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Fecha de entrega: 15 de octubre de 2011 Fecha de aprobación: 15 de noviembre de 2011
IMPROVISATION AS LIBERATION: ENDEAVOURS OF RESISTANCE IN FREE jAZZ
LA IMPROVISACIóN COMO LIBERACIóN: ASPIRACIONES DE RESISTENCIA EN EL FREE jAZZ
Thomas Kocherhans*
Abstract
This investigation seeks to explore connection points between music and societal processes, by linking improvised music to cultural networks and social practices. Exceeding musi- cological and action-theoretical reflections, the improvisation is regarded from a cultural sociological perspective, which asks how improvisational practices can be integrated into cultural, historical and discursive contexts. Taking free jazz as the scope of the inves- tigation, it is argued that there is a necessity to discuss its characteristic improvisation, in connection to the critical, radical and aesthetical practices of the African-American community. The musical practices of free jazz, therefore, can be seen as social practices, in which a form of resistance is manifested through an intended liberation of the current musical and cultural order. Improvisation processes expressed in free jazz hence reflect an ethnically motivated strategy, in which the ruling system of values is questioned, while simultaneously offering alternative modes of expression.
Keywords:
Improvisation, free jazz, musical practices, cultural resistance, emancipation.
* El autor realizó estudios de ciencias sociales en la Universidad de Berna; recibió el diploma de Bachelor en primavera (2010). Es máster en sociología de la Universidad de Konstanz, Alemania. Los principales temas de interés académico son la sociología de la cultura, la sociología histórica y la teoría sociológica. Correo electrónico: [email protected]
Cuadernos de Filosofía Latinoamericana / ISSN 0120-8462 / Vol. 33 / No. 106 / 2012 / pp. 39-51 40 THoMAS KoCHErHANS
Resumen
En esta investigación se propone explorar puntos de conexión entre la música y los procesos sociales, vinculando a la improvisación musical con redes culturales y prácti- cas sociales. Más allá de las reflexiones musicológicas y de la teoría de la acción, en el artículo la improvisación es considerada desde la perspectiva de la sociología cultural, la cual se pregunta cómo las prácticas improvisatorias pueden ser integradas en contextos culturales, históricos y discursivos. Así, se toma el free jazz como objeto de investigación y se argumenta que es necesario discutir sus modos específicos de improvisación, en conexión con las prácticas críticas, radicales y estéticas de la comunidad afroamericana. En este sentido, las prácticas musicales se pueden considerar como prácticas sociales en las que una forma de resistencia es manifestada a través de una liberación intencional del actual orden musical y cultural. Los procesos de improvisación, como los expresados en el free jazz, reflejan una estrategia étnicamente motivada en la que se cuestiona el sistema imperante de valores, a la vez que ofrece modos alternativos de expresión.
Palabras clave:
Improvisación, free jazz, prácticas musicales, resistencia cultural, emancipación
Improvisation, in its social and cultural investigation. The focus of this analysis will contexts, has so far scarcely been the focus demonstrate how elementary improvisatio- of much scientific research. It is still “a sur- nal practices of free jazz can be placed in a prisingly understudied musical and cultural socio-cultural context. The social dimension phenomenon” (Fischlin & Heble, 2004: 18). of improvisational processes draws particular Sociology, in particular, hasn’t thus far reflec- interest, especially in free jazz, as its emer- ted the scope in the appropriate adequacy of gence falls into the midst of a period of the its discipline. Improvisation processes are, rebellious and emancipation aspiring African- however, always positioned in a specific American Civil Rights Movement (Jost, relationship proportional to the culture in 1982: 171-176). It shall be analysed whether which they occur (Belgrad, 1998; Fischlin & these connections between improvised music Heble, 2004; Guttandin, 1996). In this sense, and attempts of resistance and emancipation music doesn’t have to be considered a deta- are merely assumptions (without significant ched entity of social reality, since it interferes evidence), or if they can effectively be suc- in various ways with societal dynamics: as cessfully linked and are directly compatible. an “impulse taker and tendency indicator” Therefore, this analysis pursues the critical (Stahl, 2004: 34); it instead, is in a direct question: to what extent can improvised based relationship proportional to them. free jazz be associated with mechanisms of protest and liberation, which go beyond the The aim of this investigation is to explore musical practices. connection points between music and so- cietal processes, linking improvised music With regard to its structure, the work presen- to cultural networks and social practices. ted contains three chapters. In the first part, The improvised principles that occur in free inner-musical characteristics of free jazz, jazz, thereby form the central scope of this which enable a clear differentiation to the
