Stonework of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century in the House Mountain Area

Scott Boyd

Anthropology 377

Dr. McDaniel

ThrouRh the centuries stone has been re~arded as one of the most durable and sturdy building materials known to man . As a buildinp: mater:i.al . it was especially valued in the construction of walls , piers , chimneys and fo undations because of stone ' s ability to support enormous woi~hts . This ls true because larp.;e heavy stones in massive grouns can resist active forces becaus e of their inertia anrl because only great forces can overturn them. 1 The stone vrnlls of Liberty Ilall nhich have endured both the forces of weather and the forces of gravity for hundreds of years nicely exemplify this trait of stone , Thi s paper will discuss the use of stone as a buildin~ material i n t he area of l~o c k bridgo Co unty during t he eir.;hteenth and nineteenth century with special attention given to the House !·!ountain area.

'rhe colonial strue tures of .i.~ ockbridp.;e Co unty varied greatly in function , but they were very similar i n desi~n . The fo undatj.ons chimneys and sometimes the floors of these struc turoB were almost exclusively made of stone . The walls of the structures varies but were t ypi cally made of wood especially in tho hollO\'TG where good trees were readily available f or this use. 'l'he structures we have enco un t ored i n t he hollovrn area definitely reflect their surroundinp.; environment re.sources ,

'l'1 1e ubundai:c c of timber on courages its use i n the construe tion of the houses fra1:1ework. Si milaril y , the abundance of limes tone and sandstone in the area makes these t he domi nant stone types

used h1 the bui l ding of the foundations , chi mneys and floors •

.Sources of Stone ------The Gtone used in tho construction of these structures was almost always sandstone in the hol lows area. In other a reas of Hockbridgo County where there were limestone deposits. limestone was used . In the case of sandstone , n o quarryinp: vras needed bec ause of the abundance of ·surface s tone . r;ettlers transported t he s andstone to the building site where it i:1as worked and finish ed and utilized as needed. Li mestone could also be found on the surface , but the best rock was quarried .

The process of quarryinR stone wao vorv similar throuRhout the Appalachia.t mountain area dur-i ng the eighteenth a nd nineteenth century. First, a cliff face was located or a trench was cut . 2 On tho f loor of the rece ss or trenc!1, blocks wore outlined in the deisred size and then separ ated by channels several inches \'ride and cut to the desired depth . 3 There were sever al methods of channeling hard stone . :Perhaps tho i10.st r!idely used method involved the use of metal wede;cs, and ha mme rs.

In this proces ;_; , metal \'Jedp:es ( .See Fig. 1) vrnre driven i n to the stone along thu previously outlinud border. In some cases , v1edf;cS were fad.litated by drills. 'l'hese drj lls were bored into the rock ubout .SL( iaclius deup . Then we dges were placed on either side of tho bored hole . Ev ery pound wit h a sloctge o ~ the v1edr,es or turn of the dri ll bit crached t h e r ock unti l

- 2 ­ 1 finally the doGircd piec e \'Jas separated. 1- Once stone has oeen quarried i t is usuD.lly transported to the buildinp:: site by means of a stone boa t ( Jee Fi[. 2) which was pulled by a farm animal. 5 .Some tirneG the rock vw.s allowed to weather for a year

to test its durabi lity. After a year had passed , the rock which showed the most we ar was used in the foundation of the structure where it would be less exposed to the elements . The remaininp.; rock was used f or chimneys or walls t hat would be mo re e;cposed. 6

':t orking_~~:i- r· ·-~~:~~h~-~-~

After tho stone was brou~ht to the buil ding site , it had to be sha pod into its final form . This v1as usually done by an experienced stone mason i f the stonework to be done was complicated. AccordinJ; the Alvis i~ eynolds , a stone mason in the i\ockbridge County area, the masonry involvcd in b uilcU nc; the structures of rural J{ ockbridge County a t this time was not complicated. Ile believes t hat the stonework involved i n chimney and foundation mclting was performed by tho settlers themselves . Dtill tho qu.cstiou of how settlers of that area acquired this lmowlcclp_;e re•n:::i.i11s . i;r. ~

J;iGJ>ons worked and taught others their skills. i·:r. :?cynolds is fo.i rly ccrto.iu that thci_r v1as no L an apprenticeship for stone

