DOCSLIB.ORG

RESTRICTION and SATURATION

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
RESTRICTION and SATURATION RESTRICTION and SATURATION Sandra Chung and William A. Ladusaw University of California, Santa Cruz August 2001 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. MODES OF COMPOSITION 1 1.1 The Calculus of Saturation 3 1.2 Predicate Restriction 5 1.3 Syntactic Versus Semantic Saturation 8 1.4 Saturation at the Event Level 14 1.5 Scope Constraints 17 1.6 The Property Theory of Inde®nites 18 1.7 Summary 23 Notes 26 CHAPTER 2. INDEFINITES IN MAORI 28 2.1 A Dash of Maori Grammar 31 2.2 The Syntax of He and TeÅtahi 35 2.3 Their Semantic Similarity 40 2.3.1 Wide Scope in Episodic Sentences 40 2.3.2 Narrow Scope in Quanti®cational Constructions 44 2.4 Some Semantic Contrasts 52 2.4.1 Wide Scope in Quanti®cational Constructions 52 2.4.2 The Existential Construction 54 2.5 Our Account 58 2.5.1 Restrict Versus Specify 60 Contents Chung & Ladusaw 2.5.2 Some Approaches Not Taken 70 2.6 Two Further Semantic Contrasts 72 2.6.1 A Constraint on Subjects 72 2.6.2 Two Types of Predicates 78 2.7 A Dash of Pragmatics 84 2.7.1 In Narrative Discourse 84 2.7.2 In the Museum 88 2.8 Conclusion 89 Notes 95 CHAPTER 3. OBJECT INCORPORATION IN CHAMORRO 102 3.1 A Dash of Chamorro Grammar 105 3.2 Incorporation 110 3.3 The Incorporated Object is Semantically Incomplete 114 3.4 The Extra Object 119 3.4.1 The Extra Object is a Syntactic Adjunct 121 3.5 The Extra Object is a Semantic Argument 125 3.5.1 A De®niteness Effect 126 3.5.2 An Af®rmative Polarity Item 133 3.5.3 A Curious Restriction 137 3.6 Our Account 142 3.7 Restriction Without Saturation 155 3.8 Conclusion 165 Contents Chung & Ladusaw Notes 172 APPENDIX A. THE SYNTAX OF CHAMORRO INCORPORATION 177 A.1 Previous Approaches 178 A.2 Some Inconclusive Results 180 A.2.1 The Extra Object is a Syntactic Adjunct 181 A.2.2 The Incorporated Object Originates Within NP 181 A.2.2.1 Incorporation in Maori 183 A.2.2.2 Summary 189 A.3 Some More Conclusive Results 189 A.3.1 Coordinate NP's 190 A.3.2. The Word Order of the Incorporated Object 191 A.3.3 The Word Order of the Subject 193 A.3.4 The Overall Situation 195 A.4 The Attachment Site of the Extra Object 196 Notes 199 APPENDIX B. MAORI AND CHAMORRO 200 REFERENCES 204 Chapter 1 Chung & Ladusaw CHAPTER 1. MODES OF COMPOSITION Strawson's (1959) discussion of `subject and predicate' examines the received view of the basis for distinguishing between the semantics of predicates and terms with reference to Frege's (1997[1862]) distinction between objects and concepts. Frege characterizes the distinction between A4s [terms] and B4s [predicates] by means of a metaphor. Objects, he says, are complete, concepts incomplete or unsaturated. ªNot all parts of a thought can be complete; at least one must be `unsaturated' or predicative; otherwise they would not hold together.º Of B2s [predicates] he says that it is only because their sense is unsaturated that they are capable of serving as a link. (1959: 152-153) The idea that semantic predicates are unsaturated (to various degrees) and that this semantic incompleteness is made complete by composing them with semantically complete terms (of appropriate types) is fundamental to formal semantic analyses of natural language. It is the basis of Montague's (1973) application of type theory in his classic PTQ analysis of English, where all predicative expressions are assigned functional types and the fundamental composition operation is function application. Strawson's discussion portrays the opposition between complete objects and incomplete concepts as a unifying theme that can be played out at the level of linguistic acts, linguistic categories, and propositional roles. He considers various approaches to the basis for this metaphor, noting The main thing which I wish to carry away from consideration of Frege and Geach is the fact that both writers make an absolute distinction between two mutually exclusive classes of expressions, members of each of which can be 1 Chapter 1 Chung & Ladusaw combined with suitable members of the other to yield an assertion. Members of the two classes of expressions alike introduce terms; but members of one class introduce them assertively, and members of the other class do not. The List IV distinction of non-linguistic terms merely mirrors, in a confused way, this discussion in the style of introduction. Essentially