WSJ Vol. XXIX No. 3

2020 ISSN 1015-5589 Vol. XXIX No. 3 World Safety Journal

. Risk of Consuming Aluminium in Barbeque Cat-fish

Prepared with Aluminium Foil

. Working in Heat: A Review of National and International

Policies in the Construction Industry . Development of an Airline Cabin Crew Pre-Task Hazard

Edition WSO’s Certification Program is

Assessment Tool accredited in compliance with . An Abridged History of Anthropometry ISO/IEC 17024:2012 . Planned Intervention of Behaviour-Based Safety (BBS) Helps organisations Improve their Safety Time Arithmetic 1

In This . Physical ergonomic issues in the mining industry . New Employees Accident and Injury Rates in Australia

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Table of Contents Pages

Working in Heat: A Review of National and International Management Policies in the Construction Industry

Dylan Ferrier ...... 1– 8 WSJ Editor Development of an Airline Cabin Crew Pre-Task Hazard Assessment Nerise Garner, Allison Hutton & Dr. Karen Klockner ...... 9–20 Dr. Janis K. Jansz Curtin University Risk of Consuming Aluminium in Barbeque Director of the WSO National Office Cat-fish Prepared with Aluminium Foil for Australia Ikpesu Jasper Ejovwokoghenea & Umuero Oghenefejiro Philipa ...... 21–26

An Abridged History of Anthropometry Jason Jenkin ...... 27–33

WSJ Editorial Board Planned Intervention of Behaviour-Based Safety (BBS) Helps Organisations Improve their Safety Time Arithmetic Zahra Etemadi Dr. Harbans Lal Kaila ...... 34–41 Curtin University Western Australia Physical ergonomic issues in the mining industry Nicole Hammond ...... 42–47 Jerel Harris New Employees Accident and Injury Rates in Australia Georgia Institute of Technolog.y Anna McGowan, Dr. Karen Klockner & Dr. Yvonne Toft ...... 48–59 USA

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Working in Heat: A Review of National and International Management Policies in the Construction Industry

Dylan Ferrier. Bachelor of Science (Health, Safety and Environment) at Curtin University, Australia. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Construction workers are particularly vulnerable to the consequences of heat stress due to the nature of work undertaken. With climate change set to increase the prevalence of heat-related illnesses in Australia, action is needed to reduce this burden. This article reviews published literature and government publications to gain an insight into international heat stress management policy and industry practice. Recommendations to improve health and safety policy for construction workers in Australia are given based upon analyse from international findings.

Key words: Australia. Heat Stress. Construction Industry. Occupational Health and Safety. Risk Control. Policy.

Introduction Working in heat is an occupational health influenced by behavioural and and safety risk, with heat stress widely physiological factors, including gender, recognised as an occupational hazard physical fitness, age, use of alcohol or pertaining to environmental ergonomics drugs, hydration status and a range of (Dianat et al., 2016; Safe Work Australia, medical conditions (Yi & Chan, 2015). 2017). Heat stress occurs when intensive Implementing heat stress protective physical work in an environment of high measures offers numerous benefits such as heat exposure coupled with inadequate an improved sense of wellbeing, improved rehydration results in the body not being worker productivity, and a decreased rate of able to cool itself, causing core body workplace injuries and accidents temperature to rise beyond 37°C (Mazlomi (Rowlinson et al., 2014; Yi & Chan, 2015). et al., 2016; Nunfam et al, 2018). This rise in body temperature provokes heat strain, a Workers in the construction industry are physiological response intended to particularly susceptible to heat stress maintain thermal equilibrium, which when because of the highly demanding, strenuous overwhelmed can lead to illnesses such as physical nature of work, coupled with heat cramps, heat rash, heat exhaustion and prolonged exposure to direct sunlight heat stroke, which can be fatal (Rowlinson (radiant heat) and in some countries in hot et al., 2014; Spector et al., 2016). These and humid working conditions (Spector et aforementioned heat-related illnesses al., 2016; Varghese et al., 2018; Yang & impact worker performance and Chan, 2017; Yi & Chan, 2017). Workers in productivity and can lead to hospitalisation the construction industry are second only to (Spector et al., 2016). agricultural workers as groups of workers most likely to be affected by climatic heat Rowlinson et al. (2014) identifies six key stress (Baizhan & Andrew, 2018). Further, factors that impact heat stress, these are: air heat exposure and stress induces other temperature, radiant heat, wind speed, the construction site injuries through mental metabolic heat generated through physical impairment, personal protective equipment activity, humidity, and the ‘clothing effect’ (PPE) misuse, and physical fatigue that moderates heat exchange between the (Mazlomi et al., 2016; Rowlinson et al., environment and the body. The heat strain 2014). experienced by a worker can also bee 1 By 2030 globally, roughly 1 million work guidelines in countries which are life-years are expected to be lost as a direct profoundly affected by heat stress and result of occupational related heat stroke cover the climatic conditions experienced fatalities, with reduced productivity by, or are likely to be experienced by in the resulting in the loss of 70 million work life- future, workers in Australia. years (Flouris et al., 2017). Between 2011 Tropical/humid (Hong Kong and India), and 2014 in the U.S, environmental heat arid/desert (Saudi Arabia), and temperate exposure was responsible for close to (USA). This review aimed to investigate 14,000 non-fatal work injuries involving heat stress management in the construction lost days of work and 144 worker deaths industry from the above-mentioned (Varghese et al., 2018). Comparably, a countries, and make recommendations to study conducted by Xiang et al. (2013) in improve Australian regulations and Adelaide, South Australia, found that industry guidelines based on international occupational injuries are statistically more best practice. likely to occur in hot conditions resulting from workers suffering impaired Methodology concentration and mental judgment, with To investigate the effects of heat stress in there being an increased risk for injuries construction work, factors that contribute to arising from slips, trips and falls, and it and risk control measures around the contact with objects and equipment. world an initial search was conducted using Keeping to Australia, an annual labour Curtin University’s Library Catalogue, productivity loss of AU$6 billion is Science Direct and PubMed databases. A attributed to the consequences of heat stress search using the Science Direct database (Jia et al., 2019). with the keywords ‘heat stress’ and ‘construction’ provided 113,199 results. In response to the negative health outcomes The search was then refined to display peer- and productivity loss arising from reviewed research and review articles occupational heat stress, international published between 2010 and 2020 that agencies formulated standards that yielded 45,446 results. A second search postulate the upper safe limits of heat conducted using the Curtin University’s exposure. The International Organization Library Catalogue with the same search for Standardization developed the WetBulb criterion provided 63,026 results. A final Globe Temperature (WBGT) in 1982 as a article search conducted using the PubMed universal standard for safe heat exposure, as database with the same search criterion it accounts for solar radiation, air yielded 40 results. Further search was temperature, wind speed, humidity, and conducted using Google with the keywords their combined effects (Nerbass et al., ‘construction heat stress’ and ‘work health 2017). Strategies for working in the heat are and safety’ which returned 80,700,000 mentioned in guidelines and the regulations results. Results from credible international of different countries such as Australia, and Australian agencies such as Safe Work U.S, U.K, Hong Kong, Japan and other Australia, the National Institute for developed economies. With there being few Occupational Safety and Health, and the or no specific regulations in developing Hong Kong Construction Industry Council countries (Varghese et al., 2018). In spite of have been included in this literature review. a general ‘duty of care’ found in legislation, From the searches conducted, 31 articles the hazard of working in heat is not were reviewed that considered heat stress specifically tackled. As a result, less and the construction industry. Articles that diligent employers may be more likely to be did not have a direct link to occupational non-compliant with guidelines and heat stress and that appeared in all 3 regulations for varying reasons (Safe Work database searches were excluded. Three Australia, 2019; Varghese et al., 2018). papers were obtained through snowballing search. A total of 23 articles, one piece of With climate change expected to increase model legislation, and three publications temperatures and humidity in Australia from government sources are cited in this (Carter et al., 2020), it is paramount to review. review policies and construction industry 2 Discussion measures in an Australian cross-sectional Several countries have varying similarities survey of Occupational Hygienists by in policies and industry guidelines on the Xiang et al. (2015) suggests there is a management of heat stress for the necessity for further development of current construction industry, yet there are unique heat management policies in the Australian differences between them that can help workplace. With a measurable increase in improve policy and industry best practice in temperature expected across Australia, Australia. policy update should be aimed at long-term hardy heat stress policies that are specific to What are the recommendations in occupations most likely to be affected by Australia? such increases, such as the construction No laws explicitly concerning to work in industry (Carter et al., 2020). hot weather were located among Australian Work Health and Safety (WHS) legislation. Saudi Arabia However, WHS legislation requires that Excessive heat exposure poses major risks employers ensure, so far as is reasonably to hot-climate construction workers. With practicable, that workers are protected Saudi Arabia being one of the hottest against hazards arising in the workplace countries in the world, the country has that may cause harm to their health or unique heat stress policies that are not seen safety. In state and territory regulations in Australia (Al-Bouwarthan et al., 2019; (other than the state of Victoria), it is Safe Work Australia, 2017). In Saudi specified that these hazards include the Arabia, the WBGT value measured during extremes of temperature, such as extreme outdoor construction work frequently heat (McInnes et al., 2016; Xian et al., exceeds, by high percentages, the American 2015). Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) Threshold Limit All state and territorial regulators have Value, indicating a high level of heat stress resources and information that can be is present during both heavy and moderate accessed via their websites, offering workloads (Al-Bouwarthan et al., 2019). In guidance on working in extreme response to the hazard of heat stress, the temperatures (McInnes et al., 2016). With Saudi Ministry of Labor and Social the practice of heat stress management in Development adopted a rule in 2010 that the construction industry generally focused bans outdoor work daily between 12 and 3 on three distinct interventions; hydration, p.m. during the summer months. This self-pacing at work (decline in metabolic regulation, however, is enforced irregularly rate to a lower, safer level is a protective and the temperatures during unrestricted response to heat stress), and the Thermal hours can still be extremely high (Acharya Work Limit (Al-Bouwarthan et al., 2019; et al., 2018; Al-Bouwarthan et al., 2019). Jia et al., 2019). Other preventative measures include that of using automation A 2019 study by Al-Bouwarthan et al. where possible, work-rest scheduling, found that there is a lack of empirical induction and heat-stress management evidence about the effectiveness of this training, the provision of shade and/or air- regulation in reducing heat stress, as conditioned break areas and appropriate majority of construction sites do not PPE. The Construction, Forestry, Mining comply with the government ban and and Energy Union (CFMEU) have made continue with work. Additionally, there specific heat stress management guidelines, have been reports of dozens of workers who and suggest that if the temperature rises have died from heart attacks triggered by above 37°C, all work should cease unless heat strain by both the Indian and Nepalese working in an air-conditioned area. embassies, highlighting the need of Nevertheless, the non-mandatory nature of enforcing the regulatory standard (Acharya the CFMEU guidelines raises the problem et al., 2018). Other heat stress standards of non-compliance (Xian et al., 2015). found to be in place at Saudi Arabian construction sites include; adequate PPE, The high percentage of participants not loose fitting breathable clothing, provision satisfied with current heat prevention of fresh potable water, availability of 3 shaded rest areas (although this varies by (HKCIC, 2013). These recommendations job and site), and the practice of self-pacing are close to that of Australia, with unique by workers (Acharya et al., 2018; Al- differences to help deal with Hong Kong’s Bouwarthan et al., 2019). Construction sites humid and hot climate. abide to heat management guidelines and comply with the stop-work regulation on a United States of America site-by-site basis, highlighting the need for Between 1992 and 2016 more than a third stronger enforcement. of all occupational deaths in the U.S were either directly or indirectly caused by heat Hong Kong exposure, with 17 construction workers In Hong Kong, around 20% of work time in dying as a direct result of heat-related the summer months put workers at high risk stresses in 2015 (Dong et al., 2019; Yi & of heat stress due to the cities hot and humid Chan, 2017). These outcomes highlighted weather (Yi & Chan, 2017). Under Hong the need for updated industry standards, Kong legislation, every employer must, so prompting the National Institute for far as reasonably practicable, ensure the Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) health and safety of all employees at work. to publish amended recommendations This results in Hong Kong’s heat stress employers should follow to prevent heat guidelines being very similar to that of stress and heat-related illnesses (Jacklitsch Australia’s (Hong Kong Construction et al., 2016). While not a mandate, the Industry Council [HKCIC], 2013; Safe recommendations are appropriate guidance Work Australia, 2017). In 2008, the that can be used to prevent occupational Construction Industry Council (CIC) heat-related illnesses to comply with the published an informative guideline on the Western Australian Occupational Safety protection of workers in hot weather, which and Health Act general duty of care clause has since been updated. Safety measures (Jacklitsch et al., 2016). outlined in the guideline include; appropriate work arrangements, allowance The recommendations fall under the of workers to take regular breaks, the following (Jacklitsch et al., 2016): provision of cool down facilities/shelter, 1. Assess the risk  use WGBT and main contractors should provide sufficient occupational exposure limits to protect cool potable water, appropriate PPE and workers. Screen workers for heat light coloured, loose fitting clothing, intolerance. provision of relevant training for 2. Limit exposure  encourage workers to construction workers before summer take breaks. Wear light-coloured, loose months (heat stress assessment, risk factors fitting, breathable clothing. Schedule and symptoms, respective safety measures hot jobs for cooler parts of the day. etc.) and the use of mechanical aids to Require a worker to stop working when reduce physical work load on workers they feel heat-related discomfort. (Chan et al., 2015; HKCIC, 2013). 3. Reduce metabolic heat load  mechanise the physical parts of work Uniquely, the guideline recommends, an where possible. Increase the size of the additional 15-minute rest period during the crew to reduce the workload on each hot summer months (May to September) to worker. help deal with humid conditions on top of 4. Enhance heat tolerance  develop a plan the routine 30-minute rest period for to acclimatise workers to heat. construction workers during the afternoon 5. Encourage hydration  adequate work session (HKCIC, 2013). Contractors provision of fresh, cool drinking water. and subcontractors are further Provision of individual not communal recommended to measure and issue an alert drinking cups. if the onsite WBGT exceeds threshold (Yi 6. Know the symptoms of heat related & Chan, 2017). To comply with legislation, illnesses (heat stroke, exhaustion and industry participants are expected to follow cramps) and the steps to take when they the recommendations outlined in the CIC occur. guidelines to ensure health and safety protection to construction workers 4 7. Create a heat alert program  form a current heat management strategies in Heat Alert Committee each year by place. mid-April that includes representatives of the workers, management and a Recommendations qualified healthcare provider or health Based on above analysis, it is recommended and safety professional. Have that the following amendments be made to procedures in place to deal with Australian health and safety policy and extreme heat alerts which requires guidelines in regards to heat stress managers and supervisors (in writing) management: to ensure adequate supplies, training 1. With humidity in Australia expected to and provision of aforementioned increase due to the effects of climate recommendations. change (Carter et al., 2020), there should be a mandatory and enforced These recommendations are similar to both regular 30-minute rest period for Australia’s and Hong Kong’s, highlighting construction workers with an additional cultural and economic similarities. 15-minute rest period being allowed for workers during hot summer months India (HKCIC, 2013). India has the world's highest accident rate 2. The formation of a Heat Alert among construction workers at 165 out of Committee (as recommended by every 1000 workers (Dutta et al., 2015). NIOSH) in each workplace by mid- With construction workers being October yearly which includes particularly vulnerable to health risks representatives of workers, because of few legal protections, increased management and a qualified health and exposure to environmental factors, safety officer. This committee must economic disadvantages and a poor safety ensure there are procedures in place to culture (Dutta et al., 2015; Srinivasan et al., deal with extreme heat as outlined in 2016). Due to the lack of enforceable Australian guidelines, and that these guidelines and standards, workers report recommendations are met in writing by adopting various strategies on their own to managers and supervisors (Jacklitsch et prevent heat-related illnesses such as; al., 2016). drinking copious amounts of water, 3. There should be mandatory regular use frequent resting in the shade, and habitually of the WGBT and occupational sprinkling their face with water. Most exposure limits (such as the ACGIH workers report water as an important factor Threshold Limit Value and the Thermal for coping in India’s extremely hot and Work Limit) at worksites to protect often humid climate (Dutta et al., 2015; workers (Al-Bouwarthan et al., 2019; Srinivasan et al., 2016). When there is a Jacklitsch et al., 2016). lack of safe drinking water available on site, 4. Lastly, no work should be permitted workers typically supply their own water between 12 and 3 p.m. daily during the from home to drink at work (Dutta et al., summer months in the Outback, or 2015). where temperatures often exceed 35C, In the qualitative study by Dutta et al. with construction work allowed to start (2015), none of the workers interviewed or finish earlier to accommodate for stated they were provided gloves and this. As mentioned previously, Al- sunglasses, with workers feeling that the Bouwarthan et al. (2019) found that use of sunglasses and appropriate PPE there is often non-compliance with would help cope with heat stress. The study stop-work regulations, therefore supports the establishment of a tropical recommended strategies should be and/or a India specific heat exposure added to law via amendments to the guidelines that could simultaneously be WHS Regulations  contractors, worker protective and realistic in India’s subcontractors and officers failing to given climate. It must be noted, however, comply will be subject to sanctions that there is a current lack of literature into under section 5 of the WHS Act (Safe heat stress in India, thus it is hard to review 5 Work Australia, 2019), leading to related tasks and social factors: A cross- improved compliance. sectional survey of Australia's monsoonal north. Applied Ergonomics, 82, 102918. Further, it is apparent that research and https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2019.1029 policy development is radically needed to 18 improve health and safety outcomes and Chan, A. P., Guo, Y. P., Wong, F. K., Li, Y., quality of life for Indian citizens and those Sun, S., & Han, X. (2015). The in developing economies. development of anti-heat stress clothing for construction workers in hot and humid Conclusion weather. Ergonomics, 59(4), 479-495. The construction industry is particularly https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2015.109 susceptible to heat stress because of the 8733 Dianat, I., Vahedi, A., & Dehnavi, S. (2016). nature of work undertaken. With climate Association between objective and change expected to increase environmental subjective assessments of environmental temperature and humidity in Australia, ergonomic factors in manufacturing concerted action is needed to mitigate the plants. International Journal of Industrial effects of occupational heat strain, and the Ergonomics, 54, 26-31. anticipated rise in environmental heat https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ergon.2015.12.004 stress. This review presents Dong, X. S., West, G. H., Holloway‐Beth, A., recommendations for amended policy Wang, X., & Sokas, R. K. (2019). Heat‐ focusing on heat stress and hot weather related deaths among construction workers strategies from countries which have in the United States. American Journal of climatic patterns Australia currently has or Industrial Medicine, 62(12), 1047- is likely to have in the future. With 1057. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.23024 Dutta, P., Rajiva, A., Andhare, D., Azhar, G., occupational injuries and fatalities Tiwari, A., Sheffield, P., & Ahmedabad statistically more likely to occur due to the Heat and Climate Study Group. (2015). effects of heat stress on human physiology, Perceived heat stress and health effects on and with an annual labour productivity loss construction workers. 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Author Dylan Ferrier is a second year Health, Safety and Environment student at Curtin University. He has currently immersed

himself in health and safety culture, to try and further his employability in all industries. Dylan’s current passions are in environmental health and occupational hygiene, particularly in regards to the construction, oil and gas and mining industries. Dylan also has passions in reducing the chemical and ecological footprint of organisations, therefore reducing environmental impact while at the same time

ensuring all workers are safe from injuries

and can return home to their families at the end of the day.

