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), June 1, 1958. 60. “Weiwen Shisanling shuiku de yiwu laodongzhe (Salute to the volunteer laborers at the Shisanling reservoir),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), May 21, 1958. 208 NOTES

61. Benkan jizhe. “Chuangzuo reqing si chunchao pengpai (Creative enthusiasm is surging as the spring tide),” Xiju bao (Theater gazette), no. 5 (1958). 62. Han Tian, Tian Han quanji (Complete works of Tian Han),20vols.,vol.14 (Shijiazhuang: Huashan wenyi chubanshe, 2000), 157–90. 63. Ibid., 15, 185, 87–89. ibid., 16: 418. 64. Tian, Tian Han quanji (Complete works of Tian Han), vol. 15, 368–70. 65. Ibid., 16: 95–99. 66. Moruo Guo, Guo Moruo quanji: wenxue bian (Completed works of Guo Moruo: Collection of literary works), vol. 17 (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1989). 10. 67. Tian, Tian Han quanji (Complete works of Tian Han), vol. 16, 97. 68. Ibid., 18: 159. 69. Han Tian, “Shisanling shuiku changxangqu (Rhapsody of the Shisanling reservoir),” Juben (Scripts), no. 8 (1958): 40. 70. Tian, Tian Han quanji (Complete works of Tian Han), vol. 16, 408–09, 15. 71. Ibid., 409. 72. Han Tian, “Ershi nian hou de shuiku songge (Praising songs of the reservoir in 20 years),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), June 13, 1958. “ ‘Shisanling Shuiku Gegongji’ jiang gongyan (‘Praising Songs of the Shisanling Reservoir’ will perform in public),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), June 24, 1958. 73. Tian, Tian Han quanji (Complete works of Tian Han), vol. 18, 158–60. 74. Han Tian, “Shisanling shuiku changxangqu houji (Postscript of Rhapsody of the Shisanling Reservoir),” Juben (Scripts), no. 8 (1958). 75. Tian, “Shisanling shuiku changxangqu (Rhapsody of the Shisanling reservoir),” 70–77. 76. Tian, Tian Han quanji (Complete works of Tian Han), 16, 409. 77. Bensheng Hu, “Duo chuban gongchanzhuyi de kexuehuanxiang xiaoshuo (Publish more communist science-fiction novels),” Dushu (Reading),October 13, 1958. 78. Fuji Zhang, “Shuiku gongdi de yingxiong men zuotan ‘Shisanling Shuiku Changxiangqu’ de yanchu (Heroes at the reservoir construction site discuss the performance of Rhapsody of the Shisanling Reservoir),” Juben (Scripts),no. 8 (1958): 86–87. 79. Jiabiao Gao et al., “Huaju Beijing de mingtian guanhougan (A review of the spoken drama Beijing’s Tomorrow),” Xiju bao (Theater gazette), no. 15 (1958): 29. Construction of the Beijing subway began in 1965. The first line was opened in 1969, but was not opened to the general public until 1981. 80. See Mo Chen, “Ke’ai de kexuehuanxiang ju ‘feichu diqiu qu’(Flying out of the earth: A lovely science-fiction play),” Xiju bao (Theater gazette), no. 17 (1958): 28–29. 81. Shan Jin, “Dianying Shisanling shuiku changxiangqu de paishe (The shooting of Rhapsody of the Shisanling Reservoir),” Dazhong dianying (Mass cinema), November 11, 1958. 82. The film was originally shot in color. Copies of its black-and-white print, however, are more widely available today. NOTES 209

83. Chinese television broadcasting began in March 1958. TV sets were very rare and all monochrome at the time. 84. Chu Fang, “Weilai shi zheyang pingjing de ma? (Is the future so peaceful?),” Xiju bao (Theater gazette), no. 16 (1958): 23. 85. Zheng Lü, “Tantan changxiang (On ‘free imagination’),” Xiju bao (Theater gazette), no. 15 (1958): 28. 86. Yizu Zhu, “Zenyang zhanwang gongchanzhuyi de mingtian (How to look ahead into the communist tomorrow),” Wenyi bao (Literary gazette),no.19 (1958): 22. 87. Gang Chen, “Yinggai xiechu renmen de gongchanzhuyi jingshenpinzhi (The communist spirit of the people must be represented),” Wenyi bao (Literary gazette), no. 22 (1958): 33. 88. Lang Ding, “Changxiang he ren (Free imagination and the people),” Wenyi bao (Literary gazette), no. 22 (1958): 35. 89. Ji Jia, “Yao yi gongchanzhuyi sixiang changxiang weilai (Immagination of the future must follow the communist thoughts),” Wenyi bao (Literary gazette), no. 1 (1959): 27. Marx expresses this vision in his Critique of the Gotha Program. 90. Shaobo Ma, “Weile geng meihao de weilai (For a more beautiful future),” Dazhong dianying (Mass cinema), November 11, 1958. Shaoyou Wang, “Buyao chuimaoqiuci (Do not be censorious),” Wenyi bao (Literary gazette), no. 24 (1958). 91. Jin, “Dianying Shisanling shuiku changxiangqu de paishe (The shooting of Rhapsody of the Shisanling Reservoir),” 12. 92. Yushan Zhao, “Xushui xian gongchanzhuyi shidian dashiji (A record of major events in the communist experiment in Xushui),” in Hebei dangshi ziliao (Materials of the Party’s history in Hebei) (Shijiazhuang: Zhonggong hebei shengwei dangshi yanjiushi, 1994): 360–370. The ﬁrst People’s Commune in Xushui was established on the same day as Mao’s inspection. On August 10, all the cooperatives in Xushui turned into People’s Communes. On August 17, these communes were merged into seven major ones. Later the seven were nominally merged into one, namely the People’s Commune of Xushui. 93. Zhuo Kang, “Xushui renmingongshe song (In praise of the People’s Commune of Xushui),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), September 1, 1958. 94. “Zhonggong zhongyang guanyu zai nongcun jianli renmingongshe de jueyi (the CCP’s Central Committee’s resolution on the establishment of People’s Communes in rural areas),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), September 10, 1958. 95. Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1958–1960, 141–55. 96. Ibid., 158–68, 78–79. 97. Ibid., 208. 98. Ibid., 179–80, 90–91. 99. Yang, Gongheguo zhongda shijian jishi (A record of the major events in the PRC), vol. 1, 505–06. 210 NOTES

100. Gang Huang, “Fandui dianying shiye yuejin zhong de cuowu lundiao (Oppos- ing the erroneous arguments in the Great Leap Forward of film work),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 11 (1958): 33–35. 101. Wei Chen, “Cong xin yishupian kan geming de xianshizhuyi he geming de langmanzhuyi de jiehe (On the combination of Revolutionary Realism and Revolutionary Romanticism in new art films),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 12 (1958): 16–17. 102. “Chuangzao wukuiyu women shidai de yingpian (Create films worthy of our times),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 12 (1958): 2–3. The “three times better” requirement was made by Zhou Yang at a Film Bureau meeting from November 1 to 7, 1958; Bo Chen ed., Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), 2 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), 448. 103. Qizhi, Mao Zedong shidai de renmin dianying (People’s cinema during the Maoist era), 342–43. 104. Yaping Ding ed., Bainian zhongguo dianying lilun wenxuan (Selected articles on film theory during the recent one hundred years), 2 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 2002), 475, 77. 105. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development). vol. 1, 452. 106. Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 2, 258–60. 107. See, for example, Yan Xia, “Duo kuai hao sheng dayuejin (Making a Great Leap Forward in a more, faster, better, and more economical way),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema) no. 4 (1958): 4–5. 108. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development) vol. 1, 452–60. 109. Zheng was a leading figure in the league and highly influenced Zhao. 110. See Zhao’s account in Dan Zhao, Yinmu xingxiang chuangzao (Creating characters on the silver screen) (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1980), 47–53. 111. The Ministry of Culture initially awarded the film a Second-Class Excellent Film. Zhou Enlai reportedly intervened, criticizing that the Ministry of Cul- ture was unfair to former private studio artists. On May 22, the Ministry of Culture published a self-criticism and declared to change the award for the film to First-Class; “Youxiu yingpian pingjiang you yanzhong quedian (Deci- sions on the Excellent Film Awards are seriously problematic),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), May 22, 1957. 112. Junli Zheng et al., “Lubian yehua (Fireside chats),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 1 (1957): 31–35. The article nonetheless brought them some trouble during the Anti-Rightist Campaign; Sangchu Xu and Zhai Di, “Fengyu shiqinian: fang Xu Sangchu (Trails and hardships of the seventeen years: An interview with Xu Sangchu),” Dangdai dianying (Contemporary cinema), no. 4 (1999): 80. NOTES 211

113. Junli Zheng, “Guanyu ‘he’ yu ‘fen’ (On merging and separating),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), December 26, 1956. 114. Hui Shi et al., “Women jianyi ...(We suggest ...),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), March 24, 1957. 115. Zhao had only allowed the three to use his name for a talk at a meeting, and he had given this permission under a CCP authority’s specific instruction to encourage the three to fully air their soon-to-be-attacked view: a common Maoist strategy to lure the enemy in deep; Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 2, 157–58. 116. Ibid., 159. Baiyin Qu and Dan Zhao, “Shi Hui ‘gun’ de zhexue he ta de ‘caineng’ (On Shi Hui’s philosophy of ‘rolling around’ and his ‘talent’),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), December 13, 1957. Junli Zheng, “Lun Shi Hui de fandong yishu guandian (On Shi Hui’s reactionary artistic views),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 1 (1958): 43–48. Hanwei Dang dui dianying shiye de lingdao xubian (Defend the leadership of the Party in the film work: Continuation). (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1958), 14–24. 117. “Yuejin zhong de shangying jiankuang (A brief report on the Shanghai Studio in the Great Leap Forward),” Dazhong dianying (Mass cinema), April 11, 1958. 118. “Renren you guihua, gege zheng shangyou (Everyone has a plan, everyone strives for higher goals),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema),no.4 (1958): 80. 119. Xu and Di, “Fengyu shiqinian: fang Xu Sangchu (Trails and hardships of the seventeen years: An interview with Xu Sangchu),” 80. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zhipian juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Film production) 164–65. 120. The film was then further revised and formally released in 1960. 121. The film studios began to make production plans of 1959 “gift presentation films” in October 1958. The Ministry of Culture officially recognized an initial list of “gift presentation films” early in September 1959. The list then went through some changes. Lin Zexu and Nie Er remained stable on the list. See a detailed review of the changes in Anping Zhu, “Xin Zhongguo chengli shi zhounian ‘xianli pian’ bianzheng (A correction of the historical records of the ‘gift presentation films’ for the 10th annivesary of the PRC),” Dangdai dianying (Contemporary cinema), no. 5 (2010): 64–69. 122. Ban Wang, The sublime figure of history: Aesthetics and politics in twentieth- century China (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997), 139. 123. Huangmei Chen, “Jianjue ba diao yinmu shang de baiqi:1957 nian dianying yishupian zhong cuowu sixiang qingxiang de pipan (Resolutely wrench out the White Flags on the silver screen: A critique of mistaken ideological tendencies in 1957 films),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), December 2, 1958. 124. Nie Er: cong juben dao yingpian (Nie Er: From script to film). (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chunbanshe, 1963), 102. 125. Zhonggong Shanghai shiwei dangshi yanjiushi, ed., Pan Hannian zai Shanghai (Pan Hannian in Shanghai) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1995), 429, 82–91, 520. Yu’s illness was the official excuse to depose him 212 NOTES

from the position as head of the Shanghai Film Studio during this investigation; Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zhipian juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: film production) 153. Like Zheng and Zhao, Yu’s political situation was better after the Anti-Rightist Campaign, in which he actively attacked the Rightists, such as Wu Yonggang; Hanwei Dang dui dianying shiye de lingdao xubian (Defend the leadership of the party in the film work: Continuation), 1–14. 126. Xiyan Wang, “Duanlian duanlian he fanying renminneibumaodun (Temper- ing and the representation of contradictions among the people),” Wenyi bao (Literary gazette), no. 10 (1959): 5. 127. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 1, 453. Xing Fan ed., Yong yuan de hongse jingdian: hongse jingdian chuangzuo yingxiang shihua (The forever red classics: Historcial studies of the creation and influences of the red classics) (Wuhan: Changjiang wenyi chubanshe, 2008), 229–30. 128. Huangmei Chen and Wenshu Yuan, “Dui 1957 nian yixie yingpian de pingjia wenti (On the evaluation of some films produced in 1957),” Renmin ribao (People’sDaily), March 4, 1959. The only film that was appropriately designated as White Flag and Poisonous Weed, according to Yuan and Chen, was The Unfinished Comedies. Yuan of course also seconded Chen’s condemnation of the Rightists. 129. Both Yu and Zheng mentioned this advice in their essays. See Nie Er: cong juben dao yingpian (Nie Er: From script to film), 103, 261, 318–19. A Red Guard publication during the Cultural Revolution Period quoted much of the advice from internal documents. See Chedi pipan fandong yingpian Nie Er (Thoroughly criticize the reactionary film Nie Er). (Shanghai: Shanghai yinyue xueyuan shanghai hongqi dianying zhipianchang hongqi geming zaofan bingtuan pi Nie Er lianluozhan, 1967), 25–27. 130. Yanzhao Ding, “Huashuo Yu Ling (On Yu Ling),” Shiji (Century), July 15, 1995. Yan Xia, “Xuexi Nie Er de geming jingshen (Learn the revolutionary spirit of Nie Er),” Renmin yinyue (People’s music), no. 7 (1980): 2. Nie Er: cong juben dao yingpian (Nie Er: From script to film), vol. 266, 71, 320–27. 131. Zedong Mao and Tse-tung Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung.,vol.II (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1975), 376. 132. Yan Xia, “Wo de yixie jingyan jiaoxun (Some of my experiences and lessons),” in Lun Xia Yan (On Xia Yan), ed. Chunfa Tan and Xueming Wang (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1989), 441–42. 133. See Gao Bo (actor of Kuang Wentao)’s Cultural Revolution “confession” quoted in Chedi pipan fandong yingpian Nie Er (Thoroughly criticize the reactionary film Nie Er), 30. Wen Zichuan’s memoir confirms Gao’s description of Tian Han. See Zichuan Wen, Wenren de lingyimian (The other side of the writers) (Guilin: Guangxi shifandaxue chubanshe, 2004), 180. 134. Historical records all confirm the association of Nie’s music group with the LLWD, although they differ in details as to if and when the group was formally named the Music Group of the LLWD. See, for example, the following NOTES 213

