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The Acteal Massacre, Sociedad Civil Las Abejas and Mexico's Ejército

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The Acteal Massacre, Sociedad Civil Las Abejas and Mexico's Ejército City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 9-2020 “The Gifts of Enemies”: The Acteal Massacre, Sociedad Civil Las Abejas and Mexico’s Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional and Humanitarian and Development Aid During the Low-Intensity War, 1997–1999 Maria R. Hart The Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/3912 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] “THE GIFTS OF ENEMIES”: THE ACTEAL MASSACRE, SOCIEDAD CIVIL LAS ABEJAS AND MEXICO’S EJÉRCITO ZAPATISTA DE LIBERACIÓN NACIONAL AND HUMANITARIAN AND DEVELOPMENT AID DURING THE LOW-INTENSITY WAR, 1997-1999 by MARIA RAMONA HART A dissErtation submittEd to the GraduatE Faculty in Anthropology in partial fulfillmEnt of the requiremEnts for the degreE of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of NEw York 2020 © 2020 MARIA RAMONA HART All Rights ResErved ii “The Gifts of EnemiEs”: The ActEal Massacre, Sociedad Civil Las Abejas And MExico’s Ejército Zapatista De Liberación Nacional and Humanitarian and DEvelopmEnt Aid During The Low-IntEnsity War, 1997-1999 by Maria Ramona Hart This manuscript has beEn read and accEptEd for the GraduatE Faculty in Anthropology in satisfaction of the dissErtation requiremEnt for the degreE of Doctor of Philosophy. Date Patricia Tovar Chair of Examining CommittEE Date JEff Maskovsky Executive OfficEr Supervisory CommittEE: Patricia Tovar IsmaEl García Colón Murphy Halliburton THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iii ABSTRACT “The Gifts of EnemiEs”: The ActEal Massacre, Sociedad Civil Las Abejas and MExico’s Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional and Humanitarian and DEvelopmEnt Aid during The Low-IntEnsity War, 1997-1999 by Maria Ramona Hart Advisor: Patricia Tovar This dissErtation is about a faction of the SociEdad Civil Las Abejas who, as IntErnally DisplacEd PErsons (IDPs), wEre housEd at the INI IDP camp in San Cristóbal de Las Casas, Chiapas, MExico, in 1997-99 aftEr the ActEal massacre on DEcEmber 22, 1997. This faction is of intErest becausE they protEstEd the remaining mEmbers of SociEdad Civil Las Abejas (Civil SociEty The BeEs) social movemEnt at ActEal and the EZLN (Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, oftEn bettEr-known as the Zapatistas), becausE the movemEnt required them to rejEct governmEntal humanitarian aid and developmEnt programs or losE their mEmbership in the social movemEnt. ChallEnging David GraEber’s (2011) concEption of debt as somEthing accumulatEd among social equals, I show that thE aid, which I contEnd was not in any sEnsE a “freE gift” as it demanded reciprocity (as part of a gift economy), was most oftEn accEptEd—sPEcifically that IDP recipiEnts who accEptEd this aid drop out of the Zapatista movemEnt and embracE the PRI, or Party of the Institutional Revolution, to whom they would acquire a debt of loyalty in a cliEntElistic mEchanism. iv The study analyzEs the ways that poverty obstructs projEcts of indigenous and “original PEoplEs’” resistancE against statEs, such as Spanish colonial, MExico or GuatEmala (Chiapas was a departmEnt of GuatEmala until 1841), that have dominatEd them for cEnturiEs. Repression, preventablE death, enslavemEnt, illitEracy, illness, corruption, underdevelopmEnt, racism, domination, displacEmEnt, detErritorialization, extractavism, dispossEssion and accumulation by dispossEssion in Chiapas have kept poverty indicators among the highest of MExican statEs and comparablE to much poorer countriEs elsEwhere in the world. I argue that under thesE extremE conditions, resistancE to the statE is harder to sustain, causing many to rejEct the idea of resistancE—and to drop out of resistancE movemEnts, a factor that has beEn under-theorizEd in the social movemEnts litErature. And, more critical to this study, I argue that much humanitarian aid, esPEcially from federal governmEnt and intErnational sourcEs, is “assistEntialist” in that it is fundamEntally “charity,” treating the symptoms rather than the structural causEs of povErty, and not changing the fundamEntals of peoplE’s lives. I contEnd that the IDPs at the INI camp wEre more likely to be critical of aid that was a “freE gift” and assistEntialist than non-assistEntialist aid—becausE this aid simply placEd a band-aid on their absolutE poverty. Drawing on my fiEldwork in the camps in 1997, 1998 and 1999, as wEll as a return visit with 14 of the familiEs that wEre housEd there, I show how the INI camp illustratEd Fassin’s (2012) critique that humanitarian efforts are fraught with difficultiEs, from critical and uncompliant refugeEs and IDPs, who are never gratEful nor docilE, to the declaration of a statE of excEption within