the distinction we have arrived at is a distinction between styles of introduction of terms [Emphasis added]. It says nothing of any distinction between types or categories of terms, between kinds of object. (1959: 153) This monograph is an investigation of different `styles of introduction' or what we will term modes of composition in the syntax and semantics of inde®nites, and their application in two Austronesian languages (Maori and Chamorro). We start from the assumption that underlying the semantic composition of predicates with their arguments is a calculus of saturation. However, we question the assumption that what may appear syntactically to be a predicate-argument relation is uniformly interpreted by a mode of composition that saturates the predicate. We conclude that introducing a nonsaturating mode of composition, (predicate) restriction, allows consideration of analyses that illuminate constructions in many languages. In this Chapter we discuss the calculus of saturation and introduce predicate restriction. We relate these notions to other semantic proposals about the property theory of inde®nites, existential closure, and so-called semantic incorporation. We introduce a general principle that forces saturation of predicates within a designated domain. The resulting system permits several options for the semantic composition of inde®nites with their predicates. We show that the calculus of saturation allows for the possibility that an argument position of a predicate may be targeted by both modes of composition in one 2 Chapter 1 Chung & Ladusaw construction. 1.1 The Calculus of Saturation What we are calling the calculus of saturation is illustrated by the standard type assignments assumed in the simple example (1). (1) John fed Fido. (2) λyλx [feed'(y)(x)] (f) (j) The logical translation in (2) shows the semantic composition. The verb is given a function (of type <e,<e,t>> that represents it as semantically incomplete in two respects, corresponding to argument roles assigned by the predicate. In the underlying type theory, semantic completeness is represented by the two types e (for entities) and t (for truth-values, standing in for a proposition). The type of the expression in (2) is t, showing that this composition achieves semantic completeness by resolving the two degrees of incompleteness in the predicate by combining the two semantically complete objects f and j with the predicate's semantic content, a function equivalent to a two-place relation between entities. An important part of (2) is the mode of composition that achieves this semantic completeness by saturating the predicate. This is the operation of function application. This is rendered more explicit by (3), which represents that operation explicitly as FA, an operation that takes two arguments, the ®rst of which is a function of domain type σ and an expression of semantic type σ. The value of the operation is an object of type τ, the range type of the function. (3) FA (FA (λyλx [feed'(y)(x)], f), j) The boldface portion of (3) represents the ®rst function application, whose value is a 3 Chapter 1 Chung & Ladusaw function of type <e,t>. Underlying the talk of saturation is the Fregean metaphor of unsaturation. The saturation of the predicate removes an incompleteness, yielding a complete thought (a proposition). From this underlying metaphor derives the fundamental effect of saturation: (4) A saturated argument position is no longer available to semantic composition. (4) states the obvious fact that the ®rst instance of function application in (3) renders the y position unavailable for further composition. The next instance of function application must target the only remaining source of incompleteness: the x argument position. Function application represents one mode of composition that saturates, but it is not the only one. Let us consider the semantic operation of `existential closure'. The functional incompleteness of the verb above can likewise be remedied by an operation that simply removes the incompleteness in favor of an existential quanti®cation over the argument, as illustrated in (5), with EC representing the (unary) composition operation generally represented by ∃ν: (5) EC (EC (λyλx [feed'(y)(x)])) If we track the type changes in the expression in (5), we see that they parallel those in (3). The boldface portion represents a reduction from <e,<e,t>> to <e,t> and the whole