COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
DEPERTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
URBAN EXPANSION AND ITS IMPACTS ON THE LIVELIHOODS OF THE FARMING COMMUNITIES: THE CASE OF DUKEM TOWN, OROMIA REGION, ETHIOPIA
By:
ABO SAFAYE
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
PRINCIPAL ADVISOR- Wagaw legesse (PhD candidate)
CO-ADVISOR- Getnet Tarko (PhD)
Gondar, Ethiopia
September, 2020 DECLARATION
I, Abo Safaye Dadi, declare that this thesis is the result of my own work and that all sources or materials used for this thesis have been duly acknowledged and cited in the text. This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for Master degree at University of Gondar. I confidently declare that this thesis has not been submitted to any other institution and anywhere for the award of an academic degree, diploma, or certificate.
SUBMITTED BY:
ABO SAFAYE ______
Signature Date
I UNIVERSITY OF GONDER APPROVAL SHEET As thesis advisor, I hereby certify that I have read and evaluated this thesis prepared, under my guidance, by Abo Safaye, entitled Urban Expansion and Its impacts on the Livelihoods of the farming communities in Dukem town, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. I recommend that the thesis was carried out under my supervision.
Principal advisor: Wagaw legesse (PhD candidate) Signature______Date ______
Co-advisor: Getnet Tarko (PhD) Signature______Date______
II UNIVERSITY OF GONDER CERTIFICATION PAPER
As member of the Board of Examiners of the MA Thesis Open Defence Examination, We certify that we have read, evaluated the thesis prepared by Abo Safaye and examined the candidate. We recommended that the thesis be accepted as fulfilling the Thesis requirement for the Degree of Master of Art in Geography and Environmental Studies (GES)
Internal Examiner: ______Signature______Date ______
External Examiner: ______Signature______Date ______
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III Abstract Urban areas in Ethiopia have been growing very quickly in recent decades, which have led to ever increasing demand for land for housing and other non-agricultural activities. Dukem town is one of the highly experiencing agricultural land conversions for different purposes. This has several impacts on the peri-urban areas of the farming communities. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess Urban Expansion and its Impact on the livelihoods of the Farming Communities: The Case of Dukem City, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. GIS and remote sensing were used to analysed the phenomena of agricultural land transformation into urban land use. Data sources were both quantitative and qualitative data collection. In assessing the impacts of urbanization on farmers, a sample of 150 of farmers were selected out of the 32,015 displaced and non-displace farmers from three kebeles. The necessary data were gathered through focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews and both close- ended and open-ended questionnaires.Quantitative data were analysed by the use of mainly mean, frequency distribution tables, percentages, standard deviation. Qualitative data were organized and analysed in word description form/ in the form of verbal/ narrative information. The processes of rapid urban expansion have caused an extensive Agricultural Land Conversion (ALC) that has seriously affected the livelihoods of farming communities, through reducing farmland size, amounts of food crop production and number of livestock, which lead to landless, displacement, unemployment and food insecurity. The results indicate that built-up areas were fast increment from 90.23ha to 1000.45ha in (2000-2010), from 1000.45ha to 2243.24ha in (2010-2020) and a total gain 2153.01ha within 20 years (2000-2020). The mean land holding size per household was 2.02 hectare. However, after urban expansion the mean total land size owned by households decreased to 0.98 ha and also the crop production per farm household was reduced to 14.63 yearly mean total quintals from 34.33. Similarly, before urban expansion nearly 12 mean livestock assets per households. But, after urban expansion the average livestock assets per household dropped to 7. The study recommends that compensation law should be revised in a manner of the current issues and inflation rates and local government, non-government organizations, private investors and higher education institutions should provide trainings, skill development and other capacity building services to these farming communities. Key Terms: Urban expansion, Farming communities, Displacement, Compensation, Land use/land cover change, Livelihoods.
IV ACKNOWLEDGEMNET Before acknowledging the individuals and institutions, I would like to thank the Almighty GOD for giving me the strengths and patience to reach this far. First of all, I would like to express my great respect to my advisor Wagaw Legesse (PhD Candidate) and Co-advisor Getnet Tarko (PhD) for their constructive comments, suggestion, advice and encouragement. Second, I thankful to Dukem town Land management office for providing me the necessary data for the study I also thankful to some my staff members Kebede Tirfesa, Dereje Tefera, Getu Kebede for their technical and moral support to complete this thesis Last but not least my family and others who helped me and contributed helpful advice in accomplishing my thesis work. ABO SAFAYE September, 2020
V Table of Contents Contents Pages Abstract...... IV ACKNOWLEDGEMNET...... V List of tables...... IX List of Figure...... XI List of Appendices...... XII ACRONOMYS...... XIII CHAPTER ONE...... 1 Introduction...... 1 1.1. Background of the Study...... 1 1.2. Statement of the problem...... 4 1.3. Objectives of the Study...... 6 1.3.1. General Objective...... 6 1.3.2. Specific Objectives...... 6 1.4. Research Questions...... 7 1.5. Significance of the Study...... 7 1.6 Scope/Delimitation of the Study...... 8 1.7. Limitation of Study...... 8 1.8. Organization of the Thesis...... 9 1.9. Operational Definition of Related Words and Concept...... 9 CHAPTER TWO...... 11 Literature Review...... 11 2.1. Urbanization and Urban Sprawl...... 11 2.2. Urban Sprawl...... 11 2.3. Causes of Urban Expansion...... 12 2.4. Impacts of Urban Expansion...... 13 2.4.1. Positive Impacts of Urban Expansion...... 13 2.4.2. Negative Impacts of Urban Expansion...... 14 2.5. Rural- Urban Linkage...... 15 2.6. Urbanization in Africa...... 15 2.7. Urbanization in Ethiopia...... 17 2.8. Urbanization in Dukem town...... 18 2.8.1. Driving Factors of Urban Expansion...... 18
VI 2.8.2. Positive Impacts of Urban Expansion in Dukem town...... 19 2.8.3. Negative Impacts of Urban Expansion in Dukem town...... 19 2.9. The Conceptual Framework of the Study...... 21 CHAPTER THREE...... 22 Research Design and Methodology...... 22 3. 1. Description of the Study Area...... 22 3.1.1. Location...... 22 3.1.2. Topography, Climate and vegetation...... 23 3.1.3. Soil...... 23 3.1.4. Population and demographic characteristics...... 23 3.1.5. Public Infrastructure Condition of the Dukem City...... 24 3.2. Research Design and Methodology...... 26 3.2.1. Sources of Data...... 26 3.2.2. Sampling Method...... 27 3.2.3. Data collection Instrument...... 29 3.2.4. Materials and Software...... 30 3.3. Data Processing and Analysis Method...... 31 3.3.1. Data Processing...... 31 3.3.2. Data Analysis...... 31 3.4. Ethical Considerations...... 32 CHAPTER FOUR...... 33 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS...... 33 4.1. Introduction...... 33 4.2. Demographic Characteristics of Sample Population...... 33 4.2.1. Sex Structure of the Respondents...... 33 4.2.2. Age of Household Heads...... 34 4.2.3. Education Status of the Respondents...... 34 4.2.4. Marital Status of the Respondents...... 35 4.2.5. Household’s Family size...... 36 4.3. Land use/Land cover Change of the Dukem town...... 36 4.3.1. Description of Land Use/Land Cover Classes...... 36 4.3.2. Land cover / Land use Change Detection...... 37 4.4. Factors that contributed for the expansion of Dukem Town...... 47
VII 4.5. The impact of urban expansion on the farmers’ livelihood in terms of natural, financial, social and physical capital in Dukem city...... 48 4.5.1. The Urban expansion impact on farmers’ natural capital...... 48 4.5.2. Urban expansion effect on farmers’ financial capital...... 53 4.5.3. Compensation system, types and the determination of compensation amounts...... 56 4.5.4. Urban expansion impacts on farmers’ social capital...... 61 4.5.5. Urban expansion impacts on physical capitals...... 63 4.6. Livelihood strategies of the affected households...... 64 CHAPTER FIVE...... 66 Conclusion and Recommendations...... 66 5.1. Conclusion...... 66 5.2. Recommendations...... 69 References...... 70 Appendix-...... 73
VIII List of tables pages Table 3.1: Sampling frame used to identify sample households______27 Table.3.2: Materials and Software______30 Table 4.1: Sex of household head______34 Table 4.2: Age structure of households’ heads______34 Table 4.3: Education Status of the Respondents______35 Table 4.4: Marital Status of the Respondents______35 Table 4.5: Households Family size______36 Table 4.6: Land use/Land cover classes description______36 Table 4.7: Land use/land cover Change in (ha) and Percent (%) between 2000, 2010 and 2020______37 Table 4.8: Accuracy assessment in 2000______41 Table 4.9: Accuracy assessment in 2010______42 Table 4.10: Accuracy assessment in 2020______43 Table 4.11: Factors that contributed for the expansion of Dukem Town______48 Table 4.12: Whether the respondents have land or not______48 Table 4.13: The mean total land size owned by the households______49 Table 4.14: Respondent’s land allotment purposes______50 Table 4.15: Whether the respondents lost their land or not______50 Table 4.16: Amount of land the farmer’s vacated______51 Table 4.17: Kinds of lands that farmers had lost______51 Table 4.18: The year that land has been taken______52 Table 4.19: Purposes of land conversions______52 Table 4.20: The total crop production of respondents in (quintals)______53 Table 4.21. Food cops for home consumption______54 Table 4.22: Livestock ownership of the respondents before and after urban Expansion______55 Table 4.23: Whether the respondents get the compensation in place of taken land or not______56 Table 4.24: Types of compensation did respondents get______57 Table 4.25: The compensation system was fair or not______58 Table 4.26: The money received as compensation______59 Table 4.27: Whether the respondents got training how to use
IX the received compensation or not______60 Table 4.28: Types of Training on which the households Participated______60 Table 4.29: Social problems as a result of urban expansion______61 Table 4.30: Social problems that the society encountering as a result of urban expansion______61 Table 4.31: Pattern of social relation before urban expansion______62 Table 4.32: Impact of Urban Expansion on Infrastructure of households____63 Table 4.33: Livelihood strategies that respondents engaged in______64
X List of Figure pages Figure 2.1: The Conceptual Framework of the Study______21 Figure 3.1: Location map of the study Area______22 Figure 4.1: Building up Area (2000, 2010 and 2020) ______38 Figure 4.2: Land use/land cover change map of the years 2000, 2010 and 2020______39 Figure 4.3: Land use/land cover change map of the years 2000______42 Figure 4.4: Land use/land cover change map of the years 2010______43 Figure 4.5: Land use/land cover change map of the years 2020______44 Figure 4.6: Ariel Photo of Dukem city______45 Figure 4.7: Dukem town proposed structural plan land use map 2009/2017_45 Figure 4.8: Google map of Dukem city in 2020______46 Figure 4.9 and 4.10: Ground truth data______46
XI List of Appendices pages Appendix-1: Questionnaire for Sample Household______73 Appendix-2: Interview questionnaires for key informants______79 Appendix-3: Focus Group Discussion with displaced farming households_81
XII ACRONOMYS UN United Nation UN-ECA United Nation Economic commission for Africa ETB Ethiopian Birr GDP Gross Domestic Product NGOs Non-Government Organization SNNPRS Southern Nation Nationality of people Region state ORS Oromia Regional State IZs Industrial Zones GCP Ground Control Points EMA Ethiopian Mapping Agency GPS Global Position System ERDAS Earth Resource Data Analysis System GIS Geographic Information System ETB Ethiopian Birr UNDESA United Nations, department of economic and social affairs Ha: Hectare SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Science USGS: United States Geological Survey UTM: Universal Transverses Mercator
XIII CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.1. Background of the Study Urbanization is a process of urban growth by natural increase in population and migration from rural to urban areas. It refers to a growth in the proportion of a population living in urban areas and the further physical expansion of already existing urban centres (Samson, 2009; Alaci, 2010), as stated in Vishwambhar Prasad Sati (2018). Particularly in the developed world, post–World War II motorization, poor planning, and market failures led to urban sprawl, which is defined broadly as “excessive spatial growth of cities”, more specifically, as spatial growth of cities that creates forms of suburban development that lack accessibility and open space. As a spatio-temporal process, urban sprawl can be seen as a low-density expansion or “leapfrog development” of large urban areas into the surrounding rural landscape. To give an example, from 1990 to 2006, urban land and associated infrastructure across Europe grew at an annual rate of about 1,000 km2, which is equivalent to the entire area of the German capital of Berlin. Nevertheless, the most prominent case of this kind of urban growth has been the expansion of the cities in the United States in post–World War II era (Bharat, 2018). According to United Nation World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision, globally more people live in urban areas than in rural areas, with 55 % of the world’s population residing in urban areas in 2018. In 1950, 30 % of the world’s population was urban and by 2050, 68 % of the world’s population is projected to be urban. Urban population is driven by overall population increase and by the upward shift in the percentage living in urban areas. Together, these two factors are projected to add 2.5 billion to the world’s urban population by 2050, with almost 90 % of this growth happening in Asia and Africa. Today, the most urbanized regions include Northern America (with 82 % of its population living in urban areas in 2018), Latin America and the Caribbean (81 %), Europe (74 %) and Oceania (68%). The level of urbanization in Asia is now approximating 50 %.
1 In Africa, urban growth patterns and population dynamics of cities, varying in size are not well-documented. Africa’s urban population has been growing at a very high rate (i.e. from about 27% in 1950 to 40% in 2015 and projected to reach 60% by 2050 (UN-DESA, 2014) as cited in Teye (2018). By 2025, the annual rate change of urban population is expected to be about 2 percent in developing regions and 0.5 percent in developed regions (UN-Habitat 2013), including extremely rapidly growing urban areas in the West African Belt (Bharat, 2018). The total population in the continent is projected to reach almost 2.5 billion people by 2050 with about 55% living in urban areas (Burak et al, 2017). Although the rapid increase in urban population is caused by the high rate of natural increase in towns and re-classification of settlements into urban areas, migration accounts significant proportion urbanization in Africa (Keno et al, 2019). Urbanization projections indicate as lowing rate in Africa from the 1990s high rates up to 8% down to a range of 1.9%−2.2% from 2020−2050, with significant variation across its countries. The increase in urban population in Africa will be accompanied with an expansion in urban land. Between 2000 and 2030, urban land in Africa is forecast to increase by nearly 600% (Percent increase in urban in 50km of protected areas: average (std dev). The forecast urban expansion in the continent is concentrated in five regions: the Nile River in Egypt, the coast of West Africa along the Gulf of Guinea, the northern shores of Lake Victoria in Kenya and Uganda and extending into Rwanda and Burundi, the Kano region in northern Nigeria, and greater Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Except the Nile River, all four regions are located in countries that are identified among the high-fertility African countries (Burak et al, 2017).
According to United Nations departments of economic and social affairs (2018), in 1950, the percentage urban in sub-Saharan Africa was about 11 per cent, equal to the urbanization level of the more developed regions in 1850. Over the following 65 years the percentage urban rose more rapidly in sub-Saharan Africa, reaching 39 per cent in 2015 (Amina et al, 2018).
Urbanization has been potentially posed on the livelihood of farming community living adjacent to urban. A number of studies indicated that urbanization causes both prospects and challenges in the area where the urbanization process is taking place. The empirical studies indicated that urbanization process cause upsides and
2 downsides not only within urban parse but also on its peripheries (Tadesse &Imana, 2017). The physical and statistical growth of cities also occurs through the incorporation of peri- urban settlements as the built-up area of the city expands and administrative boundaries are enlarged (UN-Habitat, 2014). It can result in loss of agricultural land, natural beauties, range lands, parks and sceneries (Melesse, 2004) as cited in Yimam (2017). African cities thus face low productivity, tepid job creation, huge infrastructure and service gaps, weak linkages with rural areas, high levels of informality, increasing inequalities, growing environmental damage and vulnerability to climate change and weak institutional systems and capacities. Unless resolved, these impediments will undermine Africa’s urban potential for structural transformation (UNECA, 2017).
