DOCSLIB.ORG

Précis of Metaepistemology and Skepticism

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Précis of Metaepistemology and Skepticism International Phenomenological Society Précis of Metaepistemology and Skepticism Metaepistemology and Skepticism by Richard Fumerton Review by: Richard Fumerton Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, Vol. 58, No. 4 (Dec., 1998), pp. 905-906 Published by: International Phenomenological Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2653732 . Accessed: 19/02/2015 13:20 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. International Phenomenological Society is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 129.215.4.106 on Thu, 19 Feb 2015 13:20:00 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Philosophy and Phenomenological Research Vol. LVIII,No. 4, December 1998 Precis of Metaepistemology and Skepticism* RICHARD IFUMERTON University of Iowa In the last two decades a great many philosophers have accepted a revolution- ary approach to the understanding of epistemic concepts, an approach that, if correct, should change the very way we think about the history and practice of epistemology. These philosophers seek to "naturalize" and "externalize" the concepts of epistemic justification, rationality, and knowledge and, in the course of doing so, they explicitly or implicitly suggest a new response to traditional skeptical concerns. If contemporary externalists are correct then most of the history of epistemology was radically misguided and confused. While the internalism/externalism debate in epistemology has moved to center stage, I believe that there remains enormous confusion concerning what precisely is fundamentally at issue between proponents of the respective views. Internalists are sometimes associated with the view that epistemic properties are to be identified with "internal states" of conscious beings. But internalism is also as often characterized as a view about the necessity of including "access" requirements in plausible accounts of justification or knowledge. A good part of my concern in this book is to define clearly the internalism/externalism controversy, or more precisely, the internal- ism/externalism controversies. I argue that "internal state" internalism is highly problematic as an attempt to characterize what is common to paradig- matic internalist epistemologies. I also argue that strong and weak global access requirements to conditions constituting justification are likely to gen- erate vicious conceptual regresses, implausibly strong requirements for justification, or requirements with no bite if one requires only potential access where the potentiality is logical or conceptual possibility. The heart of classical internalist accounts of justification, I go on to suggest, involves two theses. The first is a rejection of naturalistic accounts of fundamental epistemic concepts. The second is acceptance of a view I call inferential inter- nalism, the view that if one is justified in believing P on the basis of E one Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 1995. BOOK SYMPOSIUM 905 This content downloaded from 129.215.4.106 on Thu, 19 Feb 2015 13:20:00 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions must be justified in believing both E and that E confirms or makes probable P. One of my principal concerns in the book is to explore the implications of accepting various accounts of internalism and externalism for the way in which one should understand and respond to the traditional skeptical chal- lenges that over the years have so captured the imagination and attention of philosophers. Although understanding the connections between metaepiste- mological views (views about the correct analyses of epistemic concepts) and approaches to skepticism is my primary concern, I have my own axes to grind. I argue that there is a version of internalism that alone can understand epistemological questions in a way that makes their answers relevant to the kind of philosophical interest and curiosity that gives rise to the questions in the first place. Externalists may succeed in introducing interesting, clear, and perhaps, in some contexts, useful ways of understanding knowledge and justified belief. But we can accept this conclusion without conceding the philosophical relevance of these concepts. Convincing philosophers that their way of understanding concepts leaves them unable to ask questions they want to ask is an uphill battle. Paradigm internalists and externalists are firmly in their respective camps. The literature contains all sorts of counterexamples to externalist analyses of epistemic concepts that may succeed in convincing some but leave others unmoved. The lines are pretty clearly drawn by now. Both internalists and externalists know what their views commit them to saying and they are usually willing to say it. If we are going to convince anyone that there is something wrong with paradigm versions of externalism, I argue, it may require a more subtle argument that reveals unacceptable consequences of the views when it comes to the way in which we would have to engage traditional skepticism. Ironi- cally, I think the ease with which externalists can and should ignore skeptical challenges at all levels will eventually undermine for many the plausibility of the framework within which the externalist