references: Ji Lü, “Huiyi Zuoyijulianyinyuexiaozu (A memoir on the Music Group of the League of the Left-Wing Dramatists),” Renmin yinyue (People’s music), no. 4 (1980): 3–6. Yan Xia, “Guanyu Sulianzhiyousheyinyuezu wenti Xia Yan zhi Zhou Weizhi han (Xia Yan’s letter to Zhou Weizhi on the issue of the Music Group of the Soviet Union Friendly Association),” Xin wenhua shiliao (Historical materials of the new culture), no. 6 (1994): 11. Jinzao Lü and Yuefang Han, “Zhongguo ershishiji shangbanye yinyueshetuan biannian jishi (Annual records of Chinese music groups in the first half of the 20th century),” Yinyue aihaozhe (Music lovers), no. 2 (1992): 39. 135. Ding, “Huashuo Yu Ling (On Yu Ling),” 26. 136. As mentioned in Chapter 1, Huang states that she quit because she “was not able to play worker/peasant/soldier characters well.” Between The Life of Wu Xun and Nie Er, she delivered only one film performance for a supporting character in Family (Jia, 1956) at the time of the Hundred Flowers Campaign. 137. Andrew F. Jones, Yellow Music: Media Culture and Colonial Modernity in the Chinese Jazz Age (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001), 74. 138. Feng Zhao, “Kaituozhe de Nie Er (Nie Er as the vanguard),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), July 30, 1950. 139. Wei Qu, “Jinian xinyinyue de kailu xianfeng Nie Er (Commemorate Nie Er, vanguard of the new music),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), July 17, 1949. Li was rehabilitated in the Hundred Flowers Campaign, but only partially and briefly. 140. Er Nie, Nie Er riji (Diary of Nie Er) (Zhengzhou: daxiang chubanshe, 2004). 140–41. At the time, the Lianhua Film studio integrated the troupe and renamed it “the School of Music and Dance of the Lianhua Film studio.” In March 1932, the troupe’s name was changed back to Bright Moon. See Maochun Liang and Jinguang Li, “Li Jin’guang caifang jilu ji xiangguan shuoming (Interviews of Li Jinguang and notes on the interviews),” Tianjin yinyuexueyuan xuebao (Journal of the Tianjin Conservatory of Music),no.1 (2013): 55. 141. Nie, NieErriji(DiaryofNieEr), 172, 83, 90, 207, 20, 46, 50–53, 59, 74, 84, 306, 25, 27. 142. Er Nie, “Zhongguo gewu duanlun (A short review of Chinese songs and dances),” Renmin yinyue (People’s music), no. 9 (1955): 5. 143. Nie, Nie Er riji (Diary of Nie Er). 341–49, 98. 144. Nie Er: cong juben dao yingpian (Nie Er: From script to film), 284. Also see Zheng Junli’s directorial statement on Nie Er quoted in Chedi pipan fandong yingpian Nie Er (Thoroughly criticize the reactionary film Nie Er), 15. 145. Nie Er: cong juben dao yingpian (Nie Er: From script to film), 299, 304–05, 46–47. 146. See the interview of Li Jinguang, Li Jinhui’s brother and Nie’s fellow artist in the performance; Liang and Li, “Li Jin’guang caifang jilu ji xiangguan shuoming (Interviews of Li Jinguang and notes on the interviews),” 56. Zheng Junli’s account also confirms this event, see Nie Er: cong juben dao yingpian (Nie Er: From script to film), 299. For the historical Nie, however, it was not likely an important performance. His diary does not even mention it. 214 NOTES

147. Nie actually composed the song, entitled “Sing-Song Girls under the Iron Hoof” (Tieti xia de genü), in 1935, about three years after he was expelled from the Bright Moon. The film intentionally changes the time of the composition to highlight Nie’s fighting spirit against Zhao Meinong. See Nie Er: cong juben dao yingpian (Nie Er: From script to film), 291–93. 148. Nie, NieErriji(DiaryofNieEr).173–74, 77, 361, 63, 66, 68–69, 72, 77–84, 86, 89–90, 435–59 149. Chedi pipan fandong yingpian Nie Er (Thoroughly criticize the reactionary film Nie Er), 34. 150. Nie, Nie Er riji (Diary of Nie Er), 380, 450, 59. 151. Nie Er: cong juben dao yingpian (Nie Er: From script to film), 264. 152. Qu, “Jinian xinyinyue de kailu xianfeng Nie Er (Commemorate Nie Er, vanguard of the new music).” Sheng Bai, “Wendai ji Ping shi yinyuejie jihui jinian Nie Er (The Congress of Writers and Artists and musicians from the Beiping city gather to commemorate Nie Er),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), July 18, 1949. 153. Nie, NieErriji(DiaryofNieEr): 102–33. Qiu Hong, “Nie Er nianbiao chugao (First draft of a chronicle of Nie Er),” Renmin yinyue (People’s music),no.8 (1955): 6. 154. Zedong Mao and Tse-Tung Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung,vol.V (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1977), 427. 155. Nie Er: cong juben dao yingpian (Nie Er: From script to film), 267. 156. Ibid., 263. 157. Ibid., 330–31. Zhao does not make it clear what slogans he posted. Since he was not a CCP member until 1957, the slogans he posted were unlikely those showninthefilm,suchas“LongLivetheCCP.” 158. They use the same word kuangre as Yu and Zhao. In Chinese, kuangre can mean either enthusiasm or fanaticism, depending on context. 159. Nie Er: cong juben dao yingpian (Nie Er: From script to film), 285–86. 160. Qin Su, “Gaoju hongqi, dapo dali (Holding the red flag high, let great demolition lead to great establishment),” Wenyi bao (Literary gazette),no.17 (1958): 32. 161. Nie Er: cong juben dao yingpian (Nie Er: From script to film), 279, 85. 162. Ibid., 394–419. 163. Chedi pipan fandong yingpian Nie Er (Thoroughly criticize the reactionary film Nie Er),epigraph,3,5–8. 164. Statistics in 1995 show that, in 23 of the 37 years since the reservoir was built, the annual highest water level was below the level of dead water. In five years the reservoir was completely dry. Xu, “Rizhenwanshan de Shisanling shuiku (The gradually perfected Shishanling reservoir).”

Chapter 5

1. The Lushan Conference can refer to multiple high-level CCP conferences held at Mount Lu. Among these conferences the one discussed here is the most widely known. NOTES 215

2. Zedong Mao. Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1958–1960. (Wuhan: Gang’ersi Wuhandaxue zongbu, Zhongnanminyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, and Wuhanshiyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, 1968), 248–49. 3. The number of Rightist Deviationists is quoted from Rui Li, Lushan huiyi shilu(ArecordoftheLushanConference)(Zhengzhou: He’nan renmin chubanshe, 1994), 329. 4. Maurice J. Meisner, Mao’s China and after: A history of the People’s Republic, 2nd ed. (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1986), 244. 5. Mao’s manuscript of the talk’s outline indicates that he intended to cover “the danger of petty bourgeois fanaticism,” followed by a promotion of “the combination of revolutionary spirit and practicalness.” A Chinese character wan (the end), however, is marked several passages before these two points. See Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao (Writings of Mao Zedong since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China),13vols.,vol.7(Beijing:Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1998), 641. The mark’s position matches where the extant transcript of the actual talk ends. See Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1958–1960, 181. 6. Li, Lushan huiyi shi lu (A record of the Lushan Conference), 104–22. 7. Dehuai Peng, Peng Dehuai zizhuan (Autobiography of Peng Dehuai) (Beijing: Jiefangjun wenyi chubanshe, 2002), 280–87. 8. In his long-winded attack on Peng at the conference, Mao traced Peng’s threat to his leadership all the way back to 1935. From that time to 1959, according to Mao, Peng only cooperated with him “30 percent of the time.” See tran- scripts of two top-level CCP meetings in Li, Lushan huiyi shi lu (A record of the Lushan conference), 177–208. 9. For a detailed account of the Soviet Union’s responses to the GLF and the People’s Commune, see Zhihua Shen, “Sulian dui dayuejin he renmingongshe de fanying ji qi jieguo: guanyu zhong su fenlie yuanqi de jinyibu sikao (The Soviet Union’s responses to the Great Leap Forward and the People’s Commune and the consequences of these responses: Further thoughts on the causes of the Sino-Soviet split),” http://data.book.hexun.com.tw/chapter- 671-1-4.shtml. This article also appears in the first issue of the journal Materials of the CCP’sHistory(Zhonggong dangshi ziliao) in 2003, but is significantly shortened, according to the webpage, for political reasons. 10. Mao made the first three charges at the Lushan conference. His condemnation of Peng for sharing the same vision with Khrushchev soon escalated to the last charge in September. Li, Lushan huiyi shi lu (A record of the Lushan Conference), 192–94. 11. Suhua Zhang, Bianju: qiqianrendahui shimo (Change in the situation: The beginning to end of the Seven Thousand People Conference) (Beijing: Zhongguo qingnian chubanshe, 2006), 142–45. 12. In Chinese, the phrase youshiyoude (there are losses and gains) is usually interchangeable with youdeyoushi (there are gains and losses). But Mao, followed by many (including Lin), alleged that the former phrase in Peng’s letter was an insinuation that losses of the GLF were greater than its gains. Li, Lushan huiyi shi lu (A record of the Lushan Conference), 133–34, 211. Lin 216 NOTES

talked about losses and gains in the same order as Peng did, “We have both losses and gains [in the GLF]. We can clearly see the losses now. But for the time being we are not yet able to see the gains clearly”; Zhang, Bianju: qiqianrendahui shimo (Change in the situation: The beginning to end of the Seven Thousand People Conference) 144. 13. Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao (Writings of Mao Zedong since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China), 13 vols., vol. 10 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1998), 62. 14. Zhang, Bianju: qiqianrendahui shimo (Change in the situation: The beginning to end of the Seven Thousand People Conference), 83. 15. Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian (Selected important documents since the establishment of the PRC), 20 vols., vol. 14 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1997), 364–74, 412–18. Zhang, Bianju: qiqianrendahui shimo (Change in the situation: The beginning to end of the seven thousand people conference), 18–22. 16. Weiming Yang, Yiyezhiqiu: Yang Weiming wencun (A small sign can indicate a great trend: Collected works of Yang Weiming) (Beijing: Shehuikexue wenxian chubanshe, 2004), 2. 17. Zhang, Bianju: qiqianrendahui shimo (Change in the situation: The beginning to end of the Seven Thousand People Conference), 62–86. 18. The CCP’s Central Committee decided in the conference to increase grain importation to alleviate the food crisis and the procurement burden of local governments. Ibid., 260. 19. Xianzhi Pang and Chongji Jin, Mao Zedong zhuan (Biography of Mao Zedong), 1949–1976, vol. 2 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2003), 1198–99. 20. Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1961–1968. (Wuhan: Gang’ersi Wuhandaxue zongbu, Zhongnanminyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, and Wuhanshiyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, 1968), 17. 21. Ibid., 14–19. 22. Zedong Mao and Tse-Tung Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. V (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1977), 441. 23. Even Peng Dehuai saw hope and wrote to the CCP’s Central Committee to request rehabilitation. His request was denied for imaginable political calculations. But Liu Shaoqi’s oral report at the Seven Thousand People Con- ference had already made clear that Peng’s “problem” was not writing the letter, which the CCP’s Central Committee now acknowledged was correct “in many concrete issues,” but his “plot” to “usurp the Party.” Zhang, Bianju: qiqianrendahui shimo (Change in the situation: The beginning to end of the Seven Thousand People Conference), 137, 271. Roderick MacFarquhar, The coming of the cataclysm, 1961–1966, The origins of the Cultural Revolution (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press and Columbia University Press, 1997), 163–64. 24. Mao proposed to divide the CCP’s leadership into “the ﬁrst line” and “the second line” in 1953 and occasionally claimed that he would withdraw to “the second line.”He did not make a clear gesture of such a withdrawal until NOTES 217

after the Seven Thousand People Conference. Even this gestured withdrawal, as Chapter 6 discusses, did not last long. See more details in Houwen Peng, “Wenge qian zhonggong zhongyang zuigao lingdaoceng fen yixian erxian zhidu kao (A historical investigation of the division of ‘the first line’ and ‘the second line’ in top-level leadership of the CCP’s Central Committee before the Cul- tural Revolution),” Dangshi yanjiu yu jiaoxue (Research and teaching on the CCP’s history), no. 3 (2007): 33–38. 25. Bo Chen ed., Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zhipian juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Film production) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2006), 167–68. 26. Wenshu Yuan, “Jianchi dianying wei gongnongbing fuwu de fangzhen (Insist on the policy that film must serve the workers, peasants, and soldiers),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 1 (1957): 20–25. 27. Mo Hai, “Bu yunxu ba gongnongbing ganchu lishi wutai (It is not allowed to drive the workers, peasants, and soldiers out of the historical stage),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 2 (1957): 9–11. 28. Zifei Wang, “Choulianghuanzhu: pipan Hai Mo de dongxiao heng chui (Per- petrating a fraud: A repudiation of Hai Mo’s Playing a Vertical Bamboo Flute Horizontally),” Dianying yishu (Film art), no. 12 (1960): 63. 29. This campaign saw a great number of articles attack “the fourth kind of scripts.” See, for example, Ming Bian, “Chi ‘disizhong juben’ (A repudiation of ‘the fourth kind of scripts’),” Juben (Scripts), no. 1 (1960): 49–50. 30. Bo Chen ed., Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), 2 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), 462–63, 65, 70. According to Xu Sangchu’s memoir, Xia was criticized behind closed doors for his remarks. See Sangchu Xu and Zhai Di, “Fengyu shiqinian: fang Xu Sangchu (Trails and hardships of the seventeen years: An interview with Xu Sangchu),” Dangdai dianying (Contemporary cinema), no. 4 (1999): 81. 31. See a list of the film titles in Huangmei Chen and Fangyu Shi, eds., Dangdai zhongguo dianying (Contemporary Chinese cinema), 2 vols., vol. 2 (Beijing: Zhongguo shehuikexue chubanshe, 1989), 429–33. 32. Bo Chen ed., Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: faxing fangying juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Distribution and projection), 3 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), 47. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 1, 471. 33. Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1958–1960, 291–93. 34. Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian (Selected important documents since the establishment of the PRC), 20 vols., vol. 13 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1996), 609. 35. Shaoqi Liu, Liu Shaoqi xuanji (Selected works of Liu Shaoqi),vol.2(Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1981), 357. 36. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 1, 475–77, 79–80. Chen, 218 NOTES

Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zhipian juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Film production), 172–73. Di Wu, ed. Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, 3 vols., vol. 2 (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 2006), 315–36. 37. The two-day meeting turned out to be not long enough for the Changchun Studio attendees to vent their frustrations. An eight-day-long meeting was held at the Changchun Studio in August as its continuation. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 1, 481. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zhipian juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Film production), 45. 38. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 1, 479. Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979,vol.2, 408–13. 39. Zhi Li, Wentan fengyun lu (The literary circle amid the winds of change) (Zhengzhou: He’nan renmin chubanshe, 1998), 266–300. Yibo Bo, Ruogan zhongda juece yu shijian de huigu (A review of certain major decisions and incidents), 2 vols., vol. 2 (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1993), 1004–05. 40. Wenhua gongzuo wenjian ziliao huibian (Collected documents of work in culture), 2 vols., vol. 2 (Beijing: Zhonghua renmin gongheguo wenhuabu bangongting, 1982), 170–81. 41. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 1, 486–87. 42. Yi ( ) Chen, “Chen Yi guanyu zhishifenzi wenti de liang pian jianghua (Two talks by Chen Yi on the issue of intellectuals)” Dang de wenxian (Historical documents of the party), no. 2 (2002): 3–12. 43. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zhipian juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Film production). 175. Laogui, Muqin Yang Mo (My mother Yang Mo) (Wuhan: Changjiang wenyi chubanshe, 2005), 150. 44. Zhong was offered a new job with the Association of Chinese Film Artists. See Mingyuan Chen, Zhishifenzi yu renminbi shidai (Intellectuals and the RMB era) (Shanghai: Wenhui chubanshe, 2006), 137–38. 45. Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 2, 411–12. 46. Chen, “Chen Yi guanyu zhishifenzi wenti de liang pian jianghua (Two talks by Chen Yi on the issue of intellectuals),” 9. 47. Bo, Ruogan zhongda juece yu shijian de huigu (A review of certain major decisions and incidents), vol. 2, 1005. 48. Wenhua gongzuo wenjian ziliao huibian (Collected documents of work in culture), vol. 2, 63–64, 182–83. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: faxing fangying juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Distribution and projection), vol. 1, 51. 49. Shimeng Wang, “Woguo litidianying de fazhan (Development of the PRC’s 3D ﬁlms),” Yingshi jishu (Film and TV technology), no. 10 (1995). NOTES 219

50. Qingrui Guo, “Zhongguo dianying danshengdi: daguanlou yingcheng (the birthplace of Chinese cinema: The Daguanlou movie theater),” Beijing ribao (Beijing daily), December 4, 2012. 51. Jinke Zhao and Shiyin Zhang, “Tan Geliahao zhong de teji (On the special effects in Two Good Brothers),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), October 7, 1962. 52. Xun Lu, LuXunquanji(CompleteworksofLuXun), 18 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 2005). 190–200. Zhen Zhang, An Amorous His- tory of the Silver Screen: Shanghai Cinema, 1896–1937 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 161–69. 53. Jizhou Yan, Wangshiruyan: Yan Jizhou zizhuan (Gone with the wind: An autobiography of Yan Jizhou) (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 2005), 88–89. 54. Baiyin Qu, “Guanyu dianying chuangxin wenti de dubai (A monologue on film innovation),” Dianying yishu (Film art), no. 3 (1962): 50–57. 55. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zhipian juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Film production), 172. 56. Baiyin Qu and Dan Zhao, “Shi Hui ‘gun’ de zhexue he ta de ‘caineng’ (On Shi Hui’s philosophy of ‘rolling around’ and his ‘talent’),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), December 13, 1957. 57. Qu himself had actively contributed to implementation of such restrictions. In 1958, for example, he delivered a talk to attack the comedy Trouble on the Playground (Qiuchang fengbo, 1957) precisely for its “bourgeois” subject, structure, content, and style. See Baiyin Qu, “Dui yingpian Qiuchangfengbo de fenxi (An analysis of the film Trouble on the Playground),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese cinema), no. 7 (1958): 39–43. 58. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 1, 490–91. 59. Bo Chen ed., Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonghe juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Comprehensive records), 2 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), 35. 60. According to Li Shaobai, one of the authors of the book, it is also the PRC’s first history book on a type of art. Mo Chen and Shaobai Li, “Li Shaobai fangtan lu (An interview with Li Shaobai),” Dangdai dianying (Contemporary cinema), no. 10 (2009): 43. 61. Jihua Cheng, Shaobai Li, and Zuwen Xing, Zhongguo dianying fazhanshi (A history of the development of Chinese cinema), 2nd ed., 2 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1963; repr., 2005). The fulfillment was only partial because the book exclusively glorified those Shanghai filmmakers who enjoyed high political status at the time of 1962. Some of the most active advocates of the re-evaluation, such as Shi Hui, Lü Ban, and Wu Yonggang, had been designated as Rightists. The book either barely mentioned them or portrayed them as “backward” or “reactionary elements.” 62. Two representative examples are Changlin Xu, “Xiang chuantong wenyi tanshengqiubao (Searching for treasures in traditional literature and art),” Dianying yishu (Film art), 11–25 (issue 1), 36–45 (issue 2), 28–40 (issue 4), 220 NOTES

28–42 (issue 5) (1962): 11–25. Xihe Chen, “Dianying yuyan zhong de jizhong goucheng yuansu (Several types of components of the cinematic language),” Dianying yishu (Film art), 2–19 (issue 5), 43–57 (issue 6) (1962). Only the first half of Chen Xihe’s article was published at the time. The political turn in 1963, which Chapter 6 discusses, delayed the publication of the latter half until after the Cultural Revolution Period. 63. On September 11, 1951, the People’sDailycriticized some “Shanghai-based newspapers” for running a few Hong Kong film advertisements that used the word “star” positively. In October 1951, Qingqing Cinema (Qingqing dianying), the only remaining Republican-era film magazine, stopped publication. These two incidents marked a full stop of the positive use of the word “star” in the press. 64. As mentioned in Chapter 3, the Hundred Flowers Campaign briefly encour- aged some, such as the Few Good discussion participants Li Xing and Chen Baichen, to shed a more positive light on the word “star.” But they still placed the word in scare quotes. Despite the cautiousness, their attempt to redeem the evilness of the word “star” completely failed during the following Anti-Rightist Campaign. The Shanghai Studio Pictorial, for example, was condemned for excessively publishing large-sized close-ups of female actors and reporting on their private lives in 1958. The critic asked, “How is this different from the way the bourgeois press promotes ‘stars?’ ” See Ruo Mi, “Shangying huabao de fangxiang shi shenmo? (What is the direction of the Shanghai Studio Pictorial?),” Zhongguo dianying (Chinese Cinema),no.10 (1958): 71. 65. Xiaoning Lu, “Zhang Ruifang: modelling the socialist Red Star,” in Chinese film stars, ed. Mary Ann Farquhar and Yingjin Zhang (London; New York, NY: Routledge, 2010), 98–99. Krista Van Fleit Hang, “Zhong Xinghuo: communist film worker,” in Chinese film stars, ed. Mary Ann Farquhar and Yingjin Zhang (London; New York, NY: Routledge, 2010), 108. 66. Yang Dong, “Shei zhizao le ershier da mingxing (Who made the ‘22 big stars’),” Wenshi cankao (References for historcial study), no. 17 (2012): 25–28. 67. Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 2, 362. 68. Dong, “Shei zhizao le ershier da mingxing (Who made the ‘22 big stars’).” 69. Ibid. My 2010 interview with Yu Lan, one of the 22 stars, also confirmed the opaqueness of the top-down selection. 70. Before the Hundred Flowers Awards, there were only local polls of audience. The first retreat from the GLF, for example, saw local media in Beijing initi- ate an annual poll of popular Chinese-made films. See Jinyue Wang, “Benbao ‘zui shou huanying de guochan dianying’ pingxuan Dang de Nü Er huo zuijia,Tian Hua wushisi nian hou jieshou ben bao caifang (An interview with Tian Hua 54 years after the film Daughter of the Party won the Most Pop- ular Chinese-made Film Award issued by this newspaper),” Beijing wanbao (Beijing evening), March 28, 2013. 71. Duoyu Li ed., Zhongguo dianying bainian (One hundred years of Chinese cinema) (Beijing: Zhongguo guangbo dianshi chubanshe, 2005), 324. NOTES 221

72. Ibid. 73. Dianfei Zhong, “Dianying de luogu (Gongs and drums at the movies),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), December 21, 1956. 74. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 1, 475–76. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zhipian juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Film production), 171. 75. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zhipian juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Film production), 171. 76. Ibid., 172. 77. Hong Zheng, “Cong Geliahao xuexi dao de (What I learned from Two Good Brothers),” Dianying yishu (Film art), no. 4 (1962): 43. 78. Harry Levin, “The wages of satire,” in Literature and society, ed. Edward W. Said (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), 1. 79. Mao and Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. V, 385, 89, 414. Transla- tion slightly revised according to American spelling norms. 80. Huangmei Chen, “Jianjue ba diao yinmu shang de baiqi:1957 nian dianying yishupian zhong cuowu sixiang qingxiang de pipan (Resolutely wrench out the White Flags on the silver screen: A critique of mistaken ideological tendencies in 1957 films),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily),December2, 1958. 81. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 1, 452. 82. Chusheng Cai et al., “Jintian wo xiuxi zuotanhui (Forum on Today is My Day Off ),” Dianying yishu (Film art), no. 6 (1960): 35, 40. Certain participants of this forum also mentioned films like The Spring is Always Colorful (Wanziqianhong zong shi chun, 1959) as “broadly defined” praising comedies. But these films are in fact just melodramas with a limited number of light-hearted vignettes. 83. Ibid., 34, 40. 84. For a description of the wave of adaptations, see the interview with Fu Jinhua in Haipeng Song, “TV Documentary on Third Sister Liu,” in Dianying chuanqi (Film legends) (2006). 85. Scholars have persuasively argued that the Zhuang is a largely state-created nationality. See, for example, Katherine Palmer Kaup, Creating the Zhuang: Ethnic politics in China (Boulder, Colo.: L. Rienner, 2000). 86. See Zhou Yang’s emphasis on this task in Yang Zhou, “Xin min’ge kaichuang le shige de xin daolu (New folk poems have opened a new path for poetry),” Hong qi (Red flag), no. 1 (1958): 38. 87. This singing competition, as “the most splendid scene,” was excerpted with a synopsis of the opera in the journal Scripts in September 1959. Fanping Deng et al., “Liu Sanjie (Third Sister Liu),” Juben (Scripts),no.9 (1959): 47–51. 88. Script of the adapted musical was published in the journal Scripts in Septem- ber 1960. “Liu Sanjie (Third Sister Liu),” Juben (Scripts), nos. 8, 9 (1960): 70–90. 222 NOTES

89. Lanqing, “Xu yu shi: Liu Sanjie de yishu chuli (Fantasy and reality: On the artistic treatment of Third Sister Liu),” Dianying yishu (Film art),no.6 (1961): 31. 90. For a detailed summary of the criticism published in 1962, see Eddy U, “Third Sister Liu and the making of the intellectual in socialist China,” The journal of Asian studies, 69, no. 1 (2010): 75–76. 91. Cai et al., “Jintian wo xiuxi zuotanhui (Forum on Today is My Day Off ),” 35, 36, 39. 92. Wenyi, “Wenhui bao dui xiju wenti zhankai taolun (The Wenhui Daily is orga- nizing a discussion on comedy),” Renmin ribao (People’s daily), January 13, 1961. 93. Zheng, “Cong Geliahao xuexi dao de (What I learned from Two Good Brothers),” 43. 94. For the script of the play, see Wen Bai and Yunping Suo, “Wo shi yige bing (I am a soldier),” Juben (Scripts), no. 1 (1962): 4–34. 95. Jizhou Yan, “Geliahao de xiaosheng (Laughters of Two Good Brothers),” Dazhong dianying (Mass cinema), December 2006, 40. 96. Yan, Wangshiruyan: Yan Jizhou zizhuan (Gone with the wind: An autobiography of Yan Jizhou), 84. 97. This is the case even in Three Comrades in Arms (San ge zhanyou, 1958), the only comedy produced by the August First Studio before Two Good Brothers. The studio usually produced soldier subject films. But Three Comrades in Arms, while just lightly comedic and very softly satirical, instead featured peasant veterans. It is a practically peasant subject film. The veterans only wear army uniforms once in a short flashback, in which they all act seriously and heroically. 98. In the play, Erhu also climbs a tree but does not break any rule. In fact, he climbs the tree to do a good deed: getting a bird egg for an elderly woman whom he tries to help. 99. Yan, Wangshiruyan: Yan Jizhou zizhuan (Gone with the wind: An autobiography of Yan Jizhou), 34–38, 49–50, 53, 70, 74, 78–83. Yan, “Geliahao de xiaosheng (Laughters of Two Good Brothers),” 40. 100. Hong Ding, “Yi ge qingnian yanyuan de qilu (The corruption of a young actor),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), April 25, 1958. 101. Liang Zhang, Qing ai bu lao (Ageless affection) (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 2005), 119–66. 102. Yan, “Geliahao de xiaosheng (Laughters of Two Good Brothers).” Zhang, Qing ai bu lao (Ageless affection), 161–64. 103. Sihe Chen, Zhongguo dangdai wenxueshi jiaocheng (A course in the history of modern Chinese literature) (Shanghai: Fudan daxue chubanshe, 1999), 49–50. Li Shuangshuang has received much attention in Chinese and English schol- arship. In particular, Richard King has done an in-depth research revealing how Li Zhun, writer of the original tale of Li Shuangshuang and the script of the film adaptation, made its plot as “malleable” as possible to strike a fine balance during the changing political times from 1959 to 1962; Richard NOTES 223

King, Milestones on a golden road: Writing for Chinese socialism, 1945–80 (Vancouver, BC: UBC Press, 2013), 71–92. 104. Jingtai Cui, “Shanghai yanchu jumu hunluan xianxiang yanzhong: zai ‘chuantong jumu’ huangzi xia, huangse xi chong deng wutai (Arrangements for opera performances are seriously disorganized in Shanghai: disguised as ‘traditional operas,’ yellow operas reappear on stage),” Wenhui bao (Wenhui daily), December 6, 1956. Li, Wentan fengyun lu (The literary circle amid the winds of change), 279–80, 98. Xin Mu, “Guixi Li Huiniang, yuan’an hua shang juhao (The ghost play Li Huiniang: the end of an unjust case),” Yanhuang chunqiu (China through the ages), October 1994, 39. 105. Xie Tian, one of the 22 stars, also participated in the comedy production as a scriptwriter and director. 106. As mentioned in Chapter 3, Han Fei worked primarily as a dubbing actor and had no chances to play in a suitable film, let alone comedy, during the Nationalization Period, as he subtly complained in the Few Good discussion. In 1962, obviously, his situation was completely different. 107. Before Big Li, Little Li, and Old Li,Fan,Liu,andWenhadmadetheirscreen debut in Sanmao Learns Business (Sanmao xue shengyi, 1958), the first film adaptation of a huaji comedy. 108. Interview with Yan Jizhou in Rong Li, “TV documentary on Yan Jizhou,” in Dianying chuanqi (Film Legends) (2007). 109. For a complete list of the award winners, see Bo Chen, ed. Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), 2 vols., vol. 2 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), 1135–36. 110. Qing Jiang, “Guanyu dianying wenti (On the film Issue) (May 1966),” in Fandong yingpian Wu Xun Zhuan Liao Yuan pipan cailiao (Criticism materials of reactionary films The Life of Wu Xun and The Ablaze Prairie) (Beijing: Beijing dianyingxueyuan jinggangshan wenyibingtuan hongdaihui, May 1967), 19. 111. Yan, “Geliahao de xiaosheng (Laughters of Two Good Brothers),” 41.