The negative impacts of urbanization are evidenced in the expanding haloes of deforestation around cities and transportation routes. Such exploitation of natural resources in expanding waves, progressively from the most highly valued to less, is observed both in large cities and around smaller settlements. Peri- urban agriculture, though important for food security in many Sub-Saharan African countries, can also contribute to loss and degradation of habitats around cities (Burak et al, 2017). The process of determining and implementing compensation are illogical and created widespread social and political tensions more importantly exposing the rural migrants for getting risk of increasing social vulnerability to unemployment and food insecurity. Since compensation paid to the displaced people and evicted from farm land ownership is usually inadequate, it is advisable and advantageous to accompany money compensation with alternative development program plans to rehabilitate economically and socially the evicted farmers (Siciliano, 2012), as cited in (Yimam, 2017). Urban expansion was practising in planned and unplanned manner. Most commercial and manufacturing expansions were guided by the urban expansion planning where as many of the residential settlements were due to urban sprawl from inner cities and informal settlement with people living at outskirts in a built or rented housing occupations. This type of expansion is very common to urban Ethiopia where causes for creation of substantial peri- urban centres around big and medium urban centres. Public led
3 investments at industrial parks in cities expected to physically annex hundreds of hectares along with farmers to boundaries they manage (Efrem, 2017). Urban areas in Ethiopia have been growing very quickly in recent decades, which have led to ever increasing demand for land in peri- urban areas for housing and other non-agricultural activities. This has several impacts on the transitional peri- urban areas including engulfment of local communities and conversion of land rights and use from an agricultural to a built-up property rights system (Gashu, 2015).
Dukem is one of the fast-growing urban centres in the Oromia regional state. Hence the expansion of the town is becoming irregular, uncontrolled and often resulting in creation of fragmented development. The town’s growing industry, manufacturing sector and service. The result of the land use and housing ownership survey shows that those were informal housing constructions and extension in all areas of the town especially at the peripheries. The population of the town has been raised and consequently the need for homes became serious (Ambaye, 2012).
1.2. Statement of the problem The current global trend knows a massive expansion of urban areas, this growth being actually generated by the numerical population growth and migration. Urban development determines changes regarding the organization of places, economic and social changes but these effects exceed the territorial barriers and generate a broad impact (Docitu &Dunarintu, 2012). Industrial expansion and urbanization usually overtake large area of potential or real agricultural lands. The conversion of agricultural land to these systems has impact on the farming households who may lose a part or all of their agricultural land (Dadi, 2016). Consequently, unless managed well it can often lead to a serious negative environmental and socio-economic issues such as, loss of agricultural land, reducing employment opportunities in the agricultural sector, decreases of green spaces, habitat losses, air pollution, traffic congestion (Keno et al, 2019).
As the second most populous country in Africa Ethiopia has experiencing a rapid urbanization process since the implementation of economic development and privatization policy to stimulate national economic growth, continuous and substantial movement of people from rural villages and homesteads to small, medium, large
4 urban centres and capital city, as well as natural increase in urban centres and the reclassification of previously non-urban settlements. Yet, according to the Ethiopian Central Statistics Agency, the urban population is projected to nearly triple from 15.2 million in 2012 to 42.3 million in 2037, growing at 3.8 percent a year. However, as it is observed in numerous developing countries, the intensified constraints following the fast urbanization processes in the country are unplanned and uncontrolled that resulting in scattered urban growth, loss of farmland, and environmental degradation. The process of agricultural land conversion is taking place at a fast rate in Ethiopia due to the changes in the economic structure in the country over the last two decades. The changes are apparent in the peripheries of major urban centres partly due to the processes of rapid urbanization and partly due to growing demands for investment land in manufacturing and commercial agriculture (Diriba, 2016). The urban physical growth rate has been faster than the rise in infrastructures and service delivery in Ethiopian cities (Keno et al, 2019).
The urbanization process of towns in Oromia special zone surrounding Finfinne in general and its sprawling or horizontal expansion results impacts on the peripheral farming communities. In the aforementioned zone, urbanization process is increasing rapidly. From Oromia special zone Dukem town is highly experiencing agricultural land conversion for industrial establishments, real estate investment and residential construction process is stimulated by leasehold land policy framework (Tadesse &Imana, 2017). In 1986 the built-up area was 43 hectare and the built-up area was expanded to 505.3 hectare in 2005 likewise in 2010 the build-up area was expanded to 1, 095.44 hectare. The average growth rate of the expansion is calculated as 9.1%, by this rate the total area of the town is estimated as 2, 617.09 hectare in the coming 2020. It is increased by 1521.7 hectare from 2010 which means 138.9 % expansion (Ambaye, 2012). The existing development plan of the town requires to be improved as the population of the town increasing at an alarming rate due to rural to urban migration and urban to urban migration in search of job opportunity created by the industrial expansion and other services (Dukem town land management office, 2018). The city is expanding rapidly as a large portion of the surrounding farmland has been changed into urban land and industrial use. In 2017 structural plan was elongated from 3,586 hector in 2009 to 9,630.3 hector. With this urban expansion 4,115
5 households were displaced in the town from 1999 to 2016 (Dukem town land management office, 2018). International experience shows that, unsustainable and unregulated land conversion undermines secure land tenure and employment in agriculture in peri-urban areas and initiates or aggravates livelihood vulnerability among subsistent farming households (Diriba, 2016). Until 2013, more than 840 hectares of prime agricultural lands were converted for industrial uses, excluding the lands converted for residential expansion and all other municipal uses in this town. This sector, incurs heavy costs on the part of the livelihood of agricultural communities. The undesirable incidence succeeding industry expansions are unemployment of the farming family and household, loss of livelihood asset land and family disintegration (Diriba, 2016). Given the above facts, the farming communities have been affected by ever-increasing urban expansion of Dukem town. Therefore, the researcher of this thesis had assessed the urban expansion and its impact on the livelihood of the farming communities by giving special attention to three kebeles of the town before and after land conversion. To this end, the researcher had hypothesized that the unsustainable appropriations of agricultural land for urban expansion during the past ten years have serious negative socio-economic impacts on farmer’s communities in the study areas.
1.3. Objectives of the Study
1.3.1. General Objective The general objective of study is to assess the urban expansion and its impact on the livelihoods of the farming communities of Dukem town.
1.3.2. Specific Objectives The specific objectives of this study were: - To identify the land use /land cover change of the study area
To explore factors that contributes to rapid urban expansion of study area.
To investigate the major impacts of urban expansion on the farmers’ livelihoods in terms of natural, financial, social and physical capital in the three selected kebeles (districts) of Dukem town.
6 Examine the main strategies adopted by farming households in order to cope with the outcomes of agricultural land conversion.
1.4. Research Questions Based on the general and specific objectives of the study, the following research questions were addressed. What changes occurred in land use /land cover in the period of 2000-2020 in the peri urban of Dukem town? What are the major factors that contributed to rapid urban expansion of the town? What are the major impacts of urban expansion on the farmers’ livelihood in terms of natural, financial, social and physical capital in the three selected kebeles (districts) of Dukem town?
What are coping strategies used by farming households after land losses/land conversion?
1.5. Significance of the Study Urbanization and urban expansion in the developing countries like Ethiopia is an issue need attention by scholars, state administration, NGOs, governments, partners and other stakeholders to minimize negative impacts of urban expansion in economic, social and environmental impacts and to bring mutual development and symbiotic integration of the rural and urban life that foster social and economic development (Abdissa, 2005) as cited in Yimam (2017),
Urban expansion is natural process and it consume many hectares of prime agricultural and grazing lands through the development of industries, infrastructures and various development projects from their surrounding from time to time. This results land use change and loss of livelihood sources for the farm communities there. Therefore, land use change studies are important tools for urban or regional planners and decision makers to consider the impact of urban expansion. The finding of this study helps to add knowledge to urban planners, policy makers, decision makers, urban managers, researchers, governmental and non-governmental organizations and academicians.
7 1.6 Scope/Delimitation of the Study This study is delimited geographically and thematically. Geographically, this study emphasis only on three peri- urban rural kebeles that are found surrounding Dukem town. These kebeles (districts) are Tedecha, Koticha and Gogecha, which are affected in the process of urban expansion. Thematically, the scope of this study was limited to the assessment of the impact of urban expansion on the farmer's livelihood, especially in terms of financial, social, physical and natural capitals by giving attention to income, livestock holdings, infrastructures and farm land that were affected because of urban expansion in the study area. Therefore, the study concentrates on an implication of rapid expansion of the towns and respective land use changes for settlement, investment and infrastructural process. To make it convention to hold that the study in time and coverage, it would focus on the farming communities.
1.7. Limitation of Study The study has some limitations, among these:
Limited network connection to download the necessary data.
The poor experience of organizing and arranging the available data in some sectors.
Low willingness from some government sectors to give the required information.
Providing low quality data among some government sectors are some of the limitation of this research.
In order to address these problems, the researcher was forced to collect data from different offices in order to generate more reliable information and as much as possible, the researcher used the best approach possible to convince respondents about the objectives of the research and assured respondents of the confidentiality of information.
8 1.8. Organization of the Thesis This research was organized into five chapters. The first chapter contains background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives, research questions, significance, scope, limitation of the thesis. The second chapter is devoted to review of related literature. The third chapter deals with the description of the study area and methodology of the study and the fourth chapter deals with the results and discussion parts of the thesis. Finally, the last chapter presents the conclusion and recommendations of the study.
1.9. Operational Definition of Related Words and Concept Urban: - Definitions of urban have not internationally agreed conceptual meaning rather than different countries define it on their social economic political organization of their country. But urban area is characterized by higher population density and people living their economy not depend on agriculture (Fekadu, 2015). Urbanization: - is the process of urban expansion, may involve both horizontal and vertical expansion of the physical structure of urban areas. And it can result in loss of agricultural land, natural beauties, range lands, parks and sceneries (Melesse, 2004) Urban expansion: - is synonymous with urban sprawl, is the extension of the attentiveness of people of urban settlement to the surrounding area whose function are non-agricultural (Fekadu, 2015). Kebele: - is the lowest administration unit in the Ethiopian government’s administration hierarchy. Farming communities: - is agricultural community in rural settlement pattern to which Urban set elements expands (Bekele, 2010). Agricultural communities: - are inhabitants of rural settlements that are mainly engaged in agriculture crop and livestock production as well as forestry, fisheries and the development of land and water resource (Ciparisse, 2003) as cited in Yimam, 2017. Displacement of framers: This refers to those farmers who were expropriated of their farmlands in the rural-urban fringe. Thus, results to the change/functional movement or displacement of farmers from that specific area. Livelihood: - livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living.
9 A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base. Livelihood assets can be understood by the notion of five main capitals: -human capital, social capital, physical capital, natural capital, and financial capital. Impact: is the direct output of the activity at macro level while effect is the result on the ultimate user or people level. We can adopt the second category to discover facts about the effect of urban expansion on the livelihood of the dislocated community at household level. Natural capital: consists of land, water and biological resources such as trees, pasture and biodiversity. Financial capital: Consists of stocks of money or other savings in liquid form. In this study context, it includes not only financial assets but also it does easily disposable assets such as livestock, which in other senses may be considered as natural capital. It includes income levels, variability over time, and distribution within society of financial savings, access to credit, and debt levels. Physical capital: Is that created by economic production. It includes infrastructure such as roads, irrigation works, electricity, reticulated equipment and housing. Human capital: is constituted by the quantity and quality of labor available. At household level, therefore, it is determined by household size, but also by education, nutrition, skills, capacity and health of household members. Social capital: Any assets such as rights or claims that are derived from membership of a group. This includes the ability to call on friends or kin for help in times of need, support from trade or professional associations (e.g. framers’ associations) and political claims on chiefs or politicians to provide assistance. In one way or in another the social capital is a function of power a given individual or group assumes and a kind and a level of the relationship that exists in a given societal structure (Chambers and Conway, 1992:9) as cited in Bekele (2010). Compensation: -according to Proclamation # 455/2005, compensation is a means of payment for the property that is expropriated by the respective executing body of government both either in cash or kind. The process of compensating for the evicted house hold should include all forms of asset ownership or use right among the affected population and provided a detailed strategy for partial or complete loss of assets (Yimam, 2017).
10 CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review
2.1. Urbanization and Urban Sprawl Urbanization is a complex socio-economic process that transforms the built environment, converting formerly rural into urban settlements, while also shifting the spatial distribution of a population from rural to urban areas. It includes changes in dominant occupations, lifestyle, culture and behaviour and thus alters the demographic and social structure of both urban and rural areas (UNDESA,2019). Urbanization is shaped by spatial and urban planning as well as by public and private investments in buildings and infrastructure. It is widely recognized that demography and economies are the most important driving factors for urban expansion. Migration is one of the major reasons that contribute for increasing urban population (Zabu, 2014). During the last few decades urban or city population has grown as a result of the expansion of administrative boundaries due to the concentration of the economic, social, political and administrative organs of a nation or region that cities has made them magnets for rich as well as poor households (Drescher &Laquinta, 2002: 5) as cited in Zabu (2014), Global urban population will have increased from less than 1 billion in 1950 to roughly 6 billion by 2050, and to around 9 billion by 2100, corresponding to close to 85 per cent of the projected total population (United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development, Habitat III in 2017). Currently, more than54 percent of the world’s inhabitants are living in urban regions. This implies that, by 2050, 68 percent of the world’s inhabitants are expected to be urban with nearly 90 percent of this growth will occur in Asia and Africa. This fast population growth coupled with economic development resulted in rapid urban physical growth (Keno et al, 2019).
2.2. Urban Sprawl Urban sprawl refers to the horizontal encroachment of towns or cities towards their fringes or outskirts at the expense of livelihood of peri- urban communities (Mengistu, 2016). Urban sprawl is commonly described as the spreading of a city to its suburbs.
11 It is the construction of residential and commercial buildings in the adjoining rural areas or otherwise undeveloped lands at the outskirts of a city (Kofi, 2015). Sprawl is a pattern and pace of land development in which the rate of land consumed for urban purposes exceeds the rate of population growth which results in an inefficient and consumptive use of land and its associated resources Meles and Vanum (2012), as stated in Yimam (2017), The phenomenon has led to gradual change of rural landscape to urban landscape, where in land use systems like agricultural land, barren, fallow, forest, pastures and grazing lands were turned into built-up and non-agricultural uses (Harishkumar and Chinnapp, 2017).
2.3. Causes of Urban Expansion Urbanization is closely linked with modernization, industrialization, and sociological process of decision making. Most of the rapid urban sprawl in developing nations is due to rural-urban migration (Bekele, 2010). As indicated by Tagegne (2001) as cited in Bekele (2010), two most important actors leading urban expansion are in-migration (both rural-urban migration and urban-urban migration) and natural population increase. According to (CSA, 2008) as cited in Efrem (2017), migration considered as major factor to urban growth dynamics in Ethiopia and has significant contribution to the country’s urban population. The population migration in Ethiopian to urban centre has been rural-urban and urban–urban. Several studies including the report on State of Ethiopian Cities revealed that proportion of migrants in urban centres drastically increased. The proportion of migrants in the urban population was above 40% and more than 73% of the urban migrants were from rural areas. Better employment opportunities and basic social services are attracting rural migrants to the urban areas, whereas drought also thought to be the environmental stress of greatest concern of the country. Public led investments at industrial parks in cities expected to physically annex hundreds of hectares along with farmers to boundaries they manage. Commercial activities, infrastructures and services in expansion areas attracts people who were originally agrarian to gradually transform their living styles to urban settings and these causes spatial expansion as well as urban population increments to overall count (Efrem, 2017).
12 Hence, places or sites that are adjacent to urban areas might be needed for social, economic, industrial and communication, road construction and for other infrastructure and investment that may in turn need resettlement and displacement of the neigh boring rural farming community (Cernea, 2000) as cited in Yimam (2017).
2.4. Impacts of Urban Expansion The primary step to understand the influence of urbanization on ecological conditions is to measure the spatial and time-based patterns of urbanization. Urban development can be computed on the stage of urban sprawl and the growth of suburban expansion. It can also be quantified as compact or sprawl based on the spatial structure of built-up areas, the extent of the urbanized region in the landscape and land uptake per person. In the context of the elaboration of a New Urban Agenda as an outcome of the third United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat III) in 2014, much of the way in which cities progress, stagnate or become dysfunctional depends on the extent to which their involvement is planned, coordinated and well-managed. These factors, in turn, depend on the skills, money and political will being available and used in the best possible way to improve the lives of millions of people.