MExico in SEptEmber, 1998, to a host of other problEms and issues. In short, I ask why did somE peoplE EmbracE (governmEnt sourcEd) humanitarianism in a contExt in which it was rejEctEd politically by powErful local actors, such as the EZLN? I showEd how the MExican governmEnt’s v Progresa/Oportunidades/Prospera cash transfer program was structured to countEr “the problEm” of Zapatismo, along the lines of the Maussian dualism betwEEn prestation and war, and how it aligned with a Marxian reading of “history from below.” I showEd how the Chiapas conflict had becomE a civil war by 1997 with paramilitariEs carrying out thE massacre at Acteal—and the mild reaction that Las Abejas had toward the paramilitary wandering freEly in ActEal during 1999, and the paramilitariEs’ light sEntEncing for the massacre. I also offered a clEar illustration of how the IDPs wEre social agents with “a feEl for the gamE” (BourdiEu 2005), causing many of them to make individual choicEs which embracEd but then rejEctEd the PRI, whom they saw principally as among their “EnemiEs” bearing “gifts.” The study also illustratEs the powEr of represEntativEs of the MExican governmEnt to divide the neo-Zapatista social movemEnt—that is, the modern Zapatista movemEnt, including all the movemEnts alliEd with the EZLN—particularly when abjEct poverty and hardship wEre involved. vi Acknowledgements For Belkis NEcos, my true sistEr, whosE spirit lives on in mE, and in her family and friEnds. For 15 years of closE friEndship and for all the hours wE discussEd my dissErtation and MExico, and San PEdro de Macoris, as wEll as everything under the sun. I dedicatE this dissErtation to her. And for Pauline HErrmann, my closE friEnd and collEague both at HuntEr CollEge and the GraduatE CentEr, who also diEd years before her timE. To my sistErs Cara Mia, ElEna and VEronica, for their love and support esPEcially sincE our parents’ untimEly deaths. To my parents, Carolyn Rosa Hart and GEorge MaxwEll Hart, for always beliEving in mE. Even though they didn’t live to sEE mE finish this Ph.D., I know they always knew I could do it. To my in-laws, Janet and MichaEl Winocour, who took care of my children when I was writing my dissErtation, and who continue to do so still, allowing mE to work at a job I love and to finish my degreE. To the latE June Nash, without whosE support and encouragemEnt this resEarch would not have beEn possiblE. For the many hours of conversations, wE had, as wEll as the usE of her computEr, her housE and her many introductions to scholars in Chiapas, as wEll as to Bishop Samuel Ruiz. June showEd by examplE what it was to be an anthropologist. I owE her a big debt of gratitude. vii To GErald CreEd, who warmly wElcomEd mE back to the GraduatE CentEr aftEr a decade away, and to JEff Maskovsky, the current executive officEr, for reading my dissErtation and for unfailing support. To the mEmbers of my committEE, IsmaEl García Colón and Murphy Halliburton for taking their timE to read my dissErtation and to give excEllEnt and insightful commEntary. To Shannon SPEEd, the Director of the UCLA AmErican Indian StudiEs CentEr, my Outside Reader, I want to thank for thoughtful and sober suggestions which have improved this dissErtation considerably. This dissErtation has beEn years in the making. First, I would like to express my sincEre gratitude to my advisor, Professor Patricia Tovar, for the continuous support of my Ph.D. and to acknowlEdge the warm relationship that wE have established during this procEss. She took mE under her wing and helPEd mE to grow as a scholar and has provided years of unflagging EncouragemEnt and wonderful suggestions. SEcondly, I want to thank Professor Marc Edelman for thoughtful and sErious commEnts on my work. Third, I thank Dr. Marcos Arana of CCESC- DDS in San Cristóbal de Las Casas for the privilEge of working with the CCESC tEam in 1998 at the INI camp and working on the breastfeEding doll projEct at the camp in 1998-99. I also thank Professor Jane Schneider for early encouragemEnt, Professor Joan MEncher for many conversations and wonderful support during the early writing of this dissErtation, as well as her generosity in allowing mE to live in her apartmEnt for an entire summEr, and for viii many discussions about The SEcond ChancE Foundation and India; and to Professor MichaEl Blim and the latE DEl Jones, early committEE mEmbers, for their warm encouragemEnt. In Chiapas, I had the privilEge of mEEting many scholars, journalists and friEnds, and talking to them about my work with the IDPs at INI and ActEal: GraciEla Freyermuth Enciso, Christine Eber, Christine Kovic, who also becamE a good friEnd, GabriEla Vargas-Cetina, Igor Ayora, Patty KElly, also a good friEnd, for mojitos from June’s garden. ElEna Calvo-GonzalEz, a closE friEnd who wEnt around San Cristóbal with mE, both of us singing at the top of our lungs.
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