1.1asonry prov:Lducl b~/ these nomadic 111asons . Instead , sc t tlere gained thi.s k110\·1ledr·e through participating in tho stone construe tion v:i t}: chc.sc :nasonG. '( This seel!!S to be a goocl

- 3 ­ speculatjon when we consider that in general , the early

colonists in the eastern Unj ted States rarely attempted to f;ive a fine finish to stone. The stona work done was for practical purposes rather tha n for a decorative effect . 8

Therefore it i s quite possible that settlers could have learned enouch masonry to do fut ure stone- work themselves. The dressing of stone is p robably the most c ornplic at0 d stc-::p of stoneworldng. i·l any tools are rcciuired to shanc tho stone to the size needed . The process of dressin.F stone usuo.J.ly involves those three steps: 1 . First, the corners of the rough stone are

established vJ:i th a pitching chi.sel. A pitchinf"

chj.sol is a relatively heavy chisel about one

a nd one- eiF:hth i nches in diameter vd th a cutti nf~

edp;c that snrcads to two and one- half inches with Lhc cnttinrr edge unsharpened . (See Fif:. 3) 9

2 . The second step involvcu establj_shint; sides

ex Lendin1: fror:1 Llw previously es Lablished corners . '.I1hj_s i.r; clone in no.rt witli a pi tchinr:; c hisel but

usually :Ln volves picks o nci toot~1 chisels. ::af.>0nry

nicks woi:e very s:Lmilar to normal riick a xes but

·::ore shor Le r <:tnd stouter tl': an tLose use cl for 6.i rrl (lF .

V1e sidcG of stone blocks v1cre struck by t h ese

'.~:-ds cJ0 also fl:-J_l\:cd off nieces or stone, yet this tool iu considerably different froa a pick. 7ooth

chisels norc instrurnents Gimilar to pi. tc hinc; 11 c hisels but wi t h a serrated edr:e . (See F i r-: . '5 )

·.°Ji th this t ooth chisel the stone v1as brought to

its rough finish .

3. ? il1a1J.y , i f more fi nishin~~ wa:s requi.re

chisel (Jee Fig. s ) ~as used Lo re~ove the ridges 12 1 e ft over fro r.1 sq u arr-Lnfl' U1) the s t one . rrl:d.s v1as

done until the surface of tlrn stone 1:1as relatively

flat . 'rhen tiic stone could be rubbed nith a11

abrasive to remove all nick and c hisel marks .

~evoral other tools were involved i n the process o f

workin~ stone . Poi nts were c hisel- like octagonal iron rods

about twelve inches long and sharpened to a noint on one end.

Those wore uacd duri ng quarrying to extract hard s t ones 13" auickly. (:~co FiJ.:.: . 6 ) i,;asons used pean- harnmers (stone a'\es)

for a varie ty of uses . They were used alon~ vith wed~ea to

!1c:l p crack Ll1e stone duri nr: q uarryinp: . Variations of theso hanw1e rs \'Jere also used to add differcnt decorntive textures 1 to the stones . (See ~i~ . 7 ) 4 rl.'lle only narts of this finishinp; process that are annlicable to the stonework we have encountered jn the hol lowo area i .s . at the most , establishing corners and sides in tho nee essary shape. 'l'he tcchniques of dccorative masonry were r ar0ly if ever performed in the construe tion of tiiat area.

- I) ­ F) tone Laying

After the stone j_s bronght to the building site and

is finished into its desired form . it is then ready to be

places i n the foundation , chimn ey or other structure being

built. F:vcry c onstruction invol ved a different layinp; Lee hnique

because each stone is different from the one before it in terms of sj_ze a nd shape . However. the tools involved were basic ally the sarne from one job to a no ther. In laying stone , an iron or steel trowel shaped like a diamond was used. 'l'he t rowel was

used primari ly to apply mortar and also to tap small stones into position. Levels were made of wood in the form of an A or an inverted rr a plumb bob was s uspended from the top . '.'!hen the plumb line hung in alip,nment with a mark at the center of the apparatus , then the two feet were leve1 . 1 5 Verticality \'las checked by an instrument operatinp~ on the same principle. 1 6 A v1ooden or iron square r1as used to verify right a ngles. A cor1pass with steel points Vias employed to draw arcs of s mall radius : steel point s we r e used to draw straight scribe lines 1 on stone . 7 A levclin~ l ine was a cord stretched between corners to help aid in kecpine the s tone work level . Snap llnes were cords to wld.ch chalk or ocher was applied so that a reference lj_ne could be t ransferred to a foundation , chimney , wa ll or other piece of stonework. 1 8