Cuadernos de Filosofía Vol 33, No. 106 / 2012 IMProVISATIoN AS LIBErATIoN: ENDEAVoUrS oF rESISTANCE IN FrEE JAZZ 41 superordinate category “jazz”, are presen- It seeks to generate bridges between musical ted. Since the improvisation is the central practices and social relations; bridges which, characteristic associated with free jazz, as at the outset, are not always evident, but will be shown below, the musicological and which are taking shape on closer examina- sociological reflections of the concept of tion. In doing so, it is less a matter of proving improvisation –which are most relevant for how effectively free jazz was in its explicit the task– will also be discussed. details for the efforts of emancipation. It will, more importantly, seek to identify how These implications form an essential basis for multifaceted the potentials of resistance are, the following chapter, which constitutes the which are being precipitated through impro- central part of the investigation. This chapter visational practices. will pose the article`s crucial question: if and if so, to what extent the improvisation In the concluding part of this article, the as a constitutive attribute of free jazz can knowledge gained from the first two chapters be associated with liberation and resistan- will be summarized; thereby, the possibilities ce movements. This intention is grounded of resistance expressed in free jazz will be in Alfred Schütz`s underlying principle, illustrated. The closing chapter will also deal whereby music has to be understood in a with eventual limitations of these rebellious meaning-context. This meaning-context is endeavours. The paper closes with some not bound to a semantic conceptual scheme; forethought concerning the future potentials nevertheless, it is based on a communication of improvised music. process (Schütz, 1972). Following these considerations, this exploration, on the one Improvisation as a key factor of free hand, asks which possibilities the non-verbal jazz and non-conceptual musical communication offers. The particular interest is how far the The development of free jazz in the 1960`s musical practices in free jazz are to be un- marks “the most radical break in the history derstood simultaneously as social practices, of jazz” (Jost, 1982: 170) and precipitates and to what extent attempts of insurgency a “musical revolution” (Baskerville, 1994: and emancipation are articulated through 492). Its emergence causes a “serious trans- the musical practices found in free jazz. On formation” in the progression of jazz, which the other hand, it will be highlighted to what hence lies in the fact that the musical modes extent these efforts are exceeding the musical of expression in free fazz are diametrically performance platform. opposed to those commonly being subsumed under jazz (Noglik, 1990: 267). The fo- For this proposition, a brief outline of the llowing inner musical specifics form the basis history of jazz remains indispensable; it is of free jazz (as opposed to “jazz”) (Charles & relevant, in particular for free jazz, that its Comolli, 1971: 220-250; Jost, 1982: 180-182; ground-breaking improvisation cannot be Sterneck, 1998; Stahl, 2004: 35): understood without referring to its lost prac- tices of communication, through music and • Renunciation of guidelines of the functio- community building in the African-American nal harmony and tonality. tradition (Charles & Comolli, 1971; Fischlin & Heble, 2004). The presentation of the ar- • Dissociation of a default basic rhythm. ticle, therefore, should be comprehended as a sociological analysis in a historical sense. • Breaking with traditional formal patterns.
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• Bridging of the divide between sound considered as an intellectually less valuable and noise. preliminary stage to the successful peak of the composition. Ferand’s observations the- The terms “renunciation”, “dissociation”, etc. reby reflect the spirit of ethnocentrism of the already suggest that free jazz is characterised time –prevalent in the tradition of “Western” –generalising expressed– by a move away art music–, whereby the “elaborate, rational” from established musical structures. Unlike composition has to be preferred to the “imma- the compositions of classical music, the va- ture, irrational” improvisation (Lothwesen, rious styles of popular music and the different 2009: 34; Kurt, 2009: 181-182). trends in the history of jazz, the free jazz doesn`t possess a predetermined song structu- Only in the last quarter of the previous cen- re. Instead, in free jazz it is generated through tury, a paradigm shift, which is matched to an the process of playing itself (Figueroa-Dre- egalitarian understanding of composition and her, 2010: 187-188). Where fixed structures improvisation, is gradually gaining ground. would normally exist, an “open form” enters, American Musicologist Bruno Nettl doesn`t which inevitably enables scope for improvi- conceive composition and improvisation as sation. Since all defined formal patterns are antagonism anymore, but rather, as the two dismantled, the improvisation can take place end-points of a continuum (Kurt, 2009: 182- over all musical parameters. Whether in me- 183); an approach which thereupon continues lody, harmony, tempo or rhythm –in almost to prevail in musicology. Improvisation and every musical genre–, predetermined musical composition, therefore, form the two extre- formalities are produced in free jazz, during mes of a broad “scale of possibilities”, which play (Figueroa-Dreher, 2010: 187). Due to is characterised through multitudinous “tran- the openness of all musical dimensions, in sitions and intermediate forms” (Dahlhaus, free jazz there exists positively unlimited 1979: 15). Typically, improvisation can be possibilities of improvisation, to which also distinguished from composition, as a different the term “free” points to which is where the handling of “time” being