Chapter 6

1. Yibo Bo, Ruogan zhongda juece yu shijian de huigu (A review of certain major decisions and incidents), vol. 2 (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1993), 1047–77. Roderick MacFarquhar, The coming of the cataclysm, 1961–1966, The origins of the Cultural Revolution (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press and Columbia University Press, 1997), 263–83. 2. For details of Deng’s arguments, see MacFarquhar, The coming of the cataclysm, 1961–1966, 226–33. 3. Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao (Writings of Mao Zedong since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China),vol.10(Beijing:Zhongyangwenxian chubanshe, 1998), 137. See Chapter 2 for Mao and Deng’s conﬂict in the 1950s. 224 NOTES

4. Peng wrote another letter to the CCP’s Central Committee for the same pur- pose in August. For a description of the two letters and Mao’s anger toward them, see Bo, Ruogan zhongda juece yu shijian de huigu (A review of certain major decisions and incidents), vol. 2, 1091–93. The 1981 book Peng Dehuai zishu (A personal statement of Peng Dehuai), whose title is changed to Peng Dehuai zizhuan (Autobiography of Peng Dehuai) in subsequent versions, is primarily based on the two letters. See Dehuai Peng, Peng Dehuai zizhuan (Autobiography of Peng Dehuai) (Beijing: Jiefangjun wenyi chubanshe, 2002), 297–98. 5. Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1961–1968. (Wuhan: Gang’ersi Wuhandaxue zongbu, Zhongnanminyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, and Wuhanshiyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, 1968), 29–37. 6. Ibid., 32. 7. Bo, Ruogan zhongda juece yu shijian de huigu (A review of certain major decisions and incidents), vol. 2, 1004–05. 8. See Chapter 2 for Zhao Shuli’s views on agricultural collectivization and the criticism against him. 9. Yang Zhou, Zhou Yang wenji (Collected works of Zhou Yang), 5 vols., vol. 4 (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1984), 201–08. Zhi Li, Wentan fengyun lu (The literary circle amid the winds of change) (Zhengzhou: He’nan renmin chubanshe, 1998), 345–47. The forum soon came under fire supposedly for advocating the so-called “theory of middle characters.” This fabricated charge has misled scholars to believe that this “theory” was truly a focus of discussion at the forum. MacFarquhar, for example, writes that both Zhou Yang and the Writers’ Union’s Party secretary, Shao Quanlin, “advocat[ed] the hon- est portrayal of ‘middle characters’ (zhongjian zhuangtaide renwu), the great majority of the population, with all their faults and prejudices.” (MacFarquhar, The coming of the cataclysm, 1961–1966), 248. In fact, Zhou never mentioned the issue. And Shao gave it only two passing mentions. (Quanlin Shao, Shao Quanlin pinglun xuanji (Selected works of Shao Quanlin), 2 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1981), 393, 403.) But these passing mentions, which acknowledged the importance of writing about those characters, were enough for the leaders of the Ministry of Propaganda, including Zhou, to use Shao as a scapegoat when the forum was under attack. For more details of the attack on Shao, see Li, Wentan fengyun lu (The literary circle amid the winds of change), 352–54. 10. Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1961–1968, 36. Li, Wentan fengyun lu (The literary circle amid the winds of change), 347. 11. Bo, Ruogan zhongda juece yu shijian de huigu (A review of certain major decisions and incidents), 2, 1225. When using the two metaphors for the first time, Mao specifically referred to the forces of the socialist camp and the capitalist camp, see Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1949–1957. (Wuhan: Gang’ersi Wuhandaxue zongbu, Zhongnanminyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, and Wuhanshiyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, 1968), 250. NOTES 225

12. Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian (Selected important documents since the establishment of the PRC), vol. 16 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1997), 248. 13. Mosha Liao, Liao Mosha wenji (Collected works of Liao Mosha), vol. 2 (Beijing: Beijing chubanshe, 1986), 110–11. 14. Xin Mu, “Guixi Li Huiniang, yuan’an hua shang juhao (The ghost play Li Huiniang: The end of an unjust case),” Yanhuang chunqiu (China through the ages), October 1994, 36. 15. Zedong Mao and Tse-Tung Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. V (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1977), 434. 16. See Jiang Qing’s own account in Qing Jiang, Jiang Qing tongzhi jianghua xuanbian (Selected talks of Jiang Qing) (Guangzhou: Renmin chubanshe, 1968), 18–19. The Shanghai based Wenhui Daily initiated this attack on May 6 with an article entitled almost the same as its critical target: “[On] ‘Some Ghosts are Harmless’ ”(“Yougui wuhai” lun). 17. Li, Wentan fengyun lu (The literary circle amid the winds of change), 356–57. 18. For more details, see Mu, “Guixi Li Huiniang, yuan’an hua shang juhao (The ghost play Li Huiniang: the end of an unjust case).” 19. Mingxing Xia, “Dianying Honghe jilang zaoshou ‘fenglang’ shimo (An account of the ‘turbulent waves’ the film Turbulent Waves of the Red River encountered.),” Dangshi zongheng (The Party’s history), 5(2009): 43. 20. Liping, Kaiguo zongli Zhou Enlai (Zhou Enlai, the first Prime Minister of the PRC) (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1994), 353–63. 21. Qiaomu Hu, Hu Qiaomu tan zhonggong dangshi (Hu Qiaomu on the CCP’s history) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1999), 138. 22. See Chapter 5 for a discussion of the Guangzhou talks. Ke remains a contro- versial figure to this day. Historical accounts conflict on many issues about him, including whether he forbade distribution of the talks in Shanghai. It was likely the case, according to my reading of the accounts, that other authorities managed to distribute the talks in Shanghai despite Ke’s opposition. Following are four examples of the conflicting accounts. MacFarquhar, The coming of the cataclysm, 1961–1966, 247, 80. Li, Wentan fengyun lu (The literary circle amid the winds of change), 325–26. Weizhi Deng, “Ruhe pingjia Ke Qingshi (How to evaluate Ke Qingshi),” Dangshi zonglan (The Party’s history), no. 9 (2003): 41. Yong lie Ye, Zhang Chunqiao zhuan (Biography of Zhang Chunqiao) (Beijing: Zuojia chubanshe, 1993), 114. 23. Ping Yan, Chen Huangmei zhuan (Biography of Chen Huangmei) (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 2006), 176. Bo Chen ed., Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), 2 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), 498. 24. See, for example, Haixing Fang, “Gongheguo lishi shang de Ke Qingshi (Ke Qing in the history of the PRC),” Yanhuang chunqiu (China through the ages),no.10 (2008): 39. 25. At the Chengdu conference in March 1958, Mao highly praised Chen Boda, one of his secretaries, for using this phrase to advocate the 226 NOTES

GLF spirit in a speech. See Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1958–1960 (Wuhan: Gang’ersi Wuhandaxue zongbu, Zhongnanminyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, and Wuhanshiyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, 1968), 39. 26. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 1, 503. Li, Wentan fengyun lu (The literary circle amid the winds of change), 383–85. 27. Zhou, Zhou Yang wenji (Collected works of Zhou Yang), vol. 4, 288. 28. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: records of the overall development) vol. 1, 504. 29. For a complete list of the awards, see ibid., vol. 2, 1135–36. 30. Zhou, Zhou Yang wenji (Collected works of Zhou Yang), vol. 4, 310–15. 31. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 1, 507. 32. See Chapter 3 for a discussion of the re-releases of Chinese progressive ﬁlms during the Hundred Flowers Period. 33. Dianying zhanxian liang tiao luxian douzheng dashiji yijiusiba-yijiuliuqi (Major events of the two-line struggle on the battlefront of cinema: 1948–1967) (Shanghai: Renmin wenxue chubanshe shanghai fenshe fanxiu zhandouban cailiaozu, 1967), 34. 34. Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1961– 1968, 70. 35. Zedong Mao, Five Documents on Literature and Art (Beijing: Foreign Lan- guages Press, 1967). 10–11. 36. See Chapter 5 for a discussion of Qu and this article. 37. Chuangxin dubai yu Qu Baiyin (‘A Monologue on Film Innovation’ and Qu Baiyin) (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1982), 112. 38. Qizhi, Mao Zedong shidai de renmin dianying (People’s cinema during the Maoist era) (Taipei: Xiuwei zixun keji gufen youxiangongsi, 2010), 473. 39. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 1, 515–16. 40. Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1961– 1968, 136. 41. Qizhi, Mao Zedong shidai de renmin dianying (People’s cinema during the Maoist era), 476. 42. Yan, Chen Huangmei zhuan (Biography of Chen Huangmei), 188. 43. Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian (Selected important documents since the establishment of the PRC), vol. 20 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1998). 21. 44. Ibid., 21, 23–24. 45. Yongzhi Yang, “Yang Yongzhi tongzhi de jianghua (Talks of comrade Yang Yongzhi),” (Shanghai Municipal Archives (Archive number: B177-1-39), 1965). 46. Ibid. Xiaobang Zhou, Beiying sishi nian (Forty years of the Beijing ﬁlm studio) (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 1997), 178–80. Jinfu Yang ed., Shanghai NOTES 227

dianying bainian tushi (A pictorial history of the film [industry] in Shanghai) (1905–2005) (Shanghai: Wenhui chubanshe, 2006), 233. 47. Yang, Shanghai dianying bainian tushi (A pictorial history of the film [industry] in Shanghai) (1905–2005), 233. 48. On December 15, 1966, the CCP’s Central Committee issued a directive to expand the campaign to the countryside; Xuan Xi and Chunming Jin, Wenhua dageming jianshi (A brief history of the Cultural Revolution), 3rd ed. (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi chubanshe, 2006), 114. But the campaign did not impact on the countryside as profoundly as the cities. 49. Qing Jiang, “Lin Biao tongzhi weituo Jiang Qing tongzhi zhaokai de budui wenyigongzuo zuotanhui jiyao (Summary of the forum on the work in literature and art in the armed forces with which comrade Lin Biao entrusted comrade Jiang Qing),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), May 29 1967. 50. Ming Wu, “Zui du de ducao: yingpian Zaochun eryue (The most poisonous weed: The film Early Spring in February),” Shan hua (Mountain flowers), nos. 11, 12 combined issue (1964): 75. Xiaoming Wang ed,. Xie Tieli tan dianying yishu (Xie Tieli on film art) (Chongqing: Chongqing daxue chubanshe, 1999), 209. 51. Zedong Mao and Tse-tung Mao, Selected works of Mao Tse-Tung., vol. II (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1975), 372. 52. Xun Lu, Lu Xun quanji (Complete works of Lu Xun), vol. 4 (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 2005), 285–91, 493–502. ibid., 6: 517–32. 53. See endnote 53 of Chapter 2 for an explanation of the term “literary script.” 54. The historical narrative of the scripting, production, and revision process of Early Spring in February in this passage and later parts of this section is based on my interview with Xie Tieli on July 19, 2010, as well as Xie’s accounts from the following sources: Wang, Xie Tieli tan dianying yishu (Xie Tieli on film art), 199–212. Zhiyuan Shen and Chunqiao Wei, “Zaochun eryue dansheng shimo (An account of the birth of Early Spring in February),” Dazhong dianying (Mass cinema), December 2004. Tieli Xie and Xiaohong Fu, “Zha’nuanhuanhan de zaochun eryue (Early spring in February, a time coldness persists after a sudden warmth),” Dazhong dianying (Mass cinema), January 1, 2006. 55. Wang, Xie Tieli tan dianying yishu (Xie Tieli on film art), 200. 56. Shi Rou, Threshold of Spring, trans. Sidney Shapiro and Peiji Zhang (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1980), 5. 57. Ibid., 28, 40, 130. I have revised the translation according to the Chinese original in Shi Rou, Rou Shi xuanji (Selected works of Rou Shi), ed. Hongzhi Yue (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1986). 58. The novella gives a contradictory time reference in its first sentence, which reads “it was early in the second lunar month, shortly after Lichun.” Based on two reasons, I believe that “the second lunar month” (yinli eryue)isatypo of “the solar [Gregorian] February” (yangli eryue), which might be caused by the similarity between the only Chinese characters that differentiate these two terms, yin ( ,lunar)andyang ( , solar). The first reason is the time of theChinesesolartermLichun, which falls on, at the latest, the 15th day of the 228 NOTES