8 Development of an Airline Cabin Crew Pre-Task Hazard Assessment Tool: The Identi-Fly Hazard Booklet

Nerise Garner, Allison Hutton & Dr Karen Klockner. All Central Queensland University. Email contact: [email protected]

Abstract Airline cabin crew are exposed to a broad range of hazards and associated risks which can be difficult to manage with any failings leading to grave consequences for both employees, passengers and airline businesses as a whole. Airlines must therefore strive to develop new strategies for the innovative management of hazards and work towards reducing their risks to as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP). This paper discusses a pilot program to improve a large Australian commercial airline’s management of the hazards faced by cabin crew. It details the introduction of a program for the development, implementation and evaluation of a pre-task identification hazard assessment tool called the ‘Identi-Fly’ booklet. Results indicated that there was an improvement in the hazard identification capabilities of the cabin crew and the program promoted a stronger interdependent safety culture amongst the work group that enabled cabin crew to protect both themselves and others against the major hazards they encounter. The success of the program would appear to assist in improving an airline’s overall safety management objectives whilst also supporting the more holistic objective of the cabin crew department to become incident and injury free.

Key Words: Cabin Crew. Aviation. Hazard Identification. Hazard Awareness. Personal Risk Assessment Tool. Safety Culture. Injury Prevention.

Introduction Airline cabin crew are exposed to an standard operating procedures (SOPs) and abundance of hazards within their not deviating from the prescribed manual workplace due to limitations of space and specifications. functionality and these limitations hinder However, in times of high workload, an airline’s ability to effectively manage the distraction, fatigue, or perceived company hazards and risks experienced by their pressures, reliance upon SOPs may not be cabin crew. Airlines are also challenged by sufficient as the sole line of defence against strict regulatory constraints and have very the formation of an incident or the onset of little scope, power or ability to make injury (Reason 1997). According to the modifications to the aircraft cabin Occupational Safety & Health environment making work health and Administration [OSHA] (OSHA, 2002), safety engineering control measures often personal risk assessment tools commonly implausible (Cooper, 2000). As a result of known as a Take Five, Job Safety Analysis this, managing the behaviour of cabin crew (JSA), Job Hazard Analysis (JHA), SLAM: and instilling a safe working culture is a Stop, Look, Assess, Manage or Safety vital defence against the manifestation of Observation Forms, are an effective cabin crew injuries and incidents. strategy to improve hazard identification A large commercial airline operating in and safety culture within a workplace Australia, hereinafter referred to as ‘the (OSHA, 2002). These tools are used in airline’, had no pre-task hazard assessment high-risk industries including oil and gas, tool in place and instead relied heavily upon rail, transport, mining, construction its cabin crew following the airline’s industries and have been attributed to 9 instilling greater hazard awareness amongst resulting in musculoskeletal injuries of workers, resulting in a reduction of work- strains and sprains in the upper limbs and related injuries. They have been linked to back (Agampodi et al., 2009). an improved culture of reporting hazards and the implementation of early workplace Exposure to slips, trips and falls and health and safety intervention methods for working at heights are also significant safety management (OSHA, 2002). hazards within cabin crew work environments. According to the Civil Hazards in a Cabin Crew Work Aviation Safety Authority (2000), cabin Environment crew are at particular risk of suffering a slip, According to Agampodi et al. (2009) trip or fall due to the hazardous and working in the unique environment of an unstable working conditions of the aircraft aircraft cabin exposes flight attendants to an cabin. Cabin crew may also slip in wet array of hazards and places them at high surface areas of galleys and trip on risk of sustaining a work-related injury passenger items such as bags, legs or feet (Agampodi et al., 2009). The airline’s that make their way into the aisle (Civil cabin crew, like others in the industry, are Aviation Safety Authority, 2000). Cabin subject to various intrinsic hazards and the crew are exposed to a serious working at airline has already seen many of these heights risk of falling from an unprotected hazards manifest into contributing factors open aircraft door. This may occur during in recent cabin crew incidents and injuries the opening or closing of doors, the removal (The Airline, 2013). of platforms or stairs or when aerobridges or steps are not positioned properly (Health One of the biggest threats to cabin crew and Safety Executive, 2015). safety is turbulence, which according to the Australian Transport Safety Bureau Other hazards that cabin crew are exposed (ATSB), is attributed the majority of to include a range of thermal, biological and serious injuries experienced by Australian chemical hazards. Thermal hazards are cabin crew. In particular, clear-air present in the form of hot liquids and ovens, turbulence, which is often unexpected and which may cause burns and scalds and sudden in its onset, can cause cabin crew to common biological hazards include be forcefully thrown about the cabin or exposure to viruses from ill guests, needle- struck by unsecured objects, resulting in stick injuries and contact with bacteria from injury (International Air Transport lavatories and galley areas (Civil Aviation Association 2012). Cabin crew are also Authority, 2012). Chemical cleaning exposed to hazardous manual tasks within products also present a risk, as when these the aircraft cabin, with common chemicals are used in combination with the mechanisms of ergonomic harm including aircraft cabin environment of low relative heavy service carts, aircraft doors, atlas humidity and airborne pollutants, they may boxes, overhead lockers and baggage. prove hazardous to cabin crew by Many of the tasks completed by cabin crew exacerbating contact dermatitis (Leggat & also involve pushing and pulling, awkward Smith, 2006). movements, twisting, overreaching and In order to improve a large Australian poor posture whilst working in small spaces commercial airline’s management of the such as the galley and aisles (Glitsch et al., hazards faced by their cabin crew, a pilot 2007). A 2007 British study of flight program was developed and tested, with a attendants found that manual handling view to increasing the ability of cabin crew attributed to 26% of all reported injuries to identify hazards in their usual work amongst cabin crew (Civil Aviation environments. Authority, 2012). Furthermore, other studies of flight attendants have also noted Pre-Task Hazard Assessment Tool pushing, pushing or lifting as a leading In order to assist the airline to enhance their cause of cabin crew injury and documented cabin crews’ identification of hazards and this injury mechanism as predominately manage the risks present within their cabin

crew department to as low as reasonably Methodology practicable (ALARP), a project was In order to structure the project in the best undertaken to develop, implement and way possible, the project was organised evaluate a personal hazard assessment tool into 3 distinct stages, which included (1) tailored especially for the airline’s cabin collection of initial data and survey crew. The aim of the project was to work in development; (2) formation and conjunction with the airline’s current work implementation of the pre-task hazard tool health and safety (WHS) strategies but to known as the Identi-Fly booklet; and (3) further develop a personal hazard review and evaluation of Identi-Fly booklet assessment tool for cabin crew that would use via data collection. The research project facilitate behaviour change amongst the for the cabin crew pre-task hazard workgroup and assist the airline to assessment ran for 14 weeks from May- accomplish their holistic view of striving to August and involved 30 Melbourne, be incident and injury free. Furthermore, Australia based cabin crew who the tool was also targeted at improving and volunteered to participate in the project. promoting a positive safety culture amongst Throughout the project, the cabin crew the workgroup and aimed towards participants were required to complete two enhancing an ‘interdependent’ safety surveys, one before using the pre-task culture as described by the ‘Bradley Curve’ hazard assessment tool and a reflective (DuPont, 2015). survey after using the pre-task hazard assessment tool during their flying duties. To achieve this, a pre-task hazard Both surveys involved a combination of assessment tool was developed with the quantitative and qualitative assessments to intention of increasing the cabin crew’s ascertain retrospective information and hazard awareness capabilities, which would establish any changes of the workgroup’s also empower them to instill the safety culture and knowledge of workplace characteristics of an ‘interdependent’ safety hazards after using the personal risk culture whereby they would take action to assessment tool. Biometric data of the mitigate hazards and risks in their work workgroup involved in the project can be environment in order to protect themselves viewed in the following table. and others from harm (DuPont, 2015). The project’s scope involved developing, implementing and evaluating a cabin crew pre-task hazard assessment tool to align with relevant codes of practice, company policies and procedures as well as applicable International Air Transport Association (IATA) legislative requirements. The project was completed over a 14 week timeframe and involved 30 Melbourne based cabin crew who volunteered to form the cabin crew workgroup and participate in the pilot program for the development, implementation and evaluation of the personal risk assessment tool. The cabin crew workgroup agreed to complete two online surveys and use the hazard identification tool over a period of 2 weeks in an operational sense whilst flying ‘out online’.

Table 1 Biometric Data of Survey Respondents

Survey 1: Survey 2: Category Individual Qualities Perception of Hazards Reflection Survey Cabin Crew 14 14 Role Cabin Supervisor 13 10 Male 14 14 Gender Female 13 10 18-24 1 1 25-34 15 14 Age 35-44 7 6 45-54 4 3 55-65 0 0 Less than 6 months 0 0 6 months- 2 years 0 0 Time in role 2-5 years 11 9 5-10 years 12 11 More than 10 years 4 4

Hazard Research and Survey Development and Implementation of Development the Identi-Fly Booklet The first stage of the project involved the Using the data obtained from the first collection of hazard data to develop suitable Perception of Hazards survey, knowledge questions for the two surveys. The first gaps in hazard-awareness amongst the survey would be focused on the ‘Perception workgroup were identified and the hazards of Hazards’, completed before using the that the cabin crew consistently failed to pre-task hazard assessment Identi-Fly recognise were also pinpointed. This booklet and the second one would be the information was then used to formulate the ‘Reflection’ survey, completed after using content of the pre-task hazard assessment the pre-task hazard assessment Identi-Fly Identi-Fly booklet development. The booklet. Utilising the cabin crew injury booklet consisted of 10 short tailored mechanism data supplied by the airline, questions that were appropriately targeted hazard information was analysed and to help close the gaps in knowledge of the categorised into damaging sources of cabin crew and focus the workgroup’s energy to determine the types of hazards attention towards raising greater awareness and energy present within the cabin crew of previously less identified hazards. The work environment. Once this was creation of the booklet also involved established, questions for the two surveys considering the airline’s branding as well as were then developed to assess whether the formatting, printing and the overall ‘look hazards identified by the cabin crew and feel’ of the booklet. Consideration was surveyed were consistent with the existing given to the design aspects of the booklet to reported injuries amongst the wider ensure it was both appealing and workgroup. Further questions were also convenient for cabin crew to use, but also added to both surveys to ascertain safety durable. climate information, this included the addition of a broad range of 5-point Likert Each participant of the workgroup was scale questions to gather quantitative given a copy of the Identi-Fly booklet, information about the safety culture of the along with a set of instructions, to use workgroup. All answers from both surveys during their normal flying duties for a were kept anonymous and the cabin crew period of two weeks. Cabin crew were completed both surveys individually via a instructed to use their Identi-Fly booklet link sent out to the cabin crew workgroup either before a duty in briefing, a long-term- to an online questionnaire form. around/aircraft swap or during flight if time permitted. They could choose to complete the hazard assessment as an individual or

12 with their cabin crew colleagues to discuss Survey Two – Reflection Survey and record any hazards that they may The results from the Reflection Survey encounter, along with any actions they showed that the Identi-fly booklet could take to avoid harm. They were generated a significant improvement in the advised to answer the questions in note identification of nearly all types of hazards. form to remind them of hazards to look for The greatest improvements were seen or actions they intended to take to protect regarding the identification of hazards themselves and their crew. They were involving gravitational, thermal, chemical encouraged to carry the booklets in their and acoustic damaging sources of energy. pockets. Once the cabin crew had used the The most positive changes included the Identi-Fly for two weeks, they were workgroup noticing electrical appliance, requested to do the second reflective UV/sunlight, falls from height and survey. contaminated crew or passenger food. Overall the workgroup feedback from the Results reflection survey was very positive with cabin crew making comments such as There was a slight decline in the response “handy tool and a good device for use in rate between the first and second surveys. pre-flight briefings to help heighten The Perception of Hazards Survey had a awareness of hazards in our workplace”. response rate of 90% (27 respondents) and the Reflection Survey had a response rate of Conversely, the Reflection Survey showed 80% (24 respondents). that the Hazard Identification Table included in the Identi-fly booklet was not a Survey One – The Perception of Hazards completely helpful tool and was not Survey Results effective in increasing the workgroup’s It was evident from the results of the overall competency for identifying Perception of Hazards survey that despite workplace hazards. Rather, the results from 96% of the cabin crew reporting that they the questions into damaging types of energy knew what a hazard was, many failed to produced relatively poor results and were correctly identify a range of workplace detrimental to the overall positive results hazards presented to them. The survey recorded in other elements of the survey. indicated that cabin crew had a strong The concept of damaging source of energy knowledge of the types of hazards that they perhaps was not explained clearly enough regularly encountered in their workplace, in the table and this led to confusion with 95% of respondents identifying amongst the workgroup i.e. in the reflection turbulence, manual handling and fatigue as survey 100% of respondents identified workplace hazards. Coincidently these fatigue as a hazard but only 58% identified particular hazards had also been the topics ‘psychosocial’ as a hazard despite fatigue of previous WHS, SOP and educational being listed as an example of a training packages delivered to all cabin psychosocial hazard in the table. crew. This suggests that cabin crew have so far responded well to the WHS related This indicates that the labelling and coursework delivered training and that language used to describe workplace these training modules have been well hazards need to be more carefully chosen to received and effective in increasing cabin suit the vernacular of the cabin crew crew’s awareness of particularly prominent workgroup. It also highlights the hazards in their workplace. However, there importance of considering the different were also noticeable gaps in knowledge learning styles of workers and that amongst the workgroup in relation to conveying information about hazard identifying other hazards including identification via tables might not be the gravitational, biological, thermal and most effective approach to achieve the electrical damaging sources of energy. A desired learning outcomes. As such, other summary of survey one results is presented methods such as classroom tutorials, online in table 2. activities or more interactive communication techniques should be 13 considered as a means to facilitate greater learning about energy sources and hazards amongst the cabin crew workgroup.

Feedback from the Reflection Survey also highlighted issues with the formatting of the Identi-fly booklet and suggested that improvements needed to be made to make the booklet quicker and easier for cabin crew to use. In particular, the feedback stressed the need for the content of the Identi-Fly booklet to take an online or App based checklist format so that it was more convenient for cabin crew to utilise. Results from the Reflection Survey can be seen in Table 2.

Hazard Identification Change Results Overall the results produced by the Identi- Fly project provided greater insight into the hazard identification capabilities of the cabin crew workgroup. Data analysis of the two survey points identified clear knowledge gaps in the first Perceptions of Hazards survey results as well as predominately positive improvements in the workgroup’s awareness of their workplace hazards in the second Reflection survey results. A comparison table of the hazard identification results across the use of the two surveys during the 14-week period can be viewed in Table 2.

Table 2. Table of Hazards Identified and Program Change

Percentage of Hazard Percentage of Hazard Change in Identified in Survey 1: Identified in Survey percentage Hazard ‘Perception of 2: Identified Hazards’ ‘Reflection Survey’ Electrical Appliances 15% 67% +52%

UV/Sunlight 22% 54% +32%

Falls from Height 55% 83% +28% Contaminated Crew 74% 88% +14% Food or Passenger Meals

Dry Ice 52% 71% +19%

Extreme cabin 52% 71% +19% Temperatures Portable Entertainment 26% 42% +16% Devices Aircraft Oven 77% 88% +11%

Uniform/Personal 30% 38% +8% Protective Equipment

Viruses 85% 92% +7% Hotels 48% 54% +6% Animals or Insect 11% 16% +5% Bites Motor Vehicles 37% 42% +5% Uneven, Oily or 66% 71% +5% Slippery Surfaces

Excessive Noise 78% 83% +5% Fatigue 96% 100% +4% Acids 3.7% 4% +3% Bacteria from 85% 88% +3% Lavatories or Waste Carts Manual Handling 93% 96% +3% Moulds or Mildew 22% 25% +3% Turbulence 100% 100% 0 Hot Liquids 93% 92% -1% Power Tools 3.7% 0% -3.7% Forklifts 3.7% 0% -3.7% Cats & Dogs 3.7% 0% -3.7%

Bodily Fluids 89% 71% -18%

Table 3 shows the comparison of hazards identified according to an energy type. The workgroup showed an increase in hazard awareness across all energy types between survey one and survey two with thermal energy hazard awareness having the greatest increase.

Table 3. Comparison Table of Hazards Identified According to Energy Type

Percentage of Hazard Percentage of Change in Type of Damaging Identified in Survey 1: Hazard Identified in percentage Energy Perception of Hazards Survey 2: Identified Reflection Survey Thermal 51% 75% +24% Gravitational 61% 74% +13% Chemical 59% 68% +9% Acoustic 78% 83% +5% Psychosocial 96% 100% +4% Bio-Mechanical 93% 96% +3% Biological 59% 62% +3% Mechanical/Kinetic 37% 40% +3% Miscellaneous 15% 17% +2% Climatic/Natural 100% 100% -

Figure 1. Graph Showing Pre and Post Measures for Safety Climate Questions

Comparison of Average Score for 5-Point Scale Questions

I always report any hazards that I identify in my workplace

I always look out for hazards whilst on overnights I am confident I can take actions to protect myself from injuries or accidents I feel empowered to make my workplace a safer place and prevent accidents or injuries I always look out for my fellow crew and inform them of hazards

I am confident in my ability to identify hazards in my workplace

In my current role I feel safe whilst at work I believe Airline A is committed to the health and safety of their cabin crew & cabin Supervisors

Reflection Survey Perception of Hazards Survey Average Score

Safety Climate Results second ‘Reflection Survey’ results The results from the use of the Identi- which, when juxtaposed with the Fly booklet also indicated ‘Perception of Hazards’ survey results, improvements in influencing the safety outlined a significant improvement in culture of the cabin crew workgroup the identification of nearly all hazard with the results indicating an average types and a particularly marked increase improvement of between 1%- 4%. Only in work group’s awareness of two questions resulted in no change at gravitational, thermal, chemical and all, those related to feeling safe at work acoustic hazards. and the commitment of the airline to the Within the limitations of the project’s short health and safety of their cabin crew and 14 week timeframe, the Identi-Fly booklet cabin supervisors. The biggest changes also managed to make some slight in the data due to the introduction of the improvements to the overall safety climate Identi-Fly booklet were regarding of the work group. Despite the project’s statements of reporting hazards (up 4%) initial expectations of having a greater and looking out for hazards on overnight impact on the work group’s safety culture, stays (up 2%). A complete comparison there were still some positive indications between the first (pre) and second (post) that the vision of an ‘interdependent’ safety survey results for the safety climate data culture could be brought to fruition and can be viewed in Figure 1 established within the work group in the not Discussion too distant future.