determined. Whilst name of the musical genre is derived from. at one end of the spectrum is the composition, The abandonment of traditional order patterns it is being abstracted in time, i.e., the musician go hand-in-hand with a free, “total improvisa- resides outside of it, and the focal point lies tion” (Noll, 1977: 3-4), which is unaffiliated in the past. At the other end of the spectrum to musical regulations. Hence, the essence of is the improvisation, where the present time free jazz lies in its improvisational principles. comes to the fore (Essl, 2004: 507-508; But how can free jazz`s constitutive impro- Lothwesen, 2009: 32-35). The action is de- visation be explained through music theory fined by the “here and now”. The sequence and action theory? proceeds in real time and therefore includes moments of the unexpected and unprepared In musicology, the concept of “improvisa- (Essl, 2004: 507-508; Kurt, 2009: 193-195). tion” has long been neglected. In 1938, Ernst The spontaneous, “in the moment” of playing Ferand is the first musicologist to look more that occurs in improvisation (which appears profoundly into the subject. Ferand identifies in free jazz as virtually the ideal trait), makes improvisation in opposition to the aestheti- it sociologically interesting, specifically from cally, more highly appreciated, composition. the perspective of actor-related action theory. This dualism can be traced back to a develo- pment theory principle underlying Ferand`s In contrast to classical action theories, whe- assumption, where improvisation has to be reupon individuals act upon conventional
Cuadernos de Filosofía Vol 33, No. 106 / 2012 IMProVISATIoN AS LIBErATIoN: ENDEAVoUrS oF rESISTANCE IN FrEE JAZZ 43 behaviour patterns and upon foreseeable rise to the “dialogical dynamic” (Figueroa- regularity; improvisation in free jazz, Dreher, 2010: 198), which is fundamental to however, does not need to be understood free jazz. Since in free jazz, no musical order as an implementation of preformed actions is developed in the first place; the processes (Figueroa-Dreher, 2010: 185-188). It is not of perpetual order are of decisive importance: teleological, i.e., not orientated to a specific the “mutual tuning-in” (Schütz, 1972: 149) task; whereby the means-end scheme, which happens during the playing time, in which usually explains actions in a logical sense, free jazz musicians refer its own material recedes (Lothwesen, 2009: 33). Free jazz relatively to those of the fellow musicians. improvisation isn`t devised in advance: the This reciprocal relationship is built through action takes place beyond the basis of deli- the two patterns of repetition and imitation neation of action and related action-directed (Figueroa-Dreher, 2010: 200). Repetitions conception. Rather, the improviser works and imitations tie in with a palpable action to under “real-time conditions” and is “bound to the other and thus establish a bond between the running time” (Lehmann, 2005: 923). The the musicians. actions of free jazz musicians are developing in an actual playing situation, which is uns- From an action-theoretical point of view, the cheduled, incomputable and unforeseeable reference to the material remains elementary (Figueroa-Dreher, 2010: 190). Hence, the in order to understand improvisation proce- musician has to manage the difficult task dures in free jazz. The material as an incor- of adjusting their musical activity within porated reservoir of ideas is recognised as the fractions of a second to those of the other prerequisite for the improvisation processes musicians (Figueroa-Dreher, 2010: 190). The which access it in real time (Figueroa-Dreher, individual action thus follows the progress 2010: 191-198). Of central significance of the jointly created music. During the to the musical material, within the action- playing process, numerous options of action theoretical interpretation of improvisational are offered to the musician; options whose practices arises, that spontaneous action choice is modified situation-specific. In this cannot take place without certain knowled- context, Stahl speaks of “perennial point of ge. Improvisations are by no means free of time decisions”, of which the improvisational precondition, but demand accordingly high practice in free jazz is composed (2004: 35). abilities (Berliner, 1994: 492)1. Without any acquired resources, an improviser can hardly With regard to its openness and multitude of resort to automatic operations, to dispose of its action possibilities, improvisation in free them in its adequacy to the specific situation, jazz can be interpreted by recourse to the to exert them “in the moment of inventing so-called “material” (Figueroa-Dreher, 2010: 187). Material is to be understood as an incor- porated sound repertoire, i.e., the musical and sensomotor skills, which the musicians have acquired over the years (Figueroa-Dreher, 1 Berliner notices: “The popular definitions of 2010: 189-189). To enable of improvisation improvisation that emphasize only its spon- taneous, intuitive nature –characterizing it as processes, the material plays a crucial role, as the ‘making of something out of the nothing’ it is adopted in the practical situation: the cha- – are astonishingly incomplete. This simplistic llenge of a free jazz musician lies in putting understanding of improvisation belies the dis- their own material in relation to those of the cipline and experience on which improvisation other participating musicians, in order to give depends, and it obscures the actual practices and processes that engage them” (1994: 492).