ﬁrst lunar month. In any year, it is at least one other solar term apart from the second lunar month. In 1927, the early days of the second lunar month were mostly two other solar terms apart from Lichun.Bycontrast,Lichun always falls between February 3 and 5 on the Gregorian calendar (adopted in China since 1912). It therefore makes much more sense to use Lichun as a time reference for early days in February on the Gregorian calendar. Endnote 66 discusses the second and more important reason. 59. Xianlin Zeng, Chenggui Zeng, and Xia Jiang, Beifa zhanzheng shi (A history of the war of Northern Expedition) (Chengdu: Sichuan renmin chubanshe, 1990), 229–35. 60. For a detailed analysis of the close connections between February and Rou’s own experiences, see Jianjun Zheng, “Rou Shi xiaoshuo Eryue yu Zhenhai de yuanyuan (The historical connections between Rou Shi’s novella February and Zhenhai),” Ningbo wanbao (Ningbo evening), January 24, 2010. 61. Rou, Threshold of Spring: 61, 111. I have revised the translation according to the Chinese original. 62. Ibid., 15, 32, 49, 102, 12, 32. 63. Yan, Chen Huangmei zhuan (Biography of Chen Huangmei), 183. Wang, Xie Tieli tan dianying yishu (Xie Tieli on ﬁlm art), 208. 64. According to the novella’s description of Li’s way of death, his prototype is likely Liu Yaochen, a regimental commander of the National Revolutionary Army. 65. See endnotes 58 and 66. 66. Rou, Threshold of Spring: 32. This remark is the second reason that “lunar” must be a typo of “solar” in the beginning sentence of the novella. It was in late January and early February that the National Revolutionary Army fought to enter Zhejiang. If the conversation took place in the second lunar month, which began on March 4 in 1927, then Fang would already be celebrating the National Revolutionary Army’s takeover of the entire province. 67. Ibid., 30. 68. Ibid., 41–42. 69. Ibid., 16. 70. Xie and Fu, “Zha’nuanhuanhan de zaochun eryue (Early spring in February, a time coldness persists after a sudden warmth),” 43. 71. Qizhi, Mao Zedong shidai de renmin dianying (People’s cinema during the Maoist era), 487. 72. Tianqi Qian, “Youguan rendaozhuyi de ji ge wenti: cong Zaochun eryue de taolun zhong suo xiangqi de (Some issues regarding humanitarianism: On the discussion of Early Spring in February),” Kaifeng shifanxueyuan xuebao (Journal of Kaifeng normal Univesity), no. 2 (1964): 16, 21. 73. Wenshi Jing, “Zaochun eryue yao ba renmen yin dao nar qu (Where does Early Spring in February intend to lead people?),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), September 15, 1964. Jingshan Wang and Guoying Liu, “Bodiao Xiao Jianqiu de san chong waiyi (Stripping off three layers of Xiao Jianqiu’s masks),” Qianxian (The frontline), no. 20 (1964): 16. Yu Cui, Guanghua Lou, and Yi Yi, “Sixia Xiao Jianqiu de jinbu waiyi (Stripping off Xiao Jianqiu’s progressive mask),” Shan NOTES 229

hua (Mountain flowers), no. 11, 12 combined issue (1964): 79. Ming Zhao, “Xiao Jianqiu neng toushen dao shidai hongliu zhong qu ma? (Can Xiao Jianqiu throw himself to the raging torrent of the times?),” Kaifeng shifanxueyuan xuebao (Journal of Kaifeng normal Univesity), no. 2 (1964): 37. 74. Jing, “Zaochun eryue yao ba renmen yin dao nar qu (Where does Early Spring in February intend to lead people?).” Zhongwenxi liusannianji sanban sanzu, “Jiduan de gerenzhuyizhe: Tao Lan (Tao Lan, an extreme individualist),” Kaifeng shifanxueyuan xuebao (Journal of Kaifeng normal Univesity), no. 2 (1964): 35. Shouqian Jiang and Zekui Deng, “Zaochun eryue de bianhuzhe men beili le wuchanjieji de lichang guandian (Defenders of Early Spring in February have deviated from the proletarian position),” Wenxue pinglun (Literary reviews), no. 6 (1964): 52. 75. Sangtong, “Guozhe tangyi de duyao (The sugarcoated poison),” Dianying yishu (Film art), no. 4 (1964): 19. 76. Bowen, “Zhongguo geming bowuguan diyici guonei geming zhanzheng shiqi chenlie can’guanji: bo yingpian Zaochun eryue dui ershi niandai lishi de waiqu (A visit to the display on the period of the First Revolutionary Civil War in the Museum of the Chinese Revolution: A retort against the historical distortion of the 1920s in the film Early Spring in February),” Wenwu (Historical artifacts), no. 2 (1965): 6. 77. Yibing Pu, “Ducao zen neng tu fenfang (How can a Poisonous Weed be fragrant?),” Fudan daxue xuebao: Zhexue shehui kexue (Journal of Fudan Uni- versity: Philosophy and social sciences), no. 2 (1964): 18. Bin Hong, “Zaochun eryue fanying le shenmo maodun chongtu (What kind of conflicts does Early Spring in February reflect?),” Xueshu yuekan (Academic monthly), no. 1 (1965): 31–32. 78. Wu, “Zui du de ducao: yingpian Zaochun eryue (The most poisonous weed: The film Early Spring in February),” 76. Hong, “Zaochun eryue fanying le shenmo maodun chongtu (What kind of conflicts does Early Spring in Febru- ary reflect?),” 33. Pu, “Ducao zen neng tu fenfang (How can a Poisonous Weed be fragrant?),” 18. 79. Hong, “Zaochun eryue fanying le shenmo maodun chongtu (What kind of conflicts does Early Spring in February reflect?),” 32. 80. Wu, “Zui du de ducao: yingpian Zaochun eryue (The most poisonous weed: The film Early Spring in February),” 76. 81. Jiaze Shen, “Zhe shi dui geming zhanzheng de moda wumie (This is the utmost vilification of revolutionary war),” Shan hua (Mountain flowers), nos. 11, 12 combined issue (1964): 82. 82. See Chapter 3 for a discussion of the Soviet Thaw and its influences in China. 83. Wu, “Zui du de ducao: yingpian Zaochun eryue (The most poisonous weed: the film Early Spring in February),” 77. 84. Jing, “Zaochun eryue yao ba renmen yin dao nar qu (Where does Early Spring in February intend to lead people?).” 85. Baolin Fu, “Guibian yu huangyan: Zaochun eryue pipan (Sophistry and lies: acriticismofEarly Spring in February),” Zhengzhou daxue xuebao (Journal of Zhengzhou University), no. 4 (1964): 59. 230 NOTES

86. “Baozhi shang dianying Zaochun eryue de taolun zheng zai shenru zhong (Dis- cussion of the film Early Spring in February in the newspapers is reaching a deeper level),” Xinwen yewu (Work of news reporting), nos. 10,11 combined issue (1964). 87. Sangtong, “Guozhe tangyi de duyao (The sugarcoated poison),” 14. Pu, “Ducao zen neng tu fenfang (How can a Poisonous Weed be fragrant?),” 23. 88. Quotes and statistics in this passage and the remaining part of this section, unless otherwise noted, are all from “Shanghai shi qingniangong guanyu qingnian zai yishixingtai douzheng zhong dui yixie pipan zuopin de qingkuang huibao ji zuotan jilu deng (Reports, discussion minutes, and other materials about the [atttitudes of] the youth to some criticized works in the idelogical struggle, provided by the Shanghai Youth Palace),” (Shanghai: Shanghai Municipal Archives (Archive number: C26-2-113), 1964). 89. The last two sentences are crossed out, but legible. 90. This was exactly the language that Lü Ban had used to refer to authorities’ arbitrary and complete negation of an artistic work, artist, or critic. See Chapter 3. 91. Comparable lighting effects actually had existed in earlier PRC films. For example, Youth in the Flames of War (Zhanhuo zhong de qingchun, 1959), a film shot by an innovative cinematographer Wang Qimin, had taken a similarly delicate approach to lighting. But such films were indeed only in a minority of revolutionary films. 92. See chapters 4 and 5 for discussions of the “three times better” and “four times better” expectations, respectively. 93. See Chapter 5 for a discussion of the “22 Big Stars of New China.” 94. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 1, 520. 95. Yang, “Yang Yongzhi tongzhi de jianghua (Talks of comrade Yang Yongzhi).”

Conclusion

1. Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1961– 1968 (Wuhan: Gang’ersi Wuhandaxue zongbu, Zhongnanminyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, and Wuhanshiyuan geweihui xuanchuanbu, 1968), 340. 2. The current version of the entry of the Chinese term Hongweibing (the Red Guards) in Wikipedia epitomizes the mainstream understanding of the GPCR in its statements, such as the following: “The Red Guards departed for all parts of the country after receiving Mao’s decree. They had utter devotion to Mao, worshiping him more fanatically than a religious ﬁgure. Mao organized a team (later called the Gang of Four) to determine a multi-dimensional, comprehensive marketing mix [for the Red Guards], ranging from overall promotion strategy to var- ious forms of propaganda.” ( , , ( ) , ). Wikipedia contributors, “Hongweibing (the Red NOTES 231

Guards),” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/% E7%BA%A2%E5%8D%AB%E5%85%B5. 3. Zedong Mao and Stuart R. Schram, Mao Tse-tung unrehearsed: Talksand letters, 1956–71, Pelican Books (Harmondsworth etc.: Penguin, 1974), 271. 4. Maurice J. Meisner, Mao’s China and after: A history of the People’s Republic, 2nd ed. (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1986), 358. 5. For a detailed account of this “January Storm” (Yiyue fengbao) in Shanghai, see Roderick MacFarquhar and Michael Schoenhals, Mao’s last revolution (Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006), 155–69. 6. William Theodore de Bary and Richard Lufrano eds., Sources of Chinese tradition, 2nd ed., 2 vols., vol. 2 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), 475. In January 1967, Mao also unofﬁcially expressed his support of the idea of “Shanghai Commune,” even remarking that he was also contemplating to establish a “Beijing Commune.” See MacFarquhar and Schoenhals, Mao’slast revolution, 168. 7. Mao and Schram, Mao Tse-tung unrehearsed: Talks and letters, 1956–71, 278. Zedong Mao and Tse-tung Mao, “Talks at three meetings with comrades Chang Ch’un-ch’iao and Yao Wen-yuan,” http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/ mao/selected-works/volume-9/mswv9_73.htm#b1. I have slightly revised quotes from the second source according to the Chinese original: Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1961–1968, 291. The second source states, “It was based on the tape-recorded draft of Zhang Chunqiao’s speech at the Shanghai People’s Square on 24 February and on some pertinent handbills. Whether every word is Mao’s original word is difﬁcult to ascertain, and so this is for reference only.” 8. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The civil war in France (New York: Interna- tional publishers, 1940), 58, 60. 9. Xuan Xi and Chunming Jin, Wenhua dageming jianshi (A brief history of the cultural revolution), 3rd ed. (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi chubanshe, 2006), 122. 10. Mao and Mao, “Talks at three meetings with comrades Chang Ch’un-ch’iao and Yao Wen-yuan”. 11. Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1961–1968, 293–95, 97–98, 327, 34. 12. Mao and Mao, “Talks at three meetings with comrades Chang Ch’un-ch’iao and Yao Wen-yuan”. 13. Qinghuadaxue dongfanghongnanxiagemingzhandoudui, “Geming de huaiyi yiqie wansui! (Long live the revolutionary [spirit] doubt everything!),” in Wenhua geming zhong de yiduan sichao (Heterodox thoughts during the Cultural Revolution), ed. Yongyi Song and Dajin Sun (Hong Kong: Tianyuan shuwu, 1997), 228. 14. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Marx and Engels: 1864–68 (Moscow: Progress Publ. [u.a.], 1987), 568. 15. Mao Zedong sixiang wansui (Long live the thoughts of Mao Zedong) 1961– 1968, 290. 232 NOTES

16. Ibid., 294, 98, 302, 07, 09, 19, 22, 30. 17. Ibid., 300–01. 18. In both Chinese and English, Mao described the GPCR as an “all-round civil war” to American journalist Edgar Snow in December 1970; Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao (Writings of Mao Zedong since the establishment of the People’s Republic of China). vol. 13 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1998), 163. 19. Ibid. 20. For a detailed account of the Wuhan Incident, see MacFarquhar and Schoenhals, Mao’s last revolution: 199–216. 21. Meisner, Mao’s China and after: A history of the People’s Republic, 351. 22. For the establishment time of all provincial revolutionary committees, see Xi and Jin, Wenhua dageming jianshi (A brief history of the Cultural Revolution), 167–69. 23. Bo Chen ed., Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), 2 vols., vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), 558. 24. Ibid. 25. MacFarquhar and Schoenhals, Mao’s last revolution, 297. 26. Enforcement of the ban was not always strict and effective. On September 28, 1973, for example, the State Council issued a directive to stop “an ill trend appearing in some regions, where people are vying to watch the shelved (feng- cun, read: banned) films;” Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development) vol. 1, 585. The ban was certainly not equally enforced to everyone. See the explanation of “internal screenings” below. 27. Heroic sons and daughters (Yingxiong ernü, 1964) and Striking at the invaders (Daji qinlüezhe, 1965), re-released in October 1970, were the first two pre- GPCR PRC films that reached the Chinese audience after the ban took effect; ibid., 575. Neither film had been explicitly condemned as a Poisonous Weed. 28. Ibid., 560. 29. For the origin of the term “model” and an in-depth analysis of the creation, promulgation, refinement, expansion, and film adaptations of the model performances, see Paul Clark, The Chinese Cultural Revolu- tion: A history (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 10–108, 23–34. 30. The model performances also included music works. Stage documentaries of the music works range from 20 to 50 minutes, and are thus not typically feature-length. 31. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 1, 587. 32. For a list of the films, see Huangmei Chen and Fangyu Shi eds., Dangdai zhongguo dianying (Contemporary Chinese cinema), 2 vols., vol. 2 (Beijing: Zhongguo shehuikexue chubanshe, 1989), 438–42. 33. Interview with Xie Tieli, Beijing, July 19, 2010. NOTES 233