2.4.1. Positive Impacts of Urban Expansion The rapid urban growth in major cities poses enormous opportunities and challenges for the future sustainable development of a country. For instance, large cities are expected to be centres of innovation and wealth creation and need more resilient infrastructures and services resources as compared to smaller cities. This development, however, also draws energy and materials from distant and nearby ecosystems (Keno et al, 2019). Urban centres do provide economic space for rural households both to purchase their inputs and to sell their final products at local markets, thereby linking rural producers to the national economy. Development of small and medium size urban centres infrastructure has the potential to lower transportation costs and improve access to markets for both urban and rural consumers and producers. Infrastructure works as a bridge between the rural and urban centres and between the agricultural sectors and other sectors of the economy. An improvement in rural road quantity and quality
13 shorter travel time and reduces the costs of delivering inputs, increasing the inter-linkages between urban and rural areas (Efrem, 2017). According to United Nation World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision to ensure that the benefits of urbanization are shared and that no one is left behind, policies to manage urban growth need to ensure access to infrastructure and social services for all, focusing on the needs of the urban poor and other vulnerable groups for housing, education, health care, decent work and a safe environment. Urban growth is closely related to the three dimensions of sustainable development: economic, social and environmental. Well-managed urbanization, informed by an understanding of population trends over the long run, can help to maximize the benefits of agglomeration while minimizing environmental degradation and other potential adverse impacts of a growing number of city dwellers. Connecting the urban poor and those on the periphery of cities to the urban economy, its institutions, governance systems and services, will be a key to improving livelihoods and ensuring a thriving urban economy. This should not only involve expanding existing ‘formal’ systems and making them more inclusive (Aditya et al, 2016). Urban living offers many benefits to residents including more job opportunities and higher incomes to businesses including lower input costs, greater collaboration and innovation opportunities (Amina et al, 2018).
2.4.2. Negative Impacts of Urban Expansion This fast population growth coupled with economic development resulted in rapid urban physical growth. Unguided urbanization, like in most developing countries, negatively affects the natural environment and livelihoods in peri- urban areas (UN-HABITAT, 2010) as cited in Zabu (2014). Consequently, unless managed well it can often lead to a serious negative environmental and socio economic issues such as urban heat islands, air pollution, traffic congestion, decreases of green spaces, habitat losses, inadequate infrastructure and services, and inefficient resource utilization, especially in the countries where most urban dwellers growth is expected (Keno et al, 2019). Haphazard and unregulated urban development can damage sources of food supply, water catchments and other natural systems. Sprawling low-income housing estates built on cheap peripheral land are difficult to convert into rounded settlements with
14 amenities and access to jobs because of their marginal locations (UN-Habitat, 2010, 2013, 2014). Urban land use expansion has produced tremendous social, economic, and environmental consequences, including reductions of arable lands, population migration, and divergence of economic growth between cities and countryside. Urban expansion had directly or indirectly affected the production of livestock of rural communities which played multiple roles in creating wealth for farmers (Zabu,2014) Consequently, projections indicate that future trends in urbanization could produce a near tripling in the global urban land area between 2000 and 2030, as hundreds of thousands of additional square kilo-meter are developed to urban levels of density. Such urban expansion threatens to destroy habitats in key biodiversity hotspots and contributes to carbon emissions associated with tropical deforestation and land use change (United Nations, 2019).
2.5. Rural- Urban Linkage Rural–Urban linkages are flows of goods, services, environmental services, people and money between rural and urban locations (Julio and Felicity, 2017). Rural – urban linkages expressed in terms of urban land expansion in response to urban growth and the exchange of services and goods between rural and urban population. In this section, linkage is discussed in line with market facilities and land acquisition and expropriation mechanisms focused to experiences in rural land conversion to urban settings. Rural – urban linkage increases trade and capital flow. Majority of food items supplied to urban centres include cereal foods, vegetables, fruits, livestock and construction inputs for building of houses and roads (Efrem, 2017). According to United Nation World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision integrated policies to improve the lives of both urban and rural dwellers are needed, strengthening the linkages between urban and rural areas and building on their existing economic, social and environment.
2.6. Urbanization in Africa Africa’s move into the ‘urban age’ is projected to be without precedent in its rate. While the continent is still largely rural, it is one of the fastest urbanizing regions around the world (Burak et al, 2017). There are numerous studies on the expansion of
15 urban land in single metropolitan regions. Changes and deference in the patterns of urban growth have been observed over time among some mega cities and scattered pattern of urban growth has been confirmed in small and mid-sized cities. However, particularly in Africa urban growth patterns and population dynamics of cities, varying in size are not well-documented (Tegenu, 2010).
Some of the very large African cities are: Lagos in Nigeria (21 million people), Cairo in Egypt (20.4 million), Kinshasha in D.R. Congo (13.3 million), Luanda in Angola (6.5 million), and Nairobi in Kenya (6.5 Million), Abidjan in Côte d’Ivoire (4.8 million), Alexandria in Egypt (4.7 million), Johannesburg in South Africa (4.4 million), Da esSalaam in Tanzania (4.4 million), Casablanca in Morocco (4.3 million) and Accra in Ghana (4.1 million). Nevertheless, most African cities are challenged by problems related to unplanned and uncontrolled rapid urban growth as informal settlements become a part of the urban ecosystems (Keno et al, 2019). The current level of urbanization is only 17 per cent, although 55 per cent of GDP is generated in urban areas and the urban economy is growing very strongly. Consequently, the urban population is growing at approximately 3.6 per cent per annum and another 42 million people are expected to reside in urban areas by 2050.This is one of the largest absolute increases in Africa and makes it vital to prepare for large-scale urban population growth. Therefore, understanding and comparing the evolution of urbanization in large and mid-sized cities could provide a reference for urban and ecological planning and for sustainable development (Keno et al, 2019). Africa’s target of structural transformation is to shift labour out of low-productivity agriculture into higher-productivity manufacturing and modern services. But the long-run trend of this shift has been dominated by the informal sector often services where jobs remain concentrated in many urban areas, with detrimental effects for economy wide productivity. African cities thus face low productivity, tepid job creation, high informality, huge infrastructure and service gaps, weak linkages with rural areas, high levels of informality, increasing inequalities, growing environmental damage and vulnerability to climate change and weak institutional systems and capacities. Unless resolved, these impediments will undermine Africa’s urban
16 potential for structural transformation (United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 2017).
2.7. Urbanization in Ethiopia The total national population was increasing by an average of 1,361,000 people per year during the period between the first and second censuses conducted in 1984 and 1994. While the share of urban population was increasing from 11.3% in 1984 to 19% in 2014 and 19.4% in subsequent year, the proportion of the rural population was 88.7% in 1984 and declined to 81% in 2014 (Efrem, 2017). Projection made by Ministry of Urban Development and Housing indicates that, the number of urban populations by 2025 is expected to reach between 30-35 million (27 to 30% of a total population). By 2037 the urban population will be 42.2 million (40% of the total population). This means that the urban population of Ethiopia will increase between 2015 and 2037 by as much as 39 million and that the urban population expansion accounts for around 75% of the total population increase of over 50 million during this period. Ethiopia is one of the least urbanized countries in Africa with less than 19 percent of its population living in the cities and its urban population is growing at a rate of 3.8 percent per year and also urban areas are among the fastest growing in Africa (Buli Edjeta and Basil Kavalsky, 2018) Urban Ethiopia is increasing not only in population but also in declassification of big cities and land expansion by including nearby peri- urban areas or by converting rural surrounding to urban settings (Efrem, 2017). Displacement due to urban expansion is widespread in the developing countries than the developed countries because the majority of the people in developing countries live highly concentrated in the periphery depending on agriculture with fragmented land holdings, Tegegne (1999), as cited in Lukas & Dana (2017), This is particularly so in developing countries like Ethiopia where land remains public or government’s property and amount of compensation paid, in case of possible displacement depends on government decision. In many ways urban expansion is a spontaneous phenomenon that leads to displacing rural farming community.
The trend in the growth of urban populations is likely to continue given the shift in emphasis from agricultural to industrial-led development. Recognizing urbanization
17 as a major factor in socio-economic development, the government is embarking on a program me to convert rural Kebeles into urban centres. Moreover, public investments undertaken in construction of sugar factories, dams, industrial parks, airports, rail ways, dry ports and roads in many places of the country contribute to fast urbanization with higher agglomeration of new people as settlers (Efrem, 2017).
2.8. Urbanization in Dukem town The 2007 Ethiopian national census reported that the total population of town counted 68, 812, excluding the population of rural kebeles that merged to town administration. But according to Oromia plan commission and Dukem municipality counts 114,027 total population with growth rate of 7.5% per annum (Dukem municipality, 2018). High in migration rate, because Dukem has many industries. This is calling many job seekers from different areas. Chinese industrial village (Eastern Industry Zone) lays on 300 hectare of land that has a great prospect to Dukem. The Chinese investors had invested with a capital of 7 billion birr. Eastern industry zone has 80 factories and expected to create jobs for 50,000 workers. Currently more than 33 are functional and created a job opportunity to 14,000 employers. This Eastern Industry Zone which observes huge human force makes Dukam special of other towns in the region (Dukem town communication office, 2019).
2.8.1. Driving Factors of Urban Expansion Urban expansion and subsequent landscape changes are governed by geographical and socio-economic factors, such as population growth, policy, and economic development. Dukem found in Oromia Regional state. Since the headquarters of the Oromia Regional state is found in Addis Ababa there is a direct administrative linkage between the town and Addis Ababa city. There are various and interrelated factors responsible for the expansion of Dukem town. Among them: Rapid population growth is the major, many industries are on the process of establishment and numerous constructional activities are taking place, in search job high numbers of populations are migrating from different part of the country to the town. Several People commute between Addis Ababa (Fiinfinne), Adama, Bishoftu and Modjo for Job and many are residing in Dukam. This indicates the
18 need for higher residence land use demand. In fact, the town has significant economic importance because of the industrial expansion and over 15,000 employees are engaged in the Eastern industry only and many, more including the rest of the factories (Oromia Urban Planning Institute, OUPI,2017) the existence of suitable and accessible land proximity to the national market/ capital city, location on the national highway road and railway line Surrounded by Agricultural productive weredas (Oromia Urban Planning Institute,2017)
2.8.2. Positive Impacts of Urban Expansion in Dukem town An important feature of the global trend of urbanization accompanied with rapid increase of population has negative and positive consequences. These positive perspectives given that when cities are properly managed, urban centre can play major role in providing employment, shelter and services as well as serving as centre of culture, learning and technological development, portals to the rest of the world, industrial centres for the processing of agricultural products and manufacturing, and places to generate income (UNCHS, 2001c) as indicated by Zabu (2014). Dukam has direct linkage with all the influence areas that gives it importance in playing as a market centre of the hinterland. General Market: South Dukam Koticha to consider market linkage with Dire, Abu sera, Gale koticha, Wajjitu Dibdibie and Oda Nabie areas.
2.8.3. Negative Impacts of Urban Expansion in Dukem town Peri- urban areas surrounding the urban areas are characterized as one of the most vulnerable geographic areas for the risk subjected to farm land loss in the expansion of urbanization that makes farmers loss of livelihood assets (Zabu, 2014) In 1986 the built-up area was 43 hectare and the built-up area was expanded to 505.3 hectare in 2005 likewise in 2010 the build-up area was expanded to 1, 095.44 hectare. The average growth rate of the expansion is calculated as 9.1%, by this rate the urban expansion of the town is estimated as 2617.09 hectare in the coming 2020. It is increased by 1521.7 hectare from 2010 which means 138.9 % expansion There are few recreational areas in the town like: playground, open spaces in some part of the town. The playground is not in good condition and all of them occupy 4.57
19 hectare of land. Agricultural land use decreased from 84.1% in 2005 to 68.6% in 2010 due to horizontal expansion while manufacturing and storage increased tremendously by 12.2% (Ambaye, 2012). The town has 442 domestic and 117 foreign private investors those engaged in various investment activities like; manufacturing industries (380), hotel and tourism (61), trade (56), real estates (2), services (12) and Agro- industry (48), with 19.75 billion ETB was invested and more than 509.08-hectare farmland was converted. With this urban expansion 4,115 households were displaced in the town from 1999 to 2016 (Dukem town land management office, 2018). In Dukem town Administration Urban Agricultural activities are taking place widely in three kebeles, namely Koticha, Gogecha and Tedecha. Dukem town and its surrounding areas have favourable climatic condition and agro ecological soil type for the development of the sector as the urban economic activity. The live of the farming communities mainly depend on the farm and grass lands. The decreasing farm and grass land related with decreasing the production of food crop, number of livestock which is the cause of unemployment, food insecurity and displacement of farming communities in the Dukem town.
20 2.9. The Conceptual Framework of the Study The conceptual model provides a visual representation of the conceptual framework guiding this research. Urban expansion (Agricultural and vegetation land conversion)
Socio-economic impact
Agricultural land loss/ Eviction of farming households reduction
Production decline /Reduced Increased unemployment farm employment
Reduce Household food availability Reduced farm income
Reduced livelihood capitals Food insecurity Natural capital -social capital Financial capital +physical capital Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework Source: Own drawing, 2020
21 CHAPTER THREE
Research Design and Methodology
3. 1. Description of the Study Area
3.1.1. Location Dukem is one of the reforming cities of Oromia which is found in the Special Zone of Oromia National Regional State, 37 kilometre South East of Addis Ababa along the main roads of Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway and national highway. Astronomically, it is located within 8o45'25''up to 8o50'30'' North latitude and 38o51'55''up to 38o56'5'' East longitude (Dukem town communication office, 2018).
Location map of the study Area
Figure 3.1. Location map of the study area Source: Own drawing, 2020
22 3.1.2. Topography, Climate and vegetation Dukem is almost surrounding with chains of hills like Tedecha and Gimashe. Steeper slope in north west more than 2100 meter and decline to 1800 meter above sea level in south west direction. The town has flat topography generally possesses east and south east and flat land area covering 97% and with hills 3%, the existing landscape of the area is formed by the formation of the great east African rift formation and subsequent volcanism, erosion and deposition. The mean maximum and minimum annual temperature of the area is 29.3 0C and 7.1 0C respectively. The annual rainfall ranges between 800-1199mm (Dukem town communication office, 2018).
The vegetation types of the town and its surrounding are not dense forest. Only scrub vegetation and in some areas the presence of secondary plants like Eucalyptus are found on hills of Eastern and North eastern parts of the town and around the residences. In some areas there are also Acacia existing in the farmland (Dukem municipality, 2018).
3.1.3. Soil According to Dukem town development plan team report the soil of the town is vertisoil. This type of soil forms deep cracks during the dry season but logs water during the rainy season. The cracking of the soil during the dry season facilitates soil erosion. As a result, there are deep gorges in different parts of the town, especially along the courses of seasonal streams and Dukem river valley because of the nature of the soil (Selam, 2017).
3.1.4. Population and demographic characteristics Progresses have been seen in the town since a number of houses, manufacturing, service sector and institutions have been constructed. The population is also rapidly growing because of its nearness to Addis Ababa and economic importance. Due to the establishment of numerous industries in the town there is high in-migration of people in search of employment opportunity especially daily labourers. The 2007 Ethiopian national census reported that the total population of town counted 68, 812 which was 36, 701 (53.33%) male and 32, 111 (46.67%) female, excluding the population of rural kebeles that merged to town administration. But according to Oromia plan
23 commission and Dukem municipality counts the population were 58,017 (50.88%) male and 56,010 (49.12%) female and totally 114,027 with an average a population growth rate of 7.5% per annual (Dukem municipality, 2018). The town has different religious followers among them Protestant, Orthodox and Muslim were found and regard of ethnic group Oromo, Amhara, Tigre, Gurage, Silte and other different nations nationalities. Out of this list the greatest portions of dwellers are Oromo followed by Amhara (Dukem town communication office, 2018).
3.1.5. Public Infrastructure Condition of the Dukem City Dukem is one of the reform cities of Oromia, in the fast development truck. It is among the level one cities of Oromia Regional State. Every year, many infrastructure projects were constructed/ executed by local peoples through monetary contribution and labour. Some of the common projects executed include bridges, public toilets, local red ash and earthen road, local earthen drains, school facilities, disposal/ clearing of solid wastes. The administration of the city has been attempting to supply the infrastructure like road, water and electricity to the people of the city by the municipal revenue and vital participation of the community. However, there is high gap yet to satisfy the demand to basic infrastructure (Dukem municipality, 2018)
3.1.5.1. Road status The road network and drainage line are the major physical infrastructure of the town. The town has asphalt road 24 KM, cobblestone road 106 KM, Gravel (Red-ash) road 190 KM, Cleaned road 58. Total 363 KM of the earth road in 2018. In 2019, 270.3 Km Cleaned roads, 46.7 Km cobblestone road and 81 Km Gravel (Red-ash) roads were constructed.