Cuadernos de Filosofía Latinoamericana / ISSN 0120-8462 / Vol. 33 / No. 106 / 2012 / pp. 39-51 44 THoMAS KoCHErHANS and playing”2 (Lothwesen, 2005: 35). Im- Improvisation in free jazz as provisation, therefore, presumes an assured expression of liberation knowledge and isn`t a creatio ex nihilo: “The improviser doesn`t construct his action spon- The emergence of free Jazz cannot be taneously out of nothing, but instead, creates explained without consideration of social it out of a repertoire of pre-composed action developments: the 1960’s in the USA are cha- patterns, which he spontaneously (according racterised by an increasing politicisation and to the specific situation) appliques, varies, radicalisation inside the African-American combines, modifies” (Kurt, 2009: 194-195). population (Jost, 1982: 171-176). The decade is marked by much civil unrest, which breaks As has been shown briefly, free jazz may be out as reaction to the racial discriminations defined through a series of characteristics, heavily present in American society. At this which allow its recognition as a clearly time, free jazz develops against a historical distinguishable musical genre. A common background which is shaped through an thread to all these features is their function “aggravating change of consciousness” in the of paving the way to the incidence of impro- African-American community (Jost, 1982: visation practices, which has been analysed 176-177). As the free jazz scene is largely from musicological and micro-sociological formed in the African-American community, perspectives. the social changes are inevitably reflected in the music. Its impacts become apparent, In the following part, it shall be demonstrated especially in view of the “psychosocial fra- in which way improvisatory actions can be mework” of the free jazz milieu (Jost, 1982: integrated into cultural, historical and dis- 176). The African-American emancipation cursive contexts. It explores the question: movement embraces the protagonists of free how free jazz, as improvised music, can be jazz and also aids and abets the advancement associated with forms of sociality and its of a new black self-conception. In order to sociocultural background. This intention re- understand the progression of free jazz, the- quires a parallel engagement with the history refore, an understanding of the ensemble of and genesis of jazz, in general, and free jazz, cultural, ideological and political struggles in particular. The musical peculiarities of free of the African-American community is es- jazz and action-theoretical foundations of sential, which is also evident in the analysis improvisation, as mentioned in this chapter, of the musical matter (Charles & Comolli, represent an indispensable starting point for 1971: 252-255). With regard to the musical the following exploration of the societal di- material, it is improvisation which reinforces mension of improvisational practices. the aspirations towards emancipation, by giving them an aesthetic dimension, as will be shown below. In order to understand, what exactly free jazz was proceeding to liberate, it is worth providing a brief insight into the history of jazz.
2 This observation applies not only with regard to jazz and music in general (Berliner, 1994: Since its emergence, jazz has always been 15-18; Figueroa-Dreher, 2010: 189-198; Kurt, characterised by racial antagonisms. Its story 2009: 193-197); but it can also be detected in is one of “a continued resistance towards a other fields, which are characterised through racially motivated strategy of planned usur- improvisatory actions (Guttandin, 1996: 61-62; pation” on behalf of the Caucasian dominated Sawyer, 2001: 7-71).