Overall the results produced by the This suggests that the booklet did have a Identi-Fly project provided greater positive impact by reducing complacency insight into the hazard identification issues amongst the workgroup and capabilities of the cabin crew work prompted the cabin crew to give more group. Further data analysis of the two thought about hazards outside of their surveys identified clear knowledge gaps normal aircraft work environment. It is in the first survey results as well as important to note the short-time frame positive improvements in the work within the project meant that the booklet group’s awareness of their workplace was only used for a 2-week period. hazards in the second survey results. Therefore, in order to extrapolate this data The cabin crew pre-task hazard and gather an accurate indication of the assessment tool project was effective in impact that the ‘Identi-Fly’ booklet can its aim of developing, implementing and have on influencing the safety culture of the evaluating a tailored personal risk workgroup, future studies would need to be assessment tool for cabin crew. The conducted by the Airline to ascertain further project yielded some excellent results quantitative data over a longer period of and successfully achieved its objective time. of improving the cabin crew work group’s ability to identify hazards in Recommendations from Project their workplace. Results from the initial Outcomes ‘Perception of Hazards’ survey It was evident from the summary data uncovered that the cabin crew work obtained from the pilot program from the group had a strong knowledge in the use of Identi-Fly booklet that the tool made areas of turbulence, manual handling a significant impact on improving the work and fatigue-related hazards but was group’s capabilities in a short period of lacking awareness of gravitational, time. However, in order to maintain biological, thermal and electrical types positive learning changes within the work of hazards. The development of the group and foster the desired safety ‘Identi-Fly’ booklet to promote greater outcomes, it is recommended that several awareness in these areas appeared to further initiatives be implemented. These close the gaps in knowledge amongst would include a recommendation that a this work group. This was further comprehensive hazard awareness education supported by the data analysis of the program be implemented to support and 17 underpin the introduction of the Identi-Fly benefit of using such a tool that the tool booklet. Teaching cabin crew about the becomes embedded as a long-term strategy types of hazards in their workplace will to improve an airlines safety outcomes. provide them with a greater understanding of what they should be looking for when In order to determine the project’s ability to completing the Identi-Fly booklet. A achieve the airline’s overall objectives, the hazard awareness program coupled with the project would need to allow for change to use of the Identi-Fly booklet will also yield be measured over a greater extended period more beneficial results as cabin crew are of time and the safety performance data of empowered to take ownership of their own the cabin crew department to be ascertained safety and possess a greater ability and across this extended period. Any long-term improved confidence to implement control sustainability of this type of intervention measures for hazards that they identify. An project would also be dependent upon the education program will also amplify the continuous evaluation and auditing of the teachings of hazard awareness across ‘Identi-Fly’ booklet to monitor its ongoing various learning platforms to engage cabin effectiveness within the workforce. This crew. It will provide cabin crew with an may mean that over time other strategies opportunity to take what they learn in a such as further education and hazard classroom or online setting into the aircraft awareness programs are introduced to environment and apply their hazard support the booklet. Furthermore, identification skills in a practical and modifications may be required to change proactive way to protect themselves and the format of the booklet, such as morphing others in the workplace. it into an online digital format to allow for it to continuously move forward with the Feedback from the work group surveyed changes and evolution of the workforce and emphasised the need for their personal risk ensure that its objective of improving the assessment tool to be easily used within hazard identification capabilities of the their time-poor environment. It was cabin crew workgroup is still achieved. suggested that cabin crew could readily utilise digital devices within their work Overall this pilot project showed promising environment and use these devices for results for raising hazard awareness for the streamlining any work-related tasks. It is cabin crew work group, particularly around thus recommended that the airline develop damaging energy types of hazards, as their an online form or App which cabin crew knowledge and recognition of these types would use to quickly assess the Identi-Fly of hazards increased. The results from the content straight from their personal devices use of the Identi-Fly booklet by the cabin and utilise the checklist for a briefing, on a crew work group also indicated turnaround or during their safety and improvements in influencing the safety security checks. culture of the cabin crew in respect of progression towards an independent safety Summary culture. It is evident from the completion of The program was designed to give an initial the project that with the modifications and controlled data analysis opportunity for the amendments recommended, the use of a short-term use of a personal risk assessment Pre-task Hazard Assessment tool should be tool designed for airline cabin crew. The considered as an effective strategy in main limitation of the pilot program for the improving the hazard identification use of the Identi-Fly booklet was the short abilities and safety culture of the time frames and small sample size of the workforce. The Identi-Fly program should cabin crew surveyed. As such due be considered a worthwhile investment by consideration needs to be taken when a cabin crew department due to its potential applying these findings and returns in supporting the group to achieve recommendations to a wider cabin crew their desired work health and safety (WHS) work group and it is recommended that in objectives that include becoming incident order to more accurately gauge the overall and injury free in the future.

18 References when pushing and pulling trolleys aboard Australian Transport Safety Bureau. (2014). aircraft’ International Journal of Industrial Staying safe against in-flight turbulence. Ergonomics, 37, 845-854. https://www.atsb.gov.au/media/4718845/AR- Griffiths, R., & Powell, D. (2012). The 2008- occupational health and safety of flight 034%20Turbulence%20FactSheet_v2.pdf attendants. Aviation, Space, And Agampodi, S., Dharmaratne, S., & Agampodi, Environmental Medicine, 83, 514-521. T. (2009). Incidence and predictors of Health and Safety Executive. (2015). Working onboard injuries among Sri Lankan flight at Height. attendants. BMC Public Health, 9, 227- http://www.hse.gov.uk/airtransport/topics/ 231. working-at-height.htm Civil Aviation Safety Authority. (2000). International Air Transport Association Falling down- flight safety Australia. (IATA). (2012). Guidance for Turbulence http://www.casa.gov.au/wcmswr/_assets/m Management. ain/fsa/2000/sep/fsa39-40.pdf http://www.iata.org/publications/document Civil Aviation Authority. (2012). s/guidance-on-turbulence-management.pdf Occupational health and safety on-board Leggat, P., & Smith D. (2006). Dermatitis and aircraft guidance on good practice. Aircrew. Contact Dermatitis, 54, 1-4. https://www.caa.co.uk/docs/33/CAP%2075 Livingston, R.D. (1992). Aviation safety 7.pdf programs should boost occupational safety Cooper, M.D. (2000). Towards a model of awareness in the cabin. Cabin Crew Safety, safety culture. Safety Science, 36, 111-136. 27(4). DuPont. (2015). DuPont Bradley curve. Occupational Safety & Health Administration. http://www.dupont.com/products-and- (2002). Job Hazard Analysis. services/consulting-services-process- https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha30 technologies/brands/sustainable- 71.html solutions/sub-brands/operational- risk- Reason, J. (1997). Managing the Risks of management/uses-and- Organisational Accidents. Surrey, England: applications/bradley-curve.html Ashgate. Glitsch, U., Ottersbach, H., Ellegast, R., The Airline. (2013). Work, Health and Safety Schaub, K., Franz, G. & Jager, M. (2007). (WHS) Strategic Plan, pp 15-18, The Physical workload of flight attendants Airline, Brisbane, Queensland.

Authors and Human Factors training for the wider transport sector. In 2016, Nerise moved into risk management for a facility management company and was responsible for safety and compliance reporting across commercial and retail portfolios throughout Australia and Southeast Asia. In 2018 Nerise moved into the energy sector, working across assurance roles within asset management and developed expertise in safety analytics, reporting, human factors training and took a lead role in incident learning. Nerise holds a Bachelor of Occupational Health and Safety with distinction, a Postgraduate degree in Ms Nerise Garner is a health, safety and Aviation Human Factors and several human factors specialist with over 10 years’ commendations from charitable experience across high-risk industrial organisations due to her volunteer and sectors including aviation, facility safety consultancy work across the management, healthcare and energy. healthcare sector. Nerise is passionate Currently working in the oil and gas sector about driving positive change and as a HSSE performance advisor, Nerise innovative thinking that can be began her career as flight attendant before implemented to create a safer environment moving into airline safety consultancy roles for all, in and out of the workplace. 19

Authors

Ms Allison Hutton. After a 20-year Dr Karen Klockner is the Head of career as a safety professional in Postgraduate Courses Transport and Safety construction, mining and heavy industry, Science at Central Queensland University and several years teaching at and teaches across Human Factors, OH&S, CQUniversity, Allison was recently Accident Forensics, and Psychology units appointed as Head of Course – Accident in the School of Health, Medical and Forensics. Allison is a member of ASASI, Applied Sciences. She is a Senior Fellow of a Fellow of the Australian Institute of the Higher Education Academy UK and a Health and Safety, a Fellow of the Institute member of the Office of Industrial of Managers and Leaders and a PhD Relations Queensland, Work Health and Researcher with CQUniversity. Safety, Transport and Storage Industry Sector Standing Committee (ISSC). Prior to joining CQUniversity Karen was the Manager of Human Factors at the Rail Safety Regulation Branch for the Department of Transport and Main Roads in Queensland and has many years’ experience as a safety professional working in safety critical industries.

Risk of Consuming Aluminum in Barbeque Cat-fish Prepared with Aluminum Foil

Ikpesu Jasper Ejovwokoghenea,b and Umuero Oghenefejiro Philipa a Department of Industrial Safety and Environmental Technology, Petroleum Training Institute, Effurun, Delta State, Nigeria. b Department of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. Email: [email protected]

Abstract This study was undertaken to determine the risk of consuming aluminum in barbequed Catfish that had been wrapped in aluminum foil to protect the fish when being cooked. This research was conducted by oven drying raw and foil wrapped samples prior to laboratory analysis of aluminum concentrations in the Catfish. The method used was Atomic Absorption spectrophotometry, Wet digestion and subsequent Spectrophotometric process to determine the concentrations. Results obtained indicated leaching of aluminum from aluminum foil with a concentration of 0.007mg (kg) which indicates 18% addition of aluminum with reference to the original amount in the sample. Aluminum concentration in catfish was low and posed no health risk, although continuous and frequent consumption can lead to bioaccumulation. It was therefore recommended that caution be taken in consumption of catfish as aluminum leaching up to 18% was observed.

Key Words. Risks. Barbeque Cat-fish, Aluminum foil. Leaching.

1. Introduction Aluminum is a silvery white metal more likely a minor or inconsistent source. belonging to the boron group of chemical Meat and fish are commonly wrapped in elements and has an atomic number of 13. aluminum foil prior to oven cooking. Its density is 2.70 g/cm3, non-toxic and with Aluminum may leach out of the foil and good machinable properties. The electrical contaminate the food resulting from conductivity of aluminum is 60%, hence it different stimulants and high temperatures is used extensively for electrical (Ojha, and Sharma, 2007; Ranau et al., transmission lines. Because of aluminum’s 2001). Aluminum is abundant in the earth’s attractive properties, it has a variety of crust and is a natural component of drinking industrial applications. (Joshi et al., 2003; water, food and many manufactured Sadattin, 2006; Rajwanshi et al., 1997 and materials (Thorsen, Hasan and Hubertus, Ranau et al., 2001). 2011). It is redistributed or moved by natural and human activities (Khalil and Its attractive chemical and physical Seliem, 2014). properties make it ideal for using in the manufacturing of drugs, cosmetics, food High consumption of Aluminum can cause additives and utensils (Ranau, cumulative chronic health effects (Semwal Oehlenschlager, and Steinhart, 2001). It has et al., 2006; Berlyne et al., 1970 and Meiri significant hazardous effects on humans et al., 1993). Aluminum ion can inhibit due to its pervasive nature. Effects in use of different metabolic processes in human aluminum utensil for cooking are reported body by replacing other essential ions i.e. to result in aluminum ingestion (Semwal et iron, magnesium, calcium, phosphorus, al., 2006). Major sources of dietary intake fluoride. include synthetically added aluminum (that is, grain products, processed cheese and Currently in Nigeria, it is a common salt) and naturally occurring high practice to wrap meat items in Aluminum aluminum dosages (that is on tea, herbs and foil for baking and grilling. Aluminum is spices). Aluminum erosion from utensils is found to leach out from the foil due to 21 stimulants; particularly in distilled water as to wrapped in aluminum foil together with well as in acidic and alkaline media. A marinating ingredients and grilling in high tolerable daily intake (TDI) for aluminum heat till cooked (barbequed). This is of 1mg/kg body weight per day has been currently considered the most common established by an international committee practice for which which farmed catfish are of experts under the auspices of the World used, especially in celebration and festive Health Organization (WHO) and the Food periods. and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (WHO, 2001; Jack, 2005). It was observed that the aluminum content This exposure comes mainly from cooking of grilled fillets was higher than those of food wrapped in aluminum foil. It was baked fillets. Aluminum migration from suggested in many studies that cooking utensils can be regulated by grilling food in Aluminum foil develops Al toxicity duration, rising temperature due to heating, causing many specific diseases (Rehmani et composition, food pH value, and presence al., 2010; Carson, 2000). For this reason, of any other substances (such as organic food cooked within aluminum foil may acids and salt) (Shupping, 1996). contain a high risk for ill health and an 4. Detriment of Excess Aluminum addition to other aluminum sources. Hence Intake on Health this research investigated the leaching Aluminum can interact with transition levels of aluminum from aluminum foil metals; in particular, the interaction with used in making barbeque catfish as shown iron and copper enhances the production of in figure 1 below. reactive oxygen species by these two redox- Fig. 1. Barbeque catfish wrapped with active metal ions, leading to the aluminum foil. (Author’s photo) exacerbation of cell oxidative stress and neuronal cell death (Becaria, Bondy and Campbell, 2003; Peto, 2010; Percy et al., 2011).

Studies of environmental toxicology in recent years have revealed the symptoms such as diminished intellectual function / forgetfulness, inability to concentrate, speech and language impairment, personality changes, altered mood, depression, dementia, Visual and/or auditory hallucinations, Osteomalacia with 2. Food Contamination fracturing, weakness, fatigue, mainly Food contaminant can be biological, related to microcytic anaemia and Epileptic chemical or physical in nature, with the seizures. in humans, animals and plant roots former being more common. These (Guido et al., 2013; Sedman et al., 1985). contaminants have several routes throughout the supply chain to enter and 5. Methodology make a food product unfit for consumption The detection of leaching levels of (Malik, 2016; WHO, 2017; Australia aluminum from aluminum foil used in Institute for Food Safety (AIFS), 2019). and making barbeque catfish was conducted Fukuda, 2015). using three step.

3. Aluminum foil in Food a. Sample Collection Preparation The grab method of sample collection was Food wrapped in aluminum foil may used in the collection of samples and stored contain a high risk for ill health. Catfish before use. Two freshly caught specimens contains vitamin D, low levels of omega-3 were obtained from the market and used for fatty acid and high proportion of omega-6 the detection of aluminum levels and fatty acids (Jordan, 2015). The major leaching in barbeque catfish prepared with process for catfish preparation in Nigeria is aluminum foil. 22 b. Preparation of Sample Two specimens of catfishes were analyzed c. Digestion of Sample and Analysis to determine the extent of aluminum The organic matter content of the leaching into the catfish cooked using a organisms were destroyed by wet digestion barbecue. In determining the extent of in order to isolate the trace metal from the aluminum leaching, one specimen was food samples. One gram of each dried marinated and wrapped in aluminum foil sample was weighed into a 100ml beaker while the other was marinated and kept and 20ml of digestion solution added. A aside as a control prior to oven drying and Digestion Solution of 1:1, mixture of Nitric analysis. The samples were placed acid and Sulphuric acid was filtered into a weighed into crucibles and ashed in the 50ml volumetric flask and then analyzed muffle furnace at 600oC for one hour. After for Aluminum using atomic absorption oven drying, each specimen was ground on spectrophotometry (AAS). a mortar and representative samples taken for analysis.

6. Results and Discussions

Table 1: Results of aluminum concentration of three samples of catfish

Standard Catfish S1 S2 S3 Mean Variance Deviation Raw Specimen ( kg) 0.04 0.038 0.041 0.039667 2.33333E-06 0.0015275 Foil Wrapped Specimen 0.046 0.048 0.047 0.047 0.000001 0.001 (kg)

Amount of Leaching(kg) 0.006 0.01 0.006 0.007333 5.33333E-06 0.0023094

Percentage of Leaching 15 26.31579 14.63415 18.64998 44.10695443 6.6413067

Table 2: Average result of aluminum concentration in three tests of catfish

Standard Catfish (mg or kg) Mean Variance Deviation Raw Specimen 0.039667 2.33333x10-06 0.0015275 Foil Wrapped specimen 0.047 0.000001 0.001

Amount of Leaching 0.007333 5.33333x10 -06 0.0023094

Percentage of Leaching 18% 44% 6.6413067

23 Fig. 2: Aluminum content in Raw Specimen against Specimen prepared in aluminum foil. Aluminium Content ( kg) 0.05 0.045 0.04 0.035 0.03 0.025 Aluminium Content (kg) 0.02 0.015 0.01 0.005 0 Raw Specimen Wrapped Specimen Leached Amount