expression is of the complete type t. The principle in (4) shows that existential closure likewise saturates the predicate, removing semantic incompleteness. The expression in (6), an attempt to provide individuals for composition after closure, does not cohere into a well-formed logical expression. (6) FA (EC (EC (λyλx [feed'(y)(x)])), f) 4 Chapter 1 Chung & Ladusaw It consists of a proposition (truth-value) and an entity. In Frege's terms, they `do not hold together'.1 Both of the saturating modes of composition are illustrated when we consider a Davidsonian version of (2). (7) λyλxλe [feed'(y)(x)(e)] (f) (j) Two instances of functional application yield the lambda reduced expression in (8). (8) λe [feed'(f)(j)(e)] However, this expression is not semantically complete.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Interpretation of Tense — I Didn't Turn Off the Stove Toshiyuki Ogihara
    The interpretation of tense — I didn’t turn off the stove Toshiyuki Ogihara — University of Washington [email protected] Kiyomi Kusumoto — Kwansei Gakuin University [email protected] Abstract This chapter examines Partee’s (1973) celeBrated claim that tenses are not existential quantifiers but pronouns. In the first half of the chapter, we show that this proposal successfully accounts for the Behavior of tense morphemes regarding deixis, anaphora, and presupposition. It is also compatiBle with cases where tense morphemes Behave like Bound variables. In the second half of the chapter, we turn to the syntax-semantics interface and propose some concrete implementations Based on three different assumptions aBout the semantics of tense: (i) quantificational; (ii) pronominal; (iii) relational. Finally, we touch on some tense-related issues involving temporal adverBials and cross-linguistic differences. Keywords tense, pronoun, quantification, Bound variaBle, referential, presupposition, temporal adverbial (7 key words) 1. Introduction This article discusses the question of whether the past tense morpheme is analogous to pronouns and if so how tense is encoded in the system of the interfaces between syntax and semantics. The languages we will deal with in this article have tense morphemes that are attached to verbs. We use 1 this type of language as our guide and model. Whether tense is part of natural language universals, at least in the area of semantic interpretation, is debatable.1 Montague’s PTQ (1973) introduces a formal semantic system that incorporates some tense and aspect forms in natural language and their model-theoretic interpretation. It introduces tense operators based on Prior’s (1957, 1967) work on tense logic.
    [Show full text]
  • Overt Existential Closure in Bura (Central Chadic) 
    Overt Existential Closure in Bura (Central Chadic) Malte Zimmermann University of Potsdam 1. Introduction The article presents a semantic-based account of the syntactic distribution of the morpheme adi in Bura. This morpheme is traditionally glossed as an existential predicate there is (Hoffmann 1955) and occurs only in a limited set of – at first sight – heterogeneous syntactic environments, namely (i.) in (most) negative clauses; (ii.) in thetic constructions used for introducing new discourse referents (there is x ...); and (iii.) in existential clefts (there is some x that ...). The article will identify the semantic contribution of adi and give a unified account of its distribution. It is argued that adi is an overt marker of existential closure that can bind individual or event variables with existential force. The insertion of adi is argued to be a last resort operation. It applies if and only if alternative means of existentially closing a variable fail. The analysis of adi as an overt indicator of existential closure has repercussions for semantic theory as whole. For once, given that adi is overt, it gives us a better insight into the workings and the grammatical locus of existential closure, which can be accessed only indirectly in European languages (Diesing 1992). Second, given that adi must existentially close off event variables in negative clauses, it can be used as a diagnostic for the ability of verbal predicates to introduce an event argument into the semantic representation (Kratzer 1995). The structure of the article is as follows: Section 2 provides some background information on Bura. Section 3 lays out the main facts surrounding the distribution of adi.
