Towards a Model of the Urban Development Process
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TOWARDS A MODEL OF THE URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROCESS by Donald I. Gutstein B.Arch., University of British Columbia, 1968. A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of The Requirements for the Degree of Master of Architecture in the Department of Graduate Studies School of Architecture We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard The University of British Columbia October, 1972 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by his representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. The University of British Columbia Vancouver 8, Canada Date ABSTRACT i TOWARDS A MODEL OF THE URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROCESS In recent years, dissatisfaction with the quality of the urban environment has become widespread, and opposition to many development proposals has been mounted by citizens groups across Canada. Yet all attempts to improve the environment so far have proved relatively ineffectual. The thesis argues that the environment will continue to deteriorate unless massive changes are made in the structure of decision making which surrounds the urban development process; the major change required being meaningful partici- pation by citizens in making the decisions that affect their lives. A first step towards this goal is the attainment of a clear and comprehensive understanding of how urban develop- ment occurs at present. Citizens must be informed before they can be involved. The thesis presents an initial description of the urban development process and outlines the conceptual basis for the construction of a simulation model of the process. It is argued that because of the complexities of urban develop- ment, a simulation technique seems appropriate. Given an operating model, it would be possible to test proposals for change on the model before implementing them in reality. Using Metropolitan Vancouver - a typical Canadian urban region - as a data base, the thesis examines the types of public dissatisfactions with the urban environment. These are then translated into the more general categories of urban problems, such as soaring housing costs, transportation congestion, urban sprawl, poverty, pollution and so on. Through a literature survey a number of processes suspected as being related to these urban problems were identified. Two kinds of processes emerged: those which lead to population and economic growth (the ones usually considered in urban models), but also those processes which constrain policy formulation and implementation, such as fragmented authority, inadequate research and development, uncoordinated planning, the pressure of developers. Both types need inclusion in the model. These processes were investigated through a number of case studies of the system in action: downtown redevelopment schemes, Vancouver transportation proposals, a public urban renewal project, a shopping centre proposal, etc. Basic chronologies of events were prepared for each case; the events were then abstracted into a set of actions with the (organizational and individual) actors who engaged in them and the criteria (goals or constraints) upon which the actions were based. These actions were then grouped into related processes. A preliminary conceptual mock-up of the model was made, and a program of research outlined which involves the analysis of factors affecting major processes and the develop- ment of values suitable for computer manipulation. At this stage of the work it appears that the building of the model is indeed feasible and that such a simulation will prove most useful in understanding the urban development process. Supervisor iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I Introduction 1 A. Purpose of the Study 1 B. Outline of Work 8 CHAPTER II A Conceptual Framework 15 A. /Inappropriateness of the Concept of the Industry B. A Systems Approach to Urban Development 25 C. Changing for the Worse? 45 CHAPTER III The Urban Development Process 52 A. Urban Problems and Processes 52 B. Sample Problem/Process Analysis.. .. 64 C. Decision Making Models 83 CHAPTER IV The Urban Environment Production System (UEPS) 93 A. An Empirical Basis 93 B. The Organizational Constitution of UEPS 97 C. The Outputs of UEPS 112 D. Public Reaction to Urban Development 131 CHAPTER V The Vancouver Context 137 CHAPTER VI Towards a Model of the Urban Development Process 154 A. Analysis of Case Studies 154 B. A Diagram of the Urban Development Process.. 163 C. Future Work I84 NOTES I87 BIBLIOGRAPHY 197 iv APPENDIX A. Major Canadian Urban Problems and Factors which Generate Them. APPENDIX B. Profiles of Selected Development Companies and Financial Institutions. APPENDIX C. Major Building Permits Issued, City of Vancouver, 1957-70. APPENDIX D. A Sample of Public Reaction to Urban Developments in Vancouver. APPENDIX E. Chronologies of Case Studies 1. Coal Harbour Development Proposal 2. Freeway Proposals 3. Strathcona Urban Renewal Schemes V LIST OF TABLES Canadian Urban Problems Enumerated in Three Sample Sources 56 II Factors Leading to Major Urban Problems., 60 III Total Debt Outstanding by Capital Market Instrument, Canada, 1953 and 1967 69 IV Mortgage Loans Outstanding by Type of Investor, Canada, 1967 V Mortgage Investments of Financial Institutions and Other Investors as a Percentage of Total Assets, Canada, 1967... 