understands epistemological ques- tions. In short, externalists are committed to allowing the legitimacy of arguments whose question-begging character will be anathema to philoso- phers interested in answers to epistemological questions which will satisfy their philosophical curiosity. In the course of evaluating the consequences of my own views for skepti- cism, I argue that the alternatives for avoiding skepticism are stark. Although there is at least one dialectically attractive position that enables one to throw back the skeptical challenge, I have strong phenomenologically based reserva- tions about its ultimate intelligibility. I try to convince the reader, however, that once one understands the source of philosophical interest in epistemol- ogy, one should not find unacceptable or even surprising the plausibility of even fairly radical skepticism. 906 RICHARD FUMERTON This content downloaded from 129.215.4.106 on Thu, 19 Feb 2015 13:20:00 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • EPISTEMOLOGY and PHILOSOPHY of MIND HISTORICAL Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements, No
    PHILOSOPHY • EPISTEMOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY OF MIND HISTORICAL Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements, No. 70 DICTIONARY OF BAERGEN Epistemology Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that investigates our beliefs, evidence, and claims of knowledge. It is one of the core areas of philosophy and is relevant to an DICTIONARY astonishingly broad range of issues and situations. Epistemological issues arise when HISTORICAL we recognize that there is a fact of the matter but we do not know what it is; when we wonder about the future, the past, or distant places; and when we seek answers in the sciences and even in our entertainment (for example, murder mysteries and comedies of misunderstanding). OF Epistemology Historical Dictionary of Epistemology provides an overview of this field of study and its theories, concepts, and personalities. It begins with a chronology of important events (from 385 BC to AD 2005) and is followed by an introduction, which gives a historical overview. The book contains more than 500 entries covering notable concepts, theo- ries, arguments, publications, issues, and philosophers and concludes with an exten- sive bibliography of historical and contemporary epistemological works. Students and those who want to acquaint themselves with epistemology will be greatly aided by this book. RALPH BAERGEN is a professor of philosophy at Idaho State University. For orders and information please contact the publisher SCARECROW PRESS, INC. A wholly owned subsidiary of ISBN-13: 978-0-8108-5518-2 The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN-10: 0-8108-5518-6 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200 Lanham, Maryland 20706 1-800-462-6420 • fax 717-794-3803 www.scarecrowpress.com RALPH BAERGEN HDEpistempologyLITH.indd 1 6/12/06 1:07:32 PM 06-236_01_Front.qxd 6/12/06 12:54 PM Page i HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES OF RELIGIONS, PHILOSOPHIES, AND MOVEMENTS Jon Woronoff, Series Editor 1.
    [Show full text]
  • The Principle of Inferential Justification, Scepticism, and Causal Beliefs Corbf, Josep E Paginas: 377
    _L PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES, 10 31 Skepticism, 2000 ! j The Principle of Inferential l ·1 Justification, Scepticism, I ' and Causal Beliefs Josep E. Corbi There is an argumentative route that begins with a platitude like: The Principle of Inferential J ustification (PIJ): "To be justi­ fied in believing one proposition P on the basis of another prop­ osition E, one must be (1) justified in believing E, (2) justified in believing that E makes probable P" .1 and ends up by challenging our capacity to justifiedly believing propositions concerning physical objects and past events. This is, at least, what Richard Fumerton claims, but, like Christopher Hookway,2 I doubt that there is such a route. The plausibility of PIJ in ordinary contexts relies, according to Hookway, on a number of assumptions like, for instance, the need to distinguish between salient information and background view of things. The problem is that Fumerton's sceptical route requires the application of PIJ not only to particular beliefs but to broad j_ 378 J osEP E. CoRBf epistemic classes of beliefs and, as Hookway tries to emphasize, this strategy is ultimately inconsistent with the need to maintain the aforementioned distinction and, in general, with the assump­ tions that rendered PIJ plausible in the first place. This worry is not, on the other hand, unconnected with the conviction that, contrary to what Fumerton claims, the notion of justification is inextricably associated with our needs to make normative judge­ ments. As Hookway puts it, " ... None who was not sensitive to our needs to make normative judgments could understand or share our concepts of rational belief or cruelty; they would not be able to)s·ee how the terms should be applied to wholly novel kinds of cas~s for they would lack the sense of what is !evaluatively simi­ lar' which is required for doing this." 3 In the coming pages, I seek to show how Hookway's challenge may find additional motivation in a reflection on the content of a certain kind of belief, namely: beliefs about particular causal pro­ cesses.