34. Ibid. Xie also confirms this point in several published interviews. See, for example, Tieli Xie and Yu Zhang, “Xie Tieli fangtan ji (Interview with Xie Tieli),” Dangdai dianying (Contemporary cinema), no. 1 (1999), 33–34. 35. Tieli Xie and Xiangxing Guo, “Xie Tieli gushipian beihou de gushi (The stories behind Xie Tieli’s feature films),” Dangdai dianshi (Contemporary television), no. 5 (1995), 12. 36. Di Di, “Haixia shijian benmo (Ins and outs of the Haixia affair) “Dianying yishu (Film art) 3 (June), 4 (August)(1994): 65. Interview with Xie Tieli, Beijing, July 19, 2010. 37. For a detailed historical account of this so-called “Haixia Affair,” see ibid. 38. Interview with Xie Tieli, Beijing, July 19, 2010. 39. For further details, see Zhenxiang Li, “Weirao xiangju Yuanding zhi ge de jianrui douzheng (A sharp struggle around the Hu’nan opera Song of a Teacher),” Xiang chao (The CCP’s history in the province of Hu’nan), no. 5 (2007). 40. For further details of the campaign against the documentary, see Zhengquan Yang , “Andongni’aoni yu yingpian Zhong Guo de fengbo (Antonioni and the trouble that the film Chung Kuo, Cine encountered),” Bai nian chao (Hundred- year changes), no. 3 (2010). 41. This title would go public after their political downfall; Zhongguo gongchandang di shiyi ci quanguodaibiaodahui wenjian huibian (Collection of documents of the eleventh national congress of the CCP), (Renmin chubanshe, 1977), 10, 12. 42. Xi and Jin, Wenhua dageming jianshi (A brief history of the cultural revolution), 293–99. The CCP would acknowledge that these protests were in fact “revolutionary” in 1978, but would describe the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 once again as a “counterrevolutionary riot.” 43. Zhongguo gongchandang di shiyi ci quanguodaibiaodahui wenjian huibian (Collection of documents of the eleventh national congress of the CCP), 17. 44. Ibid., 36. 45. “Shixing zichanjieji wenhua zhuanzhizhuyi de tiezhe: jiefa pipan Sirenbang weijiao dianying Haixia de zuixing (Ironclad evidence of the bourgeois dictatorship of culture: exposing the Gang of Four’s crime to attack the film Haixia),” Renmin ribao (People’sdaily), February 27, 1977. 46. For details of this campaign, see MacFarquhar and Schoenhals, Mao’s last revolution, 409–30, 52. 47. For details of the attack, see Li’s own account in Wenhua Li and Qizhi, “Li Wenhua fangtanlu (Interview with Li Wenhua),” Dianying wenxue (Film literature), no. 5 (2010). 48. Bo Chen ed., Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development) 2 vols., vol. 2 (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2005), 638–39. 49. Pipan fandong dianying Fanji (Criticizing the reactionary film Repulse). (Ürümqi: Xinjiang weiwuer zizhiqu dianying gongsi, 1977), second title page, 2. 50. Ibid., 2. 234 NOTES

51. Chen, Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zonggang juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Records of the overall development), vol. 2, 644–59. Di Wu, ed. Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979,3 vols., vol. 3 (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 2006), 542–43. 52. Xiaoming Lü, “Re-Exhibition of Chinese films made before 1966 as a social event in the late 1970s,” Dangdai dianying (Contemporary cinema),no.3 (2006): 91. Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 3, 603. 53. Bo Chen ed., Zhongguo dianying biannian jishi: zhipian juan (Annals of Chinese cinema: Film production) (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2006), 126–27. 54. Li and Qizhi, “Li Wenhua fangtanlu (Interview with Li Wenhua),” 163. 55. Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 3, 543–44. 56. Xun Lu, Lu Xun quanji (Complete works of Lu Xun), vol. 3 (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 2005), 290. 57. A selection of the articles on Wu Xun and the film published at the time can be found in Ming Zhang, ed. Wu Xun yanjiuziliao daquan (A comprehensive collection of materials for the research of Wu Xun) (Ji’nan: Shandong daxue chubanshe, 1991), 771–809. 58. Ibid., 808. 59. A selection of the articles on Wu Xun and the film published after Hu made the remark can be found in ibid., 808–949. 60. For a newspaper account of this “incident,” see Jingjing Wang, “Wu Xun Zhuan jiedong shifang le shenmo xinhao (What the thaw on TheLifeofWuXun signals),” Zhongguo qingnianbao (Chinese youth), March 28, 2012. 61. Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 3, 542. 62. Han Tian, TianHanquanji(CompleteworksofTianHan), 20 vols., vol. 20 (Shijiazhuang: Huashan wenyi chubanshe, 2000), 552–53. Charges against the play and the film during the Cultural Revolution Period were an escalation of the criticism they encountered in 1958, which has been discussed in Chapter 4. 63. Wu, Zhongguo dianying yanjiu ziliao (Research materials of Chinese cinema): 1949–1979, vol. 3, 580. 64. Shan Jin, “Dianying Shisanling shuiku changxiangqu de paishe (The shooting of Rhapsody of the Shisanling Reservoir),” Dazhong dianying (Mass cinema), November 11, 1958, 11. 65. Krista Van Fleit Hang, Literature the people love: Reading Chinese texts from the early Maoist period (1949–1966) (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 156. Hang translates the title of the film as Song for the Ming Tombs Reservoir. Bibliography

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Note: Letter ‘f’, ‘n’, ‘t’ followed by the locators refer to ﬁgure, notes, and table respectively.

A Distracting Talk (Shiba che), 146 Yan’an-Shanghai dichotomy and, 69 A Thousand Miles a Day Zhong Dianfei and, 8 (Yiriqianli), 100 Anti-Rightist-Deviation actors, non-professional, 77, Campaign, 129 198n38 comedy and, 138–9 Adamov,Grigory,105 constraints on, 130 Adventures of a Magician, The Mao’s initiation of, 125 (Moshushi de qiyu), 128, 147 onset of, 129 agricultural collectivization targets of, 129 Mao and, 43, 51–3, 192n26 Antonioni, Michelangelo, 176 opposing views of, 49–50 April Fifth Movement, 177 agricultural development, Great Leap artistic documentaries, 99, 206n42 Forward and, 94 audience see also Great Leap Forward for Few Good discussion, 78 Altman, Rick, 9–10, 14–15, 141, lack of, 77 186n49 see also viewing sessions American ﬁlms authority, Mao’s types of, 6 criticism of, 26 import of, 26 Bathing Beauty, 25 Anti-Rightist Campaign, 5, 17, 19 Before the New Bureau Chief Arrives Blooming Flowers and the Full Moon (Xin juzhang daolai zhiqian), and, 18 145–6 Changchun Studio and, 194n56 rehabilitation of, 132 criticism of, 127 story line of, 82 and end of Yan’an-Shanghai Beidaihe Conference, 149–50, 152 dichotomy, 64 and Mao’s policy shifts, 157 Guo Wei and, 46, 64–5 Beijing, subway construction in, numbers targeted by, 89, 202n88 208n79 onset of, 89 Beijing’s Tomorrow (Beijing de satirical comedy and, 137–8 mingtian), 105, 106 targets of, 111 Better and Better (Jinshangtianhua), Xia Yan and Chen Huangmei and, 21 128, 146–7 260 INDEX

Between a Married Couple (Women fufu Campaign to Learn from the Soviet zhijian), 29, 34, 36 Union, 71, 95 post-GPCR fate of, 179 Campaign to Wrench out White Flags, Bicycle Thief, The (Ladri de 17, 19, 69, 91 biciclette), 78 Blooming Flowers and the Full Moon Big Li, Little Li, and Old Li (Da li, xiao and, 18, 47 li, he laoli), 128, 144–5, 147, rehabilitated targets of, 132 223n107 censorship, opposition to, 34 attacks on, 156 Chamdo region, 205n36 Blecher, Marc, 6 Changchun Commune, 2–3 Blooming Flowers and the Full Moon Changchun Film Studio, 59, 60, (Huyahao yueyuan), 46–7, 81, 109 194n56 commercial elements in, 60–2 comedy productions and, 68 condemnation of, 157 meeting at, 218n37 ideological adaptations of, 53–7 Changchun Red Guards, 3 rehabilitation of, 132 Changjiang Studio, 34 revisions of, 56–7 Changzhi experiments, 48–51 revolutionary cycles and, 17–18 Chen, Anita, 21, 23 versus Sanliwan Village, 18, 62–3 Chen Baichen, 36, 40, 41, 79, 200n58, scenes from, 56f, 57f, 62f 220n64 stylistic devices in, 55–6 Song Jingshi and, 189n40, two-line struggle and, 62–4 189n45 Braester, Yomi, 13, 23, 186n49 Chen Boda, 225n25 Bridge, The (Qiao), 70 Chen Bo’er, 27, 196n3 Bright Moon Song and Dance Troupe, Chen Hong, 40, 41 116, 213n140 Chen Huangmei, 46, 65, 72, 83, 113, 114, 202n95, 206n42 Cai Chusheng, 27, 203n98 attacks on, 156 Campaign against The Life of Wu Xun, on charges against satirists, 137–8 8–9, 18, 28–35, 67–8, 80, 92 “confession” of, 155 and debate over peasant role, 43 documentary-style art ﬁlms and, economic factors in, 17 100–1 ﬁlm production rate and, 76 Early Spring in February and, impacts of, 16 157, 162 Lü Ban and, 70 political downfall of, 21 Zhao Dan and, 110–11 Second Hundred Flowers Period Zheng Junli and, 110–11 and, 131 see also Life of Wu Xun, The Chen, Tina Mai, 13, 23 Campaign for Agricultural Chen Xihe, 146, 219n62 Collectivization, 18 Chen Yi, 154 coercive phase of, 52 Cheng Zhi, 147 opposing views in, 49–50 Chengdu Conference, 225n25 Sanliwan Village and, 47–8 China, television broadcasting in, stages of, 51–2 209n83 INDEX 261

Chinese Communist Party Cultural Revolution film industry and, 7 comedy and, 147 first and second lines of leadership controversy over length of, 21–2 in, 149–50 countryside expansion of, 227n48 KMT’s purge of, 160 end of, 177 and power of cinema, 9 film production during, 174 Chu Anping, 88 humiliation and torture of film cinema artists during, 174 yellow, 25, 187n2, 187n8 Liang Xiaosheng’s memoir of, 1-4 see also entries under film; Poisonous Mao’s description of, 232n18 Weeds; revolutionary cinema, Mao’s misgivings about, 171–3 White Flag films motivations of participants in, 27 Clark, Paul, 12–13, 17, 22, 194n53, onset of, 21, 150–1 232n29 Poisonous Weeds and, 151, 156, 174 Coldness Before Dawn, The (Wugeng urban impacts of, 156 han), 144 Wikipedia/mainstream comedy, 125–47 understanding of, 230n2 commercial successes of, 147 condemnation of, 68 Dai Huang, 73, 88 Cultural Revolution and, 147 Dai Jinhua, 12 as highwire acts, 137–47 Davies, Robertson, 137 huaji, 144, 147 deity plays, 154 Lü Ban and, 82 Deng Hanbin, 48–9 Lushan Conference and, 125 Deng Tuo, 74 Ministry of Culture’s policy change Deng Xiaoping, 149–50, 153, 178 and, 71–2 and end of Cultural Revolution, 22 political reactions to, 18 rulership of, 177 praising, 138, 140, 221n82 Deng Zihui, 149, 192n26 Second Hundred Flowers Campaign agricultural collectivization and, and, 136 52–3 star culture and, 147 dispersionism, opposition to, 127–8 third kind of, 140 dissent, Mao’s response to, 73–4 see also satirical comedy disturbance-order cycles, 7 commercialization, 9, 22–3, see also revolutionary cycles 132–3 documentaries, artistic, 99, 206n42 commune model, as threat to Mao’s documentary-style art films, 19–20, leadership, 172–3 100, 206n42 Congress of Soviet Writers, criticisms of, 108 95–6 post-GPCR fate of, 179–80 Conspiracy Films, 178, 179 2RR and, 100–1 Crossroads (Shizi jietou), 69, 120 see also Rhapsody of the Shisanling Crows and Sparrows (Wuya yu maque), Reservoir 110, 210n111 dogmatism, Zhou’s criticism of, 97 Cui Shuqin, 12 Dong Cunrui, 45, 59, 65, 140 Cui Wei, 37 Shanghai influences in, 59–60 262 INDEX

Dong Keyi, 133 Film Bureau Draft Resolution, A (Yijian ti’an), 77 national film conference and, 70–1 production rate and, 76–7 Early Spring in February (Zaochun provincial film studios and, 99, 110 eryue) and reversal of GLF policy, 20 authorities and conflicts and, 151–6 self-criticism and, 109, 125 critics’ responses to, 162–4 star culture and, 168 fears about influence of, 165–6 subjects chosen by, 197n28 interventions and mass participation Taking Mount Hua by Strategy and, and, 151 193n42 lighting effects in, 168, 230n91 three zi and one center reform and, Maoand,162 60, 83 as Poisonous Weed, 21, 156 White Flag designations and, 66 private opinions about, 167–8 film distribution, bureaucratic control of, 77 revision of script for, 158–9 film genres, historicizing, 14 scenes from, 169f, 170f film industry viewing sessions of, 166–7 bureaucratic direction of, 76–7 Earth, The (Tudi), 77 CCP’s view of, 7 East Wind–West Wind metaphor, 152, commercial turn in, 20 224n11 economic versus ideological factors Eight-Character Policy, 130–1, 140 affecting, 33–4 Excellent Film Awards, 110, 192n39, Few Good discussion of, 75–81 210n111 Great Leap Forward policy shifts and, 108 famine, GLF and, 127 insecurity of, 9 Fan Haha, 147, 223n107 market-oriented mode in, 60, Fan-Fan the Tulip (Fanfan la tulipe), 78 193n45 February (Eryue), 156–7 nationalization of, 16–17, 34, 71 plot of, 157 and negative impacts of CCP political ambiguity of, 157–8 policies, 68–9 time reference in, 227n58, 228n66 New Era of, commercialization see also Early Spring in February and, 22 (Zaochun eryue) privatization of, 22–3, 179 Feng Zhe, 33 Talks at the Yan’an Forum on Few Good discussion, 75–81 Literature and Art (Mao), 29 Maoand,84 film meanings, Foucault and, 14–15 replacement of, 83 film production film(s) after Cultural Revolution, 175–80 gift presentation, 211n121 Great Leap Forward and, 94, 98–104; see also American films; Poisonous see also Great Leap Forward Weeds; progressive films; film studios revolutionary cinema; specific nationalization of, 8 films; White Flag films provincial, 99, 110, 205n37 film artists, vulnerability of, 9 film users, film meanings and, 14–15 INDEX 263