3.1.5.2. Education Status Of the main social services, education is a very fundamental thing for a human being. It is believed that education is the only means to end poverty and other social and economic problems. In the town the distribution of education institution by both government and private in 2019 as below. Primary school (16), High school (4), and BLTO (1) (Dukem education office, 2020).
24 3.1.5.3. Health sector Our country gives attention to the health sector by setting practicable policies like health extension and prevention strategies. Thus, in dealing with social development issues of Dukam town is considering the situation of health services and health facility. Distribution of health institution in 2019 by both government and private was health centre (2), clinic (12) and pharmacy (7) (Dukem communication office, 2020).
3.1.5.4. Provision of Clean water in the city Clean and reliable drinking water is essential for good health. The source of water supply for Dukem city is 10 boreholes functional now. The town is access to tap water that has a capacity of producing an average about 4914m3 per day at treatment plant. The existing average daily water production (2914 m3 per day) and that of average water available for consumption is 2586 m3 per day. Based on the combined yield of bore holes, the minimum average total annual production capacity of the Dukem scheme is estimated to be 1793610 m3 and coverage of the city is about 89% (City Administration office, 2017).
3.1.5.5. Electricity The town is accessed to 85 MW of hydro power that gives services for 24 hours/day but demand of the town is about 150 MW. Accordingly, Dukem town electric power service district give service for the town and currently 25 MW power is delivered for the households and around 6,753 people supplied with electric power. From the above amount, 60 MW of power allocated for the town is utilized by industries and other companies. Total power demanded by industries is much greater than the current allocated power for the town. Therefore, the allocation of additional power is very important to fill the power supply gap in relation to the fast-growing industries in the town. Currently street-light besides of road reaches 140.76 Km (City Administration office, 2017).
3.1.5.6. Industry Expansion in the town In 2004 the Federal government nominated around 32 towns and cities to establish industrial development corridors within four regions (i.e. Oromia, Amhara, Tigrai and SNNPRS) and two city administrations (i.e. Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa). As of 2004, all eight small towns located around Addis Ababa in the Oromia Regional State (ORS)
25 were selected to host the establishment of those industrial development corridors ( Dadi ,2016). Dukam town one of the preferred as suitable corridor to promote investment owing to the best opportunities available i.e. proximity to the national market and location on the national highway road and railway line, the existence of suitable and accessible land. The existence of cheap labour and land fee is another opportunity that makes the area feasible for private sector involvement (Dukam profile, 2016). According to the same source, this sector generates an employment opportunity for more than 25,000. The town has 442 domestic and 117 foreign private investors those engaged in various investment activities like; manufacturing industries (380), hotel and tourism (61), trade (56), real estates (2), services (12) and Agro industry (48), with 19.75 billion ETB was invested and more than 509.08-hectare farmland was converted (Dukem town communication office, 2019).
3.2. Research Design and Methodology The researcher adopted both qualitative and quantitative approaches for achieving the study objectives. The qualitative method is said to be flexible and effective for getting in-depth understanding of socio-economic situations. The quantitative approach however, allows for generalization, prediction and comparison. The researcher adopted the mixed method in order to gain in-depth understanding of socio-economic data on the livelihoods of crop farmers in the study area. Therefore, the researcher believed that these approaches could make the findings of the research more reliable.
3.2.1. Sources of Data Reliable data is necessary to realize the designed objectives; hence the study was based on both primary and secondary data.
3.2.1.1. Primary Data Sources Important sources of primary data for this study were includes questionnaires, interviews, Focus Group Discussion, field observation and Ground Control Points (GCP). These generate during geophysical survey and the number of Ground Control Points measure by GPS (Global Position System) from field.
26 3.2.1.2. Secondary Data Sources For secondary sources of data, the researcher had been used books, journals, official reports, websites, legal documents, satellite images, previous study documents, meteorological data, population data and aerial photograph.
3.2.1.2.1. Satellite Imageries In order to assess the urban expansion in the study area, the researcher had used Land sat imagery. Those data were used to produce the historical land use/ land cover maps of the study area and urban expansion changes.
3.2.2. Sampling Method
3.2.2.1. Sampling Frame The sampling frame to identify respondents Table 3.1. Sampling frame used to identify sample households No Name of Total number of households % Population Kebeles displaced in households Displaced Non-Displaced Total HH HH 1 02 (Koticha) 2,237 6,763 9,000 54 2 03 (Tedecha) 921 9,944 10,865 22 3 04 (Gogecha) 957 11,193 12,150 24 4 Total 4,115 27,900 32,015 100 Source: Own computation, 2019
3.2.2.2. Sample Size Determination To determine the sample size, the researcher has used a sample size calculator developed by Yemane (1967, p.886). This formula is used in this study because it provides a simplified approach to calculate sample sizes. A 95% confidence level and P = 0.5 (maximum variability) are assumed. Moreover, it is a simplified formula for proportions. Accordingly, the sample size calculator is, n N 2 = 1+N∗ e
27 Where, N= Population size (where in this study N= 32,015) e = Error tolerance = 0.05(5%) n = Sample size
Substituting for each value, n = = = 395 32,015 32,015 32,015 2 The calculated sample size for=th1i+s0s.0tu5d3y2,i0s15395.1+0.0025 ∗32,015 2.781.0375 Thus, using Yamane’s sample size formula enables one easily to determine the minimal sample size that one has to investigate for a given population size. But the researcher took a total sample size of 150 farmer respondents. The defaults for this decision were based on the; objective of the study, given time frame, budget funded to conduct the study and finally, this sample size is also enough to capture the intended information for the study. To determine the sample size of the study, the researcher has used a Proportional Formula. The sample size is determined in the following way, Displaced Farmers Non- Displaced Farmers
02 (Koticha) = = 55 = 12 2237∗100 7 3∗50 03(Tedecha) = 4115 =22 27h00 = 18 h21∗100 hh44∗50 04(Gogecha) = 4115 =23 27h00 = 20 h57∗100 11,1h3∗50 Total=1401015 To27t,ah0l 0 = 50 Thus, the number of displaced farmers from the three study sites namely, Koticha, Tedecha and Gogecha, based on the above proportional computation formula was 55, 22 and 23 respectively totally 100. As to the number of non-displaced farmers of the three study sites were 12, 18 and 20 for Koticha, Tedecha and Gogecha respectively, adding up together 50. Hence the total sample size from the three categories was 150 respondents for this particular study.
3.2.2.3 Sampling Techniques In the process of realization this study, both probability and non-probability sampling techniques were applied. With regard to non-probability sampling, the researcher purposively selected three kebeles from four kebeles in which the fast expansion of the town has been observed in the direction of these kebeles. Those kebeles were; Tedecha, Koticha and Gogecha. Regarding the selection of sample respondents, systematic sampling was used to obtain the required number of respondents.
28 The qualitative data used in this study was generated by recruiting sample participants using non-probability sampling method. The decision to make the selection of key informants for the qualitative data collection could be made purposively, so that the informants are fit to the purpose.
3.2.3. Data collection Instrument To generate relevant information the researcher had used questionnaires, interviews, Focus Group Discussion and field observation.
3.2.3.1. Questionnaire The researcher used similar questionnaires for all selected respondents. The questionnaires were primarily prepared in English languages and then translated to Afaan oromo. The items of question were both close- ended and open ended. The advantages of using questionnaire as data collection tool was because of its arranged structure that to guide the researcher in collecting data from different sources.
3.2.3.2. Key informant interview The researcher prepares Semi- structured interview guides for displaced farmers, experts of the municipality, kebele administration and elders of the community. Because experts and office head who are directly working on the issue believed to have rich data than the others. In addition, community elders can describe more required information how well the process of urbanization was taken place in the targeted community areas. Hence, the researcher had selected 15 key informants purposively for this Semi- structured interview. More specifically, three from Municipality of the town,six from Community elders, six from kebele administration. It serves to probe and explore facts freely within predetermined inquiry areas and also the information obtained through this method is more valid and reliable.
3.2.3.3. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is another method that the researcher had used to collect qualitative data that cannot be obtained by other means. The researcher employed one (FGD) in each three kebeles.The participants in the FGD would be purposively selected from displaced household in each kebele (3 male and 2 female households in each group). The aim of the discussion is to understand the major
29 impacts of urban expansion on the socio-economic farm households’ livelihoods with the main strategies adopted by displaced households in order to cope with the outcomes of agricultural land conversion and factors that contributes to rapid urban expansion. This would be used to carry out in-depth discussions with displaced farm household how the lives of them changed before and after agricultural land conversion and also this give chance for participants to share opinions and discuss the topics posed during the discussion.
3.2.3.4. Field observation For this study the researcher had collected ground truth data by direct observation on the selected areas. The researcher observes and collected the necessary visual information with the help of hand-held GPS and a digital camera was utilized to take pictures of urban expansions over the converted lands in order to get more information to accurate the information gets from the other tools. Every day of fieldwork was an opportunity to observe what is going on in the study, especially in relation to the new developments (i.e. construction and activities of affected households, etc.) in the study area. Therefore, observing to the new realities and recording them provided first-hand information; enabling deeper insights into the issue under consideration.Walking around and informally talking with people in different contexts during the fieldwork enabled corroboration of the data and considerably helped to avoid unnecessary speculations and generalizations about the study population.
3.2.4. Materials and Software The researcher had used the following materials and software during accomplishing this research
Table.3.2. Materials and Software Materials and Software’s Function
ERDAS Imagine 2013 To image pre-processing, layer stacking single bands, supervised classification of land classes and accuracy assessment of the classification. Arc GIS 10.3 The Arc GIS tool will be utilized to create location
30 map of the study area Micro-soft excel To perform different statistical calculations. Micro-soft word To write the research paper. GPS To collect ground control points (GCPs) used to conduct ground accuracy assessment. Digital camera To capture urban expansion images in the study area.
3.3. Data Processing and Analysis Method
3.3.1. Data Processing The researcher had selected the study area from Ethio- GIS using arc map and export as a shape file. The image processing task was carried out using (Earth Resource Data Analysis System) ERDAS Imagine 2015 software.
3.3.2. Data Analysis In this analysis, researcher had used both quantitative and qualitative data. A mixed methods approach was used to analyse the data. All the completed questionnaires were sorted and collected and were being subjected to analysis. Quantitative data were processed and analysed through descriptive statistical analysis, mainly mean, frequency distribution tables, percentages and standard deviation. Qualitative information recorded on notebooks from focus group discussion, conversation from key informant interview and from personal observation were organized and constructed coherently and analysed in word description form. Accordingly, information obtained from key informant interview was organized in the form of verbal/ narrative information. Generally, the analysis and discussion of quantitative and qualitative data were done by triangulating results to either supplement the result.
The other data analysis techniques were GIS and Google Earth. Depending on the scope of the study and visual interpretation of various environmental features of the study area was done based on the visual elements or characteristics of satellite image, i.e. tone, texture, shape, Pattern, shadow, association and aspect of the features with the support of field verification of each land use/land cover features.
31 To get a land cover/land use map at reasonable accuracy, training areas have been chosen with the help of different sources such as high-resolution images (Aerial photography) and Google Earth. Aerial photography image was used to access the low-resolution Land sat image. Google Earth provides an access of high-resolution image on the internet. The study area has a high-resolution Google Earth image, dated 2020.
3.4. Ethical Considerations All research studies present a number of ethical and moral dilemmas which must be identified and addressed prior to carrying out any research study in order to protect all participants from potential harm. Also, the privacy and confidentiality of study subjects was maintained, all findings were portrayed in a confidential manner so that no personal or identifiable information was record or print in the study. Thus, the name of participants was not record during the data collection process. Therefore, before data collection, a formal letter was given to the researcher from University of Gander and the researcher show to the concerned organization and explained the general objective of the study. Then, the researcher gathers the required data for the study after getting permission from the concerned organizations.
32 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1. Introduction This chapter presents the main findings of the study concerning urban expansion and its impact on the livelihoods of farming community. The results presented in this chapter seek to achieve objective of the study, which is to assess urban expansion and its impact on livelihood of the farming community of Dukem town. This part of the thesis deals with the description of general characteristics of sample respondents and analysing and interpreting collected/gathered data from key informants such as displaced farmers, experts of the municipality, kebele administration and elders of the community through conducting questionnaires, interviews, FGD and document analysis concerned with the impacts of urban expansion on the livelihood of the farming communities in the city. Generally, it contains three cooperated or mutually coexisted, parts i.e. some deals with farmer's responses, others deal with the official administrative experts’ response to the questionnaires and interviews and some others also deal with the official (municipal) document analysis.
4.2. Demographic Characteristics of Sample Population The demographic variables of the respondents such as sex, age, nation, religion, education status, marital status and were collected and the results presented as follows.
4.2.1. Sex Structure of the Respondents Sex of the household head is an important variable influencing participation and decision making that detain to influence the entire livelihood of the community. Table 4.1, displayed that the majority 123 (82%) of the respondents were male headed and the rest 27 (18%) were female.
33 Table 4.1. Sex of household head Sex of household head Frequency Percentage Male 123 82 Female 27 18 Total 150 100.00 Source: Field survey, 2020
4.2.2. Age of Household Heads As we can see from the Table 4.2 of the sample households 25(16.67%) remain that 22 to 30 age, 28(18.67%) were 31 to 39, 39(26%) exposed that 40 to 48 age, 29 (19.33%) were 49 to 57, 15 (10%) were 58-66 and 14(9.33%) indicated that above 67 age. Therefore, the majority respondents of the sample households of the age groups were 40 to 48 and 49 to 57. With the age range categorized based on the concepts of dependent (under 16 and >64 years of age) and active work forces (i.e. 16-64 years of age). The age range of the majority of the informants fall within the productive age category. Table 4.2. Age structure of households’ heads Age of Household Heads Frequency Percentage From 22-30 25 16.67 From 31-39 28 18.67 From 40-48 39 26 From 49-57 29 19.33 From 58-66 15 10 67 and above 14 9.33 Total 150 100.00 Source: Field survey, 2020
4.2.3. Education Status of the Respondents With the expansion of urban into the study areas, the role of education and holding skills is important from the point of getting employment in the non-agricultural sector or to use their skills as an alternative option/means to diversify sources of income. According to the table 4.3, survey result 104 (69.33%) the majority of the sample households had attended grade 1- 8th with 24 (16%) 9- 12th. Similarly, only 12 (8%)
34 and 8 (5.33%) of the respondents had Illiterate and Certificate. On the other hand, 1 (0.67%) very few of the respondents had Diploma and Read and write respectively. The levels of education of the sample respondents in general were very low that likely to make them less competent in the non-farm employment markets. Therefore, the majority of the respondents do not have any special skills that would allow them to fit better paying positions in the highly competitive labour market in their localities.
Table 4.3. Education Status of the Respondents Education Status Frequency Percentage Illiterate 12 8 Read and write 1 0.67 Grade 1- 8th 104 69.33 Grade 9- 12th 24 16 Certificate 8 5.33 Diploma 1 0.67 Degree and above 0 0 Total 150 100.00 Source: Field survey, 2020
4.2.4. Marital Status of the Respondents As it shown on (Table 4.4.), the majority of the respondents 112(74.67%) were married followed by widower 17(11.33%), single 13(8.67%) and widow 8 (5.33%) respectively. Hence, the respondents could give their answer from their experience of administering family and caring responsibility.
Table 4.4. Marital Status of the Respondents Marital Status Frequency Percentage Married 112 74.67 Single 13 8.67 Widow 8 5.33 Widower 17 11.33 Total 150 100.00 Source: Field survey, 2020
35 4.2.5. Household’s Family size In (table 4.5) shows us, 66 (44%) of the sample respondents had 5-8 family size subsequently 48(32%) that 1-4 family sizes, 20 (13.33%) indicated 9-12 family sizes and 16 (10.67%) of the respondents had 13-16 family size. Therefore, the majority of the respondents were 5-8 family sizes in the area. This indicates that those farmers in per-urban areas and whose land had been expropriated have a large family size burden under the narrower income source condition.