    [Show full text]
  • Quantification and Predication in Mandarin Chinese: a Case Study of Dou
    University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons IRCS Technical Reports Series Institute for Research in Cognitive Science December 1996 Quantification and Predication in Mandarin Chinese: A Case Study of Dou Shi-Zhe Huang University of Pennsylvania Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/ircs_reports Huang, Shi-Zhe, "Quantification and Predication in Mandarin Chinese: A Case Study of Dou" (1996). IRCS Technical Reports Series. 114. https://repository.upenn.edu/ircs_reports/114 University of Pennsylvania Institute for Research in Cognitive Science Technical Report No. IRCS-96-36. This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/ircs_reports/114 For more information, please contact [email protected]. Quantification and Predication in Mandarin Chinese: A Case Study of Dou Abstract In the more recent generalized quantifier theory, 'every' is defined as a elationr between two sets such that the first set is a subset of the second set (Cooper (1987), anv Benthem (1986)). We argue in this dissertation that the formal definition of e' very' ought to reflect our intuition that this quantifier is always associated with a pairing. For instance, 'Every student left' means that for every student there is an event (Davidson (1966), Kroch (1974), Mourelatos (1978), Bach (1986)) such that the student left in that event. We propose that the formal translation of EVERY be augmented by relating its two arguments via a skolem function. A skolem function links two variables by making the choice of a value for one variable depend on the choice of a value for the other. This definition of EVERY, after which 'every' and its Chinese counterpart 'mei' can be modeled, can help us explain the co-occurrence pattern between 'mei' and the adverb 'dou'.
    [Show full text]
  • Anaphoric Reference to Propositions
    ANAPHORIC REFERENCE TO PROPOSITIONS A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Todd Nathaniel Snider December 2017 c 2017 Todd Nathaniel Snider ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ANAPHORIC REFERENCE TO PROPOSITIONS Todd Nathaniel Snider, Ph.D. Cornell University 2017 Just as pronouns like she and he make anaphoric reference to individuals, English words like that and so can be used to refer anaphorically to a proposition introduced in a discourse: That’s true; She told me so. Much has been written about individual anaphora, but less attention has been paid to propositional anaphora. This dissertation is a com- prehensive examination of propositional anaphora, which I argue behaves like anaphora in other domains, is conditioned by semantic factors, and is not conditioned by purely syntactic factors nor by the at-issue status of a proposition. I begin by introducing the concepts of anaphora and propositions, and then I discuss the various words of English which can have this function: this, that, it, which, so, as, and the null complement anaphor. I then compare anaphora to propositions with anaphora in other domains, including individual, temporal, and modal anaphora. I show that the same features which are characteristic of these other domains are exhibited by proposi- tional anaphora as well. I then present data on a wide variety of syntactic constructions—including sub- clausal, monoclausal, multiclausal, and multisentential constructions—noting which li- cense anaphoric reference to propositions. On the basis of this expanded empirical do- main, I argue that anaphoric reference to a proposition is licensed not by any syntactic category or movement but rather by the operators which take propositions as arguments.