Cuadernos de Filosofía Vol 33, No. 106 / 2012 IMProVISATIoN AS LIBErATIoN: ENDEAVoUrS oF rESISTANCE IN FrEE JAZZ 45 music industry (Stahl, 2004: 32). Jazz counts ments that the white jazz critique has pointed as a created means of expression for the out for decades, which are specifically for discriminated African-American population, jazz, are now being softened, even purpo- which find themselves confronted with a sely negated, destroyed” (Stahl, 2004: 35). “system of an ideological and economic This softening and destruction of existing exploitation”, from which musicians are musical forms has to be interpreted against directly concerned (Stahl, 2004: 33-34). The the background of the described rejection music itself is usurped by the colonisation of of White values and, therefore, questions African-American achievements, wherefore not only a musical order, but challenges the the true origins of jazz are often being ne- cultural system (Stahl, 2004: 35). Behind glected by the privileged White population, the reluctance of the given musical order is which instead claims them for itself (Pohlert, a purposeful cultural approach: this “cultural 1988: 4-48). In light of this, in the 1920’s and strategy”, which uplifts the improvisation as 1930’s, the predominant Swing genre can be the fundamental maxim, “is an expression seen as paradigmatic: as a “metaphor of the of a ‘double process of affirmation and criti- machine world” (Stahl, 2004: 34). Swing cism’, i.e., the recollection of its own roots, represents a relentless subjugation to the whilst simultaneously deconstructing the arrangement; whereby the Blues roots, the White aesthetic directives” (Stahl, 2004: 35). freedoms of improvisation and the broken rhythms –all Black achievements of jazz have This improvisatory practice, as comes to light been eliminated–. Attempts to resist these in free jazz, therefore, isn`t only of central developments, find expression in the Bebop significance in a musical context. Its innova- genre, which occurs in the Mid 1940’s. As a tive impulse is obtained especially from the “first conscious remonstrance” against this socio-cultural context. It can be understood cultural misappropriation, Bebop activates by recourse on the emphasis of their own initial developmental pushes, which will later socio-cultural African-American identity. As culminate in free jazz (Stahl, 2004: 34). Be- an expression of the endeavours at becoming bop, therefore, can be seen as a precursor to autonomous, improvisation contributes to the free jazz, as it allows much more room for the articulation of the lost socio-cultural linkages creation of improvisation, compared to Swing of the Black community (Fischlin & Heble, (Pöhlert, 1988: 24-25; Stahl, 2004: 32-34). 2004: 7-8). Culturally connecting practices are hence immediately incorporated in the The ultimate, radical caesura in the progres- improvisational process. sion of Jazz, however, is provided by free jazz. Free jazz causes this, not only concer- Closely associated with this, improvisation ning the inner musical means of design, as has another impact, as it involves a lot of has been mentioned in the previous chapter, rebellious potential: improvisation proces- but also with regard to the “artistic and so- ses manifest and express social motives by cietal self-understanding” (Stahl, 2004: 35) pointing out resistance and promoting libe- of the jazz musicians. Free jazz musicians ration. Heble & Fischlin accentuate that in increasingly dissolve their assigned roles and a greater global context, a liberating aspect consider themselves now as representatives is underlying improvised music (2004: 2). of a counter-culture. Generally accepted Admittedly, the authors concede on their aesthetic regulations are removed in subito: theory and point out that not every type of “What happens in free jazz is musically and music based on improvisation correlates with cultural-theoretically subversive: those ele- anti-hegemonic resistance and/or alternative
Cuadernos de Filosofía Latinoamericana / ISSN 0120-8462 / Vol. 33 / No. 106 / 2012 / pp. 39-51 46 THoMAS KoCHErHANS forms of sociality33. With reference to As Belgrad points out: “In the most successful African-American “jazz-musickings”, i.e., improvisational art, the give-and-take of con- the meaning of performance and reproduc- versation functions as a model of democratic tion of music, however, a radical mode of interaction: ‘No single instrumentalist or improvisatory practice can be identified; in structure establishes absolute dominance.’” which “concepts of alternative community (1998: 2). “The free “give-and-take” reflects formation, social activism, rehistoricization a democratic, participatory form of musical of minority cultures, and critical modes of expression. The interdependency of this resistance and dialogue” (Heble & Fischlin, group improvisation is thus diametrically 2004: 2) are clearly evident. These revolting, opposed to the Western, orchestral-shaped rebellious energies are being exemplified musical tradition, as well as is apparent in in the improvisation processes in free jazz, Swing: in an orchestra, every single musician which express an ethnically motivated stra- is commanded to be under obedience to the tegy. Their intention is to gain emancipation musical arrangement, whereby his playful from the White guardianship of jazz. By use freedom is restricted (Belgrad, 1998: 2). The of improvisatory practice, this insurrection orchestra takes the composition as the guide- against established values and prevailing line which has to be unconditionally obeyed. social conventions is exercised, whereby It reproduces a social hierarchy, where at containing a socio-critical element (Heble & the top of it, stands the director, whose ideas Fischlin, 2004: 16-17). the musicians ultimately have to follow, as cogs in the wheel (Belgrad, 1998: 2). The In this perspective, improvised music has interactive togetherness, as it is demonstrated to be interpreted in relation to networks of in free jazz improvisation, is freed of such cultural and social practice, even though or power relations. The denegation of determi- rather, just because their forms of expression ned structures and hierarchical relationships are non-verbal, improvised music exposes an hence represent a specific, African-American intended liberation of the existing value sys- alternative, to the Western orchestral-shaped tem. The types of interaction instantaneously music (Belgrad, 1998: 184-185): the free brought out in the improvisatory practice, im- improvisation breaks with the musical or- plicate a form of resistance, whilst presenting dering structures accepted in Western music a refusal of preformed cultural norms (Heble and therefore emancipates itself from its & Fischlin, 2004: 8-11). The patterns of al- ruling system of values and norms which has ternative community formation are afforded equally penetrated jazz until the emergence special importance, as they are performed in of free jazz. The forms of sociality performed free jazz improvisation in real time: free jazz in free jazz, therefore, correlate with the ideal improvisation proceeds within the scope of of a freed society. de-centred interaction groups, in which the musicians are in an egalitarian relationship In the improvisatory practice, a reluctance to one another, so in principle all musicians towards prevailing conventions is made are soloists (Figueroa-Dreher, 2010: 200). manifest not only concerning the relation- ships of the musicians with each other, but also in regards to the relationship with their 3 As a point in case, the authors mention Indian instruments: free jazz dismisses the classi- music. In Indian music, the improvisation ope- cal division of roles of the instruments by rates by no means in opposition to the dominant adding completely new dimensions to the structure, it instead, is part of it (Fischlin & common functions of instruments: the pianist Heble, 2004: 2; Kurt, 2009: 38-42).