Five Golden Flowers (Wu duo Seven Thousand People Conference jinhua), 138 and, 128 Flying Out of the Earth (Feichu diqiu Shisanling Reservoir and, 102 qu), 105 Soviet responses to, 215n9 folk arts, Ke Qingshi’s report on, 155 third five-year plan and, 101, folk performances, “two-person” 206n49 mode, 146 as third revolutionary cycle, 19 folk songs, CCP collection of, 139 Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution For Peace (Weile heping), 110 (GPCR). see Cultural Revolution foreign films Gronsky, Ivan, 96 borrowing from, 134 Guan Hongda, 147 festivals of, 199n52 Guangxi Zhuang autonomous import of, 78–9 region, 138 Foucault, Michel, on circulation of Guangzhou Conferences, 132 power, 14–15 commercial values and, 132–3 fourth kind of scripts, 18–19, 72–3, Guangzhou talks, 132, 153, 225n22 81–2, 132, 217n29 Guerrillas on the Railway (Tiedao Fu Jinhua, 221n84 youjidui), 10 Guo Kai, 113 Gang of Four, 176 Guo Wei, 17–18, 19, 43, 69, 121, 140 arrest and fall of, 22, 177 and adaption of Sanliwan Village, 51 verdict reversal campaign and, 178 Anti-Rightist Campaign and, 46, Gate No. 6 (Liu hao men), 70 64–5, 194n56 generic crossroads, 9–10 charges against, 202n91 ghost plays comedy ban and, 68 attacks on, 152–3 commercial elements and, 59–60, Maoand,155 193n42 Zhou Enlai and, 154 downfall of, 109 see also opera early filmmaking experience, 45–6 gift presentation films, 211n121 Hundred Flowers Campaign and, 46 Goddard, Paulette, 25 pre-PRC background of, 46 “Gongs and Drums at the Movies,” Sanliwan Village adaptations and, 80–1 53–4 Great Beginning, The (Weida de Shanghai connection of, 18 qidian),77 Shanghai legacy and, 81 Great Leap Forward Shi Dongshan and, 58–9 catastrophe of, 20 Yan’an background of, 18 cinematic approaches during, 19–20 Yan’an-Shanghai dichotomy film industry and, 108 and, 59 grain imports and, 216n18 Zhang Liang’s defense of, 144 Mao’s policy shifts on, 125 Mao’s reversal on, 108 Hai Mo previous uses of expression, 203n9 rehabilitation of, 132 protracted consequences of, 127 Rightist designation of, 129 retreat from, 130, 138 Haixia, 175, 177 264 INDEX

Han Fei, 79–80, 147, 223n106 ideological education, cinema’s role in, Han Lan’gen, 27, 87, 145 13–14 exile of, 67 intellectuals in Unfinished Comedies, 67–8, 84–7, Anti-Rightist-Deviation Campaign 90–1 and, 129 Harbin Red Guards, 2–3 Beidaihe Conference and, 150 He Chi, 72 film portrayals of, 39, 112–13 Headquarters of the Revolutionary Guangzhou Conferences and, 132 Revolt of Shanghai Workers, 172 Hundred Flowers Campaign and, Heroic Driver (Yingxiong siji), 74–5, 88 70, 71 lessened pressure on, 128 Heroic Sons and Daughters (Yingxiong Mao’s denunciation of, 150 ernü), 232n27 Nie Er and, 119–20 Highway, The (Da lu), 25, 27 during 1920s, 158 Hu Die, 133 in 1930s film movement, 26 Hu Feng, 192n40 Seven Thousand People conference Hu Qiaomu, 179 and, 128 Hua Guofeng, 177, 178 Intrepid Hero, The (Yingxiong huaji comedy, 144, 147 hudan), 144 Huang Gang, 108 Invisible Frontline, The (Wuxing de zhanxian), 70 Huang Zongying, 25–7, 32, 115, 135, 187n6, 213n136 Hundred Flowers Campaign, 17 Jenner, W. J. F., 11 Blooming Flowers and the Full Moon Ji Hongchang, 153–4 and, 18 Jia Ji, 32, 36 climax of, 88 Jiang Qing, 7, 81 film policies and, 69 ghost plays and, 153 Life of Wu Xun and, 8 Guo Wei and, 46, 60 Mao’s backing of, 154 Lü Ban and, 81–2 and parole of artists, 175 Mao’s reversal of, 89 Song Jingshi (historical figure) and, open criticism and, 8 35-36 and re-release of progressive films, Song Jingshi and, 41, 189n40 79, 110 Two Good Brothers and, 147 and rise of mass opposition, 75 and waning interest in mass see also Second Hundred Flowers campaigns against films, 175–6 Period Wu Xun and, 35 Hundred Flowers Film Awards, 136, Jiang Tianliu, 147 154, 220n70 Jin Shan, 19–20, 103 cancellation of, 155 persecution of, 180 complete list of, 223n109 self-criticism of, 107 Jin Yan, 27 I Am a Soldier (Wo shi yige bing), 140 Jones, Andrew, 187n2 ideological correctness, rapid Journey to the West, awards for shifts in, 9 adaptations of, 154 INDEX 265

Kang Sheng, 146–7, 153–4 scene from, 31f Ke Qingshi, 83, 152, 153–4 shooting and revision process of, controversy over, 225n22 30–2, 188n18 report on opera and folk arts, 155 story line of, 30 King, Richard, 222n103 see also Campaign against The Life of KMT government White Terror, 120 Wu Xun KMT military Encirclement Lin Biao, 126–7 Campaigns, 114–15 Peng Dehuai and, 215n12 KMT-CCP alliance, 157–8, 160 Lin Zexu, 111–12, 211n121 Krushchev, Nikita literary scripts, publication of, 64, anti-Stalin speech of, 73 194n53 Peng Dehuai’s meeting with, 126 Liu Binyan, 73, 88–9 Thaw of, 71, 72 Liu Shaoqi, 130, 149 kuangre, translation of, 214n158 downfall of, 156 Kunlun Studio, 7, 32, 34, 36 Mao and, 173–4 Peng Dehuai and, 215n23 Laikwan Pang, 9 Socialist Education Campaign League of Chinese Left-Wing Writers, and, 156 96, 110 Liu Xiasheng, 147, 223n107 League of Left-Wing Dramatists Liu Zhidan, 152 (LLWD), 110, 115 Lü Ban, 145, 146, 219n61 left-wing cinema movement, 9 from 1951 to 1955, 69–72 Li Huiniang, 152, 153 from 1956 to 1957, 81–92 Li Jinguang, interview of, 213n140, Anti-Rightist Campaign and, 194n56 213n146 charges against, 202n91 Li Jinhui, 87, 115–16, 213n146 comedies of, 69; seealsoBeforethe Li Lili, 27, 59, 63 New Bureau Chief Arrives; Man Li Shaobai, 219n60 Unconcerned with Details, The; Li Shuangshuang, 128, 135, 146–7 Unﬁnished Comedies, The awards for, 154 downfall and death of, 19, 69, 90–2 scholarly treatments of, 222n103 policy changes and, 84–5 Li Wenhua, 22, 177–8 Rightist designation of, 129 Li Xing, 77, 79, 220n64 satire in ﬁlms of, 137 Li Zhun, 222n103 self-criticism of, 70 Liang Xiaosheng, 1–4 Shanghai legacy and, 19, 69, 81 Liao Mosha, 152 Spring Comedy Society and, 72, Life of Wu Xun, The (Wu Xun 196n9 zhuan), 88 Yan’an and, 19, 70 cast of, 37 Lu Dingyi, 74 criticism of, 31–3, 188n22 Few Good discussion and, 80 historical background of, 29–30 Lu Ren, 200n69 ideological expectations and, 7–8 Lu, Xiaoning, 135 Maoand,33 Lu Xun, 133, 157, 165, 179 post-GPCR fate of, 179 Lushan Conference, 125, 126, 214n1 revisions of, 30–2 political change following, 129 266 INDEX

Ma Hanbing, 84 “March of the Volunteers,” 111, 115, Ma the flaneur (Ma langdang), 146 117, 119, 122 Man Unconcerned with Details, The Marching Forward (Ren wang gaochu (Bujuxiaojie de ren), 68, 72 zou), 77 rehabilitation of, 132 Mass Cinema (Dazhong dianying), 25 revisions of, 82–3 mass criticism, viewing sessions and, Mao Zedong, 27 10–11, 166–7, 194n58 agricultural collectivization and, mass line politics 51–3 agendas and interests in, 6–7 Changzhi experiments and, 51 Mao’s definition of, 6 death of, 177 mass mind, 1–2 Early Spring in February and, 162 masses, Mao’s characterization of, 6 Few Good discussion and, 84 Meek, Scott, 192n39 Meisner, Maurice, 126, 172, 174 and first and second lines of leadership, 149, 216n24 Meisner, Mitch, 6, 74 Meng Chao, 152 GLF rhetoric of, 154, 225n25 Meng Yue, 12 Life of Wu Xun and, 8 middle characters, theory of, 224n9 misgivings about Cultural min’ge, translation of, 203n2 Revolution, 171–3 Ministry of Culture Peng Dehuai and, 215n8, 215n10, films banned by, 131 224n4 and rehabilitation of pre-GPCR Peng Dehuai’s letter and, 125–7 films, 22 on role of peasants, 43 and re-release of feature films, 178 self-criticism of, 128 Ministry of Propaganda Seven Thousand People Conference and emphasis on less didactic films, and, 217n24 132–3 student/worker protests and, 89, Talks formulation and, 29 202n85 Mo Wenhua, 189n45 Sun Dayu and, 5 model performance films, 175, 232n29, talk on petty bourgeois fanaticism, 232n30 215n5 Most Popular Chinese-made Film Xushui Commune and, 107–8, Award, 220n70 209n92 mutual-aid teams, 48 Maoist China assumptions about, 13 National Conference on the Creation cinema’s role in, 13–14 of Film Scripts and the Work of Maoist revolution, utopian narratives Film Art, 70–1 of, 181 Nationalization Period Maoist revolutionary campaigns comedy during, 18, 68 Tiananmen Square as emblem of, defined, 16–17 4–5 economic factors in, 17 see also specific campaigns Song Jingshi and, 41 March of a Couple, The (Fufu “New Era” (Xin shiqi), 22 jinxingqu), 37 New Folk Poetry Campaign, 93–4, 139 INDEX 267