Table 4.5. Households Family size Family size Frequency Percentage 1-4 48 32 5-8 66 44 9-12 20 13.33 13-16 16 10.67 Total 150 100.00 Source: Field survey, 2020
4.3. Land use/Land cover Change of the Dukem town
4.3.1. Description of Land Use/Land Cover Classes The classification process, it is rare to find clearly defined classes that one would like. This paper established its own classification scheme based on visual interpretation of satellite images.
Table 4.6. Land use/Land cover classes description. No. Land use/land cover Description 1 Built-up areas Continuous and discontinuous urban fabric, residential, industrial and commercial units, road and other associated lands. 2 Crop lands Irrigated and rain fed arable lands, farming and fallow fields. 3 Bare lands Open spaces with little or no vegetation, sands and rocky areas. 4 Shrub lands Scattered trees and bush land. Source: Own classification scheme, 2020
36 4.3.2. Land cover / Land use Change Detection After determining the land cover features the next step was land cover change detection. Land cover change detection is the process of assessing the spatial and temporal land use/ land cover change in the study area. Land use/land covers has been consecutively analysed using datasets from remotely sensed land-sat imageries of 2000, 2010 and 2020-years a given land cover feature. This was done through overlaying the classified satellite imageries and analysed by image differencing. There are varies techniques in land use/ land cover change detection. From these the most common one is post classification comparative analysis of independently produced classifications from different dates map to map and image to image comparison (Alebachew, 2011). In the case of the post classification method, imageries from different archives in different year interval are classified and labelled individually.
4.3.2.1. Land use/Land cover Change in (hectare) and Percent (%) between 2000, 2010 and 2020. The main target for generating classification maps from images of three different time periods was to determine how past and present human activities have been changing the landscape. These thematic maps were further used as inputs in a change analysis, which land cover/land use classes are changing in to other land cover/land use classes.
Table 4.7. Land use/land cover Change in (ha) and Percent (%) between 2000, 2010 and 2020. 2000 2010 2020 Feature Class Area/ha % Area/ha % Area/ha % Bare Land 372.74 3.83 303.25 3.12 206.24 2.12 Built-up 90.23 0.93 1000.45 10.29 2243.24 23.08 Crop Land 8657.88 89.06 7899.53 81.27 6890.59 70.89 Shrub Land 600.03 6.17 516.94 5.32 380.20 3.91 Total 9720.88 100.00 9720.17 100.00 9720.28 100.00 Source: Satellite imageries, 2020 As we can see from the above (tables 4.9), the land use/land cover in the study area have significant modifications and changes in the course of the study years. Built-up area have shown fast increment from 90.23ha to 1000.45ha by 910.22ha in the first
37 period (2000-2010) and it also increment from 1000.45ha to 2243.24ha by 1242.79 in the second period (2010-2020), showing a total gain of built-up area 2153.01ha within 20 years(2000-2020). On the other hand, other land use/land cover classes are decreased the first, the second and the entire study period. The total loss of Crop Land, Shrub Land and bare lands are 1767.29ha, 219.83ha, 166.5ha respectively within 20 years. From this the researcher conclude that since 2000 year the building up areas are fast increasing and on the other hand, other land use/land cover classes are decreasing the first, the second and the entire study period.
Figure 4.1. Building up Area (2000, 2010 and 2020)
38 Figure 4.2. Land use/land cover change map of the city in 2000, 2010 and 2020 year. Source: Author’s Analysis, 2020
39 4.3.2.2. Accuracy Assessment of the Image Classification Validation Accuracy assessment is a process used to validate the accuracy of image classification by comparing the classified map with a reference data (Caetano et al., 2005). It is critical for a map generated from any remote sensing data. Currently, accuracy assessment is considered as an integral part of any image classification. In order to use the derived land use/land cover map for further change analysis, the errors need to be quantified and evaluated in terms of classification accuracy. This might help users and readers to understand some level of inaccuracy and imprecision during image classification. Hence, an accuracy assessment was carried out to assess the quality of the land cover maps. The reference data used for accuracy assessment are usually obtained from aerial photographs, high resolution images (Google earth) and field observations. The researcher has examined the test sample plots and assigned a class value to each.
4.3.2.2.1. Overall Accuracy This is computed by dividing the total correct number of pixels (i.e. summation of the diagonal) to the total number of pixels in the matrix (grand total). In some empirical studies (Anderson et al., 1976), it is noted that the maximum accuracy value of 91.21%, whereas the minimum accuracy value of 88.37% is required for effective and reliable land cover change analysis. Depending upon the purpose of the land cover map, different people use different accuracy levels. Overall accuracy= ⅀Xii/N Where, Xii = Number of correctly classified pixels, or the diagonal value and N= entire number of pixels in the matrix. Overall accuracy = (the sum of diagonal matrix)/ (total pixel) *100 Overall accuracy = 69/80 *100= 86.25% in 2000 Overall accuracy = 72/80 *100= 90% in 2010 Overall accuracy = 78/80 *100= 95.5% in 2020
4.3.2.2.2. Producer Accuracy Producer's accuracy refers to the number of correctly classified pixels in each class (category) divided by the total number of pixels in the reference data to be of that category (column total). This value represents how well reference pixels of the ground cover type are classified. As showed in (table 4.10), in 2000 the maximum class
40 accuracy was bare land which is 89.47 %, while the minimum class accuracy was crop land which is 81.82%. Similarly, showed in (table 4.11), in 2010 the maximum class accuracy was bare land which is 100%, but the minimum class accuracy was built-up area which is 85.71%. As showed in (table 4.12), in 2020 the maximum class accuracy was crop land and bare land which is 100%, where the minimum class accuracy was built-up and shrub land which is 95.24 %, whereas the other classes within each year has a good accuracy.
4.3.2.2.3. User Accuracy Users accuracy refers to the number of correctly classified pixels in each class (category) divided by the total number of pixels that were classified in that category of the classified image (row total). It represents the probability that a pixel classified into a given category actually represents that category on the ground. Results of user's accuracy in this study showed that in 2000 the maximum class accuracy were built-up areas and crop land 90%, the minimum class accuracy was shrub land with accuracy of 80%. In 2010 the maximum class accuracy was crop land 95%; the minimum class accuracy was shrub land with accuracy of 85%. Similarly, in 2020 the maximum class accuracy were built-up areas and shrub land, which have the same accuracy 100%, whereas the minimum were bare land and crop land class with accuracy of 95%.
Table 4.8. Accuracy assessment in 2000 Class Reference Classified Number Producers Users
Name Totals Totals Correct Accuracy Accuracy
Crop Land 22 20 18 81.82% 90.00%
Shrub Land 18 20 16 88.89% 80.00%
Built up 21 20 18 85.71% 90.00%
Bare Land 19 20 17 89.47% 85.00%
Totals 80 80 69
Overall Classification Accuracy = 86.25%
41 Figure 4.3. Land use/land cover change map of the years 2000 Source: Author’s Analysis, 2020 Table 4.9. Accuracy assessment in 2010 Classifie Number Producers Users Class Reference d Name Totals Totals Correct Accuracy Accuracy Crop Land 22 20 19 86.36% 95.00% Shrub Land 19 20 17 89.47% 85.00% Built up 21 20 18 85.71% 90.00% Bare Land 18 20 18 100.00% 90.00% Totals 80 80 72 Overall Classification Accuracy = 90.00%
42 Figure 4.4. Land use/land cover change map of the years 2010 Source: Author’s Analysis, 2020
Table 4.10. Accuracy assessment in 2020 Class Classified Number Producers Users Reference Name Totals Totals Correct Accuracy Accuracy Shrub Land 21 20 20 95.24% 100.00% Bare Land 19 20 19 100.00% 95.00% Built Up 21 20 20 95.24% 100.00% Crop Land 19 20 19 100.00% 95.00% Totals 80 80 78 Overall Classification Accuracy = 97.50%
43 Figure 4.5. Land use/land cover change map of the years 2020. Source: Author’s Analysis, 2020
These Snap shots of aerial picture of a place will be processed in photometry software with a super computer or work station. Currently, the Ministry of Urban Development and Housing (MUDH) in collaboration with Information Network Security Agency (INSA) and the Ethiopian Mapping Agency have captured high resolution Photo of 23 major cities in Ethiopia which was flown in June, 2012 G.C. by INSA.
44 Figure 4.6. Ariel Photo of Dukem city, June, 2012 G.C. by INSA Source: From Dukem city land administration office, 2020
Figure 4.7. Dukem town proposed structural plan land use map 2017 Source: Oromia Urban Planning Institute, 2017
45 Figure 4.8. Google map of Dukem city in 2020, Source: From Google earth, 2020
Figure 4.9. Ground truth data. Source: From Dukem city communication office, 2019
46 Figure 4.10. Ground truth data Source: photo taken by Author, 2020
4.4. Factors that contributed for the expansion of Dukem Town As we can see from table 4.11, majority of the respondents 142(94.67%) answered from the all mentioned factors (High birth and low death, Rural to urban and urban to urban migration, Reclassification of rural settlement, Proximity to the national market/ capital city, location on the national highway road and railway line,and The existence of suitable and accessible land ), followed by the existence of suitable and accessible land 5 (3.33%), proximity to the national market/ capital city, location on the national highway road and railway line 2 (1.33%) and demographic dynamics (high birth &low death rate) 1 (0.67%). This imply that the town has experiencing the horizontal expansion due to high birth and low death, rural to urban and urban to urban migration, reclassification of rural settlement, proximity to the national market/ capital city, location on the national highway road and railway line,and the existence of suitable and accessible land. Key informants participants also support the above results.
47 Table 4.11. Factors that contributed for the expansion of Dukem Town Factors Frequency Percent Demographic dynamics (high birth &low death rate) 1 0.67 Rural to urban and urban to urban migration 0 0 Reclassification of rural settlement 0 0 Proximity to the national market/ capital city, location on the national 2 1.33 highway road and railway line. The existence of suitable and accessible land 5 3.33 High birth and low death, Rural to urban and urban to urban migration, 142 94.67 Reclassification of rural settlement, Proximity to the national market/ capital city, location on the national highway road and railway line,and The existence of suitable and accessible land. Total 150 100.00 Source: Survey data,2020
4.5. The impact of urban expansion on the farmers’ livelihood in terms of natural, financial, social and physical capital in Dukem city.
4.5.1. The Urban expansion impact on farmers’ natural capital
4.5.1.1. Current Land Ownership of the Respondents It is indicated in (table 4.12), that 97 (64.67%) of the respondents have their land, but different in size and 53 (35.33%) of the respondents have no land in the study area. As urban became to expanded the peri urban farmers became to landless. This show that the number of landless household were increasing with urban expansion in pire- urban farming areas.
Table 4.12. Whether the respondents have land or not at current time Response Number of respondents Percent Yes 97 64.67% No 53 35.33% Total 150 100.00 Source: Survey data,2020
48 4.5.1.2. Respondents Land size in Hectare One of the major consequences of sustained agricultural land conversion is not only reflected in terms of mean household farmland size reduction, but it can also result in other direct negative impacts on farmers ‘livelihoods.
Table 4.13. The mean land size owned by the households in 2010-2020 Total land size (In hectare) Before urban expansion After urban expansion N 138 97 Minimum 0.25 0.25 Maximum 7.5 5 Mean 2.02 0.98 St. dev. 5.13 3.36 Sum 278.5 95.25 Source: Survey data, 2020 Before urban expansion from 150 around 138 surveyed household had their own lands. The mean total land holding size per household was 2.02 ha, from which they earned their livelihood income for their live. However, ten years later, urban expansion causes the rapid conversion of a considerable size of lands in to urban use. For instance, the mean total land size owned by responder decreased from 2.02ha in 2010 to 0.98ha in 2020. The total land sizes owned by the respondents was more than 278.5ha (100%) in 2010, which gradually reduced to 95.25 ha in 2020. A reduction of 183.25 ha. This indicate that the mean land size per household became to decreasing with urban expansion over peri- urban farming communities. The reduction of agricultural land and grass land has direct relation with the decreasing amount of food crop production and number of livestocks in peri- urban farming households. This is the cause of unemployment and food insecurity in the farming communities.
4.5.1.3. Respondents’ Land Allotment Purposes The respondents have been using their land for different purposes. In table 4.14 below, out of their total land, farm land 17.33%, residential land 9.33%, grass land 3.33% and the remaining 62% is used for all of the above purposes. Hence, the land was
49 serving as means of livelihood for the farmers. Most of respondents have been used their land for all purposes (farming, grazing and residential). This implies losing the land they hold directly affect their means of living unless replaced by another means of earning. Table 4.14. Respondent’s land allotment purposes Land use type Frequency Percent Farming 26 17.33 Grazing 5 3.33 Residential 14 9.33 Farming, Grazing and 93 62 Residential purpose Non-response 12 8 Total 150 100.00 Source: Survey data, 2020
4.5.1.4. The respondents lost their land or not As we can see from the (table 4.15) below, 111(74%) of household had loosed their land while 39(26%) of them did not loosed their land. This indicates that the majority of farmers had loosed their land for urban use such as industrial expansion and other different construction. Table 4.15. Whether the respondents lost their land or not Did you had lost your land due to an Number of respondents Percent expansion of Dukem town? Yes 111 74 No 39 26 Total 150 100.00 Source: Survey data,2020
4.5.1.5. Amount of Land that the respondents had loosed Agriculture is the most important asset for the farming community that would play significant role in making living. Accordingly, this assessment focused on to investigate and measuring the extent of asset loosed among of the farmers at household levels in quantitative terms.
50 Table (4.16), show that farmers in the study area have loosed the mean of 1.63 hectare per household with minimum of 0.25 hectare and maximum of 6.25 hectare. The fast industrial expansion, house construction and other infrastructure are the cause of this large land loose in peri-urban farming households. This situation has impact on the live of the farming household. Because land is the source of livelihood (food crop production, number of livestock and etc) for the peri- urban farming communities, so land loose is the loose of livelihoods.
Table 4.16. Amount of land that the farmers have loosed
Standard Amount of loosed landN Sum Minimum Maximummean deviation (in hectare)
111 180.5 0.25 6.25 1.63 4.24 Source: Survey data, 2020
4.5.1.6 Type of Land that the respondents had loosed due to Urban Expansion As it is indicated in (table 4.17), the respondents reacted that most of the respondents 28 (18.67%) had loosed their agricultural land due to urban expansion, which has impact on farmers whose are dependent on agriculture for means of earning their livelihood in one case or the other. From these, all (Agricultural, Residential and Grass land) vacated 64(42.67%) followed by residential land 17 (11.33%) and grass land 2 (1.33%). The majority of household loosed all (Agricultural, Residential and Grass land). Table 4.17. Kinds of lands that farmers had lost Types of land Number of respondents Percent Agricultural land 28 18.67 Residential land 17 11.33 Grass land 2 1.33 (Agricultural, Residential and Grass land) 64 42.67 Non response 39 26 Total 150 100.00 Source: Survey data, 2020
51 4.5.1.7 The year that land has been taken from household As we can see from the (table 4.18) below, 71(47.33%) of household had loosed their land in the period of 2000 to 2020, while 23(15.33%) and 17(11.33%) of them loosed their land in the period of 2011 to 2020 and 2000 to 2010 years respectively. This show that the majority of households had loosed their land in the period of 2000-2020. Table 4.18. The year that land has been taken When your land has been taken from you? Frequency Percent 2000-2010 17 11.33 2011-2020 23 15.33 2000-2020 71 47.33 Non response 39 26 Total 150 100.00 Source: Field survey, 2020
4.5.1. 8 Major purpose of land conversions in the study areas This section intends to assess some of the major drivers or purposes for which the converted lands were used in the study areas. To this end, the researcher had asked respondents to explain the purpose for what their land was used after conversion.
Table 4.19. Purposes of land conversions Purpose of land had taken Number of respondents Percent
For house construction 36 24 For manufacturing industries. 54 36 For social services 5 3.33 For Infrastructure development 13 8.67 For all 3 2 Non response 39 26 Total 150 100.00 Source: Surveyed data, 2020 Indicated in table 4.19, the overwhelming majority 54 (36%) of land was converted and used for the establishment of manufacturing industries and 36 (24%) of land was used for residential expansion. On the other hand, around 13 (8.67%) of their land
52 have also used for Infrastructure. Close to 5(3.33%) of the converted land was used for all purposes, which followed by social services 3(2%). The result show that the large converted land had been used for manufacturing industries and next for residential expansion.
