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All Is Fair in War---Violent Conflict and the Securitization of Rape Sabine Hirschauer Old Dominion University

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All Is Fair in War---Violent Conflict and the Securitization of Rape Sabine Hirschauer Old Dominion University Old Dominion University ODU Digital Commons Graduate Program in International Studies Theses & Graduate Program in International Studies Dissertations Summer 2012 All Is Fair in War---Violent Conflict and the Securitization of Rape Sabine Hirschauer Old Dominion University Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/gpis_etds Part of the International Relations Commons Recommended Citation Hirschauer, Sabine. "All Is Fair in War---Violent Conflict and the Securitization of Rape" (2012). Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), dissertation, International Studies, Old Dominion University, DOI: 10.25777/4k3k-pd48 https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/gpis_etds/55 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Program in International Studies at ODU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Program in International Studies Theses & Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ODU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. ALL IS FAIR IN WAR - VIOLENT CONFLICT AND THE SECURITIZATION OF RAPE by Sabine Hirschauer B.A. May 2002, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill M.A. May 2009, Old Dominion University A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Old Dominion University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY INTERNATIONAL STUDIES OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY August 2012 Approved by: Regiira Karp (Director) em ifer Fish (Member) rancis Adams (Member) ABSTRACT ALL IS FAIR IN WAR - VIOLENT CONFLICT AND THE SECURITIZATION OF RAPE Sabine Hirschauer Old Dominion University, 2012 Director: Dr. Regina Karp Systematic mass rape during conflict has for centuries met with global ignorance and political complacency despite its atrocious character. The conflicts in Bosnia and Rwanda in the 1990s altered the silence surrounding this long tolerated, dark underbelly of war. Applying Barry Buzan's and Ole Waever's Securitization Theory to the cases of Bosnia and Rwanda, this dissertation finds that rape during both wars was successfully securitized. Securitization Theory as a model and indicator of an effective shifting of rape from an apolitical or political perspective into the security realm was appropriate. Bosnia initiated the first convictions of rape as a crime against humanity. The Tribunal of Rwanda for the first time prosecuted rape as a distinct feature of genocide. Bosnia and Rwanda, however, also represent pivotal turning points, which not only caused this securitization - but appear to demand the continued securitization of rape lest it returns to the margins of politics. Through the speech act, the theory's key identifying mechanism, this dissertation traces specific rhetorical markers, which throughout the interplay of a multitude of actors (institutions; non-governmental organizations; states; media) securitized rape during both conflicts - and beyond. In 1998, the Rome Statute not only established the International Criminal Court but, similar to the tribunals in Bosnia and Rwanda, defined rape as a war crime. In 2000 and in 2009 the U.N. Security Council passed landmark resolutions, underscoring for the first time the inherent link between systematic rape, war and global security. The successful securitization of rape, however, also introduces wide-ranging complexities - due to the uniquely distinct character of rape. This dissertation articulates these complexities and explores a research agenda that addresses the incentives and disincentives for the continued securitization of rape in violent conflict. For my family, in particular for my two mothers - Agnes Hirschauer and Luitgard Dietrich, and for all the good people in my life, who made this and everything possible. vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my committee chair Dr. Regina Karp and my committee members Dr. Jennifer Fish and Dr. Francis Adams for their endless patience, kindness and professional guidance in helping me to see this dissertation - and in particular this subject matter - through. Most importantly, this project would not have become a reality without Dr. Karp's persistence and constant encouragements. Her dedication to the project and subject matter, her focused guidance and belief in excellence transformed this dissertation from vagueness into reality, from an abstract and unfocused idea and passion into an academic product. Dr. Karp's vision for this dissertation was an unwavering source of strength and her mentorship an invaluable resource throughout the process. And for this, and much much more, I would like to thank Dr. Karp from the bottom of my heart. I also would like to thank Dr. Jennifer Fish for the many fortunes that have come my way ever since she took me in the summer of 2010 to the African continent. I would like to thank Dr. Fish for opening and expanding my universe to a new dimension and to a new human narrative: to people who have suffered so much, yet despite, or because of it, have never given up to hope ever so voraciously. And for this, and much much more, I would like to thank Dr. Fish from the bottom of my heart. And last, but never least, I would like to thank Dr. Adams for his always kind yet challenging comments and his ever so helpful bits and pieces of academic (and life's) wisdom to better and fine-tune this dissertation. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. RAPE - A MATTER OF HISTORY 24 A. WOMEN AND CHILDREN - THE CONVENIENT SPOILS OF WAR 25 B. THE RULES OF RAPE 29 C. MODERN WARTIME RAPE AND PROPAGANDA 32 D. RAPE AS AN INVISIBLE WEAPON OF WAR 36 E. WAR AND RAPE TODAY 43 III. SECURITIZATION THEORY - A MATTER OF WORDS 47 A. WHAT IS SECURITIZATION? 47 B. SECURITIZATION AND ITS CURRENT APPLICATION 63 C. SECURITIZATION AND OTHER CONCEPTS AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS 71 D. SECURITIZATION AND RAPE 86 E. SECURITIZATION AND ITS CRITICS 91 IV. SECURITIZATION OF RAPE - THE APPLICATION: CASE STUDY I BOSNIA 99 A. INTRODUCTION 99 B. THE CONFLICT 102 C. THE CASE STUDY 104 D. SPEAKING OF RAPE:SECURITIZATION THROUGH THE SPEECH ACT 108 E. SECURITIZATION THROUGH AUDIENCE DEPLOYMENT OF EXTRAORDINARY MEASURERS 145 F. CONCLUSION 149 V. SECURITIZATION OF RAPE - THE APPLICATION: CASE STUDY II RWANDA 152 A. INTRODUCTION 152 B. THE CONFLICT 155 C. THE CASE STUDY 157 D. SPEAKING OF RAPE: SECURITIZATION THROUGH THE SPEECH ACT 160 E. SECURITIZATION THROUGH AUDIENCE DEPLOYMENT OF EXTRAORDINARY MEASURERS 182 F. CONCLUSION 198 viii VI. ANALYSIS/CONCLUSION: RAPE - A MATTER OF HUMANITY 201 A. SUCCESSFUL SECURITIZATION 204 B. WHAT LIES AHEAD: DE-SECURITIZATION AND THE FUTURE OF THE SECURITIZATION OF RAPE 213 C. WHAT LIES AHEAD: THE NUMBER PROBLEM 216 D. WHAT LIES AHEAD: A MATTER OF JUSTICE 219 E. WHAT LIES AHEAD: CHILDREN OF BAD MEMORIES AND HIV/AIDS 230 F. WHAT LIES AHEAD: MAINSTREAMING GENDER 237 G. CONCLUSION: ALL IS FAIR IN WAR? 244 BIBLIOGRAPHY 248 VITA 270 ix LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. ACTOR AND AUDIENCE MATRIX BOSNIA I 107 2. ACTOR AND AUDIENCE MATRIX BOSNIA II 149 3. ACTOR AND AUDIENCE MATRIX RWANDA 1 159 4. ACTOR AND AUDIENCE MATRIX RWANDA II 198 X LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. CABLE MESSAGE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE 175 2. ACTION MEMORANDUM MOOSE 176 3. ICTR CASE DATABASE 1998 TO 2010 189 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION During the dreadful early days of the Rwandan rainy season in April 1994, when rain came down in sheets in the heart of Africa, when water clumps turned the red earth into unforgiving mud, a pregnant woman named Monique and her six-year-old daughter escaped the mass slaughter - just to fall victim to a different kind of death: rape, a death known to last a lifetime. The Interahamwe, a notorious Rwandan militia group, raped the pregnant mother and her young daughter. Repeatedly.1 During the fastest genocide in modern history, somewhere another woman, named Donatilla, was sexually mutilated with rusty scissors,2 then raped, over and over again, then left crippled. The Interahamwe thought her to be dead because one cannot survive such un-survivable suffering and pain. The perpetrators, including a journalist were later charged with rape utilized has a tool of genocide and convicted in an unprecedented international ruling. During these haunting 100 days an estimated 250,000 to 500,000 Rwandan women were systematically raped, sexually abused, tortured and mutilated. And many of them gruesomely killed only after already enduring the most atrocious terror. When it comes to the failure of humanity, there are many stories to be told. Most of them are shameful, dire, gruesome and ghastly accounts of the darkest corners of our collective souls as an international community. 1 Coomaraswamy, Radhika, Special Rapporteur 1999, 8. 2 Ibid., 8. 2 Bosnia 1992: Hotels, barracks and abandoned sheds turned into rape camps. Screams and wails lingering in the air, coming from a police station. Mothers and sisters, daughters and children systematically raped. Bosnian Muslim women chanting Serbian war songs, gone mad, after being beaten and raped. For days. Rwanda 1994: Street blockades used as temporary detention areas. Human placeholders on the crossroads between life and death. Women weighed how valuable they were. How a woman could pay for her life. Then "the guards as a group or the leader among them decided whether the person was to be killed on the spot, raped, kept for sex service or future execution, or perhaps released."3 A nun "battered to death with a hammer."4 Women forced to bury their husbands before being raped and mutilated, then ordered to "walk naked like a group of cattle for miles to Kabgayi."5 All is fair in war. When it comes to the failure of humanity, there are many stories to be told. Most of them are of the deepest disregard for human life, the complete abandonment of a moral compass, testimonies of the most barbaric atrocities committed by people to people.
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