7. Discussion of Result aluminum foil and prepared for an hour Most times, humans consume far more possess no major health risk as the amount aluminum contents than the body can of migration is below the allowable daily process and excrete. intake set by F.A.O and WHO. Consumers should know that aluminum concentration Result from laboratory analysis in table one in catfish is low. This is due to the fact that reveals an increase in aluminum it is cultured in a controlled environment concentration when the catfish was with scientifically and quality produced wrapped in aluminum and heated at feeds. Other factors, including temperature o 600 Cfor a period of one hour. Similar and cooking time, may contribute to outcomes have been reported by Ranau et excessive leaching. al., (2001) when three different species of fishes were wrapped with aluminum foil to Recommendations ascertain possibilities of aluminum Based on acquired results, comparison with leaching. It was revealed that there were permissible standards and conclusions possibilities of aluminum leaching related drawn, the following recommendations are to the temperature and time cooked for. made. Result obtained from the above study I. Catfish prepared with aluminum foil clearly indicated an increase in aluminum should be taken with caution as there concentration from 0.4–0.47 mg or kg (that are possibilities of aluminum is an increase of 0.07mg or kg). This leaching. possibility of leaching can be pointed to the II. Catfish subjected to controlled temperature of heating, style of preparation environment through horticulture that includes (body cuts made and grilling should be consumed as there possess style) and generation environmental negligible amount of aluminum conditions which aluminum foil is concentration in comparison to those subjected to. obtained from environments subjected to heavy metals 8. Conclusions and Recommendations contamination. Conclusions III. In view of eliminating aluminum Result clearly shows aluminum migration intake by humans, aluminum foil into catfish in the amount of 0.07mg or kg. should only be used for packaging The consumption of catfish wrapped in purposes. 24 References chemical additives from aluminum foils Australia Institute for Food Safety (AIFS), used for packaging of food materials. J. (2019). Food safety and the different types Environ. Sci. Eng., 49, 62-66. of food contamination. Percy, M. E., Kruck, T. P., Pogue, A. I., and https://www.foodsafety.com.au/resources/a Lukiw, W. J., (2011). Towards the rticles/food-safety-and-the-different-types- prevention of potential aluminum toxic of-food-contamination (Retrieved effects and an effective treatment for 17/06/2019) Alzheimer’ s disease. J InorgBiochem; Berlyne et al., (1970). Hyperaluminamia from 105: 1505–1512. aluminum resins in renal failure. The Peto, M. V., (2010). Aluminum and iron in Lancet; 296: PP 494-496. humans: bioaccumulation, pathology, and Becaria, A., Bondy, S. C., and Campbell, A., removal. Rejuvenation Res; 13: PP.589–98. (2003). Aluminium and copper interact in Rajwanshi, P., Singh, V., Gupta, M. K., and the promotion of oxidative but not Dass, S., (1997). Leaching of aluminum inflammatory events: implications for from cook wares – a review. Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis; 5: Environmental Geochemistry and Health, PP.8–31 19, 1–18 Carson, B. L. (2000). Aluminum compounds: Ranau, R., Oehlenschlager, J., and Steinhart, Review of toxicological literature. H., (2001). Aluminum levels of fish fillets Abridged final report, National Institute of baked and grilled in aluminum foil. Food Environmental Health Sciences. Integrated Chemistry, 73, 1–6 Triangle Park, North Carloina, 27709. Rehmani, F. S., Tanoli, S. A. K., Ambreen, S., Fukuda, K. (2015). Food safety in a globalized Rashid, M., Abbas, S.S. and Shafique, A., world. Bull. WHO, 93, P.212 (2010).Competition of aluminum on iron Guido et al., (2013). Different approaches to binding site in the biological system. the study of chelating agents for iron and Journal of the Chemical Society of aluminium overload pathologies. Pakistan, 32: 467-470. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, Sadettin, T., (2006). Aluminum contents in 405, 585–601 baked meats wrapped in aluminum foil. Jack, D., (2005).A report on Alzheimer’s Meat Science 74; 644–647 disease and current research. Alzheimer Sedman, A. B., Klein, G. L., Merritt, R. J., Society of Canada Revised (2008). Miller, N. L., Weber, K. O., Gill, W. L., Joshi, S. P., Toma, R. B., Medora, N., and and Alfrey, A. C., (1985).Evidence of O’Connor, K., (2003). Detection of aluminum loading in infants receiving aluminum residue in sauces packaged in intravenous therapy. New England Journal aluminum pouches. Food Chemistry, 83, of Medicine 312: 1337-1343 383–386 Semwal, A. D., Padmashree, A., Khan, M. A., Jordan, F.B (2015). Neoliberal Niagara? Sharma, G. K. and Bawa, A. S. (2006). Examining the political history of fish Leaching of aluminum from utensils during consumption advisories in New York State, cooking of food. Journal of the Science of Environmental and planning D. Society and Food and Agriculture 86, 2425-2430. Space, 33: 281-295. Shupping, B. A., (1996). Model describing the Khalil, H. F., and Seliem, A. F., (2014). Risk complexing effect in the leaching of Assessment of Using Aluminum Foil in aluminum from cooking utensils. Food Preparation. Ultra Chemistry. 10(2), Environmental Pollution 92, 85-89. 125-128 Thorsten, S., Hasan, T., and Hubertus, B., Malik, A. H., (2016). Food contamination: (2011). Aluminum content of selected major challenge of the future. Foods 5, 21; foods and food Products. Environmental 1–2 Sciences Europe, 23: 27-37 Meiri, H., Banin, E., Roll, M., and Rousseau, World Health Organization (WHO), (2001). A. (1993).Toxic effects of aluminum on Safety evaluation of certain food additives nerve cells and synaptic transmission. and contaminants, WHO Food additives Progress in Neurobiology, 40, 89–121 Series 46.Joint FAO/WHO Expert Miriam, C.A., Joanna, I., Lachowicz, F., and Committee on Food Additives. Gavino F. (2013).The meaning of World Health Organization (WHO), (2017). aluminum exposure on human health and Estimates of the global burden of foodborne aluminum-related diseases. BioMol diseases. Foodborne diseases burden Concepts; 4(1): 77–87 epidemiology reference group 2007–2015. http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/foo Ojha, P., and Sharma, P., (2007). Influence of dborne_disease/fergreport/en/ physic-chemical factors on leaching of 25

Authors

Amb. Jasper E. Ikpesu is currently the HSE Manager [the Head, Department of HSE (also a Lecturer)] in Petroleum Mr. Philip Oghenefejiro Umuero, is a Training Institute, Effurun, Delta State, safety personnel from Owhelogbo town in Nigeria. He is a Certified Occupational Isoko North Local Government Area Delta Safety Specialist (COSS), Certified ISO State, Nigeria. He obtained his Leaving 45001:2018 OHS MS, ISO 9001:2015 School Certificate from St. Andrew QMS. He is a Certified PT and MPT Level Primary School Toro Via Ile-Ife Osun State 2 (NDT). He has completed a M.Sc. in 1991-1996 and proceeded to Iluelogbo Solid State Physics and B.Sc. in Physics at Grammar School Owhelogbo where he the Delta State University, Abraka, and has obtained 'O' Level result 2001-2006. He has a Post Graduate Diploma in HSE also completed an Ordinary National Management from University of Lagos, Diploma (OND) from Petroleum Training Nigeria. He won the International award as Institute (PTI) Effurun Delta State from the the Father of Modern Safety in Industrial Department of Industrial Safely and Toxicology (World Championship Award Environmental Technology (ISET) 2016- in 2018) - the best researcher out of 5205 2019. nominations from 65 countries. He is a Fellow of the International Agency for Standard and Rating (FIASR); Institute of Management and Consultancy (FIMC) and Ambassador of the World Safety Organisation. He is an author and member

of professional associations/bodies that

include American Society of Safety Professionals, Institute of Safety Professionals of Nigeria, Nigerian Environmental Society, Institute of Non- Destructive Testing, Nigeria (where he is also a Director), and American Society of Non-Destructive Testing.

26 An Abridged History of Anthropometry

Jason Jenkin, Curtin University, AdvDip Work Health and Safety, AdvDip Occupational Health and Safety. Email: [email protected]

Abstract Anthropometry is a scientific set of principles that are used to accurately measure the human body in terms of lengths, breadths, circumference, how the body moves as well as the angles between planes. Humans have an exceptionally long history of studying the body and making objects that fit the body rather than trying to fit a body to the object. Anthropometric principles have been used in the design of the earliest tools, classical art works and even fortune telling. In recent times these measurements are used in the design and creation of almost every aspect of modern life. Anthropometry has been used in the investigation and justification of many things, some lacking scientific credibility, but most furthering scientific evidence-based research into diverse fields including criminal investigations, anthropology, as well as health and well-being studies.

Keywords: Anthropometry. Anthropology. History. Classic. Modern.

Introduction Anthropometry in general terms is a communicate findings to others in an collection of methods for measuring and accurate and meaningful manner (Institute assessing the human body that is used of Industrial & Systems Engineers, n.d.; widely in art, engineering and design Nowak, 2001). (Adams, 2019; Biology Dictionary, 2017; Bridger, 2003; Bridger, 2017; Methodology Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020; Hedge, A systematic review of English language 2013; Middlesworth, 2020; New World articles was performed in June 2020, using Encyclopedia, 2016; Nowak, 2001; Oxford Google Scholar. The literature search was Reference, 2020; Patel, 2018; Stack, 2016). limited to English language articles published between the years 2000 and Anthropometric measures include linear, 2020. Key search words used were angular, circumferential, and force “history”, “of”, “human”, and measurements, assessing length, breadth, “anthropometry”. A total of 27,000 articles height, angles between body planes, were obtained from this search. The search volumetric data, as well as how the body parameters were refined to remove moves (Adams, 2019; Biology Dictionary, irrelevant results, bringing the total results 2017; Bridger, 2003; Bridger, 2017; Hedge, down to about 9,300. Results beyond the 2013; Middlesworth, 2020; NASA, n.d.; first hundred relevant results were New World Encyclopedia, 2016; Nowak, excluded. After reading abstracts to further 2001; Patel, 2018; Stack, 2016). exclude irrelevant articles, non-English language articles, removing duplicates and These body measurements are now used in studies where the full article could not be every aspect of design where the human accessed, a further 93 were removed. A form is involved, from clothing, design of total of 7 relevant articles were used for this controls, architecture, and even NASA review. capsules (Designing Buildings, 2020; Lewis, 2011; Middlesworth, 2020; NASA, A second search was conducted through the n.d.; Nowak, 2001). Curtin Library Catalogue search engine with the same keywords returning 6,213 Anthropometry came from the science of results. Again, limiting to the first hundred anthropology, growing directly from the results, and excluding irrelevant articles, desire to understand the human body, its duplicates, non-English articles, and non- origins, and adaptability, meaning full articles, yielded a further 4 articles for scientists needed a way to measure and review. A third search was conducted with 27 the same keywords and time-frame using in human based design, with many of his Google search engine, returning 1,490,000 designs based around the human, instead of results. Excluding irrelevant, Non-English trying to fit a human to his design results, and material of low quality, while (Aeronautics Guide, n.d.; Kilgore, 2012). limiting to the first hundred results, yielded DaVinci’s Vitruvian standard, as typified another 19 articles. by the “Vitruvian Man”, although it does deviate from modern anthropometric data, A total of 31 articles are cited in this is within one standard deviation of present literature review. The articles found discuss means and so, could be used as a guide for the history and development of modern health professionals in ergonomic anthropometrics. There has been a great design (Kilgore, 2012). quantity of research using anthropometrics in various settings, but less so on how the The term anthropometry was likely first science of anthropometrics came into used by naturalist Johann Sigismund being. Elsholtz, in his 1654 publication “De mutua membrorum proportione”, a short work on Ancient History the proportions of the body (Albrizio, Stone Age tools are the earliest example of 2007). Anthropometrics started to become anthropometrics as applied to a designed an established science in the West in the artifact however no evidence exists for any early 1700s, with records being kept for scientific method of measurement being measures such as height, weight, and birth used in their design (Lewis, 2011). weight, on portions of populations from

Physiognomy, a precursor form of many nations, although at the time they anthropometry dates back to the Warring were used mainly as an indicator for States period of ancient China (770 to 221 assessing socio-economic well-being B.C.), although it did use body (Cuff, n.d.). measurements, it was used solely for In the mid-eighteenth century a person’s fortune telling, with the most famous height was a commonly used metric to example of this is being, Ma Yi, a fortune classify them into different units when they teller who lived during the Northern Song entered military service, while also being Dynasty (960 to 1127 A.D.) (Shi, 2015). used in the United States to track and Anthropometry, specifically static measure the characteristics of slaves (Cuff, anthropometry, or the study of unmoving n.d.). In Britain, fear of “degeneration” in body part measurements can arguably be men and their potential as a fighting force dated to classical civilizations such as the would result in large-scale anthropometric Romans and Greeks (Albrizio, 2007; surveys to assess the true situation (Cuff, Biology Dictionary, 2017; Cuff, n.d.; n.d.). Stack, 2016). A fifth century B.C., Greek sculptor, Polykleitos, is recorded as having Curiosity about anthropometric written a work on human proportions and measurements by scientists in the anatomy, highlighting anthropometric eighteenth century had started to spawn the studies started with the arts (Albrizio, 2007; creation of textbooks on human growth, Kilgore, 2012). which would go on to spark concern around growth patterns in different socio- Recent History economic groups (Cuff, n.d.). By the Leonardo DaVinci began researching the nineteenth century there was a growing area of anthropometrics around 1487, outrage, partly caused by the children although it was not known by this name depicted in Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist, (Aeronautics Guide, n.d.; Biology resulting in an anthropometrically Dictionary, 2017; Kilgore, 2012). He was evidenced approach in medicine to aid the continuing the traditions of classical artists poor (Cuff, n.d.). In the nineteenth century of accurately measuring subjects for the there was growing demand from purposes of the creation of art (Aeronautics anthropological societies for quantitative Guide, n.d.; Biology Dictionary, 2017; data on human measurement in order to Kilgore, 2012). DaVinci was a forerunner further various fields of research from 28 archaeological investigation, to studies into and became known as “Bertillonnage”, hereditary traits, and evolution (Albrizio, Bertillon himself would later come to be 2007; Institute of Industrial & Systems viewed as the founder of modern Engineers, n.d.; New World anthropometry (Biology Dictionary, 2017; Encyclopaedia, 2016). Patel, 2018; Piazza, 2016).

Industrial engineers, Frank & Lillian Modern Gilbreth, while trying to reduce human In the 1920s, Ales Hrdlicka, a physical error in medicine, developed a concept anthropologist, summarised the purposes called the “challenge-response” system, for taking anthropometric statements as where a person calls out a word and a being for industrial design, artistic, second person repeats it (for example, a military, and medical purposes, also to be surgeon calling out ‘scalpel’ and a nurse used for the detection and correction of repeating ‘scalpel’ as they hand a scalpel to bodily defects, as well as for forensic the surgeon), a system that would become purposes (Institute of Industrial & Systems standard practice in surgery and among Engineers, n.d.). pilots (Aeronautics Guide, n.d.). Though this system was not directly a component of Beginning in the early twentieth century, anthropometry at the time, the work-study longitudinal population surveys were method, and principles they developed established in North America and Europe; would further the study of anthropometrics in some cases, they were aimed at the (Aeronautics Guide, n. d.). generation of growth standards and others to evaluate the effect of social class During the Victorian era, with a boom in differences (Cuff, n.d.; Harris, 2019). industrialisation, factory owners wished to These studies are viewed as transitional increase productivity and factory output, steps from historical to contemporary Frederick Winslow Taylor saw an anthropometrics (Cuff, n.d.). opportunity for scientific study to improve With the advent of World War 2, and new conditions (Bridger, 2003; Bridger, 2017; complex machinery in the form of aircraft Stack, 2016). Building on the work study and tanks, designers needed to fit the method developed by the Gilbreths, Taylor machine to the human to ensure efficiency developed a principle later called of purpose and to minimise user error. Taylorism, that advocated for fitting the (Aeronautics Guide, n.d.; Anthrotech, design of the machine to the person 2019; Lewis, 2011; Stack, 2016). Pilots operating it, instead of trying to find a and drivers needed to be able to fit into their person that would fit the requirements of machines and easily operate controls with the machine, another step forward towards the minimum of effort or error, so engineers modern anthropometrics (Aeronautics used anthropometric data to create designs Guide, n.d.; Bridger, 2003; Bridger, 2017; that fit the average pilot and driver, Institute of Industrial & Systems Engineers, furthering the field of anthropometric n.d.; Stack, 2016). design (Aeronautics Guide, n.d.; Anthrotech, 2019; Institute of Industrial & In the nineteenth century, Alphonse Systems Engineers, n.d.; Lewis, 2011; Bertillon, the founder of the Society of Reed, 2020; Stack, 2016). Anthropology Paris, dissatisfied with current identification techniques, used the Published studies in the 1960s and 1970s by principles of anthropometry to develop a Le Roy Ladurie on nineteenth century scientific system of identification for the French soldiers detailing their height and French police to more accurately identify socio-economic characteristics are suspects and also created a system to recognized as the first in the spirit of reliably store and retrieve that information modern historical anthropometrics (Cuff, based on anthropometry (Anthrotech, 2019; n.d.; Komlos, 2009). Biology Dictionary, 2017; New World Encyclopedia, 2016; Patel, 2018; Piazza, Since the middle of the twentieth century, 2016). The system furthered anthropometry anthropometric studies have been used for a variety of purposes, such as, refining 29 growth standards, monitoring nutrition New World Encyclopedia, 2016). status, and to evaluate economic development (Cuff, n.d.; Harris, 2009; Anthropometric data can be divided into Harris, 2019; Institute of Industrial & percentiles with the 5th and 95th percentiles Systems Engineers, n.d.; Komlos, 2009; being the most important and commonly Oxford Reference, 2020; Reed, 2020). used in design (Bridger, 2003; Bridger, During the Cold War, research into 2017; Hedge, 2013; Institute of Industrial & anthropometrics flourished when the U.S. Systems Engineers, n.d.; Lewis, 2011; Department of Defence expanded, creating NASA, n.d.; Nowak, 2001). The 5th to 95th new laboratories and facilities, each needed percentiles are used for ergonomic design to be as efficient as they could be made, and to accommodate 90% of the population, to further ergonomic research into military including those outside this range doesn’t machines and equipment (Aeronautics bring about any further design benefits and Guide, n.d.). The scope of this research may detract from functionality (Bridger, initially was focussed on small equipment 2003; Bridger, 2017; Hedge, 2013; Institute and workstations, expanding to larger of Industrial & Systems Engineers, n.d.; scales and whole systems processes, later NASA, n.d.). coming to include civilian equipment, Although appearing to be the median and processes, and industries (Aeronautics most useful measurement, it is not Guide, n.d.). recommended to just use the 50th percentile

Body Mass Index, a measure calculated data as this will only suit a smaller from height and weight, is included in proportion of the population than the 5th to modern anthropometric measures and is 95th range will (Bridger, 2003; Bridger, often used in nutritional and exercise 2017; NASA, n.d.; Stack, 2016). studies, as well as a general measure of For design considerations it is important to health of a population, although how it is consider the demographics of different interpreted and its validity in certain populations and genders, for instance Male contexts is contested (Rolland-Cachera, Caucasian populations generally have 2020). larger measurements than Female Asian