4.5.2. Urban expansion effect on farmers’ financial capital To measure a household’s financial capital as one of the livelihood elements, an average annual income, average food crop production and number of livestocks that these households earning before urban expansion and currently is the concerning part. Accordingly, the following analysis has been made on each of them.
4.5.2.1. The total crop production of respondents in (quintals) before and after urban expansion The negative effects of agriculture land conversion on the total crop production in general and on the main stable food (Teff, Wheat, Barley, Maize, and Bean in particular) was high. Therefore, studying the effects of agricultural land loss on the stable food crop production is important in terms of food crop availability for home consumption by a household and in the market for net buyers. The following section will quantify the general effects of land conversions on food crop production in the study areas. Table 4.20. The total crop production of respondents in (quintals) 2010-2020 Crop production (Teff, Wheat, Before urban expansion After urban expansion Barley, Maize, Bean etc) in Quintal N 138 97 Minimum 2 2 Maximum 150 80 Mean 34.33 14.63 St. dev 104.65 55.15 Sum 4,737 1,419 Source: Survey data, 2020 The cultivation of food crops was highly affected by the processes of urban expansion that consumed a considerable amount of agricultural lands. In table 4.20, nearly 34.33 quintals mean annual food crops were harvested by a household before urban expansion. However, the volume of the crop production per farm households were
53 reduced to 14.63 quintals mean yearly after urban expansion. So, the conversion of agricultural land for urban use was the cause of decreasing the food crop production of the peri- urban farming communities. Because food crop is the major livelihood assets for farm households. According to the FGD participant views the majority of farming household failed in food insecurity related with the loose of their agriculture land.
4.5.2.2. Production of Sufficient food cops for home consumption
Table 4.21. Food cops for home consumption in 2020 For how many months of the year that your current annual crop production could able to feed your family? Freq Percent 1-3 20 13.33 4-6 19 12.67 7-9 9 6 10-12 22 14.67 > 1 year 45 30 Not response 35 23.33 Total 150 100 Source: Survey data, 2020 According to this survey result, in (table 4.21) only 45 (30%) of households responded that they were producing enough food crops to feed their family all year long (i.e. until the next harvesting season comes), while others 22 (14.67%), 20 (13.33%), 19 (12.33%) and 9 (6%) feed their families for 10-12, 1-3, 4-6, 7-9 months respectively. This show that the majority of household could not produce enough food crops to feed their families and most of them failed into food insecurity. As the key informants’ views the mounts of food crop production decreasing from time to time, related with urban expansion into peri urban areas, which is the cause of agricultural land conversion into urban use and also the fertility of soil is become to decreasing from time to time, including the shortages of rain sometimes.
54 4.5.2.3. Impacts of urban expansion on Livestock assets before and after urban expansion Livestock is a major source of income for many households in the study area. Livestock rearing depends on the availability of grazing lands, agricultural and safe drinking water. Farmers in the study area commonly use their livestock for farming activity, for transportation and source of income. Urban expansion had directly or indirectly affected the production of livestock of rural communities which is the main livelihoods assets for farmers. So, the purpose of this section is to assess the effects of land conversions on livestock holding size of the households.
Table 4.22. Livestock ownership of the respondents in 2010-2020 Livestock assets (Cattle, Sheep, Goat, Donkey, Before expansion After expansion Mule) in number N 123 102
Minimum 3 2
Maximum 50 27
Mean 12 7 St. dev 35.35 19.09 Sum 1,721 940 Source: Field survey, 2020 In table 4.22, before urban expansion, nearly 12 mean livestock assets per household. But, ten years later, the number of mean livestock assets per household dropped to 7 after expansion in 2020. The information collected on table 4.24, above tells us that, urban expansion was directly associated with for the loss of livelihood assets of farmers’ livestock wealth. This implies that whenever farmlands taken away for urban expansion use, farmers obliged to sell all or minimize the number of livestock assets. According to focus group discussion participants of evicted farmers’ statement, the shrinking in number of livestock after eviction that was previously owned by an individual farmer was directly related with the decreased private and public grassland and agricultural lands. Therefore, expansion of the town has brought various negative consequences on farmer’s assets of livestock. As far as livestock assets played
55 multiple roles in creating wealth, the loss of livestock assets could have a contribution for farmers to expose for vulnerability to food insecurity since used as one of the sources of income before eviction.
4.5.3. Compensation system, types and the determination of compensation amounts The arrangement of compensation payments for landholders or other individuals whose property were taken was important in all land conversion strategy. This was well stated in the Federal Constitution of Ethiopia, Article 40 (8). According to this article, the expropriation of landholdings or private properties in Ethiopia should take place only after the compensation payment is made in advance to the lost/damaged or properties on the confiscated landholdings. In table (4.23) 90 (60%), the majority of respondents had already received compensation payments at the time of the study, but 15 (10%) of the respondent did not received compensation payments at the time because of some reason. Relate with land owner legality, miss to follow the case properly and high bureaucracy in administration.
Table 4.23. Whether the respondents get the compensation in place of taken land or not Did you get compensation from the authority in Number Percent place of the taken land? respondents Yes 90 60 No 15 10 Non response 45 30 Total 150 100.00 Source: Survey data,2020
4.5.3.1. Kinds of Compensation paid As shown in table 4.24, compensation paid for land vacated was 28 (18.67%) money and 77 (51.33%) both money and housing plots.
56 Table 4.24. Types of compensation did respondents get Types of compensations Frequency Percent Money 28 18.67 House plot 0 0 Money and House 77 51.33 Non response 45 30 Total 150 100.00 Source: Field survey, 2020 According to information obtained from key informants from Dukem town municipality, generally three compensation packages are widely available for evicted farmers. These are: a. Cash compensation: cash compensation is mostly used for the land lost farmers. b. Residence land in urban Area: Farmer who loses his residence land can get land in urban area in his name and for each of his family. If the size of the residence land lost is 500m2 and above, the husband and wife of the family together can get 500m2 from the urban administration. If the land lost is below 500m2, they obtain 200m2. In addition, each child in the family with the age of 18 and above can obtain 140m2 from urban area. c. Employment Creation: Relevant line government offices responsible institutions to rehabilitate the livelihood of evicted farming community’s farmers. Their responsibility include organizing evicted farmers and give skill development training and appropriate place of work and made favourable condition to engage private investment activities.
4.5.3.2 The compensation system Money compensation was criticized for its lack of fairness in payment. The price for items was determined by the municipality. As we can read from (table 4.25) below the respondents’ responded that 72.67% (109) No and 0.67% (1) Yes. From the respondents’ responses, it is clear that the compensation system was not fair.
57 Table 4.25. The compensation system was fair or not The compensation system was fair? Frequency Percent Yes 1 0.67 No 109 72.67 Non response 40 26.66 Total 150 100.00 Source: Field survey, 2020 According to the views of the participants in the FGDs and key informants’ interviews, the determination of price for the properties like land, house and other properties were not clearly consider the actual value of property. The city administration used force if the farmers show their dissatisfaction with the compensation amount or other related issues. None community members had been consulted and asked on the interest. Most of the households seriously complained that the governments haven’t give attention to the farming communities and the lack of transparency and high bureaucracy. The prices set to calculate compensation payments for converted land were very low around 2, 5, 7,11 ETB birr per meter square in different time as key informant told to the researcher. They also claim that none of investors had built the promised social services before to the farming communities of the area. According to the views of focal persons in the urban administration, the decision to breaking the instalments of the compensation money was made intentionally as a strategy to allow the beneficiaries use the money appropriately.
4.5.3.3. The money received as compensation As it is indicated in (table 4.26) below the respondents responded that 42 (28%) the money is already gone, 19 (12.66%) it is not yet utilized due to lack of know-how/skill and 18 (12%) start a petty business.
58 Table 4.26. The money received as compensation What did you do with the money you received Frequency Percent as compensation? It is not yet utilized due to lack of 19 12.66 know-how/skill I have used the money to start a petty business 18 12 The money is already gone. 42 28 Non response 71 47.33 Total 150 100.00 Source: Field survey, 2020 As interviews with displaced farmer household, because of the smallest compensation paid, most households had finished the received compensation without done any things. But some of them building house, rent farm land from others, buying food crop and teaching their families by received compensation.
The reflection given by an official in the finance department of Dukem town was similar: Some of the beneficiaries were not good in the management of large amounts money. An assessment made had indicated that, most of the benefiters exhausted the money without translating at least part of it into a fixed asset that would help them restore their livelihood. In fact, the amount of compensation money was not that big due to the small conversation rate of the converted land size. Some of the beneficiaries used the money properly (i.e. built a house, while others rented a farmland from other to cultivate food crop), most of them finished the money. On the government side, breaking payments into phases was also considered to avoid unnecessary delay for the instalment of compensation (i.e., not to wait until all the required money is available at once.
4.5.3.4. Training on how to use the received compensation As it is indicated in (table 4.27) below, 9(6%) of the respondents got training after land was taken from them and 93(62%) of the respondents claimed that no any training was given for them when government took their land for different purposes. This result indicate that, the concerned body is not working properly on displaced farmers to build their capacity how to utilize the received compensation.
59 Table 4.27. Whether the respondents got training how to use the received compensation or not Have you got training on how to make use of Frequency Percent the compensation you received? Yes 9 6 No 93 62 Non response 48 32 Total 150 100.00 Source: Field survey, 2020 In relation to the compensation payment, focal persons (i.e. small and micro enterprise offices; finance departments) were asked if they have given assistance or advice to compensated farmers on how to effectively and sustainably use their compensation payments, e.g. how to design a business plan or to launch their own micro-business. However, it was learned from the discussions that none of them assisted or advised local farmers in this regard.
4.5.3.5. Types of Training on which the households Participated Table (4.28) presents that only 7 (4.66%) of the respondents got training. Type of training they got 3 (2%) financial management or saving and 2 (1.33%) private business development and management and basic entrepreneurship, while 143 (95.33%) not got any training. As shown in the below table, the majorities of displaced farmers did not get any training how to use the received compensation.
Table 4.28. Types of Training on which the households Participated In which training did you had participated? Frequency Percent Private business development and management 2 1.33 Financial management or saving 3 2 Basic entrepreneurship 2 1.33 Technical training 0 0 Social adjustment skill training 0 0 Non response 143 95.33 Total 150 100.00 Source: Field survey, 2020
60 4.5.4. Urban expansion impacts on farmers’ social capital By a large extent, the social capital is known to be determined by the social relationship that a given household had built in a certain community.
4.5.4.1. Social problems in farming communities due to urban expansion
Table 4.29. Social problems as a result of urban expansion Do you think that the society encountering any social Number of Percent problems due to urban expansion? respondents Yes 150 100 No 0 0 Total 150 100.00 Source: Field survey, 2020 In table 4.29, the respondents’ responses 100% (150) responded Yes. From the respondents’ responses, it is clear that the farming communities encountered social problems as a consequence of the urban expansion. Urban expansion results in displacement and segregation of urban neighbours that result social disorder.
4.5.4.2. Social problems that the society encountering due to urban expansion
Table 4.30. Social problems that the society encountering as a result of urban expansion Which social problems that the society Number of Percent encountering due to urban expansion? respondents Begging 11 7.33 Gambling 6 4 Crime 4 2.67 Addiction 6 4 Social outcast 3 2 Begging, Gambling,Crime,Addiction and social 120 80 outcast Total 150 100.00
61 Source: Survey data, 2020 According to table 4.30, respondents responded in the following way: 7.33% (11) responded Beggary, 4% (6) asserted Gambling and Addiction and 2.67% (4) replied Crime, 2% (3) is social outcast, 80% (120) Begging, Gambling,Crime,Addiction and social outcast. From this table 4.26, we could say the majority of society encountering all problems (Begging, Gambling,Crime,Addiction and social outcast) due to the urban expansion.
4.5.4.3. Pattern of social relation before and after urban expansion
Table 4.31. Pattern of social relation before and after urban expansion Level of social relations Before expansion After expansion Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Very high 142 94.67 21 14 Moderate 6 4 31 20.67 Low 2 1.33 37 24.67 Very low 0 0 61 40.66 Total 150 100.00 150 100.00 Source: Field survey, 2020 As shown in table 4.31, the sample household responded that social relationship was Very high 142 (94.67%), moderate 6 (4%) and 2 (1.33%) were low before urban expansion , but the social relationship were very low 61 (40.66%), low 37 (24.67%), moderate 31 (20.67%) and Very high 21 (14%). Therefore, most of the respondents have responded that social relationship was Very high 142 (94.67%) before urban expansion, but social relationship was very low 61 (40.66%) after urban expansion. As focus group discussion with displaced households, social relationship was very high before urban expansion due to their bonded together through socio-cultural institution that obligate to support others at the time of disasters, illness, death and disability, weddings and related traditional ceremonies. But these kinds of traditional institution have been becoming to decreased related with city’s expansion over there.
62 4.5.5. Urban expansion impacts on physical capitals
4.5.5.1. Newly established urban led-services to farming community Urban led services include such as Road, Water supply, School, Electric, Market, Clinic & other health institution, Recreation and Transformation of technology. At the survey on a household, the researcher asked whether these households have benefited these services as a result of urban expansion over there and those households responded as below. In (table 4.32), 46 (30.67%) respondents answered that they got Road, Water supply, School, Electric, Market and Clinic & other health institution with 65 (43.33%) Road, Water supply, School and 31 (20.67%), electric, Clinic & other health institution, Market and finally 8 (5.33%) all services ( Road, Water supply, School, Electric, Market and Clinic & other health institution, Recreation and Transformation of technology). This indicate that urban expansion has positive impact on farming community in terms of physical capital which is measured in terms of different services in the study area.
Table 4.32. Impact of Urban Expansion on Infrastructure of households Types of services Frequency Percent Road, Water supply and School 65 43.33 Electric, Clinic & other health institution and Market 31 20.67 Recreation and Transformation of technology 0 0 Road, Water supply, School, Electric, Market and Clinic & 46 30.67 other health institution. Road, Water supply, School, Electric, Market and Clinic & 8 5.33 other health institution, Recreation and Transformation of technology Total 150 100.00 Source: Field survey, 2020
63 4.6. Livelihood strategies of the affected households Livelihood strategies are mechanisms developed by a household that includes an activity or set of activities employed by the affected households to find alternative ways of making income to sustain life. In the context of this research the coping strategies of the farming households were viewed. Based on the survey results, employment in the farming and non-farm activities were pursued by the affected households to earn their livelihood incomes. The overwhelming majority of the study populations were used to earn their livelihood incomes entirely from agricultural activities, mainly farming. These sources of livelihood incomes were greatly eroded following the expansion of urban.
Table 4.33. In the past and current livelihood strategies of the households Livelihood strategies Before After
Freq percent Freq Percent Farm work (crop, plant, and rearing animal, selling 141 94 68 45.33 milk, feeding cattle, including rent farm land from other). Non-Farm work (small business venture/shop, sale of 0 0 21 14 local drinks, Mercantile, Restaurant, Driving, Rent house).
Informal wage work (without a formal labor contract 0 0 23 15.33 mainly daily laborer)
Formal wage work (in Gov’t and Non-Gov’t 0 0 27 18 organization mainly guard and office work)
Farm work and Non-Farm work 9 6 11 7.34
Total 150 100.00 150 100.00
Source: survey data, 2020 Table 4.33, describes the number of households in the past and current livelihood strategy engaged. Currently, even with reduction in the total area of agricultural and grass land size 68 (45.33%) of the affected households still depend on farming activities as their means of income. However, the increasing pressures from urban expansion compel 21 (14%) households to adopted non-farm work activities (small
64 business venture/shop, sale of local drinks, Mercantile, Restaurant, Driving, house rent, etc) as a coping strategy with 27 (18%) Formal wage work (in Gov’t and Non-Gov’t organization mainly guard and office work) and 23 (15.33%) of them involved on informal wage work (without a formal labour contract mainly daily labourer). Some respondents diversified their engagement in multiple activities rather than rely on only one livelihood 11 (7.34%) farm work and Non-Farm work as shown in the table 4.33. The adoption of multiple sources of income is meant to complement the dwindling earnings from farming. Based on this survey result, we can conclude that most of the peri- urban households predominantly engaged only in farming activities rather than the other livelihood strategies 141 (94%), but this percent decreased to 45.33% after urban expansion. So, some extent urban expansion forced farmer communities as they diversified their livelihood. The interviewee and FGD discussants also point out the reason why they want to stay on agriculture after they were losing their land was lack of knowledge, low amount of compensation money and disappointment to change their means of livelihood. Therefore,the situation need the institutional support and follow-ups farmers who have not off- farm skills and no experience in urban life. Generally, this study found that livelihood change is mainly determined by size of land, education, age and skill of individuals. Because of this, most farmers in peri- urban areas of Dukem city, in some extent, diversified their livelihood by engaging in various additional off-farm activities available in the area.