    [Show full text]
  • Singing the Niuean ‘Fetuiaga Kerisiano' on a Distant Shore
    On Becoming a Liquid Church: Singing the Niuean ‘Fetuiaga Kerisiano' on a Distant Shore A thesis submitted to Charles Sturt University for the Doctor of Philosophy degree November 2015 By Matagi Jessop Don Vilitama 11393581 Faculty of Arts Department of Theology Charles Sturt University 2 Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................. 5 Certificate of Authorship .................................................................................. 7 Acknowledgments ............................................................................................ 9 Glossary - Niuean Words ............................................................................... 11 Chapter 1 On the Need for a Niu-e (New) Way of Thinking ......................... 19 1. The Task: Ko e Fekau ............................................................................ 19 2. Method: Moving into the Future through the Past .................................. 21 3. Crossing the Moana ............................................................................... 29 4. Experiencing Diaspora ........................................................................... 34 5. The Focus of this Research: Tu Kupega ................................................ 37 6. Moving Fakafetuiaga .............................................................................. 46 7. Coming Out of Silence ............................................................................ 50 8. The Importance
    [Show full text]
  • Celebration of the Niuean Language and Culture Ko E Tau Fakafiafiaaga
    Celebration of the #pacificstars Niuean Language and Culture Ko e tau Fakafiafiaaga he Vagahau Niue mo e tau Aga Fakamotu Facts on Niue | Folafolaaga hagaaoia Population | Puke tagata ke he motu ko Niue In 2013 Niue peoples were the fourth largest Pacific • Niue is one of the world's largest coral islands. ethnic group in New Zealand making up 8.1% or 23,883 • Niue (pronounced “New-e (‘e’ as in ‘end’ – which means of New Zealand’s Pacific peoples’ population. 'behold the coconut') may be the world’s smallest The most common region this group lived in was the independent nation. Auckland Region (77.7 percent or 18,555 people), followed • The island is commonly referred to as "The Rock", by the Wellington Region (6.6 percent or 1,575 people), a reference to Niue being one of the biggest raised and the Waikato Region (4.3 percent or 1,038 people). coral islands in the world. The median age was 20.4 years. • The capital of Niuē is the village of Alofi. • Niueans are citizens of New Zealand. 78.9 percent (18,465 people) were born in New Zealand. • Niue is an elevated coral atoll with fringing coral reefs encircling steep limestone cliffs. It has a landmass of 259km and its highest point is about 60 metres In 2013 Niue peoples made up above sea level. • Niue lies 2400 km northeast of New Zealand 23,883 between Tonga, Samoa and the Cook Islands. of New Zealand's Pacific peoples' population History | Tau Tala Tu Fakaholo Polynesians from Samoa settled Niue around 900 AD.
    [Show full text]
  • Tüi Tüi Tuituiä Race Relations in 2008
    Tüi Tüi Tuituiä Race Relations in 2008 Human Rights Commission Te Kähui Tika Tangata www.hrc.co.nz ContaCt the Commission Tamaki Makaurau – Auckland 10th Floor, Tower Centre, Cnr Queen and Customs Streets PO Box 6751, Wellesley Street, Tamaki Makaurau Auckland 1141 Waea Telephone (09) 309 0874 Waea Whakähua Fax (09) 377 3593 Te Whanganui a Tara – Wellington PO Box 12411, Thorndon, Te Whanganui a Tara Wellington 6144 Waea Telephone (04) 473 9981 Waea Whakähua Fax (04) 471 6759 Otautahi – Christchurch PO Box 1578, Otautahi Christchurch 8140 Waea Telephone (03) 379 2015 Waea Whakähua Fax (03) 353 0959 Human Rights Commission InfoLine 0800 496 877 (toll free) Language Line (an interpreting service) is available upon request Appointment with sign language interpreter available on request TTY (teletypewriter) 0800 150 111 Fax (09) 377 3593 (Attn: InfoLine) Email [email protected] http://www.hrc.co.nz The cover artwork was designed by Studioworx for the Human Rights Commission’s Race Relations Day poster, titled People In Your Neighbourhood. ISBN: 978-0-478-32935-3 ISBN: 978-0-478-32936-0 (PDF) Published March 2009 Aotearoa New Zealand Design: Gang Design, www.gang.co.nz HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION | RACE RELATIONS REPORT 2008 1 The Human Rights Commission • facilitating the New Zealand Diversity Action and Race Relations Programme, and maintaining programme networks for issues such as interfaith cooperation, media, language The main functions of the Human Rights Commission policy and refugees under the Human Rights Act 1993 are to promote and protect human rights; to encourage the development • organising the annual New Zealand Diversity Forum of harmonious relations; to promote equal employment • acknowledging positive contributions to race relations opportunities; and to provide a dispute resolution service through the award of certificates and the publication of for complaints of discrimination on the grounds (among the awards in a widely distributed monthly e-newsletter others) of colour, race, and ethnic or national origins.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Introduction