77 VI Corporations & Labour Force Engaged in the Urban Development Process 98 VII Companies in Metropolitan Vancouver Engaged in Urban Development 100 VIII Major Public & Private Development Companies, Canada, 1970 101 IX Major Life Insurance Companies, Trust and Loan Companies and Chartered Banks, Canada, 110 1970 X Total Value of Construction Work Performed in Current Dollars, as a Percentage of Gross National Expenditure, Canada, 1961-70 113 XI Total Value of Construction Work Performed by Principal Type of Construction, Canada, 1967-70 H5 XII Total Value of Construction Work Performed by Type of Structure, Canada, 1970 118 XIII Dwelling Starts by Housing Type, Canada, 1961-70 121 XIV Total Value of Building Construction Work Performed by Building Type, Metropolitan Vancouver, 1961-70 122 vi XV Dwelling Starts by Housing Type, Metro- politan Vancouver, 1963-70 124 XVI Apartment Unit Completions by Municipality, Metropolitan Vancouver, 1963-68 126 XVII Major Construction Projects, Lower Mainland, 1966-68 127 XVIII Major Construction Projects by Principal Type of Construction, Lower Mainland, ' 1966-68 I30 XIX Possible Indices of Urban Health and Malaise I32 XX Examples of Public Reactions to Urban Development I35 XXI Sample Page from Chronology of Coal Harbour Redevelopment Proposal 156 XXII Preliminary Analysis of Coal Harbour Development Proposal Case Study 159 XXIII Municipal Rezoning Pattern of Events 162 vii LIST OF FIGURES 1 General Outline of the Urban Environment Production System (UEPS) 26 2 Major Participants and Influences on the Building Process 29 3 An Hierarchical Decision-Making Structure , (Hypothetical) 40 4 Possible Channels for the Transfer of Funds from Savers to Users 67 5 Private Capital Market Allocation of Funds... 71 6 Total Canadian Assets of Selected Financial Institutions, 1950-69 78 7 Total Mortgage Loans of Selected Financial Institutions, Canada, 1950-69 79 8 Conversion of Rural Land to Urban Uses 81 9 Municipal Government Urban Development Policy Process 10 Allocation of Funds - Municipal Government... 82 11 Urban Land Market 82 12 Dwelling Completions by Type of Construction Metropolitan Vancouver, 1963-70 125 13 Map of Downtown Vancouver 144 14 Diagram of the Urban Development Process 165 15 Distribution of Completed Developments 176 16 A Subculture/Activity Setting Model of Public Response to Developments., 183 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am undebted to many people and organizations who helped in various aspects of this work. Part of the work was carried out under a Canada Council research grant. I am grateful for a Central Mortgage and Housing Corporation Fellowship which was of inestimable value during the two years of the project. Andrew Gruft and David Whetter helped with many of the knotty conceptual problems and David Whetter provided considerable help in the survey of existing data sources and the development of the case study method. To Rob Kleyn, for his work on the Coal Harbour study, to Charles Haynes, Ken Bartesko and Craig Strand for their work on the Freeways study, to Sherri Smith for the Strathcona Urban Renewal study and to the members of the Vancouver Urban Research Group for background material on the Vancouver City Hall organization, a special tanks. None of them should be held responsible for the use or misuse of their material. Finally, the deepest thanks to my typist Sandra Redmond who helped to sustain me during the darkest hours. CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION 1. PART A. - PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This paper is about the inability of citizens to participate positively and effectively in the development of their cities. Until recently citizens did nothing. They assumed that someone was running their cities in the best interests of the general public. Then things started going badly. Traffic congestion, inadequate housing, pollution, urban decay and sprawl had come to threaten every major Canadian city. People began to realize that the someone who did make the major decisions that affect their lives didn't know what he was doing, or if he did, it was only for the benefit of a lucky few. Plans for whole urban regions were predicated on the needs of a handful of developers and speculators and their real estate friends on municipal councils. People began to react. They opposed all major developments. They complained about the congestion, noise and pollution which would be generated by a scheme; they bitterly opposed the freeways deemed necessary to service these large developments; they pointed to the utter lack of human values in planning development.