65 CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1. Conclusion Dukem is one of the towns in Oromia Regional state that recently selected and recognized as centre of industrial development at regional as well as Federal levels. Since then the town had expanded rapidly towards the peri- urban farming communities for industrial establishments, real estate investment and residential construction process. The land use/land cover in the study area has significant modifications and changes in the course of the study years. Built-up areas were shown fast increment from 90.23ha to 1000.45ha by 910.22ha in the first period (2000-2010) and it also increment from 1000.45ha to 2243.24ha by 1242.79 in the second period (2010-2020), showing a total gain of built-up area 2153.01ha within 20 years (2000-2020). On the other hand, other land use/land cover classes were decreased in the first, the second and the entire study period. The total loss of Crop Land, Shrub Land and bare lands are 1767.29ha, 219.83ha, 166.5ha respectively within 20 years. Since 2000 year the building up areas are fast increasing and on the other hand, Crop Land, Shrub Land and bare lands are decreasing in the first, the second and the entire study period. Dukem has been experiencing horizontal urban expansion that followed by the existence of suitable and accessible land, proximity to the national market/ capital city, location on the national highway road and railway and fast population grow. During the town expansion the compensation process was criticized for its lack of transparency during field measurements of the expropriated farmland size, the elements considered in estimating the values of farmer communities’ properties and in the final compensation amounts and types and without consider the participation of displaced farming communities. The urban expansion carried out in this manner that had brought a significant negative impact on the livelihoods of the peri- urban farming community in terms of financial capital (i.e. income, amounts of production and their number of livestock holdings), natural capital (i.e. farming land, grazing land, Residential land, forest and shrub lands) and Social capitals (I.e. social values, social relationship and etc).
66 As natural asset/capitals like farm land, forest land, grass land, shrub land and bare land had shown a significant decline followed urban expansion. Before urban expansion the mean land holding size per household was 2.02 hectare. However, urban expansion causes the rapid conversion of a considerable size of lands into urban area. For instance, after urban expansion the mean total land size owned by households decreased to 0.98 hectare. The mean land size per household became to decreasing with urban expansion over peri- urban areas. As financial asset like food crop production, numbers of rearing livestock (Cattle, Sheep, Goat, Donkey, Mule) and other incomes. Before the urban expansions considered in this study, nearly 34.33 annual mean total quintals of food crops (Teff, Wheat, Barley, Maize, Bean etc) were harvested by households. However, the cultivation of food crops was highly affected by the processes of urban expansion that consumed a considerable amount of agricultural lands. The volume of the crop production per farm household was reduced to 14.63 yearly mean total quintals. The mounts of food crop production decreasing from time to time, related with urban expansion into peri urban areas, which is the cause of agricultural land conversion into urban use. Similarly, before urban expansion nearly 12 mean livestock assets per household’s. But, after urban expansion the average livestock assets per household dropped to 7. This implies that whenever farmland and grassland taken away for urban expansion use, farmers obliged to sell all or minimize the number of livestock assets. While the physical capital such as House, Road, Water supply, School, Electric, Market, Clinic & other health institution, Recreation and Transformation of technology and human capital i.e. education, health and other training skill, it has positive impact on farming communities. At the survey on a household 46 (30.67%) respondents answered that they got Road, Water supply, School, Electric, Market and Clinic & other health institution with 65 (43.33%) Road, Water supply, School and 31 (20.67%) Electric, Clinic & other health institution, Market and finally 8 (5.33%) all services. Therefore, urban expansion has positive impact on farming community in terms of physical capital in town. Social capital is known to be determined by the social relationship that a given household had built in a certain community. Social relationship was very high before urban expansion due to their bonded together through socio-cultural institution that obligate to support each other at the time of disasters, illness, death and disability,
67 weddings and related traditional ceremonies. But these kinds of traditional institution were became to decreased after the city’s expansion over peri- urban farming communities. The sample household responded that social relationship was Very high 142 (94.67%), moderate 6 (4%) and 2 (1.33%) were low before urban expansion. Urban expansion results in displacement and segregation of the peri farming communities that result social disorder. As a copying mechanism, the households engaged in to different livelihood strategies. Due to the reduction in farm size and loss of livelihood assets, peri- urban farming communities’ annual income amount earned from farming (food crop production and rearing livestock activities were decreased after urban expansion. However, agriculture continued to be the dominant sources of income for most farmers in the areas. Family who evicted totally and being landless made little livelihood diversification and highly vulnerable to access for food than those who owned and evicted farmlands partially. As survey result indicate, most of the peri- urban households predominantly engaged in farming activities rather than the other livelihood strategies 141 (94%) and currently, even with reduction in the total area of agricultural and grass land size 68 (45.33%) of the households still depend on farming activities as their means of income. However, the increasing pressures from urban expansion compel 21 (14%) households to adopted non-farm work 21 (14%), formal wage work 27 (18%) and informal wage work 23 (15.33%). Lack of skill and education were barrier to diversified livelihood strategy for higher income earning activities.
68 5.2. Recommendations Urbanization was deeply affected the livelihoods of farmers communities in the peri- urban areas that mainly include agricultural and grasslands, which were crucial as factors of production. Loss of livelihood assets due to urban expansion easily lead to poverty and food insecurity in peri urban farming communities of the study areas. So, the farmers’ household ability to sustain in the future is highly questionable. Therefore, the following are the various types of intervention suggestions that were given emphasis in livelihood asset building of the affected farmers in the peri urban areas of Dukem in order to minimize the status of vulnerability due to urban expansion. Compensation as one of the benefit packages in the process of urban expansion in the municipality of Dukem has commonly applied to the evicted farmers though the amount of money paid and house plot. The research findings bring out that, the affected households have no chance to participate and lack of transparency in measurements of properties and the amounts and kinds of compensation paid. So, improve the transparency on existing land, other properties valuation and compensation law should be revised in a manner of the current issues and inflation rates. Lack of skill and education as some factors that barrier to diversified livelihood strategy for higher income earning activities. So that, all affected farmers need a capacity building to sustain their live. Therefore, local government sectors, non-government organizations, private investors and higher education institutions should provide trainings, skill development and other capacity building services to these farming communities on how to make urban businesses & how to manage these businesses under the smaller and micro- entrepreneur institution. As a coping mechanism, evicted farmers want to form cooperatives and engaged into different livelihood strategies. Hence, youth family members of the evicted households must be incorporated in small scale, micro enterprise sectors and also access to job opportunities in manufacturing industries that found in the city. In order to minimize future land acquisition, the city administration should focus to promote vertical urban development and use urban land wisely.
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72 Appendix-1 University of Gondar College of Social Sciences and Humanities Department of Geography and Environmental Studies Questionnaire for Sample Household Dear respondent: - The main aim of this questionnaire is to collect data as input for the study titled Urban Expansion and its Impact on the Livelihood of Peripheral Farming Communities: the case of Dukem Town, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. The sole purpose is to qualify the requirement for awarding the Masters of Art degree (M. A) at University of Gondar. Dear respondents, you are expected to provide accurate and balanced information with respect to urban expansion and its impacts on farming communities. Your accurate information is highly valuable as it determines the success of this study. Therefore, the researcher is very much grateful for the sacrifice you pay to this end and the information gathered will be highly confidential and will be only for the purpose of this research. Please note that: There is no need to write your name. Each question has its own instruction to follow.
Thank you so much for your cooperation!!! Part I) Respondent Background information Please circle the item of your choices for each question as per the category that you belong to 1.Sex: 1) Male 2) Female 2.Age: a) 22-30 b) 31- 39 c) 40- 48 d) 49- 57 e)58- 66 f) 67 and above 3. Nations: a) Oromo b) Amhara c) Tigre 4) d) Gurage e) Others 4. Religion: a. Waqefata b. orthodox c. protestant d. catholic e. Muslim f. other, specify, ______5. Educational Status a) Illiterate b) Read and write c) 1- 8th d) 9- 12th e) Certificate f) Diploma g) Degree and above h) Others _____
73 6. Marital Status: a) Married b) Unmarried c) Widow d) Widower e) Separated 7. Family size (in number)- a) 1-4 b) 5-8 c) 9-12 d) 13-16 e) 17 and above f) Others______Part II) Factors that contributed for the expansion of Dukem Town 1) Do you perceive the expansion of Dukem town to the surrounding farming communities? A) Yes B) No 2) If your answer for the question No 1 is yes, what are the factors that contributed to such expansion of the town? a) Demographic dynamics (high birth &low death rate) b) Rural to urban and urban to urban migration c) Reclassification of rural settlement d) Proximity to the national market/ capital city, location on the national highway road and railway line. e) The existence of suitable and accessible land g) All of them h) If any other please mention______Part III) Questionnaire to assess the impact of urban expansion on socio-economic issues of the farming communities of Dukem town. 1) Do you have farm land? a) Yes b) No 2) If your answer for question No 1 is yes, would you please, tell the total size of your farm land before and after urban expansion? Before------After------3. For what purposes you have been using your land? a) Farming b) Grazing c) Foresting d) all e) If any other please mention______4) What changes occurred in your land use /land cover in the period of the year specified in the table? Land use type Size in local unit (i.e. qarxii) Remark Before 1992/2000 In In 2012/2020 2002/2010 Cultivated land
74 Grazing land Planted Forest land Fruits and vegetation Others 5) Did you have lost your land due to an expansion of Dukem town? a) Yes b) No 6) If your answer to Q5 is ‘yes’, from your land, how many “hectares” was converted to urban expansion? a) 0.5-hectare b) 1-hectare c) 1.5-hectare d) 2-hectare e) 2.5-hectare f) 3 hectare 7) What type of land did you lose due to urban expansion? (Multiple answers are possible) a) Agricultural land b) Residential land c) Grass land d) All e) If any other please mention______8) Because of urban expansion, when your land has been taken from you? a) Over the previous 10 years (2000-2010/1992-2002) b) Over the last 9 years (2011 – 2020/2003-2012) c) 2000-2020/1992-2012 9) For what purposes have been used the lands taken from you in the process of urban expansion? /multiple answer is possible/. a) For residence house construction d) For social services b) For Industrial development e) For Infrastructure development f) For all purpose g) If any others specify______10) Would you please, tell your total crop production in (quintals) before and after urban expansion Before------After ------11) For how many months of the year that your current annual crop production could able to feed your family? a) 1-3 months b) 4-6 months c) 7-9 months d) 9-12months e) >1year e) other, specify______
75 12) Would you please, tell the total number of your livestock assets before and after urban expansion? Before______ After______f) Others specify ______13) Do you think that the expansion of the town has an impact on your privileges? a) Yes b) No 14) If your answer for question No 13 is yes, what are the impacts? (Multiple answers are possible) a) Shortage of food b) Housing problem c) Source of income has become low. d) Loss of agricultural lands e) Becoming unemployed and unable to sustain our life. f) Displacement from our original area g) Expansion of crime and social disorders h) All of them i) If any others specify______15) Do you think that the society encounter any social problems due to urban expansion? A. Yes B. No 16) If your answer question No 15 is Yes, which social problems that the society encountering due to urban expansion? (Multiple answers are possible) a. Begging d. Social outcast b. Crime e. Addiction c. Gambling f) All of them g. If there are others, specify it______17) What does the social relationship and custom (value) of the communities look like before urban expansion? a) Very high b) Moderate c) Low d) Very low 18) What is your social relationship and value now? a) Very high b) Moderate c) low d) Very low 19) If your answer is yes for question No 5, did you get compensation from the authority in place of the taken land? a) Yes b) No
76 20) If your answer for the question No 19 is yes, what kind of compensation did you get? a) Money b) Housing plots c) Both d) If any other please mention______21) Was the compensation system fair? a) Yes b) No 22) If your answer to question No 21 is No, what reasons do you give? ______
23) What did you do with the money you received as compensation? a. It is not yet utilized due to lack of know-how/skill b. I have used the money to start a petty business c. The money is already gone. d. If any other please mention______24) Have you got training on how to make use of the compensation you received? a) Yes b) No 25) If your answer for the question No 24 is yes, in which of the following training did you participated? (Multiple answers are possible) a) Private business development and management b) Financial management or saving c)Basic entrepreneurship d) Social adjustment skill training e) Technical training f) Other specify______26) What have you gained as a result of the expansion of Dukem town, what you do not have before? (Multiple answers are possible) Road____ Water supply____School_____ Electric______Clinic & other health institution___Market______Recreation______Transformation of technology_____ Other, specify______
77 V) Livelihood strategies
1) what are your occupational categories that you engaged in as coping livelihood strategies? Livelihood strategies Before After
Freq percent Freq percent Farm work (crop, plant, raising livestock and etc) Non-Farm work (small business venture/shop, sale of local drinks, Trading, Driving, Rent house)
Informal wage work (without a formal labor contract mainly daily laborer)
Formal wage work (in Gov’t and Non-Gov’t organization mainly guard and office work)
Farm work and Non-Farm work
Total
78 Appendix-2 University of Gondar College of Social Sciences and Humanities Department of Geography and Environmental Studies Interview questionnaires for key informants Dear respondent: - The main aim of this questionnaire is to collect data as input for the study titled Urban Expansion and its Impact on the Livelihood of Peripheral Farming Communities: the case of Dukem Town, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. The sole purpose is to qualify the requirement for awarding the Masters of Art degree (M. A) at University of Gondar. Dear respondents, you are expected to provide genuine, accurate and balanced information with respect to urban expansion and displacement process. Your accurate information is highly valuable as it determines the success of this study. Therefore, the researcher is very much grateful for the sacrifice you pay to this end and the information gathered will be highly confidential and will be only for the purpose of this research.
Thank you!!! Part I) Respondent Background information 1) Address______2) Kebele______3) Sex______4) Age______5) Level of education______6) Occupation______7) Your position in this organization______8) Year of services in this organization______
Part II) Interviewees on the issues of the urban expansion impacts Semi- structured interview guides for land administration office, kebele administration and elders of the community 1) What do you think the factors that contributed for the rapid expansion of the town from time to time?
79 2) According to your opinion what are the positive impacts of urban expansion on socio-economic conditions of the farming communities? 3) What is your view about the negative impacts of urban expansion on socio-economic conditions of the farming communities? 4) What does the social custom (value) of the community look like after urban expansion? 5) What are the solutions you propose for the challenges faced as a result of urban expansion?
80 Appendix-3 University of Gondar College of Social Sciences and Humanities Department of Geography and Environmental Studies Focus Group Discussion with displaced farming households Dear respondent: - The main aim of this questionnaire is to collect data as input for the study titled Urban Expansion and its Impact on the Livelihood of Peripheral Farming Communities: the case of Dukem Town, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. The sole purpose is to qualify the requirement for awarding the Masters of Art degree (M. A) at University of Gondar. Dear respondents, you are expected to provide genuine, accurate and balanced information with respect to urban expansion and displacement process. Your accurate information is highly valuable as it determines the success of this study. Therefore, the researcher is very much grateful for the sacrifice you pay to this end and the information gathered will be highly confidential and will be only for the purpose of this research.