Cuadernos de Filosofía Vol 33, No. 106 / 2012 IMProVISATIoN AS LIBErATIoN: ENDEAVoUrS oF rESISTANCE IN FrEE JAZZ 47 henceforth can play the role of the rhythmic native mind-sets. Improvised music provides controller, which is usually reserved for the possibilities which are capable of breaking up drummer, as well as the drummer itself is conventional ways of thinking. Alternatives able to dissociate himself of the given ex- thereby exist as part of the social practice pectations of a drummer44. These blurring of during the musical playing: “improvisation boundaries between the different instruments (in theory and practice) challenges all musical are intentionally induced: the incentive of orthodoxies, all musical taxonomies, even free jazz musicians no longer lies in playing its own. As a fundamental site for confron- purely and cleanly, rather; alternative noises, tation with choices made in a social context, where “apparent aesthetics of ugliness” improvisation cannot but engage, animate (Stahl, 2004: 36), are conceded as equally and critique the social context it speaks to” accepted sounds. With the preconceived mu- (Fischlin & Heble, 2004: 31). The potential sical order –containing the standardisation of of the forms of expression underlying im- musical notes and sounds– it is being broken provised music, is shown to be associated by dividing the sound creation of its nominal with critical, radical and aesthetic practices notation: “In contrast to this standardised mo- of the community which it engages. The ment of playing technique, free jazz improvi- elucidated improvisatory practices, which sation consists of accepting unconventionally are targeted on deconstructing the prevalent generated sounds, ‘mistakes’, ‘discords’, aesthetic designations, can be traced back to ‘noises’ etc. and of integrating all of those cultural endeavours of autonomy on behalf into the sound repertoire of the musicians” of the African-American free jazz musicians (Figueroa-Dreher, 2010: 192). (Fischlin & Heble, 2004: 31).
Since improvised music confronts this stan- Free jazz musicians have attempted to spread dardisation, it ceases to adhere to the given their ideal of an opening towards a free, conventions and therewith deconstructs independent expression, as demonstrated undisputed norms: free jazz improvisation in the musical practice, beyond the musical is characterised by a permanent “calling- stage: due to the establishment of autono- everything-into-question”, which thwarts mous, on communality based performance the current musical thought patterns: from conceptions, free jazz has been able to break the structure of a musical piece, to its arran- away from the ruling culture industry`s gement, to the point of the musical notation. rigidity. In this sense, free jazz could get rid Through the effort of defying dominant of a “deadlocked institutional organisation” concepts of thinking, something new is ge- (Polaschegg, 2007: 247) in the jazz scene and nerated, whereby options to the existing are has succeeded in, at least partially, building exposed. As a “powerful counter-indication up an autonomous counter-culture (Jost, to orthodoxies of expression” (Fischlin & He- 1982: 209-226; Sterneck, 1998: 170-182). ble, 2004: 9), improvised music hence brings This partial success points to the fact that the “ideologically inadmissible possibilities into liberating energy in free jazz has not been awareness” (Belgrad, 1998: 9). Through the decidedly politically oriented: even though resistance towards these “orthodoxies of the musical material has occasionally been expression”, improvised music induces alter- politically charged55, free jazz, as a widely
4 Even the categorisation of what has to be coun- 5 On the one hand, the fractional discussion and ted as an “instrument”, is driven ad absurdum: denunciation of social and racial injustice has also table tennis balls, balloons, etc. are used to be mentioned. On the other hand, as Charlie as sound generators. Haden demonstrated, political articulation was
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“non-representational music” (Jost, 1982: this, Fischlin & Heble speak of a “disruptive 189), has scarcely been in a position to carry potential”, which is underlying improvised subversive content (Stahl, 2004: 35): the music: “Improvisation`s disruptive potential emancipatory currents in free jazz, therefore, [has been] powerfully exemplified in the reflect “no political actions in a more narrow history and practice of African-American sense, but are rather to be comprehended as musicking, that has so shaped the form and a liberation of certain socio-cultural aspects content of improvisational and free jazz” in the way of life” (Polaschegg, 2007: 250). (2004: 35-36).