:.ortar 'rhc stones in thi s stonework were held together wi t h

- G ­ mortar in most cases but some f oundations and garden \'/alls of

simple buildinRs v1ere often dry walled. ·."!hen stonework is

dry walled , no mortar is involved . Instead, stones are

stacked in such a way that the f oundati on or wall is sturd y enough to s e rve its purpose. Howe ver , most stone structures

involved mort ar. During t his t i me period , ther e were several types of

mortar in use . Clay i;;ortar was perhaps the earliest type . Clay

\'ras used with both brick and stone in areas where lime was

difficult to obtain. This mortar was also popular because

of its low c ost. Cl ay mortar joints c ould bear heavy loads

and. was a good mar tar. However , clay mortar cannot hold up

in mo ist , humid clirn;::ites and must also be protected from the rain . 1 9 These characteristics wore definite disadvantages

\'!llich caused its :popul arity to decrease with the introduction of other mortar types.

Another commonl y used mortar was lime- sand mortar.

Tt \'IDG the wost common type used in structures located above

waler level until the late nineteenth century when its popularity 20 ber:an to dee rease. 'l'o make this lime based mortar, the lime had to 1Jo heated to 16'50 degrees 1" . or in ot110r \'!Ords c o.lcin ed1 21 in. order ~L-0 prodncc quic. kl.-. imo . 'I'his quicklime (calcium oxide)

\'JaS then r:1i:~ed \'Ji th a certain q uanU . ty of sand . After the r.:i xing is fi nisl1ed , the rnix ture is then slaked. Slakinr: lime i ,c:; c1011c b y ric.ldin i:; a certain amount o f water ( u::;ually by sprinklL:r, )

- 'I ­ to t:iie quicklime . rfoe nater is quick] y absorbed and leaves a dry powder. '.,'/hen tbe u1ortar is ready to be used , t h e slolrnd lime nixture i s tl1on hydrated viitll enoup;h '.'!ti.tor to make a pasLe of good consistency. This paste will remain plastic for several hours whil e i t is being a pplied . Af ter several ho11rs , tho rno rtar vd.11 set and be able to support tho wel£~1l t of stones above it provided the i'/Ork doesn ' t go too fast . After s etting , 1:1 ortar hardens at a very slow rat e . 22 1 L may take r.1011 ths or yea.cs to reac 11 j_ ts m::iximurn s trcnp;tll .

Another t ype of mortar t hat deserves mention is

Fo.rtland Ccnen t . For tland Cemon t was patent cd i n 1[$217 by

Jos eph Aspdin , and En~lis h mason- builder. It Tias manufactured fro1:1 1 8'71 on a nd graduall y replaced nat ur al mor tars . Portland

Cet!:en t \'! aG extremely ponul;1r then because it \'las s tronr.:er .

::1o re: precJic Lo.1Jle anci e asier to \'!Ork ni th than the r1a Lural 2 1aor·tars . 3 :;o\'!cver, tlw llol.lo1:r Gtructur es date before the twentieth century \'!hen Portland r~ emen t nas in troduccd t o tl~o 'I urea so it lsn 1 t onco:mtcrod ir: tile struc turou v:e have been

~tur~yi11r:.

:~ to~e\·mrk ii: tho :IouGe : .~oun tain Areo..

~~cveral str1:ctm·cs ':iilich rlcu;on~ ~. rate tho s tone\'JOrk dcsc1·J.bcd ill this paper c0.11 be seen ln the House rou.nta in areCJ. .