    Partial variables and specificity Gerhard Jager¨ University of Bielefeld Abstract In this paper I propose a novel analysis of the semantics of specific indefinites. Following standard DRT, I assume that indefinites introduce a free variable into the logical repre- sentation, but I assume the the descriptive content of an indefinite DP is interpreted as a precondition for the corresponding variable to denote. Formally this is implemented as an extension of classical predicate logic with partial variables—variables that come with a restriction. This leads to a reconception of restricted quantification: the restriction is tied to the variable, not to the quantifier. After an overview over the major existing theories of the scope of indefinites, the cen- tral part of the paper is devoted to develop a model-theoretic semantics for this extension of predicate logic. Finally the paper argues that the notion of partial variables lends itself to the analysis of other linguistic phenomena as well. Especially presuppositions can be analyzed as restrictions on variables in a natural way. 1 Introduction This article deals with the peculiar scope taking properties of indefinite DPs, which differ mas- sively from other scope bearing elements. The theory that I am going to propose can be seen as a variant of the DRT approach in the version of Heim (1982), according to which the se- mantic contribution of an indefinite is basically a free variable, while its scope is determined by a non-lexical operation of existential closure. The crucial innovation lies in the treatment of the descriptive material of indefinites. While DRT analyzes it as part of the truth conditions, I will argue that it is to be considered as a precondition for the accompanying variable to denote.
    [Show full text]
  • THE REFERENCE of INDEFINITES in This Paper I Argue That Indefinite
    The final version of this paper will appear in: K. von Heusinger & U. Egli (eds.). Reference and Anaphoric Relations. Dordrecht: Kluwer (Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy). KLAUS VON HEUSINGER THE REFERENCE OF INDEFINITES The indefinite article has the function of pick- ing out a single representative from among various representatives of a kind.1 1INTRODUCTION In this paper I argue that indefinite NPs have a more complex referential nature than is usually supposed, and that this structure must be reflected in their semantic represen- tation. According to the classical view due to Frege and Russell, an indefinite NP is represented by an existential quantifier, a variable, the restriction and the occurrence of the variable in the argument position of the main predicate. Hence, there is no clear correspondence to the indefinite NP on the surface. Sentence (1) is translated into the formula (2a), in which the indefinite NP amancorresponds to the variable x in the argument position of the predicate walk and in the predication manx . The formula specifies that the intersection of the two sets denoted by the predicates is non-empty. The model-theoretic interpretation (2b) links the variable x to an object d that fulfills both predicates, treating the attributive material man on par with the assertive material walk. Hence, at the representational level, the indefinite NP is not represented as an independent expression. This conception has been widely accepted in semantics and can be found in current semantic theories. (1) A man walks [ ] (2) a. 9x man x &walk x [ ] b. The formula 9x man x &walkx is true iff there is an object d in the domain of individuals such that d is in the extension of the predicate man and in the extension of the predicate walk.
    [Show full text]
  • Geurts and Nouwen 2007
    At least et al: The semantic of scalar modifiers Bart Geurts, Rick Nouwen Language, Volume 83, Number 3, September 2007, pp. 533-559 (Article) Published by Linguistic Society of America DOI: 10.1353/lan.2007.0115 For additional information about this article http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/lan/summary/v083/83.3geurts.html Access provided by Chicago Library (18 Feb 2014 11:15 GMT) AT LEAST ET AL.: THE SEMANTICS OF SCALAR MODIFIERS BART GEURTS RICK NOUWEN University of Nijmegen Utrecht University On the naive account ofscalar modifierslike more than and at least, At least three girls snored is synonymous with More than two girls snored, and both sentences mean that the number of snoring girls exceeded two (the same, mutatis mutandis, for sentences with at most and less/fewer than). We show that this is false and propose an alternative theory, according to which superlative modifiers (at least/most) are quite different from comparative ones (more/less/fewer than). Whereas the naive theory is basically right about comparative modifiers, it is wrong about superla- tive modifiers, which we claim have a MODAL meaning: an utterance of At least three girls snored conveys two things: first, that it is CERTAIN that there was a group ofthree snoring girls, and second, that more than four girls MAY have snored. We argue that this analysis explains various facts that are problematic for the naive view, which have to do with specificity, distributional differences between superlative and comparative modifiers, differential patterns of inference li- censed by these expressions, and the way they interact with various operators, like modals and negation.* 1.