In this vein, Belgrad also argues that impro- In free jazz, alternatives are performed as visation practices in free jazz can be seen as part of the social practice: improvised music a reflection of a wider social background, provides social possibilities, which are able in the whole art of the post-World War Two to crack the conventional modes of thought. era. The impulse to enhance spontaneous im- Improvisation, therefore, runs “against or- provisation, “runs like a long thread through thodoxies of the imagination (knowledge)”, the cultural fabric of the period” (Belgrad, against determined “relations with others 1998: 1). Belgrad notices “the existence of (community)” and against habitual “relations a coherent aesthetic of spontaneity”, whose to the materials of the world around us (ins- social significance has to be understood as a truments)” (Fischlin & Heble, 2004: 11). As critical part of cultural achievement (1998: musical practices can be seen as social prac- 1). This aesthetic practice as a “spontaneous tices, it is this covert force which allows free gesture as a sign of the times”, forms itself in jazz, to encounter the conventional system a series of activities “engaged in the struggle of values in an elegant, intellectual and pro- over meanings and values within American vocative manner. In this respect, free jazz`s society” (Belgrad, 1998: 1), whose strongest socio-critical and permanently revolutionary influence is manifested in the counter-culture moment cannot be denied. of the 1960s. This “aesthetic of spontaneity”, in which free jazz can be paradigmatically Conclusion integrated, is not decisively politically orien- tated, the struggle over social influence goes The improvisation processes which are beyond political channels (Belgrad, 1998: constitutive for free jazz can be impressively 15, 191-195). As an expression of disdain visualised by recourse to socio-historical and towards cultural constriction, endeavours cultural implications. Improvisatory practi- of emancipation rather proceed on a more ces in free jazz can only be registered in its general societal level. The resistance is being entirety, if one takes into account the social shown in an ideologically counter-hegemonic developments, which reflect and create them. value alignment, which is opposed to the do- In free jazz improvisation, there is a necessity minant social structure: the driving force lies to show its connection to the critical, radical in inspiring restricted potentials and in offe- and aesthetical practices of the community ring alternatives to the traditional. In light of in which they occur. Improvisation within African-American musical forms, as exem- plified in free jazz, stands within a relation- possible through an inter-textual revolt refer- ring to labour dispute songs. In a vast absence ship to a social practice in which common of song lyrics, however, the contextualisation commitment and resistance is manifested. is mainly carried out extra-musically, i.e., The endeavours of resistance performed in through liner-notes, song titles or statements free jazz can be located on a socio-cultural in interviews (Stahl, 2004: 33-38).