01'!e of those str11ct11rcs is the remains of a stone fonndaU on at tirn Taylor :..:;i to CL:.11 . ~-:Plltj ) . The stonev/Ork in this f oundation appcor.s

Lo be very rouph . rt'he Gtones UGGd were proliably not orupared

(; - u ­ at all. i-;any rodes t hat vmuld be suj_ table for such an umrorked fo11nd.at :L on are layinp; around the surface all over that area . 'l'hc stones are s a ndstone which usually cleaves to form relatively flat sides. These stones were probubly gathered and placed r :L r ~ht :L nto the foundation . Excavation

110.s turned llP a lot of mortar around the foundati on . The

Mor tar is yclloD- brown i n color, fairly brit tle but not extromely ho.rd. This would i ndicate l ittle or no presence of li.r.1c . Lh1e is hard and almost cement - like \'/hen it harderu..; ,

~ and is indicated by the yellow tint . ~he n sand is mixed with mortar . it a.dds a yellow color . 2 '+ 8lay is j_ndicated by the bri ttleness a nd softness of the mortar and a lso by the fact that clay iG i n abun dance a nd WOLlld be mu c h more practi cal than lirnc .

~he i n formation we have about the Taylor site fits j_n very \'/ell with the typical stonework of the area, Al mo s t e very houoe or cabin has the same foundation type in t he Ho us e

;.:ountain area. rl'he s e foundati ons were made of sandstones \'Jhich were relati vely .squa re a nd li ~ht enough to be lifted and set witllout the aid of hoistinf~ dcviccs . The c ornerstones \'lcrc a little lar ger than other s however. The mortar consisted of clay and sand and io 11 0\'1 very brittle. 'riw fo undations are only one Gtone thick (about one foot ) , and are s et several j.nches i ll to the ground . ;.;any cabinu and houses of this time period c an oe obs erved on : ~ o u te 60 and .·~ ou te 61 ~6 to ('; ollierstown .

- 9 ­ Almost every one of these had tho sarne type stone a nd a clay­ aand mortar. There arc two excepti ons that I have not iced, however.

1fi1e first exception i s that of a lot:; house about eiRht miles f rom Joute 60 on Route 646 near the New Cave Farm. Everything a.bout tho foundation and chimney v1ork is typical except for some of the cornerstones. Some of tho house ' s corner stones were granite . rrhis is somewhat peculiar because the r:ranito stones were very square also . Granite would be advantageous to have especially as a cornerstone because i t i s more durable and sturdy. However, there is no readily available granite in the area, and to work granite to a square stone is more difficult than v10rking sandstone. Perhaps this granite

\'!as part of SO!lie other structure at the t i me of construetion , One possi ble Gource of this granite mi p::h t have been someone involved with maki ng headstones . rr her e are several old cemeteries in the area. The second exception is that of t he lop: house behind the Suits i·ie f a.rm . 'I'his cabin i s very typical in its construction . yet it has practically no foundation. Its foundati on consists of larp.;e corner stones upon which tho log house was built. There is a littl e rubble around the sides , but no other rocks

give foundational support to the house. 1:··/hy is this foundation so different from the others? No one really knows , but perhaps

it had to do wit 11 \'tater drainap;e. Be hind the log house is a

- 10 ­ bare fiel d which slopes down to the house and t he road. This type of foundation would allow the rain water to drain down to

the creek without erodin~ the foundation or possibly flooding the house. Stone vrnrking is an ancient skill and can be a very diverse field. Hmvever , the tools and techniques of this trade \'Jere very basic in the eie;hteenth and ni neteent h century, esDecially in tho House 1-iountain area. In this area, stonewo rk was not very complicated and probably di dn ' t require knowledgeable stone masons. In conclusion , the stonework of the area reflected the area' s environment as far as materials were concerned , o..nd it was for a strictly practical . not decorative purpose.

- 11 ­ 5.00 4.

3.

!HON Wl·:lJCl·:S USED FUil Sl'LITTINC STONE.

1. 2 3;'; inches long. i, ';• inr:h squore. 4-5. Modern English wedges with slats. Mercer Museum, Doylestown. Pa. 6. Square plug and feathers. 2-3. Flat wedges. 7. Hound plug and feathers .

'2 j !l ../. 1 4. I }l I

/JI! I Ll.S. I l!llh century. 2. l!Hh rnnlury. :i. l!o /ion. 16th century. -l. 2:! inches long. 1 inch octagonal. Mercer Museum. Doylestown. Po. 5. :n 112 inches long, 1 inch octagonal. 13A inch cutting edge. Mercer Museum.