Anthropometric studies have also been populations do (Hedge, 2013; Institute of used to describe and understand human Industrial & Systems Engineers, n.d.; adaption and adaptability to their NASA, n.d.; Nowak, 2001; Stack, 2016). environment, as well as to develop a Two important examples of this would be framework for understanding evolutionary using the 5th percentile of Asian Females to contexts (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020; determine the maximum distance a control Institute of Industrial & Systems Engineers, panel can be away from a user for it to be n.d.; Ulijaszek, 2010). operated comfortably, and the 95th percentiles of Caucasian Males to Modern anthropometric principles and determine upper limits on comfortable seat practices are used in the design processes of sizes (NASA, n.d.; Nowak, 2001). many things, such as building, vehicle, and furniture, and clothing design, taking into Aggregate measurements are an important account both static and dynamic measured aspect of anthropometric data when used data, to ensure the end user’s comfort and for ergonomic design to account for these ease of usability of the designed item individual variability, this is because an (Anthrotech, 2019; Bridger, 2003; Bridger, individual may be in a certain percentile for 2017; Designing Buildings, 2020; New one body dimension, such as the 5th, but be World Encyclopedia, 2016; Patel, 2018; in the 50th for another dimension (Bridger, Stack, 2016). Principles of anthropometry 2003; Bridger, 2017; Institute of Industrial have influenced the design of many things, & Systems Engineers, n.d.; Nowak, 2001). not only in how they are operated, but also A minimum sample size of 200 individuals in the manner they are assembled, and how is recommended by the World Health they are worked on should they need Organisation for anthropometric data when maintenance (Aeronautics Guide, n.d.; it is used for reference standards (Bridger, 30 2003; Bridger, 2017). Children, adults, and 2019; Biology Dictionary, 2017; Patel, those in wheelchairs are all routinely 2018). considered in the design process with anthropometric data used individually and Conclusions considered in whole of purpose design Anthropometry has roots dating back into (Bridger, 2003; Bridger, 2017; Designing prehistory with signs that the earliest stone Buildings, 2020; New World tools were designed to fit the hand that Encyclopaedia, 2016; Stack, 2016). wielded them. Later anthropometric type studies were conducted in ancient cultures Anthropometrics have been used to develop for the accurate depiction of the human somatotypes that describe human form in art works, as well as to be used to physiques, these fall into three main types, predict a person’s fortunes. More recently, Endomorph, Ectomorph, and Mesomorph anthropologists started to use (Biology Dictionary, 2017). Endomorphs anthropometric principles to measure have a tall, thin body type, Ectomorphs are populations, to track not only their shorter than Endomorphs, have linear body suitability for armed services, but also to shape and thin muscles, while Mesomorphs track growth rates and to get an idea of their have a rectangular shape and are broader nutrition. Anthropometry, through the than the other types (Biology Dictionary, efforts of many pioneering scientists 2017). expanded into many fields, including industrial design and criminal Controversial Use investigation, showing the potential it held In the eighteenth century as interest in for improving processes. In modern times, human biological variety was increasing with anthropometry having been well and as Europeans came into contact with a established and shown its utility, it is used greater range of peoples and cultures. in the design processes of every aspect of Anthropometry was used to justify theories modern life while also being used to study of humanity that were based on racial populations’ health and well-being. prejudices of the time and were not evidence based, with one such theory References positing that there were four “subdivisions" Adams, C. (2019). What is Anthropometry. of humans with their own unique traits, this ThoughtCo. theory was later overturned through https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is- empirical testing (Anthrotech, 2019; anthropometry-1206386 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020; Ulijaszek, Aeronautics Guide. (n.d.). History of Human 2010; Smith, 2019). Factors. https://www.aircraftsystemstech.com/2017/ In the late Victorian era, Francis Galton 07/history-of-human-factors.html started the eugenics movement, an idea that Albrizio, A. (2007). Biometry and promoted the “fitness” of one trait over Anthropometry: from Galton to another, and through this hoped to Constitutional Medicine. Journal of “improve” the genetic composition of the Anthropological Sciences, 85, 101-123. human race through selective breeding https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/55a4/74b6 (Adams, 2019; Gillham, 2001; Smith, 4892e0c9ad7edc498ac51c6723ea0dfa.pdf 2019). Galton used anthropometric Anthrotech. (2019). Anthropometry – A Brief History. principles to justify the theory of eugenics https://anthrotech.net/2019/12/02/anthropo (Adams, 2019; Gillham, 2001; Smith, metry-a-brief-history/ 2019). Biology Dictionary. (2017). Anthropometry. https://biologydictionary.net/anthropometry Anthropology and anthropometrics have /#:~:text=Who%20Developed%20Anthrop been used to justify many theories that have ometry%3A%20Alphonse%20Bertillon%2 a less than scientific basis, one such theory 0(1853%2D1914),- was Phrenology, the study of the head and Alphonse%20Bertillon%20was&text=Alth facial characteristics to determine ough%20the%20process%20of%20obtaini personality traits and the predisposition for ng,%E2%80%9D%20or%20%E2%80%9C criminality (Adams, 2019; Anthrotech, judicial%20anthropometry%E2%80%9D

31 Bridger, R. S. (2003). Introduction to 356. https://doi.org10.1127/0003- Ergonomics. (2nd ed.). Routledge. 5548/2009/0027 https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/curtin Lewis, J. R. (2011). Human Factors /reader.action?docID=181847 Engineering. In P. A. Laplante. Bridger, R. S. (2017). Introduction to Human Encyclopedia of Software Engineering. (1st Factors and Ergonomics. Taylor & Francis ed., pp. 383-394). CRC Press. Group. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=- https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/curtin 8yGDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover /reader.action?docID=5407656 Middlesworth, M. (2020). Ergonomics 101: Cuff, T. (n.d.). Historic Anthropometrics. The Definition, Domains, and Applications EH.net. of Ergonomics. ErgoPlus. https://ergo- https://eh.net/encyclopedia/historical- plus.com/ergonomics-definition-domains- anthropometrics/ applications/ Designing Buildings. (2020). Anthropometrics National Aeronautics and Space in architectural design. Administration. (n.d.) Anthropometry and https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki Biomechanics. /Anthropometrics_in_architectural_design https://msis.jsc.nasa.gov/sections/section03 Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2020). .htm Anthropometry: Physical Anthropology. New World Encyclopedia. (2016). https://www.britannica.com/science/anthro Anthropometry. pometry https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/ent Gillham, N. W. (2001). Sir Francis Galton and ry/Anthropometry the Birth of Eugenics. Annual Review of Nowak, E. (2001). Anthropometry for Design. Genetics, 35, 83-101. In W. Karwowski. International https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.35.1 Encyclopedia of Ergonomics and Human 02401.090055 Factors. (1st ed., pp. 875-878). CRC Press. Harris, B. (2009). Anthropometric history, https://books.google.com.au/books?id=rs44 gender and the measurement of well-being. QxArS4UC&printsec=frontcover Gender and Well-Being in Europe: Oxford Reference (2020). Anthropometry. Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10. 7, 1-35. 1093/oi/authority.20110803095416388 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2 Patel, P. (2018). History and Basics of 37260770_Anthropometric_history_gender Anthropometry. Gharpedia. _and_the_measurement_of_well-being https://gharpedia.com/blog/history-and- Harris, B. (2019). Anthropometric history and basics-of-anthropometry/ the measurement of wellbeing. Economic Piazza, P. (2016). Alphonse Bertillon and the History Society. Identification of Persons (1880-1914). https://ehsthelongrun.net/2019/05/02/anthr Museum of the History of Justice, Crime opometric-history-and-the-measurement- and Punishment. of-wellbeing/ https://criminocorpus.org/en/exhibitions/su Hedge, A. (2013). Anthropometry and spects-defendants-guilty/alphonse- Workspace Design. Cornell University. bertillon-and-identification-persons-1880- http://ergo.human.cornell.edu/studentdownl 1914/ oads/DEA3250pdfs/AnthroDesign.pdf Reed, M. P. (2020). Engineering Institute of Industrial & Systems Engineers Anthropometry. Research: Anthropometry. (n.d.). Z94.2 - Anthropometry & http://mreed.umtri.umich.edu/mreed/resear Biomechanics. ch_anthro.html https://www.iise.org/Details.aspx?id=2624 Rolland-Cachera, M. F., Akrout, M., Peneau, Kilgore, L. (2012). Anthropometric variance S. (2020). History and Meaning of The in humans: Assessing Renaissance Body Mass Index. Interest of Other concepts in modern applications. Anthropometric Measurements. In M. L. Anthropological Notebooks, 18(3), 13-23. Frelut (Ed.), The ECOG’s eBook on Child http://www.drustvo- and Adolescent Obesity. antropologov.si/AN/PDF/2012_3/Anthropo https://ebook.ecog-obesity.eu/chapter- logical_Notebooks_XVIII_3_Kilgore.pdf growth-charts-body-composition/history- Komlos J. (2009). Anthropometric history: an meaning-body-mass-index-interest- overview of a quarter century of anthropometric-measurements/ research. Anthropologischer Anzeiger; Shi, B. & Wu, C. (2015). Anthropometry in Bericht uber die biologisch- Ancient China Based on the Physiognomy anthropologische Literatur, 67(4), 341- Book of Divine Fortuneteller Ma Yi. 32 Proceedings of the 2nd Annual Author International Conference on Social Science and Contemporary Humanity Development, 70-75. https://doi.org/10.2991/sschd- 16.2016.14 Smith, E. (2019). “Why do we measure mankind?” Marketing anthropometry in late-Victorian Britain. Sage Journals, 58(2), 142-165. https://doi.org/10.1177/0073275319842977 Stack, T., Ostrom, L. T., Wilhelmsen, C. A. (2016). Occupational Ergonomics: A Practical Approach. John Wiley & Sons. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/curtin /reader.action?docID=4519159 Ulijaszek, S. & Komlos, J. (2010). From a History of Anthropometry to Anthropometric History. In C. G. N. Mascie-Taylor, A. Mr Jason Jenkin, AdvDip Work Health Yasukouchi, & S. Ulijaszek (Eds.), Human and Safety, AdvDip Occupational Health Variation: From the Laboratory to the Field (1st ed., pp. 183-187). CRC Press. and Safety, currently runs his own business https://books.google.com.au/books?id=S5nSgz and has worked for many years as a Safety f2MhQC&printsec=frontcover Advisor in the Manufacturing and Construction industries. Jason has extensive experience in Workplace and Occupational Health and Safety across multiple industries, retail, restaurant, construction, manufacturing, and mining. He also has accumulated many years of frontline experience with hands-on aspects of Health and Safety such as decades of first responder experience, incident investigations, safety training and verification, research and development of new strategies and tools, snake and other animal handling, as well as security, food safety, and interacting safely with intoxicated persons.

33 Planned Intervention of Behaviour-Based Safety (BBS) Helps Organizations Improve Their Safety Time Arithmetic

Dr. Harbans Lal Kaila, Professor of Psychology (Retd.) SNDT Women's University Mumbai; Director, Forum of Behavioural Safety, Mumbai, India Email: [email protected]

Abstract This article describes the value of an intervention of behaviour-based safety (BBS) that can increase the safety time of organizations for collective control of incidents and promote outcomes of positive safety culture as evidenced in research, field based interventions, experiences and practice. The results revealed that safety time arithmetic in organizations could be improved to obtain positive safety culture outcomes to save life and business in companies. The pain of daily fatalities at sites should become a motivational force for committed corporate leaders to achieve zero harm, zero at-risk behaviours, positive safety actions with every effort and cost, prepare their men and women at sites for daily observation and spot-correction of all at-risk behaviours and other hazards, and continue sharing positive safety actions throughout the organization.

Keywords. Organizations. BBS intervention. Safety-time. Incident. Culture. India.

Introduction Like a health risk such as the Corona virus, the big brother safety (BBS) observers at a single person, if not controlled, can shake sites/plants. True BBS observers don't a country badly. Similarly a single safety at- differentiate amongst people while saving risk behaviour, like a procedural violation, their life from at-risk behaviours. They can destroy a business organization. Indian don't differentiate in observing people due industry with a large diversified workforce to their education, income, designation or and work cultures, has on an average 30 age. True observers save people equally. percent of at-risk/harm behaviours, Equality in saving people from even resulting in daily work related fatalities and smallest injuries is valued by a true and disabilities. Unsafe acts have been active observer. BBS is a worldwide identified as a major factor of incidents and application of behavioural science to save accidents (Xu, Zou & Luo, 2018). In life and business from incidents. behaviour-based safety (BBS), it is believed/ practiced that 5 minutes Methodology observation-cum-spot-correction of This paper is an interdisciplinary unsafe/at-risk behaviours daily by the intervention of behavioral science, company employees is considered as: management and industrial safety 5 minutes used in saving a life; disciplines that are part of an ongoing 5 minutes of sharing goodness; national longitudinal action survey in India. 5 minutes practice in humanity; Thematic data analysis was used to reflect 5 minutes of brotherhood; the findings. The BBS program as part of 5 minutes of affection; this action survey was implemented in 5 minutes of caring; diverse locations in India for employees of 5 minutes of safety dialogue; multinational companies that were trained 5 minutes of empathy; as BBS mentors and observers during the 5 minutes safety involvement; years 2018-20. This program included the 5 minutes of zero incident; concept and process of BBS, plant visits for 5 minutes of zero-harm culture. observation and correction of at-risk BBS is an approach to save employees from behaviors, developing road map for the traumas of injuries and incidents in implementation of BBS, developing industry. Like a child feels safe with their training module for imparting training to all mother, the person observed feels safe with employees, formation and functions of 34 BBS steering team. More than 5000 6. The level of informed behavioural risk training participants included managers, increased after BBS was rolled out at heads of departments, contractors, safety sites, because the behavioural risk officers and contractors’ staff belonging to monitoring increased, not only by the the public and private industrial sectors safety department, but also by the BBS such as chemicals, construction, gas, observers of each department and work power, and steel across geographic area. locations. See figure 1. 7. Safety Time. It is important that the heads of departments ensure their Results and Findings colleagues are giving safety time of 5 The following findings and themes minutes every day. The Chief Executive emerged from the data collected as Officer (CEO) has to announce this described in the methodology. message on the BBS launch day. Being 1. Safety behaviours can be defined, a safety caretaker, empathizing concern observed, corrected on the spot, for life without injury is what is called measured, implemented, and sustained suraksha seva parmo dharam which (Kaila, 2018). BBS implementation is means safety service is superb likely to collapse if these aspects are religiousness. Safety time gets increased missed. multifold when everyone gives 5 2. Lack of understanding the BBS minutes. It is of paramount importance concept/process is adversely that organizations improve their safety proportional to its implementation by time arithmetic by increasing BBS people at sites. Those who understand trained observers. More safety time implement it and vice versa. Hence, it leads to less unwanted incidents at site. becomes crucial for each Head of More parameters can be identified in Department to ensure this repeatedly for order to improve and sustain creating a true interdependent safety organizational safety time arithmetic, culture. In a Malaysian Oil and Gas such as reward and recognition to Companies’ case study (Ismail et al., observers. Great safety leaders spend 2011), it was found that lack of time out where their employees are. It’s leadership was the primary cause of where the real work gets done, the shop ineffective implementation of BBS. The floor (Mark, 2019). role of top management is important to make safety programs successful and Clarifications on BBS sustainable. Possibly, the government Q: What is BBS implementation? safety rules and industry bodies should A: Involving everyone in actively make BBS implementation mandatory correction of behaviour is BBS for every organization in the interest of implementation. An employee who does an people’s life and company business. at-risk behaviour is convinced 3. A reactive/ blame /punishment safety subconsciously that it is safe as he or she culture will not allow BBS culture to has been engaged in working this way for a survive, as a reactive culture is long time. When everyone around observes inherently negative and a BBS culture is and convinces him/her to correct it, the positive and supportive. correction power serves as a group 4. It would be very important and helpful influence and dynamic force for him/her to to fix and follow the strict timelines get corrected. Finally he/ she becomes strategically to control the existing at- conscious of this behaviour and keeps risk behaviours identified with doing correction on his/her own. immediate effect by everyone. 5. BBS is essentially a planned/Informed Q: We started this exercise in the month of organizational intervention initiated by June, every month tracking is done. The the company top management along graph is showing uneven trend. Seniors with a behavioural scientist for its are asking why it is not in decreasing implementation. trend. Please give your comment on it. A: People need to be communicated about daily observation of at-risk behaviours and their spot-correction through mass- 35 communications, public address system processes provided by the employer or (PAS) as well as tool box talk (TBT) by CEO, employees will be unable to work their heads of departments. This is part of safely and work related injuries, ill health the BBS action plan. You will see the trend and deaths will continue to occur, no matter changes on implementing this aspect. how much employees are trained to work in unsafe situations or with unsafe equipment Q: How to implement BBS in a company? or products. Handholding companies to A: Behaviour-based Safety commences reduce injuries through series of systematic with the safety professional and others training in BBS implementation plan performing observations on the CEO to spanning a year or two and get them BBS check that the company CEO is ensuring certified is also recommended. that the workplace, all work processes, all equipment and products used by employees Q: How to collect BBS data? How to is fit for purpose and safe. The employer / approach observee for correcting at risk CEO controls the finances and makes the behaviour for your group? decisions on how this money is spent. A: refer to the following two tables, A and Without a safe workplace and work B.

A. How to approach an observee for correcting at risk behaviour for your group

Sl. 11Ps Description No. 1 Parikarma: Take an observation round of your unit/plant and observe your own group at any one observation site for 5- 10 Minutes on daily basis. round 2 Prashan: If you find any one at risk, Put a question to an observe whether he is safe question 3 Prashansa: If you find someone always demonstrating safe behaviour, please praise for his safe praise behaviours to reinforce. 4 Parivartan: If you find someone at risk behaviour, try to correct him by positive feedback and change convert his unsafe behaviours to safe. 5 Prashiksan: If you feel someone at risk behaviour due to lack of training, then please educate/re- educate train him for his unsafe behaviours. 6 Pratigya: oath After counselling, please take an oath/promise from him that he will not repeat unsafe behaviours in future. 7 Prachar: spread Ask an observee to observe another co-worker and do spot correction. This will help in involving 100% employee and strengthen internal implementation. 8 Prarthana: Behave Like big brother not like Boss, than only observee will be in acceptance mode request 9 Purushkar: Develop a system of Spot-reward and recognition to observee to motivate them reward 10 Promise: Take a promise from observee that, observee would also observe the observer, so that he will feel empowered 11 Pursue: It need continuous effort for make BBS success, so inform observee that others will also observe you if you repeat at-risk behaviours

36 A. Suppose you have 10 persons in one group and want to observe that group while working on the 10 parameters below.

Sl. Behaviour How to collect data Safe At-Risk Spot No. Behaviour Behaviour Correction 1 Use of PPE's Suppose 8 person are perfect but one is not 8 2 1 using a chin belt + one found without safety shoe. Spot correction done to belt person, but unable to correct person not wearing safety shoes. 2 Housekeeping If you are observing two spots and find one 1 1 0 good housekeeping but one unsafe condition and not able to correct immediately

3 Using If only 4 out of 10 are used while you were 2 2 2 tools/Equipment observing+ found two person using correct tools, but other two were either using wrong tools or defective tools and you are able to correct both of them 4 Body positioning Out of 10 workers during 10 minute of 7 3 3 observation, found 7 with perfect position, but three of them with at-risky behaviour and corrected all of them 5 Material handling If a material is being handled by three person 0 3 0 in a wrong manner then it will be three if not able to correct them 6 Communication If two persons communicating regarding job 2 0 0 and if it is correct 7 Following If SOP is followed, but work permit was not 1 1 1 procedures taken. You are able to stop the job and convince them to take a work permit 8 Visual focusing If out of 10, three are found not alert while 7 3 3 working, but you are able to do spot correction

9 Using mobile while During 10 minute of observation, you found 5 3 2 1 working persons used mobile. Three of them moved out of workplace and used mobile, but two of them started speaking while working, but you could correct one of them 10 Road Safety While coming to duty or while going home, 7 3 1 behaviours check if all of them taking care of road safety. If three found at-risk, but able to correct one of them

37 Figure 1. Example picture of a BBS training workshop of employees

Figure 2. Uflex Chemicals BBS Performance 2018-19 v/s 2019-20

99 Following Procedures 83 97 Material Handling 77 100 Using tools & equipments 82 93 Visual Focusing 82 96 Communications 77 98 Housekeeping 76 100 PPE 79 93 Body positioning 82 100 Using mobile while working 97 0 50 100 150 % On the spot correction % On the spot correction 2019-20 2018-19