Cuadernos de Filosofía Vol 33, No. 106 / 2012 IMProVISATIoN AS LIBErATIoN: ENDEAVoUrS oF rESISTANCE IN FrEE JAZZ 49 level. Improvisation as a cultural expression Improvisation hence generates a sensitising follows an ethnically motivated strategy of alternative listening and thinking patterns. which aims at liberation of musically and That these alternative modes have to be re- socially imposed bondage, norms and pre- cognized, not only by the musicians, but also valent conventions. by the listeners, seems plausible (Reason, 2004: 81-83). With regard to free jazz, it The emancipation of predefined value pat- is precisely where a fundamental flaw lies, terns is manifested in the way that alternatives which is difficult to overcome. are being offered as part of the social practice. This can be seen in the relationship between As mentioned in the first chapter, improvi- the musicians amongst themselves, as well sation in free jazz demands strong artistic as in regards to their relationship with the ability, which impedes the access to a wider used instruments. Musical practices, in which audience. Indisputably, the understanding of improvisation is a defining characteristic, free jazz improvisation presupposes “already are, at the same time, social practices which a culturally privileged knowledge, a sensiti- demonstrate visualisation of possibilities. vity for abstraction processes, which is well Commonly accepted role models, hence, are grounded in high culture” (Büsser, 1997: 91). rejected in real time and alternatives to it are According to Bourdieu, the recognition of the being offered in the playing situation itself. potential which is immediately shown in the improvisatory exercise, requires an artistic Closely associated is a rebuttal of dominant education: “A work of art has meaning and standardised conceptions of aesthetics. The interest only for someone who possesses the musical material of free jazz thus remains cultural competence, that is, the code, into untouched by culture-industrial utilisation. which it is encoded” (Bourdieu, 1984: 2). To Improvised music, therefore, possesses a make this cultural competence accessible to a rebellious energy that is exceedingly effec- wide audience is a target which is a difficult tive: since exempting itself from a logic of target to reach. Free jazz has always been mass-produced reclamation; improvised opposed to a mass cultural reception. As Stahl music concurrently preserves its authenticity: rightly states: “Its reception [those of free “though largely silent in terms of its broader jazz] has never exceeded a narrow, bourgeois- recognition by mass culture, improvised mu- avant-garde circle of connoisseurs” (2004: sic locates some of the social energies most 37). The exclusive, or even elitist image of articulate in sustaining both its originality and free jazz being only “music for musicians”, its capacity to remain un-co-opted” (Fischlin without being able to achieve another level & Heble, 2004: 5). of effectiveness, still hangs over it as a mu- sical genre. In spite of the explosive ability to highlight contradictions, and in face of the potential The key to solving this problem of a limited which improvised music reveals, as a me- target audience and to make the potential dium for articulation, it reaches limitations: of improvised music more manifest, would “Free improvisation demands that the listener probably lie herein: to make the listening and acknowledge all the possibilities [emphasis thinking patterns receptive for alternative and mine] of modern music denied by a hierar- experimental means of expression in society chical, commodity-based, fool-the-punter as a whole (Gulda, 1971: 42-47): “A liberated system” (Watson, 2004: 4). musical understanding presupposes a certain comprehension, to become aware of noises
Cuadernos de Filosofía Latinoamericana / ISSN 0120-8462 / Vol. 33 / No. 106 / 2012 / pp. 39-51 50 THoMAS KoCHErHANS and sounds in its diversities” (Sterneck, Berliner, P. (1994). Thinking in Jazz. The 1998: 285). Infinite Art of Improvisation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Improvisation is diametrically opposed to a western-mediated, rationality based percep- Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction. A Social tion of music and image of society (Kaden, Critique of the Judgement of Taste. 1993: 47-63): “For the Westerner entirely Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard standing outside of the norm; improvisation University Press. doesn`t fit into their own culture and narrative Büsser, M. (1997). Schwerter zu Kul- history” (Kaden, 1993: 47). In improvised turwaren. In Behrens, R. et al. (Eds.) music, lies the social energy to oppose Testcard. Beiträge zur Popgeschichte # prevailing forms of production, which are 5: Kulturindustrie, Kompaktes Wissen geared towards rationalisation, uniformity für den Dancefloor. Mainz: Ventil Verlag. and standardisation: “The social force of im- provised music resides [...] in its capacity to Charles, P. & Comolli, J. L. (1971). Free disrupt institutionally sanctioned economies Jazz, Black Power. Paris: Éditions Champ of production, to trouble the assumptions Libre. fostered by dominant systems of knowledge production“ (Fischlin & Heble, 2004: 22). Dahlhaus, C. (1979). Was heisst Improvi- sation? In Reinhold Brinkmann (Ed.) Improvised music hence represents an oppor- Improvisation und neue Musik. Mainz: tunity to facilitate non-conformist thinking, Schott. be it musically, theoretically or socially. If it does succeed in conveying an attitude which Essl, K. (2004). Improvisation über ‘Im- demands challenging the persisting order, provisation’. Jack Hauser im Gespräch improvised music presumably is able to offer mit Karlheinz Essl. In Schweiger, D. et alternatives to present systems of control and al. (Eds.) Musik-Wissenschaft an ihren subordination, in music as well as in society. Grenzen. Manfred Angerer zum 50. Ge- A liberated sort of thinking and musical un- burtstag. Frankfurt a. M.: Peter Lang. derstanding would discourage society from Figueroa-Dreher, S.K. (2010). Abstim- affirmatively consuming musical and cultural mungsprozesse im Free-Jazz. Ein Modell phenomena, but instead would embrace all des Ordnens. In Böhle, F. & Weihrich, of its possibilities of open, undogmatic and M. (Eds.) Die Körperlichkeit sozialen creative meanings of expression. Handelns. Soziale ordnung jenseits von Normen und Institutionen. Bielefeld: Bibliography Transcript.
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