STONE BOAT. Used for hauling s tones. .._HAMMER

__;_ __,_ _,.. e-~~---- -

'POlNT I I [DGt)

~-1'- 2." I

4 .

'CHI_NG CHISELS. American, 19/h CPl1· Y· P1tc11ino •·h1'sn]s · fl . 0 " " • nave a . ot fncn 111­ Jd ofa r:utting edge. ·

P/C1':). I. M11son 's pick wit Ii c:hisr·l rHHl. :!. H11mmrT-hr~wJr~d rir poh.• pick. 3. Itoliun. Wth cr?n/ul'\". -1. Picks. ,\/urr;r·r .\lu.~f'llili. JJod1·stnw;i. :'•

{ !ihFl:; 1 ;· 1111 fir·~ l'n1g . I inch octogonal. 1 1/z inch cutting edge, Mercer Museum, Doylestown,

J'u ! luoth d1isnl: 5 inches Jong, 3/.1 inch octagonal, 13/.1 inch cutting edge with 7 teeth . .\lr•rr er Musr:um . . I Sp/i11i11g chisel. Chiefly used for soft stratified stones; occasionally used fol' carving 1:; r r 11 iiu . .f. N<1rrow chisel, 19th century'. :i. Tr1n[Ji c:ltisrd: Italian, 16th century. fi Tooth c:lii.~r:l. I!Jth century. i'. 'l'oul: :1 112tn4 1/2 inches ~-vide. Also cnllad boaster or bolster. /l llrnv1?: :! In 3 inches wide.

~; ~ ['' ill f·. ~.·· . 2. ' ~ l. 4. 5. 7. A 8. 3. 2. 3.

POINTS. 1. Type used since ancient Raman times. 2. Italian. 16th century. 3. American, 19th century.

I I I

J.

AXES AND HAMMEHS. 1. Foe<: hnm11wr. 2. Fw:r: lwm11wr: II inchr~ s long. 2 1/z ind1 c ultin.l! r:dgn. Mercr:r Musrrnm. Doylestown. Po. :!. Ax or pr:o11·hommnr; 5 314 inches long. :l inc:h c:utling P.dge. M ercer Museum. 4. Hond hmnmr:r. 5. S/r:dgr:hommr:r. fJ . Ax or pr:un·lwmmer. 7. Hush 110111/Jl('/'. IL Patent Ii wnnwr. rTotcs

1 Harley J. i!; c :'.c c , Introduction t o ·i ·~o.rly Ameri can iv: asor~ry ( ':lashington , D. '.:; .: rl'he I·reservation Press , 1973) , p . 9.

2Ibid , p. 16.

7 _)Ibid , n. 1 6.

4Georr,e P. i·ierrill , Stones fo r Bui1.dinp; ar1g Decoratin~ (i-ie\•r Yo rk : ·.!ilcy , 1910) , p . 395 .

5-·1. c .~.. ee , p . 18.

6vitruvj.us . 'T'he Ten I3ooks of Arc hi t~tllf_Q ., trans . i·iorrj_s Hickey ;:organ (i:ew York : Do ver , 1960) bk. 2 , c han . ? , p . 5.

7Tclcp!1one intorvj_ew \'Ii L!1 Alvis 1~e vnolct.s , Stone Mason , May 17 , 1933.

81.'I C1\.ee ,,. , p . 2 0.

9Ibi d , p . 2G .

lOibi d , p. 2j.

llib .. . lO , P e 29 •

12Ib. , ia , Jl . 2<)

l3Ibid, p . 2L: .

lL~Ib. ' -J_a ' p. 22. I3i bliogra-e!f:t

Ki mba l l , J<'iske. Domestic Architecture of the American Colonies and of the ~ arly Re public . Uew York: Char l es 0 cribner ' s Sons , 1922. i·;cKec , Harley J . Introduction ~ Earl_iY_Ame.£.ica..11 Hasonry. ·,/as}nngton , D. C.: Preservation Press , 19?3. i·: errill , Georp.:e P. Stones for Building and Decoratinc. ~ew York : ~illey , 1 910.

!~ey nolcts , Alvis . Telephone interview. Hay l?, 1983. Tlle rreaford Papers

;·.!o r gan , lforris Jiuckey. The rr1en Dooks .of Architecturc. By Vitruvius . iTe\v"-York : Dover, 1960.