Thank you!!! Part I) Respondent Background information 9) Address______10) Kebele______11) Sex______12) Age______13) Level of education______14) Occupation______15) Your position in this organization______16) Year of services in this organization______
Guidelines for Focus Group Discussion with displaced farming households 1) Discuss the opportunities and challenges related to urban expansion 6) Discus on compensation system 7) Discus on training you got on how to make use of the compensation you received 8) Social condition with relation to town expansion
81 2) Discus on the activities you engaged in as livelihood strategies before and after urban expansion 3) What forced you to change your previous income earning activities? 4) Discuss on issues that make the livelihood of the evicted farmers sustainable: a) Community contribution b) Skill development/training c) Other capacity building d) Strengthening community institutions
82 Appendix-1 University of Gondar Kollagii Saayinsii Hawwaasaa fi Namummaa Muummee Hawwaasaa fi Qorannoo Naannoo Gaafiilee Abbaa warraawan filatamaniif qophaa’e Kabajamtoota Hirmaatoota Qorannoo kanaa: - Kaayyoon ijoon gaafileewan kanaa mataruree babalina magaalaa fi dhiibbaa inni hawwaasa qonnaan bultootarrati qabu irrati odeeffannoo waliti qabuudha: Magaalaa Duukamiti, Naanoo Oromiyaa, Itoophiyaa. Kaayyoon qorannaa kanaas Universitii Gondoriti Digirii 2 ffaa tiin ykn Mastarsiin eebifamuuf kan ooluta;a. Kabajamtoota hirmaatoota qorannoo kanaa, dhimma babalina magaalaa fi dhiibbaa inni hawwaasa qonnaan bultootarrati fiduun walqabatee akka isiin odeefannoo dhugaa fi madaalawwaa kennitan abdii guutun qaba. Odeeffannoon ati laatu milkoomina qarannoo kanaaf gahee guddaa qaba. Kanaafuu, abbaan qorannoo kanaa hirmaannaa keessaniif guddaa isin galateefata. Wanti hubachuu qabdu: Maqaa kee barressuun hin barbaachisu. Tokkoon tokkoo gaafii kan hordoftu qajeelfaqma mataa isaa qaba. Gargaassa naaf taasifteef baayyee galatoomi!!! Kutaa I) Odeefannoo waa’ee hirmaatotaa Tokkoon tokkoon gaafiiwwaan asiin gaditi tarreefaman keessaa isiiniin kan walqabatu itti mari. 1.Saala: 1) Dhiira 2) Dubartii 2.Ummurii: a) 22-30 b) 31- 39 c) 40- 48 d) 49- 57 e)58- 66 f) 67 and above 3. Saba: a) Oromo b) Amhara c) Tigre 4) d) Gurage e) Others 4. Amantii: a. Waqefata b. Orthodox c. Protestant d. Catholic e. Muslim f. other, specify______
5. Sadarkaa barnootaa: a) Dubbisuu fi barreessuu kan hin dandeenye b) Barnoota gaheesotaa c) 1- 8th d) 9- 12th e) sertificatii f) Dipilooma a g) Digirii fi isaa ol h) Kanbiraa______6. Haala gaa’iilaa: a) Gaa’ila kan qabu b) Gaa’ila kan hin qabne
83 c) Abbaa manaa kan hin qabne d) Haadha manaa kan hin qabne e) Kan wal hiikaan 7. Baayina maatii (lakkoofsan) - a) 1-3 b) 4-6 c) 7-9 d) 10-12 e) 13 ol Kutaa II) Wantoota baballina magaalaa Duukaamiif sababa ta’aan. 3) Magaalaan Duukaam gara hawwaasa qonnaan bultoota naannoo isheeti baballatee jirti jettee yaadaa? A) Eyyeen B) Lakkii 4) Gaafii lakkoofsa 1 ffaatiif deebiin kee eyyeen yoo ta’e, wantoonni baballina maagaalaatiif gumaacha godhan maalfaadhaa? (Tokkoo ol filachuun ni danda’ama). a) Daballii baay’ina uummataa (Hammi dhalatu baayyachuu fi hammi du’u xiqqaachuu) b) Baqannaa uummataa baadiyyaaraa gara magaalaa fi magaalaa gara magaalaa. c) Qubannaa baadiyyaa irra deebi’anii qooduu. d) Gabaa biyyoolessaati dhiyoomina qabaachuu/Magaalaa guddoo biyyaatiiti, Daandii biyyoolessaa (highway) fi karaa baaburaarrati argamuu magaalatii. e) Lafti gahaa fi mijataa ta’e jiraachuu. g) Hunduu ni ta’a. h) Kan biraa yoo jiraate ibsi______Kutaa III) Gaafilee dhiibbaan baballinni magaalaa hawwaasummaaf dinagdee hawwaasa qonnaan bultootarraan ga’u madaaluuf qophaa’e. 1) Ati lafa qabdaa? a) Eyyee b) Lakkii 2) Gaafii lakkoofsa 1 ffaatiif deebiin kee eyyeen yoo ta’e, hektaara meeqa qabdaa? Baballina magaalaan dura______Baballina magaalaan booda______3. Lafa kee maal maaliif itti fayyadamtaa? a) Qonnaaf b) Margaaf c) Biqiloota dhaabuu d) Hundumaa e) Kan biraa yoo jiraate ibsi______4) Itti fayyadama lafa kee keessatti jijjiirama ta’e/uwwisa lafa keetii yeroo gabatee armaan gadii keessatii taa’e keessati maal fakkaataa? Akkaakuu itti Amma lafaa (i.e. qarxii) Remark fayyadama lafaa Before 1992/2000 In In 2012/2020 2002/2010 Lafa qonnaa
84 Lafa margaa Lafa kuduraa fi muduraa Lafa bosonaa Kan biraa 5) Sababa baballina magaalaa Duukaamiitin lafti kee sirraa fudhatamee jiraa? a) Eyyee b) Lakkii 6) Gaafii lakkoofsa 7 ffaatiif deebiin kee eyyeen yoo ta’e, lafa kee keessaa qarxii meeqatu gara lafa magaalatti jijjiiramee? ______a) 0.5-hectare b) 1-hectare c) 1.5-hectare d) 2-hectare e) 2.5-hectare f) 3 hectare 7) Sababa babalina magaalaatiin akkaakuu lafaa isa kamtu sirraa fudhatamee? ( tokkoo ol filachuun ni danda’ama) a) Lafa qonnaa b) Lafa jireenyaa c) Lafa margaa d) Hunduu e) Kan biraa yoo jiraate ibsi______8) Sababa babalina magaalaatiin lafti sirraa fudhatame yoo jiraate, yoom sirraa fudhatamee? a) Waggoota kurnan (10) darban keessa (2000-2010/1992-2002) b) Waggootaan saglan (9) dabran keessa (2011 – 2020/2003-2012) C) Waggoottan digdaman (20) dabran keessaa (2000-2020/1992-2012) 9) Adeemsa babalina magaalaatiin lafti sirraa fudhatame tajaajila maaliitiif oolaa jiraa? /tokkoo ol filachuun ni danda’ama. (tokkoo ol filachuun ni danda’ama) a) Iddoo jireenyaatiif d) Tajaajila hawwaasummaatiif b) Guddina indastriitiif e) Guddina bu’ura misoomaatiif f) Kan biraa yoo jiraate ibsi______10) Hammi waliigala Omisha midhaan keetii kan waggaa (kumtaalaan) baballina magaalan duraa fi booda maal akkaa fakkaatu nati hime Baballina magaalaan dura______Baballina magaalaan booda___ 11) Omishni ati wagga tokko keessaati omishtu ji’oota meeqaaf maatii kee sooraa? a) < Ji’a 3 b) Ji’a 3-6 c) Ji’a 6-9 d) Ji’a 9-11 e) > Waggaa 1 e) Kan biraa ______12) Baballina magaalaa duraa fi booda baay’inni beeyladoota ati qabduu maal fakkaataa?
85 Duraa ______ Booda______f) Kan biraa ______13) Babalachuun magaalaa jireenya keerrati miidhaa geesise qaba jettee yaadaa? a) Eyyee b) Lakkii 14) Gaafii lakkoosa 13 ffaa f deebiin kee eyyeen yoo ta’e, miidhaan kunniinis maal faadhaa? (Tokkoo ol filachuun ni danda’ama) j) Haqina nyaataa. k) Rakkoo mana jireenyaa. l) Maddi galii xiqqaachaa adeemuu. m) Lafa qonnaa dhabuu. n) Hojjii dhabaa ta’uu fi jireenya keenya gaggeessuu dhadhabuu. o) Iddoo dhalootaa keenya irraa buqqaafamuu p) Yakki babalachuu fi hariiroon hawwaasummaa jeeqamuu q) Kan biraa yoo jiraate ibsi______15) Babalachuu magaalaatiin walqabatee rakkoon hawwaasa qonnaan bulaa muudate jiraa? A. Eyyeen B. Lakkii 16) Gaafii lakkoofsa 15 ffaa tiif deebiin kee eyyee yoota’e, kan armaan gadii keessaa rakkoon hawwaasa qonnaan bulaa muudate isa kami? (Tokkoo ol filachuun nidanda’ama) A. Kadhannaa D. Yakki baay’achuu B. Qumaara E. Hawwaasarraa adda ba’uu C. Araada adda addaaf saaxilamuu F) Hundumaa G. Kan biraa yoo jiraate ibsi______17) Babalina magaalaatiin booda walitti dhufeenyi fi aadaan ykn safuun hawwaasaa maal fakkaataa? a) Baay’ee gaariidha b) Giddugalleesa c) Gadi bu’aadha d) Baay’gadi bu’aadha 18) Walitti dhufeenyi fi aadaan ykn safuun hawwaasaa yeroo ammaa maal fakkaataa? a) Baay’ee gaariidha b) Giddugalleesa c) Gadi bu’aadha d) Baay’gadi bu’aadha 19) Gaafii lakkoofsa 5 ffaa f deebiin kee eyyeen yoo ta’e, qaama dhimmi ilaalu biraa gatii lafa keetii beenyaan siif kaffalameeraa? a) Eyyeen b) Lakkii
86 20) Gaafii lakkoofsa 19 ffaa f deebiin kee eyyeen yoo ta’e, akkaakuu beenyaa isa kam argatee? a) Qarshii b) Iddoo lafa jireenyaa c) Lachuu d) Kan biraa yoo jiraate ibsi______21) Adeensi kafaltii beenyaa madaalawwaadhaa? a) Eyyee b) Lakkii 22) Gaafii lakkoofsa 18 ffaa f deebiin kee lakkii yoo ta’e, sababni ati kennitu maalii? ______23) Beenyaa argate maaliidhaan godhatee? A. Sababa beekumsa/dandeetii dhabuutiin hanga ammaati homarraa hin oolchine B. Daldala xixiqqaa ittiin eegaleen jira C. Beenyaan fudhadhe fixeen jira D) Kan biraa yoo jiraate ibsi______24) Beenyaa fudhateti akkamiti akka itti fayyadamuu qabdu leenjiin siif kenamee jiraa? a) Eyyee b) Lakkii 25) Gaafii lakkoofsa 24ffaatiif deebiin kee eyyeen yoo ta’e, kanneen armaan gaditi tarreefaman keessaa isa kamiti hirmaatee? (Tokkoo ol filachuun ni danda’ama) a) Qabeenya dhuunfaa ofii guddifachuu fi hoogganuu b) Qabeenya hooganuu ykn qosachuu c) Hojjii dhuunfaa uummachuu d) Leenjii dandeetii sirroomina hawwaasummaa e) Leenjii ogummaa f) Kan biraa yoo jiraate ibsi______26) Wanta duraan hin qabne, magaalaan Duukam babalachuutiin bu’aan ati argate maalii? (Tokkoo ol filachuun ni danda’ama) a) Caarraan hojii uumamuu b) Karaa c) Mana baruumsaa d) Ibsaa e) Kilinikaa fi dhaabbata fayyaa adda addaa f) Sarara bilbilaa g) Dhiyeessii bishaanii h) Gabaa i) Iddoo bashananaa j) Ce’uumsa tekinolojii K) Kan biraa ibsi______
87 V) Malleen ykn tooftaalee madden galii
1) Rakkoowwaan baballinni magaalaa fidu dandamachuuf akkaakun hojjii ati amma irratti bobbaatee jirtu maaliidhaa?
Maddeewan galii irratti bobaatee jirtu Dura Booda
Deddeebii percent Deddeebii percent Qonna (midhaan, BIqiloota, horsiisa beeyladootaa fi kkf ) Qonna kan hin taane (bisinasa xixiqqoo, Suuqii, dhugaatii alkolii gurguruu, daldala, konkolaachisummaa, mana kireessuu fi kan kkf)
Hojjii guyyaatiin
Hojjii mootummaa fi mit-mootummaa
Hojjii qonnaa fi qonnaan alaa irratti hirmaachuu waliigagala
88 Appendix-2 University of Gondar Kollagii Saayinsii Hawwaasaa fi Namummaa Muummee Hawwaasaa fi Qorannoo Naannoo Gaafif deebii namoota hubannoo gahaa qaban waliin Kabajamtoota Hirmaatoota Qorannoo kanaa: - Kaayyoon ijoon gaafileewan kanaa mataruree babalina magaalaa fi dhiibbaa inni hawwaasa qonnaan bultootarrati qabu irrati odeeffannoo waliti qabuudha: Magaalaa Duukamiti, Naanoo Oromiyaa, Itoophiyaa. Kaayyoon qorannaa kanaas Universitii Gondoriti Digirii 2 ffaa tiin ykn Mastarsiin eebifamuuf kan ooluta;a. Kabajamtoota hirmaatoota qorannoo kanaa, dhimma babalina magaalaa fi dhiibbaa inni hawwaasa qonnaan bultootarrati fiduun walqabatee akka isiin odeefannoo dhugaa fi madaalawwaa kennitan abdii guutun qaba. Odeeffannoon ati laatu milkoomina qarannoo kanaaf gahee guddaa qaba. Kanaafuu, abbaan qorannoo kanaa hirmaannaa keessaniif guddaa isin galateefata. Gargaassa naaf taasifteef baayyee galatoomi!!!
Kutaa I) Odeefannoo waliigalaa waa’ee hirmaatotaa 17) Teessoo______18) Ganda______19) Saala______20) Ummurii______21) Sadarkaa barnootaa______22) Hojjiin ______23) Dhaabata kana keessaati gaheen hojjii keetii maaliidhaa? ______24) Dhaabbata kana keessati waggaa meeqa tajaagiltee______
Part II) Gaafiif deebii dhiibbaa baballini magaalaa geesisu ilaalchisee Gaafiif deebii hojjetoota waajjira lafaa, bulchiinsota gandaa fi mangudootaa hawwaasaa waliin taasiisuuf qophaa’e. 9) Yeroodhaa gara yerooti safisaan babalachuu magaalaa Duukaamiif wantooni sababa ta’aan maalfaadha jettee yaada? 10) Akka yaada keeti, bu’aan baballini magaalaa jiruu fi jireenya hawwaasa qonnaan bulaaf gumaache maalfaadhaa?
89 11) Akka yaada keeti, miidhaan baballini magaalaa jiruu fi jireenya hawwaasa qonnaan bulaa irrati geesise maalfaadhaa? 12) Baballina magaalaatiin booda aadaa fi safuun hawwaasaa maalfakkaataa? 13) Rakkoowwaan baballini magaalaa hawwaasa qonnaan bulaarrati geesiseef furmaanni isaa maalfaadha jettee yaada?
90 Appendex-3 Qajeelcha marii hawwaasa qonnaan bultoota lafasaanirraa buqa’aan waliin 5) Osoo lafti sirraa hin fudhataminiin dura maddi ijoon galii keetii maal turee? a) Sochii qonnaa (omisha midhaanii fi horsiisa loonii) 6) Erga lafti sirraa fudhatameen booda maddi ijoon galii keetii maal turee? a) Sochii qonnaa (omisha midhaanii fi horsiisa loonii) 7) Marii faayidaa fi miidhaa babalina magaalaatiin walqabatee muullatu 14) Maree adeemsa kafaltii beenyaa ilaalchisee 15) Marii beenyaa fudhateti akkamiti fayyadamuu akka qabdurrati leenjiin kename yoo jiraate 8) Haalli hawwaasummaa baballina magaalaatiin walqabatee maalfakaataa b) Waliti dhufeenya hawwaasummaa A) Aadaa fi safuun 9) Jireenya kee gaggeesuudhaaf yeroo ammaa maaalirrati/maal hojjechaa akka jirturrati yaamari’anu 10) Hawwaasa qonnaan bulaa lafasaarraa buqa’e, jireenyi isaa itti fufiinsa akka qabaatuuf maalta’uu akka qaburrati yaamari’anu. e) Ga’een hawwaasaa maalta’uu qabaa? f)Leenjiwwaan kennamuu qaban/dandeetii gudisuuf g) Gurmuuwaan hawwaasaa jabeessuu h) Dandeetiin ijaaramuu qabu kan biraa
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