New Heroes and Heroines (Xin ernü party-state hierarchy yingxiong zhuan), 45, 58, 70, 76 contesting agendas/interests and, 6–7 New Story of an Old Soldier (Laobing Sun Dayu and, 5 xinzhuan), 100 peasants New Three-Anti Campaign, 70–1 in Blooming Flowers, 195n63 Nie Er (historical figure) depictions in Song Jingshi, 39–40 and composition of patriotic songs, film depictions of, 77, 222n97 117, 214n147 living conditions of, 73 film re-characterization of, 115–20 middle, 195n63 historical background of, 112–13, mutual aid and, 51–2 117–18 in Sanliwan Village, 48–9 lifetime identities of, 119 Peng Dehuai, 125–7, 150 LLWD and, 212n134 letters of, 215n12, 224n4 Nie Er, 19–20, 109, 111–22, 129 Mao’s condemnation of, 215n10 attacks on, 156 and request for rehabilitation, critical reception of, 121–2 216n23 Cultural Revolution and, 122 Yan Jizhou’s defense of, 144 gift presentation list and, 211n121 People’s Commune, Soviet responses ideological correctness of, 112 to, 215n9 and mythicizing of revolutionary People’s Liberation Army (PLA) history, 114–23 and termination of GPCR, 173 Poisonous Weed designation of, 122 Tiananmen Square demonstration political risks of, 112–13, 114–15 and, 4 re-release of, 178 People’s Republic of China revisions of, 117, 211n120 monolithic view of, 13 and revisions of historical Nie’s life, see also Maoist China 115–19 personal identities, transformation of, scenes from, 118f, 121f 1–2 Shanghai legacy and, 20 Pickowicz, Paul G., 12–13, 187n11 Noumazalaye, Ambroise, 171, 174 Platoon Commander Guan (Guan lianzhang), 3, 29 Obruchev, Vladimir, 105 post-GPCR fate of, 179 Oksenberg,Michael,7,13 Shanghai influences in, 59–60 opera Playing a Vertical Bamboo Flute comedy adaptations of, 144–5 Horizontally (Dongxiao hengchun), Jiang Qing and, 176 201n69 Ke Qingshi’s report on, 155 Lü Ban’s abandonment of, 82 political correctness in, 138–9 rehabilitation of, 132 revolutionary, 175 Plunder of Peach and Plum (Tao li jie), traditional, adaptations of, 152–5 25, 27 see also ghost plays poetry initiative, 93–4 point-of-view (POV) shots, in Two Pan Hannian, 113 Good Brothers, 140–3, 141f, Paris Commune (1871) model, 171 142f, 143f 268 INDEX poisonous films, internal screenings Foucauldian-Altmanian model of, 15 of, 176 generalizations about, 11–12 Poisonous Weeds, 21 historical contexts and, 15–16 during Cultural Revolution, 147 increased production in, 98–101 Cultural Revolution and, 151, lack of audiences for, 77 156, 174 major players in, 15 GCRG ban of, 174, 232n26, 232n27 prevailing assumptions about, 11–12 Ten Articles on Work in Literature and revival of pre-PRC films, 146 and Art and, 151–2 revolutionary cycles and, 9–11 Unfinished Comedies as, 91 and shift from quantity to quality, political ideals, in Mao’s China versus 109–10 societies, 181–2 Yan’an-Shanghai dichotomy and, power, Foucault and, 14–15 28–9; see also Yan’an-Shanghai privatization, 22–3, 179 dichotomy progressive films CCP and, 29 see also left-wing cinema movement examples of, 25–7 revolutionary culture, complexity of, foreign, 78–9 2–5 import of, 200n57 revolutionary cycles, 5–7 re-release of, 110, 200n56 film and, 7–8 propaganda films, attacks on, 9 generic crossroads and, 10 provincial film studios, 99, 110, 205n37 Revolutionary Realism and public opinion, efforts to direct, 10–11 Revolutionary Romanticism see also viewing sessions (2RR), 94–5, 98 documentary-style art films and, Qian Liqun, 48 100–1 Qian Ruping, 201n82 ideological control of, 101 Qian Xiaozhang, 196n3 Rhapsody of the Shisanling Reservoir Qin Zhaoyang (He Zhi), 97–8 and, 101–9 Qing peasant rebellion, 36, 42–3 Revolutionary Romanticism, Nie Er Qu Baiyin, 134, 136, 155, 219n57 and, 20, 122 Rhapsody of the Shisanling Reservoir Rayns, Tony, 192n39 (Shisanling shuiku changxiangqu), red classics, 15 19–20 Red Detachment of Women, The banning of, 131 (Hongse niangzijun), 12 Red Guards (Hongweibing), 230n2 copies of, 208n82 factionalism in, 2–4 criticisms of, 106–7, 108 Repulse (Fanji), 177–8 play versus film versions of, 105–6 revolutionary cinema, 7–11 post-GPCR fate of, 179–80 analytical framework for, 13–16 2RR and, 101–9 complex meanings of, 14 science fiction elements in, 104–5 conventional literary and historical Rightist Deviationists, rehabilitation approaches to, 12–13 after Seven Thousand People critical viewings of, 10–11, 166–7, Conference, 128 194n58 Rou Shi, 157, 158, 165, 228n60 INDEX 269 rural economy, responsibility system Sha Meng for rescue of, 149–50 Anti-Rightist Campaign and, 194n56 Russian Association of Proletarian charges against, 202n91 Writers (RAPP), 96–7 Shanghai artists/studios, 12–13 advantages of, 16 Sang Hu, 33 and Campaign against Life of Wu Sanliwan Village Xun, 35 film adaptation of, 17–18, 47 economic versus ideological factors gradual transformation in, 50–1 affecting, 33–4, 37 socialist-capitalist differentiation Few Good discussion and, 79–80 in, 49 learning from, 134–5 transformative struggle in, 47–51 Nie Er and, 20 two-line struggle in, 47–8, 53–5 reevaluation of, 135, 219n61 Sanmao Learns Business (Sanmao xue shift to Yan’an by, 196n3 shengyi), 223n107 see also Yan’an-Shanghai dichotomy satirical comedy (fengcixing xiju) Shanghai People’s Commune, 172–3 hazards of, 138–40 Mao’s support of, 231n6 in Lü Ban’s films, 137 Shanghai workers, revolt of, 172 political struggles against, 137–8 Shao Quanlin, “middle characters” targeting of, 18–19 and, 224n9 see also comedy Shen Dike, 201n82 Satisfied or Not (Manyi bu manyi), 147 Shen Yanbing, February revisions Schram, Stuart R., 7 and, 162 science fiction Shenyang Red Guards, 3 discrediting of, 107 Shi Dongshan, 33, 45, 47 manifestations of, 104–5 awards and criticism of, 192n39 scripts, fourth kind of, 18–19, 72–3, 81–2, 132, 217n29 death of, 192n40 Second Hundred Flowers Period, 128 film ideology and, 57–8, 192n37 commercial innovations in, 132–3 Guo Wei and, 193n42 end of, 150 and pursuit of beauty, 193n49 ghost plays and, 152–3 Shi Hui, 12, 35, 80, 90, 111, 134, initiation of, 131 202n97, 219n61 and initiation of Cultural Rightist designation of, 111 Revolution, 21 Song Jingshi and, 36 policy changes in, 20, 155 Shisanling Reservoir reversals of, 153 construction and politics of, 101–2 technical innovations in, 133–4 see also Rhapsody of the Shisanling see also Hundred Flowers Campaign Reservoir (Shisanling shuiku Seven Thousand People Conference, changxianqu) 20, 126–7 Simonov, Konstantin, 95–6 impacts of, 131–2 Sinckler, Edwin A., 7 Seventy-Two Tenants (Qishier jia Sino-Soviet relations, 19, 98, 130 fangke), 147 see also Soviet Union Sha Li, Song Jingshi and, 37 Skinner, G. William, 7 270 INDEX slapstick comedies, condemnation Spring Comedy Series, 83 of, 68 Spring Comedy Society, The, 72 Socialist Education Campaign, 156 Spring is Always Colorful, The reactions to, 150 (Wanziqianhong zongshichun), socialist nations, chaos in, 73 221n82 Socialist Realism, 95, 204n11 Spring River Flows East, The (Yijiang definition of, 204n14 chunshui xiang dong liu), 79, 92 Mao’s renaming of, 19 Stalin, Josef, death of, 71, 95 reinterpretation of, 97 star culture, 200n58 Simonov’s critique of, 95–6 cautious approval of, 220n64 2RR as replacement for, 98 comedies and, 147 Zhdanov’s definition of, 101 criticism of, 26 Song Jingshi (historical figure) “liberation” from, 25 historical background of, 35, rehabilitation of, 20, 135–6 40–1 rejection of, 220n63 Taiping army and, 189n41 Storm, The (Baofeng zhouyu), 156 Song Jingshi, 8, 79, 110 Street Angel (Malu tianshi), 120 crew selections for, 37 strikes, participation in, 73 and debate over peasant role, 43 Striking at the Invaders (Daji directors of, 36 qinlüezhe), 232n27 initial version of, 35–40 student protests, 88–9, 201n82 nationalization and, 17 subway, Beijing, construction of, peasant characters in, 39–40 208n79 release of, 43 Such Parents (Ruci die’niang), 147 revisions of, 40–3 Sun Daolin, 33, 168 scene from, 38f Sun Dayu, denunciation of, 5, 6, 8 story line of, 37–40 Sun Jinglu, 76 as worker/peasant/soldier film, 36 Sun Yu, 7–8, 35 Song of a Teacher (Yuanding zhi ge), Few Good discussion and, 80, release of, 176 188n18 Song of the Fishermen (Yu guang qu), The Highway and, 27 25, 27 Life of Wu Xun and, 30, 32 Song of the Youth (Qingchun zhi ge), 12, Song Jingshi and, 36 113, 129 Surkov, Alexei A., 72 Soviet Thaw, 98 Soviet Union Taiwan, PRC claim to, 205n36 changes in, 71–2 Taking Mount Hua by Strategy (Zhiqu Great Leap Forward and, 215n9 huashan), 45, 59, 63 influences of, 95–8 Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy Thaw era in, 18, 71, 74 (Zhiqu weihushan), 175 Soviet Union-China relations, 19 Talks at the Yan’an Forum on Literature special effects, 133–4 and Art (Mao), 29, 46, 188n14 spoken dramas, 102–3 Tang Xiaodan, 33 Spring Breeze Reaches the Nuomin River Tangerines Turn Red along the Min (Minjiang juzi hong), 77 River (Minjiang juzi hong), 77 INDEX 271

Tear Stains (Leihen), 178 two-line struggle technical innovations, 133–4 Blooming Flowers and the Full Moon television, Chinese, 209n83 and, 62–4, 65 Ten Articles on Work in Literature and Zhao’s definition of, 47–8, 53–5 Art, Poisonous Weeds and, “two-person” folk performances, 146 151–2 2RR. see Revolutionary Realism and Thaw era, 18, 71, 72, 74, 81, 96 Revolutionary Romanticism (2RR) Theory of Conflictlessness, 96 theory of middle characters, 224n9 Unfinished Comedies, The (Meiyou Third Sister Liu (Liu sanjie), 138–9, wancheng de xiju), 19, 67–8, 81, 221n87 84–8, 145–6 awards for, 154 attacks on, 203n98 ThreeComradesinArms(Sange casting in, 84 zhanyou), 222n97 as Poisonous Weed, 91 three kinds of wind, 149–50 post-GPCR fate of, 179 three zi and one center, 60, 83, 193n45 satire of, 84–7 Tian Fang, 196n3 scenes from, 85f, 86f Tian Han, 102–5, 115, 117 Shanghai influences on, 87–8 denunciation and death of, 122, 180 White Flag/Poisonous Weed Gao Bo’s description of, 212n133 designations of, 212n128 Tiananmen Square, demonstrations in, Unlimited Potential, The (Wuqiong de 1–5, 176–7, 233n42 qianli), 77 Tianjin, 205n36 Tibet region, 205n36 Van Fleit Hang, Krista, 135, 180 Today is My Day Off (Jintian wo xiuxi), Verne, Jules, 105 138, 139–40 viewing sessions, 10–11, 166–7, Townsend, James, 5 194n58 Trouble on the Playground (Qiuchang fengbo), 219n57 Wang Ban, 1–2, 12 Troubled Couple, The (Huannan Wang Bing, 196n3 fuqi), 68 Wang Chaoguang, 26 “true believers,” stereotype of, 27 Wang Danfeng, 147 Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin, 105 Wang Hongwen, 172, 176 Turbulent Waves of the Red River Wang Lanxi, 99, 108 (Honghe jilang), 153 Wang Ming, 122 Twin Sisters, 133–4 Wang Shaoguang, 5–6, 27 Two Good Brothers (Geliahao), 128, Wang Xiaotang, 133 133, 137, 140–1, 147 Wang Xin’gang, 147 awards for, 154 Wang Yang, 196n3 Jiang Qing and, 147 Wells, H. G., 105 point-of-view (POV) shots in, Wen Binbin, 147, 223n107 140–3, 141f, 142f, 143f Wen Zichuan, 212n133 re-release of, 178 Wenhui Daily, 74-75, 81, 83-84, 89–90, scenes from, 134f, 141f, 142f 136, 192n37, 225n16 272 INDEX

White Flag films Xie Tian, 223n105 intellectual subjects and, 113 Xie Tieli, 22, 156–7 rehabilitation of, 128, 132 author interview of, 227n54 White Terror, 160 and fall of Gang of Four, 177 White-Haired Girl, The (Bai mao nü), model performance films of, 175 12, 138–9 parole of, 175 Wild Fires and Spring Winds Struggling script adaptations of, 158, 161 in an Old City (Yehuo chunfeng dou Xinqiao Conference, 131, 135, 156 gucheng), 133 Xu Sangchu, 217n30 wind, three kinds of, 149–50 Xu Xiaobing, 196n3 Woman Barber, 145–6, 147 Xu Zhucheng, 74–5, 90 worker strikes, 89 Xushui Commune, Mao and, 107–8, worker/peasant/soldier cinema 209n92 box office and, 77 defense of, 83 Yan Jizhou, 100, 133–4, 137, 140, dominance of, 112–13 143, 147 promotion of, 29–30 film history of, 144 Shi Dongshan and, 58 political history of, 144 Two Good Brothers and, 141–2 Yan Wenshu, rehabilitation of, 132 unpopularity of, 77–8 Yan’an artists/studios, 12–13 Wu Xun advantages of, 16 historical background of, 30 production equipment and, investigation of, 35–6, 41, 81, 199n46 189n41 Yan’an-Shanghai dichotomy see also Campaign against TheLifeof Anti-Rightist Campaign and, 6 Wu Xun; Life of Wu Xun, The limitations of, 28–9 Wu Yin, 111 other terms for, 187n12 Rightist designation of, 111 versus previous collaborations, 28–9 Song Jingshi and, 37 Shi Dongshan and, 57–8 Wu Yinxian, 196n3 yang, translation of, 190n1 Wu Yonggang, 111, 202n97, 219n61 see also Shanghai artists/studios attacks on, 212n125 yanyuan, 187n1 Rightist designation of, 111 Yao Fangzao, 68, 81, 84, 90 Yao Wenyuan, 172–3, 176 Xia Yan, 29, 114, 116, 129, 132, 154, yellow cinema, 25, 187n2, 187n8 155, 156, 180, 217n30 yi bangzi, 85, 90, 201n79 attacks on, 156 Yin Xiucen, 69, 87, 145 “cliché” subjects and, 109–10 exile of, 67, 70 Early Spring in February and, in Unfinished Comedies, 67–8, 84–7, 159–60 90–1 February revisions and, 162 Youth Garden (Qingchun de yuandi), 76 political downfall of, 21 Yu Lan, 220n69 Second Hundred Flowers Period Yu Ling, 113, 116, 121 and, 131 and advice on avoidance of political Xie Fang, 157, 168 trouble, 114, 212n129 INDEX 273

investigation of, 113, 211n125 films of, 112; see also Between a LLWD and, 115 Married Couple; Song Jingshi Yu Pingbo, 41 GLF projects of, 111–12 Yuan Muzhi, 27, 196n3 and lessons from Campaign against Yuan Wenshu, 83, 113, 114 The Life of Wu Xun, 27, 110–11 Rightist designation of, 129 LLWD and, 115, 210n109 political situation of, 212n125 Zhang Chunqiao, 172–3 Shanghai legacy and, 120–1 speech of, 231n7 Song Jingshi and, 36, 40–2, 110 Zhang Hongmei, 33 Zhong Dianfei, 36, 37, 72, 136, 218n44 Zhang Jishun, 26 Anti-Rightist Campaign and, 8 Zhang Liang, 59, 133, 134f, 140, 144 denunciations of, 83–4, 90, 129 Zhang Ruifang, 147 Few Good discussion and, 75, 81, Zhang Yi, 27 83, 86 Song Jingshi and, 37 Life of Wu Xun and, 8 Zhao Dan, 27, 69, 117, 118, 120, 121, rehabilitation of, 132, 218n44 135, 214n157 Rightist designation of, 21 CCP and, 111 turnaround of, 81 celebration of, 179 Unfinished Comedies and, 8t collaborations with Zheng Junli, 110; Zhong Guo, China (Chung Kuo, see also Between a Married Couple; Cina), 176 Nie Er Zhou Bo, 97–8 GLF projects of, 111–12 Zhou Da, 88 and lessons from Campaign against Zhou Enlai, 149 The Life of Wu Xun, 27, 110–11 death of, 176 LLWD and, 115, 210n109 Excellent Film Awards and, 210n111 misuse of name and, 111, 211n115 film production and, 99–100, political situation of, 212n125 110–11, 206n41, 206n42 Shanghai legacy and, 120–1 Life of Wu Xun and, 7–8 Song Jingshi, 189n40 and praise of GLF Wu Xun and, 30 cinema/theater, 129 Zhao Meinong, 117, 214n147 rehabilitation of CCP cadres and, 173 Zhao Shuli, 17–18, 46–9, 63, 152 and rivalry with Ke Qingshi, 153–4 gradual collectivization and, 51–3 Second Hundred Flowers Period Zhdanov, Andrey, 95, 101, 104 and, 131 Zheng Hong, 137, 139 Seven Thousand People Conference Zheng Junli, 12–13, 19–20, 27, 35, 92, and, 132 117, 119, 121, 187n11, 202n97 Shisanling Reservoir and, 102 and advice on avoidance of political star culture and, 135–6 trouble, 114, 212n129 and support of Zheng Junli and Zhao CCP and, 111 Dan, 113 collaborations with Zhao Dan, 110; Zhou Yang, 41, 71, 84, 89, 114, 131, see also Between a Married Couple; 134, 136, 152, 154, 155, 156, Nie Er 197n28, 204n11, 221n86 denunciation and death of, 122 downfall of, 156 274 INDEX

Zhou Yang—continued and promotion of romantic ideals, February adaptation and, 94–5 161–2 Second Hundred Flowers Period Few Good discussion and, 131 and, 80 Socialist Realism and, 95–7 “middle characters” and, Zhuang ethnic group, recognition of, 224n9 138, 221n85