All behaviours are spot-correctable, so let Based Safety program directly involves the all observers emphasize on the spot- employer and employees in accident correction of all at-risk behaviours. They prevention by their involvement and need to be trained during mass- participation in workplace safety. communications and to be told regularly for Implementation of BBS changes the observation/spot-correction daily. approach of individual, as I am responsible for my own safety as- I follow the rules Experiences and outcomes of BBS because I want to be safe Indian Multinationals Jindal Steel Plant Behaviour Based Safety programs are Bhilai Steel Plant currently being used as an effective At the Bhilai Steel plant for sustaining the techniques in safety programs. BBS culture, daily monitoring, weekly reporting, monthly review, conducting Behaviour Based Safety programs use regular training on BBS by trained faculty, positive reinforcement to prevent work display banners for maximum awareness, related injuries and illness. Behaviour 38 empowering observee and observer, behaviour by 100% and promoting display BBS achievement at prominent proactive reporting as much as possible for locations. (i.e. Best observer, Best BBS making this workplace site one of the implemented site, project BBS safest. performance data.) and quarterly review for continual improvement are being done. Conclusion and Implications Constant disregard for dignity to life and ONGC having a safe environment by the industry For ONGC safety and safe behaviour has leadership led to incidents resulting in a been included in the Performance Appraisal loss of life as well as company business. Report of individual employees. These Achieving and sustaining an injury-free measures helped management to sustain the workplace demanded strong leadership BBS program even after 2 years of its (Jim Spigener, 2019). BBS concept and launch. approach, as implemented by many organizations, has resulted in positive Tata Projects outcomes in safety culture management. The simplest and most effective way to BBS has been successfully implemented in implement a BBS is to coach a set of India by organisations that include Bilag, employees on keeping an eye out for GAIL, HPCL, IOCL, L&T, AFCONS, Unsafe Actions and stop by doing their bit Vedanta, Tata Projects, Sterlite, Privi, to coach, counsel & correct their HCC, DCM Shriram, Dorf Ketal, behaviours through a positive interaction. Sembcorp, Galaxy Surfactants, SAIL, Essentially, if every one of the observers Jindal, Uflex, TRL, IGL, Agrocel, Torrent, ensures they never walk past anyone Aarti, Solaris, CFCL, Bayer’s Crop working unsafely - this sets the tone for an Science, Oil India, Greentech, Sanofi- acceptable culture that does not tolerate Aventis, Sabic, Piramal, Bajaj Auto, deviations. Volkswagen, etc. As a result of the ISO AFCONS 45001: Occupational Health and Safety At AFCONS BBS has been a long-drawn (2020), organizations are increasingly out approach and necessitated patience and implementing behavioural safety approach perseverance, so, there was carefully at sites. It is much easier to increase the manoeuvring for the entire process of safety time out by employees and workmen observation and analysis. Giving-up is following BBS concepts (Forum of never a solution to the process of BBS. It Behavioural Safety, 2020). needs a careful and periodic boost in the The safety time arithmetic of an form of re-inventing the process or re- organization depends upon the following viewing for improvement. calculation of the lead indicators numbers 1 DCM Shriram to 8 and 10 as follows and the number 9 lag For DCM Shriram the safety performance indicator. is continued to be assessed by tracking both 1. Number/sufficiency/quality of BBS leading and lagging indicators and trainings conducted by expert. accordingly identifying areas for building a 2. Number/percentage of observers strong safety culture at this work place. developed amongst employees for each With this approach of reinforcing positive work area. behaviour through the BBS program, it was 3. Number /percentage of HODs involved. anticipated that a Zero Accident goal should 4. Number/percentage of contractors staff be achieved in the near future making involved in observation and spot- safety a way of life. correction. 5. Number of Mass-communications held Uflex Chemicals in each month. At Uflex Chemicals though it is initial 6. Number of TBTs (Tool Box Talk) stages of BBS implementation significant being conducted each month. improvements have been observed in the 7. Number /percentage of seniors involved last two years. See figure 2. The company in observation and spot-corrections. is in the process of eliminating the unsafe 39 8. Number of monthly BBS review analysis of other organizations. How to meetings held by departments. continue and sustain this intervention. How 9. Number/percentage of incidents to develop an interdependent safety culture. reduced. Monitoring of BBS outcomes and risk 10 Whether the last person at the control measures implemented. Reward workplace received training in BBS and and recognition for motivation to participated in observation and spot- observers. Roadmap for further correction of at-risk behaviours at site. implementation of BBS. Impact of at-risk behaviours on business of the company etc. Mark each of the above aspects out of 10. This training module needs to be given to Then calculate your organizational safety MD, CEO, all VPs, GMs, HODs including time score? Total score 10 x 10 = 100. This business, finance, operations etc. This basic, practical and rapid method of approach was used in all organizations calculation would decide which aspects mentioned above (Kaila, 2019). need more focus to improve safety time score of the site. If this score is increasingly As seen at Uflex Chemicals, and at other higher each month, positive outcomes of companies, behaviour-based safety can safety culture can be reaped. This overall contribute to making safety a way for life safety time arithmetic, in turn, would affect for everyone at the workplace. A motto of the frequency of incidents at work sites. behaviour-based safety is to save others, Some organizations are slow, whereas save yourself as big brother of safety. others are fast in obtaining this score depending upon the focus, emphasis and References regular monitoring of leaders at all levels: Forum of Behavioural Safety (2020). Souvenir top to bottom. Applied behavioural science of 4th National BBS Conference held at is a science of actions of which BBS is an Scope complex, New Delhi on 17th application and a planned intervention of January 2020. Besafe.org.in the company management to save both life Ismail, F., Hashim, A. E., Zuriea, W., Ismail, and business from incidents. People in W., Kamarudin, H., & Baharom, Z. A. (2011). Behaviour based approach for organizations value safety when everyone quality and safety environment engages in safety for a couple of minutes, improvement: Malaysian experience in the and then it becomes an organizational oil and gas industry. Procedia-Social and value. The above 10 lead and lag indicators Behavioural Sciences, 35, 586-594. are mechanisms to actionize safety time. ISO 45001: Occupational Health and Safety (2020). https://www.iso.org/iso-45001- Since the role of top managements is occupational-health-and-safety.html significant, it is important to design a BBS Kaila, H. (2018). Behavioural Intervention in sensitization-training workshop for them Safety Management of Indian Corporates. including the components such as hazard Journal of Psychosocial Research. 13(1), identification, risk assessment, risk 165-188. management, safety and risk control Kaila H. (2019). Behaviour based safety: evaluation, effective communication, simple and scientific approach for clarity on scientific concepts of BBS, what corporates. Industrial Safety Chronicle, is BBS and what it is not. How to measure Vol. L (3), 69-72, Oct-Dec. 2019. Middlesworth, M. (2019). 25 Signs You Have behavioural safety in organizations. Which An Awesome Safety Culture. https://ergo- behaviours to observe and how to interact plus.com/25-signs-you-have-an-awesome- during risk-based conversation. BBS as a safety-culture/ well-planned and informed organizational Spigener, J (2019). Safety Leadership: Why intervention. Display of BBS banners and system-focused behaviour-based safety is monthly scoreboard. How to conduct BBS the real deal. steering team meeting every month, https://www.safetyandhealthmagazine.com/ including BBS in weekly mass- authors/7-jim-spigener. communications and daily, digitally Xu, S., Zou, P., & Luo, H. (2018). Impact of enabled BBS checklist. Understanding risk attitudinal ambivalence on safety behaviour in construction. Advances in Civil Engineering, management and behavioural analysis of hindawi.com their own site for spot-correction. Case 40

Author

Dr. Harbans Lal Kaila, earned his Masters’ degree in Psychology from Guru Nanak Dev University and Doctorate from Tata Institute of Social Sciences. He is a retired Professor of Organizational Psychology with 36 years of professional experience. He has published books/articles and participated in national/international conferences. He pioneered BBS training in India, conducted about 1000 BBS workshops in India/abroad and is a member expert panel for the National Safety Council. He served as assistant director at the Central Labour Institute, Ministry of Labour for 10 years and as a Professor at the SNDT Women’s university for 18 years at Mumbai. He is a resource person for many organizations in India. Dr. Kaila represented India in Conferences held in New York, Berlin, Japan, Muscat, Rome, New Zealand, London, Egypt and Sydney. He is an Editor of the Journal of Psychosocial Research and Director of the Forum of Behavioural Safety.

41 Physical ergonomic issues in the mining industry: A review of national and international statistics

Nicole Hammond – Bachelor of Science (Health, Safety and Environment) at Curtin University, Western Australia. Email: [email protected]

Abstract The mining industry can be an unsafe environment with high levels of injury due to the physical nature of manual work on mine sites. This paper examines a variety of physical ergonomic issues that are prevalent in the mining industry and contribute to the high level of work-related musculoskeletal disorders among mining workers. The most significant physical ergonomic issues within the industry are awkward postures, forceful exertion, whole-body vibration and repetitive movements. Throughout this review, the physical ergonomic issues have been analysed and the effects discussed, looking at different mining environments both nationally and internationally. This paper examines the types of work-related musculoskeletal disorders result from mining work and how the physical ergonomic issues can be prevented.

Introduction The mining industry is classified as being positions and little variation in tasks, which relatively unsafe in comparison to other increases the number of risk encounters and industries, with workers in the field being poses risks to the health and safety of more vulnerable to suffering fatal and non- workers. The mining industry is focused on fatal injuries and illnesses due to the physical economic profit, quality and productivity, so nature of manual work (Kim, 2018). the issues of physical ergonomics can often Australian figures show four fatalities be rejected. Implementing more effective occurred in the 2017-18 period as well as 296 physical ergonomic principles can help to serious lost time injuries which lead to improve this unsafe environment (Arruda & workers having two or more weeks off work. Gontijo, 2012). Injuries to the back, knee, shoulder and hand made up the largest proportion of the serious Methodology injuries and occurred mostly in the form of systematic review of articles was performed sprain, strain or fracture. The type of initially using the Curtin University Library accidents that contribute to the high injury with the keywords ‘physical ergonomics’ and rate on mine sites are usually caused by over- ‘mining’ used and further filtered to peer- exertion, strenuous movements and stepping reviewed, full-text and English only articles all of which are physical (Department of between the years of 2010-2020. This refined Mines, Industry Regulation and Safety, the search down to 1,389 results with three of 2019). the articles being taken into consideration for use in the literature review. Additional Mining workers are exposed to a variety of resources were found using Google Scholar, physical ergonomic issues which include ProQuest, ResearchGate and by back- awkward postures, forceful exertions, searching through bibliographies in resources vibrations and repetitive movements which using the same search criteria and keywords. elevate the risk of work-related A total of 43 articles were obtained from the musculoskeletal disorders developing (Tak et above sources, abstracts were examined, and al., 2011). Because mining workers are in a irrelevant articles were excluded (-22). dynamic and challenging environment, they are exposed to heavy physical work, long A total of 21 publications are cited in this displacements, sedentary work in awkward literature review, several being qualitative 42 research discussing the emerging physical To avoid mining workers working in ergonomic issues in the mining environment. awkward postures, manual tasks should be Eight of the publications are research studies, limited to movements that are within the four are journal articles, three are books and neutral joint range. This is a challenge six are government resources. Searches were especially in underground mine sites where also conducted on the Australian there is restricted space available and it is a Government and Safe Work Australia necessity to work in awkward postures. At website where six further resources were the very least, grasp reach limits should be accessed. within the range of the smallest limiting user and all controls be able to operate without Discussion workers having to stay in awkward postures There are several issues with physical for long periods (Horberry et al., 2011). ergonomics in mining environments including awkward postures, forceful Forceful Exertion exertion, vibration in the body and repetitive Handling heavy loads in the form of pushing, movements. These issues all lead to work- pulling, holding, lifting and lowering causes related musculoskeletal disorders and other injury in the body from the force being injuries if suitable control measures are not greater than certain body parts can resist. put into place. A variety of national and Forceful exertion includes short-term international statistics examine the effect of exposure to a relatively large force (sudden- physical ergonomic issues on mining workers onset injuries) or accumulation of muscle (Lööw, Johansson, Andersson & Johansson, damage from long-term exposure beyond the 2018). tissue’s capacity (gradual-onset injuries). The likelihood of injury depends on the level of Awkward Postures force involved, the distance of the load from Awkward postures refer to manual tasks on the body, the mass of the load and the friction mine sites that include scenarios such as involved. High-speed movements and rapid lifting objects above and below the normal changes in direction of movement reduce the bodily range, working with the back, neck or strength of muscles and increase the risk of wrist bent without support or injury (Horberry et al., 2011). squatting/kneeling for long periods. Such postures cause discomfort as they In mine sites, most injuries are caused by the significantly deviate from the neutral position small forces required in simple tasks that of joints (Horberry, Burgess-Limerick & create small tears in the muscles and lead to Steiner, 2011). In a study researching the long-term injury over time. Roof bolting is a prevalence of ergonomic risks factors in primary task on mine sites that can be underground mine sites in Zambia, 202 male physically demanding and requires mine workers were questioned. 100 out of the continuous forceful exertions in awkward 202 mine workers reported having to work in postures and confined environments. The awkward postures as part of their daily jobs, mine safety and health administration with electricians and mechanics on the mine (MSHA) study examining roof bolting data site suffering the most. 87% of the from 2003-14 in the U.S. showed that roof electricians on the mine site and 66% of the bolting caused 3,411 lost-time injuries mechanics reported working in awkward resulting in 213,254 lost working days. From postures for long durations which included this data, it is evident that tasks such as roof bending and twisting the neck and back, bolting on mine sites can create strain in the working above their heads and excessive body affecting the shoulders, back, forearms kneeling which contributes to the overall and neck and needs intervention to reduce the large prevalence of lower back and risk of long-term injury (Sammarco, wrist/hand injuries in the Zambian mining Podlesny, Rubinstein & Demich, 2016). sector (Kunda, Frantz & Karachi, 2013).