    [Show full text]
  • There Is No Pure Empirical Reasoning
    There Is No Pure Empirical Reasoning 1. Empiricism and the Question of Empirical Reasons Empiricism may be defined as the view there is no a priori justification for any synthetic claim. Critics object that empiricism cannot account for all the kinds of knowledge we seem to possess, such as moral knowledge, metaphysical knowledge, mathematical knowledge, and modal knowledge.1 In some cases, empiricists try to account for these types of knowledge; in other cases, they shrug off the objections, happily concluding, for example, that there is no moral knowledge, or that there is no metaphysical knowledge.2 But empiricism cannot shrug off just any type of knowledge; to be minimally plausible, empiricism must, for example, at least be able to account for paradigm instances of empirical knowledge, including especially scientific knowledge. Empirical knowledge can be divided into three categories: (a) knowledge by direct observation; (b) knowledge that is deductively inferred from observations; and (c) knowledge that is non-deductively inferred from observations, including knowledge arrived at by induction and inference to the best explanation. Category (c) includes all scientific knowledge. This category is of particular import to empiricists, many of whom take scientific knowledge as a sort of paradigm for knowledge in general; indeed, this forms a central source of motivation for empiricism.3 Thus, if there is any kind of knowledge that empiricists need to be able to account for, it is knowledge of type (c). I use the term “empirical reasoning” to refer to the reasoning involved in acquiring this type of knowledge – that is, to any instance of reasoning in which (i) the premises are justified directly by observation, (ii) the reasoning is non- deductive, and (iii) the reasoning provides adequate justification for the conclusion.
    [Show full text]
  • EPISTEMIC CIRCULARITY: MALIGNANT and BENIGN Michael Bergmann
    EPISTEMIC CIRCULARITY: MALIGNANT AND BENIGN Michael Bergmann Consider the following dialogue: Juror #1: You know that witness named Hank? I have doubts about his trustworthiness. Juror #2: Well perhaps this will help you. Yesterday I overheard Hank claiming to be a trustworthy witness. Juror #1: So Hank claimed to be trustworthy did he? Well, that settles it then. I’m now convinced that Hank is trustworthy. Is the belief of Juror #1 that Hank is a trustworthy witness justified? Most of us would be inclined to say it isn’t. Juror #1 begins by having some doubts about Hank’s trustworthiness, and then he comes to believe that Hank is trustworthy. The problem is that he arrives at this belief on the basis of Hank’s own testimony. That isn’t reasonable. You can’t sensibly come to trust a doubted witness on the basis of that very witness’s testimony on his own behalf.1 Now consider the following soliloquy: Doubter: I have some doubts about the trustworthiness of my senses. After all, for all I know, they are deceiving me. Let’s see ... Hey, wait a minute. They are trustworthy! I recall many occasions in the past when I was inclined to hold certain perceptual beliefs. On each of those occasions, the beliefs I formed were true. I know that because the people I was with confirmed to me that they were true. By inductive reasoning, I can safely conclude from those past cases that my senses are trustworthy. There we go. It feels good to have those doubts about my senses behind me.
    [Show full text]
  • Acquaintance and Assurance
    Philos Stud DOI 10.1007/s11098-011-9747-9 Acquaintance and assurance Nathan Ballantyne Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011 Abstract I criticize Richard Fumerton’s fallibilist acquaintance theory of nonin- ferential justification. Keywords Acquaintance Á Noninferential justification Á Assurance Á Skepticism Á Regress Á Richard Fumerton Should the acquaintance theorist be committed to fallibilism or infallibilism? Richard Fumerton (2010) and Ted Poston (2010) have recently discussed that question. Poston has argued that there is trouble for the acquaintance theorist either way—the theory faces a dilemma—and Fumerton has responded to Poston by defending a fallibilist acquaintance theory of noninferential justification. Here, I shall offer a new objection to the theory Fumerton defends. Fumerton claims that ‘‘[w]hen everything that is constitutive of a thought’s being true is immediately before consciousness, there is nothing more that one could want or need to justify a belief’’ (2001, p. 14). ‘‘What more,’’ asks Fumerton, ‘‘could one want as an assurance of truth than the truth-maker before one’s mind?’’ (2006a, p. 189). Yet Fumerton also grants that false beliefs can enjoy noninferential justification. This admission, I’ll contend, brings trouble for the acquaintance theorist whenever she asks whether she has assurance for a belief. In what follows, I shall outline Fumerton’s notion of philosophical assurance (Sect. 1) before turning to state his account of noninferential justification (Sect. 2), describing how assurance is a critical motivation for the acquaintance theory. Then I will argue that if the acquaintance theorist endorses fallibilism, as Fumerton does, N. Ballantyne (&) Philosophy Department, Fordham University, Collins Hall 101, 441 E.