    [Show full text]
  • E-Type Pronouns and Donkey Anaphora
    IRENE HElM E-TYPE PRONOUNS AND DONKEY ANAPHORA 0. INTRODUCTION Kamp and Heim intended this proposal to compete with and replace us earlier treatments of the same phenomena, including a family of related proposals by Evans (1977, 1980), Cooper (1979), and others, which in contrast to (i)-(iv) made the following more traditional assumptions: (i) a non-existential, quantifier-free treatment of indefinites, (ii) a treatment of anaphoric pronouns as plain bound variables, (iii) a treatment of quantificational determiners and the conditional operator as capable of binding multiple variables, and (iv) a provision for default existential generalization of free vari- ables. Kamp and Heim intended this proposal to compete with and replace various earlier treatments of the same phenomena, including a family of related proposals by Evans (1977, 1980), Cooper (1979), and others, which in contrast to'(i)-(iv) made the following more traditional assumptions: (i') Indefinites are existential quantifiers. (ii') Anaphoric pronouns are semantically equivalent to (possibly complex) definite descriptions. (iii'.) Quantificational determiners, frequency adverbs, and the hidden operator of generality in conditionals bind just one variable each-. (iv') There is no need for default existential generalization of free variables. (i'), (iii'), and (iv') are, of course, just the standard assumptions from which (i), (iii), and (iv) departed. For the sake of brevity, I will refer to Kamp and Heim's proposal and variants thereof as 'DRT analyses', and to Evans's, Cooper's, and similar proposals as 'E-Type analyses'. ('DRT' abbreviates 'Discourse Represent- ation Theory'; the term 'E-Type' is loosely borrowed from Evans.) Let me caution, however, against unintended interpretations of these labels, especially the first one.
    [Show full text]
  • Artist: Period/Style: Patron: Material/Technique: Form
    TITLE:The Ambum Stone LOCATION: Papua New Guinea DATE: 1500 BCE ARTIST: PERIOD/STYLE: Prehistoric Oceanic Art PATRON: MATERIAL/TECHNIQUE:Greywacke FORM: A composite human/animal figure, perhaps an anteater head and a human body. It has a pleasing shape and smooth surface, and the slightly shiny patina on some of its raised details suggest it has been well handled. It was made from greywacke stone, and its finished shape may suggest the original shape the stone it was carved from. Carved in the form of some kind of animal, its features are rounded and include a freestanding neck, elegantly curved head and long nose, and upper limbs that hug its torso and appear to enclose a cupped space above its belly. FUNCTION: The Ambum Stone is a decorative pestle. Sculpted stones uncovered in Papua New Guinea fall into three different categories: figurines, mortars, and pestles. These objects take the form of both land- and air-dwelling animals, anthropomorphic creatures, and human figures. The Ambum Stone is one of the earliest stone objects, hailing from way back in 3500 B.C.E., and would have been created as a pestle. It's likely that the Ambum Stone was used for fertility or burial rituals. The discovery of the Ambum Stone sheds light on the supernatural and religious beliefs of the ancient New Guinea peoples. The early stone sculptures have supernatural significance. These special mortars and pestles were used in religious rituals. New Guinea peoples believed the supernatural powers of these sculptures and the animals they depicted helped with fertility, hunting, and burial rites.
    [Show full text]