43 Whole Body Vibration physically or mentally demanding Whole-body vibration (WBV) is a common (Department of Mines, Industry Regulation physical ergonomic issue in mining and Safety, 2014). In the mining environments. WBV most commonly occurs environment, repetitive work comes in the when driving heavy earth moving machinery form of manually tightening bolts, using (HEMM) such as dozers and trucks. In a equipment controls such as joysticks and study of the effect of HEMM on workers’ grease guns. This increases the pressure on health in Indian mines, the conducted surveys nerves and creates damage over time show that vibration levels when operating the (NIOSH, 2018). In a U.S. study completed in machinery were greater than the ISO 2010, researching the national burden of recommended standards, increasing the risk physical ergonomic hazards among workers, of adverse health effects occurring in workers repetitive motion was the most prevalent (Mandal, Sarkar & Chatterjee, 2011). issue affecting 27% of U.S. workers daily. Of Another study conducted by Mandal et al. the 4,950 miners surveyed, 97.1% reported (2011) concluded that out of 117 HEMM making repetitive motions for more than half operators, 100% of dozers, 95% of loaders of the time in their job (Tak & Calvert, 2011). and 90% of dumpers and tippers experienced frequent whole-body vibrations leading to Repetition is extremely common in mining detrimental health risks. Out of a further 48 environments as workers are commonly HEMM operators, 85% complained of operating large machinery, this can lead to WMSDs in the back, shoulder, knees and extended periods of bending the neck and neck. back to view work properly and twisting of the body while reversing (Safe Work Exposure to WBV disturbs working comfort, Australia, 2018). Repetition is not just working efficiency and compromises common when operating heavy earth moving workers’ health and safety which is a machinery, another common issue in mining contributing factor for musculoskeletal environments is the lifting of heavy objects disorders mostly affecting the spine and repetitively in the processing plants. This lower back. Vibration is usually transmitted contributes to the high level of wrist sprains through the floor or seat in heavy vehicles and other musculoskeletal disorders among and machinery when driving over rough mining workers (Department of Mines, surfaces (Safe Work Australia, 2018). Industry Regulation and Safety, 2019). Other According to the International Organisation areas of the body include the legs and arms for Standardization (ISO) who released the that are constantly being elevated and put into ISO 2631-1:1997 standard, a worker can be non-neutral positions while bending down exposed to a total of 8.5m/s1.75 vibration dose and reaching up in processing plants (Tak et value (VDV) in 8 hours, but if a worker al., 2011). Repetitive movements are an works a longer shift and has a 12-hour ergonomic issue as they slowly break down exposure, the intensity must be lowered to certain muscles of the body and lead to long- account for the additional exposure. If the term injury. exposure goes higher than 17m/s1.75 (VDV) this is likely to cause a risk to the workers’ Work-related Musculoskeletal Disorders health. The standard states that the effects of Work-related musculoskeletal disorders WBV may be manifold, including causing (WMSDs) are chronic disorders that cause discomfort, physiological damage and damage to the tendons, muscles, nerves and influencing performance capability, vascular system of humans and are a result of alongside several other health and safety a persons’ work activities. Over the last issues (ISO, 1997). couple of decades, the mining industry has shifted its focus away from manual labour Repetitive Movements and towards a mechanised way of working. Task repetition includes inadequate variation Many mining jobs are spent operating heavy and excessive periods of tasks that are either earth moving machinery including loaders, 44 excavators and dumpers. But many mining to health and safety. (Department of Mines jobs still include strenuous work that includes and Petroleum, 2010). mining workers doing their work in awkward postures, with repetitive forceful exertions The physical ergonomic issues that have been and vibrations that contribute to discussed in this review should be identified musculoskeletal stress. Neglecting in all mine sites with the risks assessed. To ergonomic principles in the mining industry control the hazards, the hierarchy of risk leads to the high prevalence of WMSDs control measures should be implemented and including joint pains, backache and cervical where practicable, exposure should be spondylitis. Those who work underground limited to the risk factors of awkward are at a higher risk of developing a WMSD, postures, forceful exertion, whole-body especially in the neck and low back regions vibration and repetitive movements and as they are in confined environments where possible these risks should be (Mandal, 2014). eliminated (Department of Mines and Petroleum, 2010). Workers must be selected In a study conducted by Mandal & Manwar based on their physical capabilities to (2017) forty-six operators from an opencast maximise the fit between the work mine in India were recruited for a cross- environment and the person and the limiting sectional study on the prevalence of users of equipment should be taken into musculoskeletal disorders among heavy earth account. The cost of implementing long-term moving machinery operators. The results of ergonomic strategies would ultimately be the study showed that lower back pain was regarded as an investment with benefits to the the most prevalent WMSD and overall the health and safety of all mining workers risk analysis showed an increase in the (Schutte, 2011). likelihood of developing a WMSD because of the high exposure to risk factors such as Figure 1 WBV. Overall, 83% of the subjects reported Risk Management Process having lower back pain, 30% of the group reported having neck pain, 30% knee pain, 28% shoulder pain and 39% of the group required some sort of medical attention over the course of their work at the mine site. WMSDs are also reported to be highly prevalent among miners in Australia, USA, Sweden and Spain, with other countries having a lack of awareness and statistical evidence of the issue (Elgstrand & Vingard, 2013). The prevention of WMSDs is one of the most current risk control needs of the mining industry, with the physical activity Note. From National Code of Practice for the Prevention of levels of mining workers reaching unhealthy Musculoskeletal Disorders from Performing Manual Tasks limits in many countries (Elgstrand & at Work (p. 23), by Safe Work Australia, 2007, Vingard, 2013). Commonwealth of Australia (https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/system/files/docum Controlling Physical Ergonomic Issues ents/1702/nationalcodeofpractice_preventionofmusculoskel etaldisordersfromperformingmanualtasksatwork_2007_pdf. To control physical ergonomic issues in the pdf). Copyright 2007 Commonwealth of Australia mining industry, a series of preventative control measures need to be put into place on Automation and mechanisation of mining mine sites. Firstly, a strong top-down equipment is an emerging risk control commitment to management is essential. A measure that reduces WMSD levels at mine risk management approach is effective to sites, increasing productivity and reducing promote a participative ergonomics approach physical activity levels in workers. Manual 45 handling should be avoided where possible Department of Mines and Petroleum. (2010). and tasks should be redesigned to replace Implementing an effective program to high risk activities with low risk activities manage the risks associated with manual (Dempsey, Kocher, Nasarwanji, Pollard & tasks: Guidance for mining workplaces. Whitson, 2018). The design of machinery http://www.dmp.wa.gov.au/Documents/Safet y/MSH_G_ImplementingProgramsToManag and equipment should be the biggest focus eRisksAssociatedWithManualTasks.pdf and operators should be trained and further Elgstrand, K., & Vingard, M. E. (2013). upskilled to promote healthy working Occupational safety and health in mining: conditions. Vibration levels in HEMM Anthology on the situation in 16 mining should be regularly monitored, road countries. Work and Health, 47(2). conditions examined, speed limits should be https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/32882/ set and regular breaks ‘out of seat’ should be 1/gupea_2077_32882_1.pdf implemented. Any control measures put into Horberry, T., Burgess-Limerick, R., & Steiner, place should be monitored and reviewed L. (2011). Human factors for the design, regularly and new strategies put into place if operation and maintenance of mining needed (Lööw et al., 2018). equipment (1st ed.). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781439802335 Conclusions International Organisation for Standardization Overall, the mining industry is a high-risk (1997). Mechanical vibration and shock – Evaluation of human exposure to whole-body environment where physical ergonomic vibration. (ISO 2631-1:1997). issues are prevalent. Work-related https://www.iso.org/standard/7612.html musculoskeletal disorders are a serious and Kim, I. -J. (2018). Ergonomic inputs for the emerging issue on mine sites, especially for improvement of safety and health exercises underground mine workers and those who in the mining industry. Journal of operate HEMM. Appropriate risk control Ergonomics, 8(1). measures need to be put in place to protect the https://doi.org/10.4172/2165-7556.1000e177 health and safety of mining workers around Kunda, R., Frantz, J., & Karachi, F. (2013). the world and create a healthy mining Prevalence and ergonomic risk factors of environment. work-related musculoskeletal injuries amongst underground mine workers in References Zambia. Journal of Occupational Health, 55, Arruda, A., & Gontijo, L. (2012). Application of 211-217. https://doi.org/10.1539/joh.11- ergonomics principles in underground mines 0175-FS through the Occupational Safety and Health Lööw J., Johansson, B., Andersson, E., & Management System. Work, 41, 4460-4467. Johansson, J. (2018). Designing ergonomic, https://doi.org/10.3233/wor-2012-0119-4460 safe and attractive mining workplaces (1st Dempsey, P., Kocher, L., Nasarwanji, M., ed.). CRC Press. Pollard, J., & Whitson, A. (2018). Emerging https://doi.org/10.1201/b22294 ergonomic issues and opportunities in Mandal, B. (2014). Implementation of DGMS mining. International Journal of guidelines for ergonomics risk assessment of Environmental Research and Public Health, mining operations. National Institute of 15(11), 2449. Miners’ Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112449 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275 Department of Mines, Industry Regulation and 017928 Safety. (2019). Safety performance in the Mandal, B., Sarkar, K., & Chatterjee, D. (2011). Western Australian mineral industry: Classification of mining equipment used in Accident and injury statistics 2017-18. Indian according to their vibration hazard https://www.dmp.wa.gov.au/Documents/Safe potential. National Institute of Miners’ ty/MSH_Stats_Reports_SafetyPerfWA_2017 Health. -18.pdf https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229 Department of Mines, Industry Regulation and 140442_Classification_of_Mining_Equipme Safety. (2014). Fatigue. nt_Used_in_India_According_to_their_Vibra https://www.commerce.wa.gov.au/worksafe/f tion_Hazard_Potential atigue-0 Mandal, B., Sarkar, K., Chatterjee, D., & 46 Sishodiya, P. (2011). Health risk assessment & Demich, B. (2016) An analysis of roof of operators of HEMMs exposed to whole bolter fatalities and injuries in U.S. mining. body vibration in Indian mines. National Transactions of Society for Mining, Institute of Miners’ Health. Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc, 340(1), 11- http://www.nimh.gov.in/downloads/publicati 20. https://doi.org/10.19150/trans.7322 on/ICMSP2011_Abstract%20vibration.pdf Schutte, S. (2011). Ergonomics as a practice for Pollard, J., Dempsey, P., Nasarwanji, M., & safe and healthy mining in South African Porter, W. (2018). Simple solutions for mines. African Newsletter on Occupational surface mine workers. National Institute for Health and Safety, 21, 11-12. Occupational Safety and Health. http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/handle/ https://doi.org/10.26616/NIOSHPUB201811 10204/5517 7 Tak, Sangwoo., & Calvert, G. (2011). The Safe Work Australia. (2018). Hazardous manual estimated national burden of physical tasks: Code of Practice. ergonomic hazards among US workers. https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/system American Journal of Industrial Medicine, /files/documents/1905/model-cop-hazardous- 54(5), 395-404. manual-tasks.pdf https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.20883 Safe Work Australia. (2007). National Code of Tak, Sangwoo., Buchholz, B., Punnett, L., Moir, Practice for the prevention of S., Paquet, V., Fulmer, S., Marucci-Wellman, musculoskeletal disorders from performing H., & Wegman, D. (2011). Physical manual tasks at work. ergonomic hazards in highway tunnel https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/system construction: Overview from the /files/documents/1702/nationalcodeofpractice Construction Occupational Health Program. _preventionofmusculoskeletaldisordersfromp Applied Ergonomics, 42, 665-671. erformingmanualtasksatwork_2007_ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2010.10.001 Sammarco, J. J., Podelsny, A., Rubinstein, E. N.,

Author

Nicole Hammond is currently completing her second year in Health, Safety and Environment at Curtin University, Western

Australia. Nicole’s areas of interest include

high risk environments (mining and construction), underground mining, open-cut mining and occupational hygiene. Nicole aims to gain experience in the mining sector through her work placement opportunities and grow a career in the iron ore or gold mining industry when she graduates.

47 New Employees Accident and Injury Rates in Australia: A review of the literature Anna McGowan, Dr Karen Klockner and Dr Yvonne Toft, Central Queensland University. Email: [email protected]

Abstract According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS, 2018) every year in Australia there are more than half a million work related accidents and injuries. The financial, human and social costs of work related accidents and injuries are a major concern for not only individual workplaces but at all levels for International and National authorities. International research since 1917 has consistently demonstrated that, irrespective of age, experience and industry, the occupational group at greatest risk of accidents and injuries are those employees with less than 12 months experience in their current job role. Whilst the elevated risk for new employees has always been concerning, recent organisational developments such as globalisation and increased non-standard employment, as well as workers changing jobs more frequently have strengthened these concerns. A review of the Australian and International literature has shown that approximately 30% to 40% of new employees sustain an injury within the first year of employment. Research in Australia on this topic, however, appears to be lagging and is worthy of further attention and a stronger focus on how to remediate this global issue. Compared to other countries such as Canada, Italy, France, Thailand, Africa and America, Australia has limited research on new employee accident and incident rates available, reflecting a lack of focus on this issue. The Australian data shows that in general, the workforce is evolving and that the incident rates change depending on new employee rates.

Keywords: New Employees. Accident Rates. Injury Rates. Tenure. Age. Turnover. Safety.

Introduction Accident and injury rates in Australia are still Whilst the elevated risk of injury for new unacceptably high and the financial, human employees, defined here as employees with and social costs are a major concern. In 2016, less than 12 months experience in their there were 182 work related fatalities in current job role, has always been alarming Australia, in comparison to other countries and globalization, increased non-standard such as United States (5,190) (Bureau of employment as well as workers changing Labour Statistics 2016), Canada (905) jobs more frequently, have strengthened (Association of Workers Compensation these concerns (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996; Boards of Canada 2016) and United Hall, 1996; McCrindle, 2014). According to Kingdom (137) (Health and Safety Executive Breslin and Smith (2006), the one group at 2016). In 2018 in Australia, 563,600 or 4.2 greatest risk of accidents and injuries are new percent of the working population employees, irrespective of age or industry. experienced a work-related injury (ABS, This is supported by many years of 2018). According to Safe Work Australia International research that has continually (SWA, 2015), work related injuries (WRI) demonstrated that new employees are at a cost the Australian economy over $61.8 higher risk of accident and injuries than billion in the 2013-2014 financial year [4.1% workers with extended tenures (Breslin & of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)]. These Smith, 2006; Burt, 2015; Cellier, Eyrolle & costs had increased by $1.2 billion dollars Bertrand, 1995; Cook, 2003; Hertzman, since the 2008-2009 financial year. McGrail & Hirtle, 1999; Molleman & van der Vegt, 2007; Root & Hoefer, 1979; Siskind, 1982).

Very early research into this area conducted Discover It, Trove, PsychINFO, ERIC and by Chaney and Hanna (1917) in the iron and Academia databases to retrieve articles from steel industry in America, found that workers keywords, title and abstracts. A mixture of with less than six months of tenure had injury Boolean operator and search terms ‘new rates thirteen times higher than workers with employees, ‘novice employees’ and ‘accident ten years of tenure. More recently, Breslin and injury rates’ were used for these searches. and Smith (2006) found that workers within Full-text articles were then subsequently one month of employment had twice the lost reviewed after a primary screening of time injuries claims, and were four times abstracts against relevance to the research more likely to sustain injuries, than workers topic. These were then further limited to with over twelve months experience in their articles that included fatal and non-fatal current job. injuries in the workplace. A world-wide-web search for grey literature using the above The Centre for Economic and Business terms was also conducted using the Google Research in conjunction with the Hay Group Scholar internet search engine. A total of 82 (2012) stated that the number of workers publications are cited in this article. changing their employment would reach Publications reviewed include 56 journal 161.7 million worldwide in 2014, indicating articles, 23 web publications and 3 books. a growing issue with employee turnover rates, particularly related to an aging What is a New Employee? population. They also claimed that economic Defining a new (novice) employee is expansion will lead to disgruntled employees complex. According to the Oxford Learners taking opportunities to change jobs. The Dictionary (2020, p.1), a novice is “a person projected global turnover clearly indicates who is new and has little experience in a skill, that not only could millions of employees be job or situation”. New employees have been leaving their jobs, but that millions of people defined variously in the international will also become new employees (Hay literature, ranging from workers who have Group, 2012). The Asia-Pacific region was never had a job to those with 18 months’ one area that was identified as being likely to work experience to some studies stating up to see the greatest increase in turnover (21.5% 8 years of work experience (Dababneh, in 2013 to 25.6% in 2018). The number of Lowe, Krieg, Kong, & Waters, 2006; people expected to change jobs due to loss of Dahlgren, Hult, Dahlgren, Hard af Segerstad, jobs through COVID-19 business closures, & Johansson, 2006; Smith & Comyn, 2003). and the reopening of businesses in the Another measure is age (Breslin & Smith, aftermath may also see a huge increase in 2006). The typical new employee is young, people entering jobs for which they have little and has recently entered the workforce, or no previous experience. At this point in however this concept can be challenged as time both dormant organisations and out of mature workers that change occupations or work people will put pressure on jobs are also be considered as new governments for a large scale ‘back to work’ employees. Therefore, age is an incomplete to minimise economic damage and with proxy measure for a new employee, many also seeking relief from social isolation especially taking into consideration the (Business Continuity Institute, 2020). With current and predicted changes in the these changes to the workforce and it is workforce. Another common approach that important for the situation in Australia to be fails to capture the complexity of defining a investigated and understood. new employee is experience (Schoemaker, Barreto, Swerdlow, Higgins, & Carpenter, Methodology 2000). Experience has been described as a An extensive literature review was conducted linear journey from new to expert based on using a wide range of academic search the assumption that with the passing of time, engines that included, ResearchGate, skills and proficiency increase. According to 49

Molleman and van der Vegt (2007), new performance related safe work behaviour employees are defined not only as any person (Klockner, 2018). that has recently commenced work but can also apply to any person that has previously Variable 1 - Tenure and Injury Rates worked in other employment that is new to The Bureau of Labor Statistics in the United the workplace. States of America published a study conducted by Chaney and Hanna (1918) that The common denominator for new showed accident rates in relation to the length employees according to Ehsani and Ibrahim of service (tenure) between 1907 and 1917 in (2008) is the novitiate period and not age, the iron and steel industry. This is the earliest level of experience or stage achieved in their available report that analyses accident rates career. The novitiate period is the length of of both new employees and workers with ten time where the new employee adjusts and to fifteen years of tenure (Chaney & Hanna, masters a new task, role or environment 1918). Results showed the accident (Ehsani & Ibrahim, 2008). For the purpose of frequency rate of 111.3 per 1,000 for 300-day this review, a new employee will be defined workers for workers within a 6-month tenure as ‘a worker that has recently started work period compared to 8.5 per 1,000 300-day with their current employer, irrespective of workers for over 10 years of tenure (Chaney age and experience, and is within the first 12 & Hanna, 1918). The authors did not define months in any industry’. what a 300-day worker is (Chaney and Hanna 1918). A century later, research still International View persistently demonstrates that new New employee accident and injury rates have employees are more likely to be injured than been addressed by three key bodies of those that have been employed over twelve research which all clearly indicate that new months (Breslin & Smith, 2006; Siskind, employees are more likely to sustain an 1982). These studies were only based on injury in the workplace within the first year. tenure and did not distinguish between age The larger two bodies of research studied the groups. correlation between tenure and accidents as well as age and accidents (Groves, Kecojevic In 1979, Root and Hoefer (1979) conducted a & Komljenovic, 2007; Laflamme, 1996; comparative study in 10 American States Leigh, 1986; Root & Hoefer, 1979; using worker’s compensation data between Salminen, 2004). Age research focused 1976 and 1977. They analyzed the reports of mainly on youth populations, which may or over 270,000 work injuries from the ten may not always be classed new employees. states and found that 40% occurred within the Unfortunately, the research conducted first twelve months of employment and that between age and accident/injury rates did not over half were in the first three months (Root separated the correlation between age and & Hoefer, 1979). The findings have been tenure. Finally, a smaller body of research supported in a more recent study conducted explored the relationship between employee by Bena, Leombruni, Giraudo and Cost turnover and accident rates. It was suggested (2012) who analysed the Italian National that one relevant aspect that is related to both Social Security Institute (INPS) and the employee turnover and accident rates is National Insurance Institute for Occupational dissatisfaction with safety, in particular, Injuries (INAIL) databases between 1994 and safety risk perceptions, that escalates 2003. Bena et al. (2012, p. 529) report turnover intentions (Cree & Kelloway, 1997) “[w]orkers with a short job tenure have a 40% and showed that dissatisfaction was not higher probability of suffering an injury related to the length of tenure. Satisfaction compared to workers with more than 3 years with the work environment has also been of tenure.” linked to fewer cognitive failures which can lead to accidents and higher human A comprehensive study conducted by Leigh 50

(1986) attempted to establish the contribution accidents and suggests that as tenure of personal factors, such as education, age, increases accidents decrease. However, it is and experience, and job-related factors, such not the only variable that needs to be as overtime, tenure and hazardous conditions considered. as well as, accident and injury rates. Logistic regression was used to analyse these Variable 2 - Age and Injury Rates relationships from a sample of 4,962 There has been debate about the connection participants taken from the ‘University of between age and accident and injury rates in Michigan’s Panel Study of Income Dynamics the literature. Some studies have found no for 1978 and 1979’ (Leigh, 1986) and a key differences among various age groups, finding was that participants with a shorter (Butani, 1988; Kisner & Fosbroke, 1994; tenure, or new employees, reported more Webb, Redman & Sanson-Fisher, 1992) yet injuries and demonstrated a higher accident other studies have found a higher rate of rate. injuries among younger and older age groups than middle age groups (Alsop, Gafford, In more recent studies the association Langley, Beg, & Firth, 2000). Safe Work between tenure and accidents has been Australia (2020a) report that young workers, investigated within the mining industry. aged under 25 years, fatality rates increased Groves et al. (2007) conducted a study of to 13% in 2018, up from 8% in 2017 and was equipment-related injuries between 1995 and the only age group that did have an increase 2004 using data from the Mine Safety and in fatalities. However, in relation to serious Health Administration (MHSA) and the injury workers’ compensation claims, older Current Population Survey (CPS) in workers accounted for 25% of claims and are America. Twenty-eight percent of the 86,398 more likely to make a claim than workers injuries and 31% of the 597 fatalities under 25 years who account for only 15% of investigated occurred in the first year of these types of claims (Safe Work Australia, tenure (Groves et al., 2007). 2020b). In fact, the 15-19 year old workers had the largest drop (47%) in numbers of Research undertaken in other industries has serious injury claims for any age group over found similar trends between tenure and a 6 year comparison period whereas older accident rates. Bentley, Parker, Ashby, workers’ age groups had major increases i.e. Moore and Tappin (2002), used simple 55-59 age group (46%), 60-64 age group frequency distribution, cross tabulation and (114%) and 65+ age group (306%) (Safe content analysis of the New Zealand Work Australia, 2018b). Accident Reporting Scheme (ARS) database between 1995 and 1999 in their investigation Others state that accident rates decline with of the timber logging skid sites of New age (Breslin & Smith, 2005; Laflamme & Zealand. They found that 44% of the 242 lost Menckel, 1995; Salminen, 2004). As well as time injuries occurred within the first year of the contradictory findings there are various tenure and that 32% occurred with the first explanations proposed. For example six months of tenure. Laflamme and Menckel (1995), Layne Landen (1997) and Root (1981) propose that In the transport industry, McCall and Horwitz older workers have lower accident and injury (2005) reviewed 1,168 claims from worker’s rates because they are more experienced and compensation data in Oregon between 1990 more aware of safety hazards while Kenny, – 1997 using benchmark statistics from the Groeller, McGinn and Flouris (2015) and US Bureau of Census Current Population Pransky, Benjamin, Savageau, Currivan and Surveys and stated that 51% were by drivers Fletcher (2005) suggest that older workers with less than a year in their current role. have higher accident rates because of Overall the research discussed points towards declining cognitive function and overall a strong linkage between tenure and physical and recuperative abilities. 51

