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In Defense of Natural Cement: a Critical Examination of the Evolution of Concrete Technology at Fort Totten, New York Richard

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In Defense of Natural Cement: a Critical Examination of the Evolution of Concrete Technology at Fort Totten, New York Richard In Defense of Natural Cement: A Critical Examination of the Evolution of Concrete Technology at Fort Totten, New York Richard M. P. Lowry Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree Master of Science in Historic Preservation Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation Columbia University (May 2013) Cover images: Sections of concrete from cores collected at Battery Graham (top), Battery Mahan (middle), and Torpedo Magazine 4 (bottom) ABSTRACT In Defense of Natural Cement: A Critical Examination of the Evolution of Concrete Technology at Fort Totten, New York Richard M. P. Lowry Prof. Norman R. Weiss, advisor There are a number of opportunities for academic research related to the historic concrete fortifications at Fort Totten at Willets Point in Queens, NY. Built by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), whose headquarters was at Willets Point, these structures incorporate three significant fortification periods, including the Third System (1863-1867), the Post-Civil War era (1867-1884) and the Endicott period (1891-1905). These late 19th century structures represent a transformative period in the technological development of concrete which evolved from a simple mortar containing rocks to bulk out the mix, to an interdependent mixture of binder, sand and aggregate. In addition, the first fortifications at Fort Totten were built during the heyday of the natural cement industry and the last fortifications coincided with its demise, as portland cement came to dominate the market. The rivalry between American natural and portland cement manufacturers was fierce, and the biases engendered on both sides persisted long after the natural cement industry collapsed in the early 20th century. This has translated into the conventional view that there was an inherent problem in the natural cement concrete used to build these fortifications. However, for reasons of economy, the Corps of Engineers were prevented from using portland cement, until advances in domestic manufacturing permitted a reduction in costs. Through historical and archival research, as well as the petrographic analysis of concrete samples, a more detailed assessment of the concrete used at Fort Totten was conducted. Using polarized light microscopy an analysis was conducted on the binder, the aggregates, the gradation, the water/cement ratio, and any deterioration in order to evaluate changes in the concrete mix design over time. These observations were then related to a conditions survey of the concrete structures at Fort Totten, to assess the performance of the concrete used to build these historic structures. Laboratory work for this thesis was conducted at Columbia University GSAPP’s Historic Preservation Conservation Laboratory and at Highbridge Materials Consulting, Inc. i ii Copyright 2013, Richard M. P. Lowry For information about this work, please contact Richard M. P. Lowry, [email protected] Permission is hereby granted to reproduce and distribute copies of this work for non-profit, educational purposes, provided that copies are distributed at or below cost, and that the author, source, and copyright notice are included on each copy. This permission is in addition to rights of reproduction granted under Sections 107, 108, and other provisions of the U.S. Copyright Act. Before making any distribution of this work, please contact the copyright owner to ascertain whether you have the current version. Richard M. P. Lowry 15 May 2013 iii iv Acknowledgements I would first and foremost like to thank my beautiful wife, Vicky for the love and support given to me throughout my time at Columbia, especially during the preparation, investigation and writing of this thesis. Secondly, I would like to thank my advisor, Professor Norman R. Weiss, for his advice, his insight, and his infectious enthusiasm for all things concrete. Ba Zn Ga! I would also like to thank John J. Walsh, who put up with me far longer than any reader should be expected to and always made time in his schedule to teach me the intricacies of concrete petrography. I am also grateful for the guidance of my reader, Professor Joan Berkowitz, who picked apart a very long, very dry thesis draft about 19th century concrete and helped whip it into shape. I would also like to thank the staff of Highbridge Materials Consulting Ltd., John J. Walsh, Magdalena Malaj, Michael Pattie, Heather Hartshorn and Victoria Bendetti for sharing their laboratory with me. I am also extremely grateful for the invaluable assistance provided by Ken Uracius and Chris Perry of Stone and Lime Imports Inc. in collecting the core and hand samples at Fort Totten. Similarly, this thesis would not have been possible without the support of the staff of the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation, especially John Krawchuk, Director of Preservation, along with Sgt. Marc Sanchez and the Fort Totten Park Rangers. Finally, last but not least I wish to thank my bosses, Brian Franklin and Trevor Leach of the Bermuda Government Department of Planning, and Dr. Derrick Binns of the Ministry of the Environment and Planning, for supporting my return to postgraduate education and, most importantly, ensuring I had a job to come back to at its conclusion. v vi Table of Contents ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................................i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures ix 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1 2. 19TH CENTURY CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY ................................................................................... 5 2.1. Natural cement ............................................................................................................................ 5 2.2. Portland cement ......................................................................................................................... 10 2.3. Concrete ..................................................................................................................................... 12 3. THE FORT AT WILLET’S POINT ........................................................................................................ 15 3.1. Description of Willets Point ...................................................................................................... 15 3.2. Geology of the New York Area ................................................................................................. 16 3.3. Early History of Site .................................................................................................................. 17 3.4. Defending New York City ......................................................................................................... 19 3.5. The US Army Corps of Engineers at Willets Point ................................................................ 24 3.6. Third System Fortifications at Willets Point ........................................................................... 25 3.6.1. Granite Fort/Water Battery (1863-1867) .................................................................................... 25 3.6.2. Failure of Masonry Fortifications at Willets Point ..................................................................... 28 3.7. Post-Civil War Fortifications (1868-1876) ............................................................................... 29 3.7.1. Main Magazine (1868-1873) ...................................................................................................... 31 3.7.2. Tunnel (1870- ............................................................................................................................. 33 3.7.3. Torpedo Magazines (1873-1876) ............................................................................................... 34 3.7.4. Earthen Batteries (1871-1875) ................................................................................................... 37 3.7.5. Mortar Battery (1872-1874) ....................................................................................................... 39 3.8. Endicott Period (1885-1905) ..................................................................................................... 39 3.9. Endicott Battery Typology ........................................................................................................ 43 3.10. Endicott Batteries at Willets Point ........................................................................................... 44 3.10.1. Batteries Sumner 1 and 2 (1891-1898) .................................................................................... 45 3.10.2. Battery Graham (1892-1897) ................................................................................................... 47 3.10.3. Battery Mahan (1898-1900) ..................................................................................................... 48 3.10.4. Other Batteries ......................................................................................................................... 49 vii 3.11. Later History of Willets Point/Fort Totten ............................................................................
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