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The Conceptual Development of the Caliphate..112 Conceptual Development of the Umma Durham E-Theses Understanding the Umma as an Islamic Global Society WIDHIYOGA, GANJAR How to cite: WIDHIYOGA, GANJAR (2017) Understanding the Umma as an Islamic Global Society , Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/12215/ Use policy This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-commercial No Derivatives 3.0 (CC BY-NC-ND) Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk Understanding the Umma as an Islamic “Global” Society Ganjar Widhiyoga Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD School of Government and International Affairs Durham University 2017 Understanding the Umma as an Islamic “Global” Society Ganjar Widhiyoga Abstract Traditionally the concept of society was in practice bound by state or tribal boundaries. However, the aspiration to move beyond the boundaries and establish a global society has been present in mankind’s history. Roland Robertson calls this kind of aspiration “global consciousness”. One such aspiration can be found in Islam. Islam encourages the believers to spread the religion and establish a global society, which in Islamic vocabulary is called the umma . In this thesis, I seek to explore how early Islamic society developed global consciousness and how the concept of the umma developed in relation to the concept of global consciousness and to the concept and historical formation of a global society. I argue that the early Islamic society developed global consciousness through reflecting the spiritual teaching of Islam and through several networks. In order to trace the development of global consciousness in early Islamic society, I follow Clifford Geertz’s assertion that religion is a cultural system and discuss how basic doctrines and religious rituals in Islam cultivate the development of global consciousness in the minds of the believers. Subsequently, in order to understand the global characteristics of the umma, I observe the historical development of several instruments fundamental to the emergence of translocal networks in the Muslim world, namely the intellectual networks of Muslim scholars, the caliphates, and Sufi brotherhoods. The presence of networks of intellectuals, integration under the caliphates, and the spreading Sufi brotherhoods are invoked as indicators that the umma was a social reality and had the characteristics of translocal society. Yet, while the aspiration to establish a global society is strong within Muslim society, I argue that historical data show that the umma is a translocal, rather than a global, society. i Table of Content Abstract..............................................................................................i Table of Content ...............................................................................ii List of Figures ...................................................................................v List of Maps......................................................................................vi Declaration......................................................................................vii Statement of Copyright .................................................................viii Acknowledgements ..........................................................................ix Dedication..........................................................................................x Introduction ......................................................................................1 Background ..................................................................................................... 1 Research Questions.......................................................................................... 3 Hypotheses ...................................................................................................... 3 Research Significance...................................................................................... 3 Research Approach.......................................................................................... 4 Chapter One: Global Consciousness and the Formation of Global Society................................................................................................8 Global consciousness....................................................................................... 8 Transference of Idea ...................................................................................... 12 Global Society in International Relations ....................................................... 17 Study of World System Theory.................................................................. 17 Cosmopolitanism ....................................................................................... 19 English School........................................................................................... 21 John Burton’s World Society ................................................................. 21 Martin Wight’s System of States............................................................ 22 Hedley Bull’s Anarchical Society........................................................... 24 Barry Buzan’s idea of Global Society..................................................... 26 Conceptualising “Global Society”.................................................................. 31 Chapter Two: Towards the Development of Islamic Global Consciousness..................................................................................34 Near East in Late Antiquity............................................................................ 35 The universal empires ................................................................................ 35 ii Arabia and the Arabs’ identity ................................................................... 40 Global and parochial consciousness in Arabia............................................ 44 Message and Rituals ...................................................................................... 48 The role of Qur’an and hadith as references ............................................... 50 Tawhid ....................................................................................................... 53 Rahmatan lil ‘alamin ................................................................................. 57 Hijra .......................................................................................................... 63 Hajj ........................................................................................................... 68 The Hajj Ritual ...................................................................................... 69 On “Islamic” global consciousness ................................................................ 71 Prevalence of the spirit of Islam in the society............................................ 74 Instrumentalisation of piety........................................................................ 78 From Islamic Global Consciousness to Islamic Global Society?..................... 80 Chapter Three: Intellectual Networks and the Integration of the Umma ...............................................................................................83 Intellectuals and Global Society..................................................................... 84 The Importance of Intellectuals.................................................................. 84 Theory of Intellectual Chains ..................................................................... 88 Characteristics of the Islamic intellectual world ............................................. 91 The Schools of Thought ( madhhabs ) ............................................................. 96 Intellectual Networks and the Integration of the Umma .................................100 Expanding the network: the Case of Islam in Africa..................................102 Connecting the “Periphery” to the “Centre”: the Case of Islam in Indonesia .................................................................................................................106 Intellectual chains as framework for integration............................................110 Chapter Four: The Conceptual Development of the Caliphate..112 Conceptual development of the umma ...........................................................114 The umma in Medina ................................................................................114 The question of authority and the birth of the caliphate .................................118 Theoretical foundation on the caliphate: Al-Mawardi’s Ordinances...........121 Later developments: contestation of authorities.........................................128 Conceptual development after the destruction of Baghdad ........................132 “Alternative” Interpretation: Shi’a’s interpretation of the umma ....................139 “Alternative” history and the birth of the Shi’a Imamate ...........................139 Contending interpretations: divisions within the Shi’a...............................144 Reflection on the conceptual development of the umma ................................147 Chapter Five: The Integration of the Umma under the Caliphates ........................................................................................................151 Integration under the Khulafa al-Rashidun....................................................153 Integration under the Umayyads ...................................................................156
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