Other studies have stated that younger workers are more likely to work part-time workers have higher accident rates due to and by calculating rates based on a number of recklessness, inexperience and are allocated workers, it potentially underestimates the risk the more dangerous tasks (Prenesti, 1996; of injury (Castillo, Landen & Layne, 1994; Wortham, 1998). In contrast it has been Ruser, 1998). Confounding the analysis of suggested that younger workers have lower age differences in accident and injury rates is fatality rates due to superior reflexes and less that most young adults and adolescents do exposure to more dangerous jobs that require different work to older adults (Chau, more experience (Chen & Fosbroke, 1998; Gauchard, Dehaene, Benamghar, Touron, Driscoll, Mitchell, Mandryk, Healey, Perrin & Mur, 2007), and may be exposures Hendrie, & Hull, 2001; Peek-Asa, Erickson to different hazards. & Kraus, 1999). The complication with differentiating the age Literature about young workers is confusing and job tenure association in the literature is as researchers attribute high injury rates to possibly due to the broad range of ages that different contributing factors. For example, can be frequently applied to different it has been suggested that inexperience and research studies to differentiate the young underdeveloped cognitive abilities worker or group. Categorising ‘young characterised by a perception of vulnerability workers’ on the basis of age is a very among younger workers are factors (Prenesti, common practice in this area of research 1996; Wortham, 1998). However, this has (Breslin et al., 2007; Chau et al., 2007, been challenged by Breslin, Pole, Tompa, Rasmussen, Hansen, Nielsen & Anderson, Amick III, Smith and Johnson (2007) after 2011) along with undertaking safety conducting a systematic literature review and prevention campaigns directed at young finding that occupation and workplace workers (Safe Work Australia 2017b). influences, such as overload and physical Young workers are usually thought of as a hazards, significantly affected the likelihood single group with similar outlook and of work-related accidents and injuries. A list circumstances in the labour market. One of factors from this review included, training, explanation is that age is a straightforward supervision, cognitive and physical classification that can occasionally contribute development as well as the social to a proxy group for ‘young worker’, yet, it environment of the workplace (Breslin et al., also risks exaggerating the significance of 2007). There was no one single factor that biological age in accident and risk analysis. explained higher injury rates to younger workers. There is, however, a substantial Turnover and Injury Rates amount of literature on young workers’ risk Given the large amount of research that perception (Lapsley, Aalsma, & Halpern- indicates tenure and accident rates are linked, Felsher, 2005; Reyna & Farley, 2006; Mbaye it might be expected that there would be a & Kouabenan, 2013). Perceived seriousness, significant amount of work around the probability and vulnerability also appear to correlation between employee turnover and have a significant influence on protection accident rates. Employee dissatisfaction is motivation (Weinstein & Nicolich, 1993). fundamental common reason for employees not remaining in their present job (Griffeth, In population-based research exploring Hom & Gaertner, 2000; Holtom, Mitchell, differences in age-related work injuries, Lee & Eberly, 2008; Hom &Kinicki 2001) elevated risks were found among 15 – 24 and one factor contributes to this is safety risk year-olds (Laflamme & Menckel, 1995; perception (Cree & Kelloway 1997). Salminen, 2004). A methodological concern Therefore, while turnover leads to the is that factors used to estimate rates are introduction of new employees’ established using a number of workers in dissatisfaction with safety can also cause each age group and not hours worked. Young employees to leave their jobs. However, 52 research exploring this is limited. 2013). The Australian Bureau of Statistics (2012) found that, 13% of workers had New employees take considerable time to changed their jobs in 2011, an increase of 9% reach full efficiency and are more likely to be since 2010. A report released by Australian error-prone than their experienced Human Resource Institute (2015) states that counterparts (Atkinsons and Hargreaves. the average rate of turnover in Australia was 2014). Atkinson and Hargraves (2014) found 16% across all industries and Farren (2007) that high turnover can increase the risk of found that 22% of new employees left their safety incidents. They also found that new job within the first 45 days. This indicates employees with consequent communication that employees are more open to seeking new lapses can create more opportunities for opportunities and decreases the length of errors. It is more challenging to build a time they expect to stay with an organisation. positive safety culture if the composition of the workforce is constantly changing Many Australian industries are experiencing (Atkinson & Hargraves, 2014; Beach, a constantly changing workforce that can be Brereton & Cliff, 2003). It would then also consistent in total number of employees, yet be anticipated that an increase in accident variable with regards to the composition of rates would be linked with the number of new that workforce. Alternatively, some employees introduced in the workforce. workforces can continually grow as demands increase, resulting in a continuation of new A study conducted by Bell and Grushecky employees in the working environment. (2006) into timber logger safety in West Furthermore, in response to the challenges of Virginia found that high turnover within globalisation, organisational reforms over the organisations can present problems in past thirty years have driven changes in relation to safety and accident and injury working arrangements and relationships that rates. They found that organisations with in turn have created new health and safety high turnover also demonstrated higher hazards and risks (Zwetsloot, 2003). accident rates compared to those organisations with lower turnover rates (Bell Organisational structures in the Australian & Grushecky, 2006). Often the replacement workforce over the past few decades have worker has less familiarity or lack of specific seen a percentage increase of new employees knowledge with the unique characteristics of in the workforce. Growth in non-standard the workplace. This includes familiarity in employment has also bolstered the proportion the context of environment, materials and of new employees in the labour market. For how the job is done (Goodman & Garber, example, from 1985 to 2005, part-time 1998). At present, it is unclear whether workers aged 15 – 64 increased from 20% to increased employee turnover is positively 27% of the labour market (ABS, 2007); from correlated with increased accident and injury 1973 to 2003 young workers aged 15 -24 rates for new employees so further research working part-time doubled from 18% to 47% is required. (ABS, 2004). The rise of part-time employment labour markets is increasingly The Australian Context casual in nature. Casual employment doubled The literature around new employees and from 1982 to 2002 and is steadily increasing. injury rates in the Australian context is In 2006, 40% of young workers were in limited. What is available does, however, casual employment despite constituting 21% support many of the international findings. of the total workforce (ABS, 2001; ABS, In some Australian industries, high turnover 2006). rates can be attributed to a skills shortage giving workers improved opportunities to Another compounding aspect that contributes seek higher wages elsewhere (Australian to the large pool of newly hired workers is the Mines and Metals Association [AMMA] social and cultural phenomenon of people

53 changing jobs more frequently than was issues, the evidence indicates that the group previously the norm (Papadopoulos, at highest risk of accidents and injuries is new Georgiadou, Padazoglou & Michaliou, workers. 2010). According to McCrindle Research (2014), it is estimated that a person from the There appears to be little research in age of 18 to retirement will have in excess of Australia recognising the risks that face both seventeen new jobs in their working life in employers and their new employees in their Australia. As widespread organisational first twelve months on the job. What is downsizing and restructuring are now typical reported is that in Australia there will be in today’s global economy (Littler, Wiesner, numerous reasons why the number of new & Dunford, 2003), it is now widely accepted employees in the workforce will increase. that life-long employment security is not a Australian workplaces may need to have a practical goal as more and more Australians stronger focus on how to manage new are ready to become more mobile (Arthur & employees’ safety risks in order to reduce the Rousseau 1996). accident and injury rate trending for this population, otherwise, Australia may Australian Research experience a rise in accidents and injuries in Despite all of the disturbing findings parallel to the arrival of new employees to the regarding higher accident and injury rates workforce. among new employees, perception and recognition of the scale of the problem References remains notably under-researched in Abelson, M.A., & Baysinger, B.D., (1984). Australia. Analysis of work-related injury Optimal and dysfunctional turnover: towards data enables identification of hazards and an organizational level model. The Academy targets for prevention as well as the of Management Review, 9(2), 331–341. benchmarking of national health and safety Alexander, J.A., Bloom, J.R., & Nuchols, B.A., (1994). Nursing turnover and hospital performance. Over the past few decades, efficiency: an organizational-level analysis. periodic collection of work-related fatal Industrial Relations, 33(3), 505–520. injury data has been reported within Australia https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468- (Harrison, Frommer, Ruck & Blyth 1989; 232X.1994.tb00355.x National Occupational Health and Safety Alsop, J., Gafford, J., Langley, J., Beg, D., & Commission, 2004). These research papers Firth, H., (2000). Occupational injury in a have concentrated on the internal correlation cohort of young New Zealand adults. Journal of distribution and nature of injury of Occupational Health and Safety – occurrence for all workers and not on Australia and New Zealand, 16(2), 107-116. international comparisons (Ore & Stout Arthur, M., & Rousseau, D. (1996). 1996; Stout, Frommer & Harrison, 1990). Introduction: The boundaryless career as a new employment principle. In M. Arthur, & They have also not assessed length of tenure D. Rousseau, (Eds.), The boundaryless in relation to accident rates. To identify career: A new employment principle for a research priorities and assess Australia’s new organizational era, (1st ed., pp. 2-10). performance, international comparisons can New York, US: Oxford University Press. add value to the understanding with relation Association of Workers Compensation Board of to accident/injury rates of new employees. Canada, (2016). National work injury, disease and fatality statistics. Conclusion http://awcbc.org/ A review of the International research Atkinson, G., & Hargreaves J. (2014). An indicates that new employees sustain more exploration of labour mobility in mining and accidents and injuries within the first twelve construction: who moves and why. National months of employment. Although there is Vocational Education and Training Research variation in the research methodologies and Program, causation around theoretically confounding https://www.ncver.edu.au/__data/assets/file/0 54

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Dr Karen Klockner is the Head of Associate Professor Yvonne Toft is an Postgraduate Courses Transport and Safety Associate Professor in Human Factors & Science at Central Queensland University Systems Safety in the transport and safety and teaches across Human Factors, OH&S, sciences group at CQUniversity, Australia. Accident Forensics, and Psychology units in Yvonne currently teaches and conducts the School of Health, Medical and Applied research in areas related to human factors Sciences. She is a Senior Fellow of the engineering, OHS, accident forensics & Higher Education Academy UK and a investigation, operational systems safety and member of the Office of Industrial Relations technology in public safety, industrial and Queensland, Work Health and Safety, transport related contexts. Yvonne has a long Transport and Storage Industry Sector history of active involvement and leadership Standing Committee (ISSC). Prior to joining in multiple professional associations CQUniversity Karen was the Manager of nationally and internationally spanning Human Factors at the Rail Safety Regulation safety, engineering, human factors and Branch for the Department of Transport and learning & teaching. Specialties: reduction of Main Roads in Queensland and has many design-induced end user error sources in years’ experience as a safety professional original engineering design, accident working in safety critical industries. analysis, prediction of error sources, systems safety, transdisciplinary communication and design, professional communities of practice, innovation of curriculum design in flexible learning.

World Safety Organization (WSO) The WSO was founded in 1975 in Manila, The Republic of the Philippines, as a result of a gathering of over 1,000 representatives of safety professionals from all continents at the First World Safety and Accident Prevention Congress. The WSO World Management Center was established in the United States of America in 1985 to be responsible for all WSO activities, the liaison with the United Nations, the co-operation with numerous Safety Councils, professional safety/environmental (and allied areas) organizations, WSO International Chapters/Offices, Member Corporations, companies, groups, societies, etc. The WSO is a not-for-profit corporation, non-sectarian, non-political movement to “Make Safety a Way of Life… Worldwide.”

World Safety Organization Activities display on their office wall and with a WSO Membership Identification Card. The WSO awards a Certificate of Honor- WSO publishes WSO Newsletters, World Safety Journal, and ary Membership to the corporations, companies, and other WSO Conference Proceedings. entities paying the WSO Membership and/or WSO Certifica- WSO provides a network program linking various areas of pro- tion fees for their employees. fessional expertise needed in today’s international communi- Members have access to WSO Newsletters and other member- ty. ship publications of the WSO on the WSO website, and may WSO develops and accredits educational programs essential to request hard copies by contacting the WSO World Manage- national and international safety and establishes centers to ment Center. Subscription fees apply to certain publications. support these programs. Members are entitled to reduced fees at seminars, conferences, and WSO receives proposals from professional safety groups/ classes given by the WSO. This includes local, regional, and societies for review and, if applicable, submits them to the international programs. When Continuing Education Units United Nations for adoption. (CEUs) are applicable, an appropriate certificate is issued. WSO presents annual awards: The James K. Williams Award, Members who attend conferences, seminars, and classes receive Glenn E. Hudson International Award, J. Peter Cunliffe Trans- a Certificate of Attendance from the WSO. For individuals portation Award, Concerned Citizen, Concerned Professional, attending courses sponsored by the WSO, a Certificate of Company/Corporation, Concerned Organization, Educational Completion is issued upon completion of each course. Award, WSO Chapter/National Office of the Year, and Award Members receive special hotel rates when attending safety pro- for Achievement in Scientific Research and grams, conferences, etc., sponsored by the WSO. Development. WSO provides recognition for safety publications, films, vide- Membership os, and other training and media materials that meet the WSO required educational standards. The World Safety Organization has members who are full time professionals, executives, directors, etc., working in the safety WSO establishes and supports divisions and committees to assist and accident prevention fields, including university professors, members in maintaining and updating their professional qualifi- private consultants, expert witnesses, researchers, safety manag- cations and expertise. ers, directors of training, etc. They are employees of multi- na- WSO has Chapters and National/International Offices located tional corporations, local industries, private enterprises, govern- throughout the world, providing contact with local communi- ments, and educational institutions. Membership in the World ties, educational institutions, and industrial entities. Safety Organization is open to all individuals and entities in- The WSO organizes and provides professional support for inter- volved in the safety and accident prevention field, regardless of national and national groups of experts on all continents who race, color, creed, ideology, religion, social status, sex, or politi- are available to provide expertise and immediate help in times cal beliefs. of emergencies. Membership Categories Benefits of Membership Associate Membership: Individuals connected with safety and WSO publishes the “WSO Consultants Directory” as a service accident prevention in their work or individuals interested in the to its Members and to the Professional Community. Only safety field, including students, interested citizens, etc. Certified Members may be listed. Affiliate Membership: Safety, hazard, risk, loss, and accident WSO collects data on the professional skills, expertise, and prevention practitioners working as full time practitioners in the experience of its Members in the WSO Expertise Bank for a safety field. Only Affiliate Members are eligible for the WSO reference when a request is received for professional exper- Certification and Registration Programs. Institutional Member- tise, skill, or experience. ship: Organizations, corporations, agencies, and other entities WSO provides a network system to its Members whereby pro- directly or indirectly involved in safety activities and other relat- fessional assistance may be requested by an individual, organ- ed fields. Sustaining/Corporate Member: Individuals, companies, ization, state, or country or a personal basis. Members needing corporations, organizations or other entities and selected groups, assistance may write to the WSO with a specific request, and interested in the international effort to “Make Safety A Way Of the WSO, through its Life...Worldwide.”

Membership and other professional resources, will try to link the The WSO Membership Application is included on the following requester with a person, organization, or other resource which pages and is also available on the WSO website: may be of assistance. https://worldsafety.org/application- for-wso-membership/ WSO provides all Members with a Membership Certificate for https://worldsafety.org/quick- downloads/

WSO National and International Offices and Directors

WSO National Office for Australia WSO National Office for Lebanon Dr. Janis Jansz, Director Dr. Elias M. Choueiri, Director c/o Curtin University c/o Ministry of Transportation Phone: (618) 9266-3007 Contact: [email protected] Contact: [email protected] WSO National Office for Myanmar WSO National Office for Austria Mr. Win Bo, Director Dr. Majid Alizadeh, Director c/o OSHE Services Company, Ltd. c/o Payesh System Mehr Engineering Company Phone: (95) 936091909 Contact: [email protected] Contact: [email protected]

WSO National Office for Cameroon WSO National Office for Nigeria Mr. Clement Bantar Nyong, Director Mr. Olalokun Soji Solomon, Director c/o Cameroon Safety Services c/o Danarich Creative Concept Limited Contact: [email protected] Phone: (234) 08121697235 Contact: [email protected] WSO National Office for Canada Website: www.worldsafety.org.ng Mr. Michael Brown, Director c/o Apex One Management Group WSO National Office for Pakistan Contact: [email protected] Mr. Syed Tayyeb Hussain, Director [email protected] c/o Greenwich Training & Consulting [email protected] Contact: [email protected] Website: www.worldsafetycanada.ca WSO International Office for Philippines WSO National Office for Ghana Eng. Alfredo A. De La Rosa, Jr., Director Mr. Peter Oko Ahunarh, Director Phone: (63) 2 709-1535, (63) 2 709-1738 c/o Ghana National Fire Service Fax: (63) 2 709-1737 Contact: [email protected] Contact: [email protected]

WSO National Office for Guam WSO National Office for Qatar Mr. James H. Akin, Director Mr. Allan N. Milagrosa, Director c/o Safeworx Training Solutions and Consulting c/o Bright Services Contact: [email protected] Contact: [email protected]

WSO National Office for India WSO National Office for Saudi Arabia (KSA) Mr. C. Kannan, Director Mr. Garry A. Villamil, Director c/o Indian Society of Safety Engineers (ISSE) c/o The Academy of Sciences for Medical Education Contact: [email protected] Contact: [email protected]; [email protected] Website: www.worldsafety.org.in Website: www.worldsafetygcc.com

WSO National Office for Indonesia WSO National Office for Taiwan, Republic of China Mr. Soehatman Ramli, Director Dr. Shuh Woei Yu, Director c/o Prosafe Institute c/o Safety and Health Technology Center/SAHTECH Contact: [email protected] Contact: [email protected] [email protected] WSO National Office for Vietnam WSO National Office for Iran Mr. Binh Pham, Director Mrs. Fatemeh Gilani, Director Contact: [email protected] c/o Payesh System Mehr Engineering Company Website: www.worldsafety.org.vn Contact: [email protected]

WSO National Office for Iraq Dr. Eng. Khaldon Waled Suliman, Director c/o NAYA Engineering Services & Training Contact: [email protected]

World Safety Organization Code of Ethics

Members of the WSO, by virtue of their acceptance of membership into the WSO, are bound to the following Code of Ethics regarding their activities associated with the WSO:

   Members must be responsible for ethical and professional conduct in relationships with clients, employers, associates, and the public.  Members must be responsible for professional competence in performance of all their professional activities.  Members must be responsible for the protection of professional interest, reputation, and good name of any deserving WSO member or member of other professional organization involved in safety or associate disciplines.  Members must be dedicated to professional development of new members in the safety profession and associated disciplines.  Members must be responsible for their complete sincerity in professional service to the world.  Members must be responsible for continuing improvement and development of professional competencies in safety and associated disciplines.  Members must be responsible for their professional efforts to support the WSO motto:

“Making Safety a Way of Life…Worldwide.”

Published by the WSO National Office for Australia www.worldsafety.org [email protected] | [email protected]