    [Show full text]
  • Acquaintance and Skepticism About the Past
    OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 9/1/2016, SPi 9 Acquaintance and Skepticism about the Past Ted Poston How long does it take you to read this sentence? Did you rely on memory at all in reading that sentence?1 What is the most complex thought you can entertain without relying on memory at all? These questions raise a fundamental epistemological issue concerning our ability to justify our extensive reliance on memory. Nearly every thought relies on memory. Even simple thoughts we entertain in the fleeting present—e.g., ‘green here now’—rely on our apparent memory that the meanings of our terms are constant and that the ‘I’ which now thinks is the same ‘I’ that thought a moment ago. My goal in this chapter is to consider the epistemological problem of how our beliefs about the past can be justified within an acquaintance theory. Fumerton explicitly acknowledges that the problem of justifying our beliefs about the past is the most fundamental epistemological problem (1985: 119), and yet his solution to the problem relies on acquaintance with the quasi-logical relation of making-probable which he strongly suspects is an illusion (1985: 218). I argue that an acquaintance theory does not offer an adequate solution to memory skepticism. At the same time I am not a skeptic and honesty requires a reply to memory skepticism. As Fumerton acknowledges, the problem is stark and the answers are few (1985: 185). I defend another response to memory skepticism which Fumerton rejects. I will argue for an epistemic conservative response to memory skepticism by arguing that the theoretical economy of a conservative epistemology combined with its virtue of actually addressing memory skepticism gives us a reason to accept it.
    [Show full text]
  • Corel Ventura
    Richard Fumerton Epistemology. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing 2006. Pp. x + 145. US$51.95 (cloth ISBN-13: 978-1-4051-2566-6); US$19.95 (paper ISBN-13: 978-1-4051-2567-3). This book will interest those who teach undergraduate or graduate episte- mology, like the idea of using a single-author text, but are unsatisfied with the current options. It differs in a few ways from books like Richard Feld- mans Epistemology, Robert Audis Epistemology: A Contemporary Introduc- tion to the Theory of Knowledge, Laurence Bonjours Epistemology, and Adam Mortons A Guide Through the Theory of Knowledge. Chapter 1 begins with propositional knowledge and the evaluation of epistemic reasons for belief. The rest of the chapter draws a distinction between metaepistemology and applied epistemology. Applied epistemology is concerned with what we know and how we know it. Meta-epistemology is concerned with what knowledge is. Though this makes meta-epistemology more like normative ethics, Fumerton does not label it normative epistemol- ogy because of his qualms with thinking of epistemology as normative he returns to this issue in Chapter 3. Newcomers to epistemology will find much of this book difficult, especially Chapter 2, The Analysis of Knowledge. It begins with familiar reasons for including truth and belief conditions on knowledge. Fumerton says evidence is also needed. However, lottery cases suggest that the evidence must be strong enough that it entails the truth of the proposition believed. This coupled with Closure the principle that if you know P, and you know P entails Q, then you are in a position to know Q leads to skepticism.
    [Show full text]
  • What Pessimism Is
    Journal of Philosophical Research Volume 37 2012 pp. 337–356 WHAT PESSIMISM IS PAUL PRESCOTT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY ABSTRACT: On the standing view, pessimism is a philosophically intractable topic. Against the standing view, I hold that pessimism is a stance, or compound of attitudes, commitments and intentions. This stance is marked by certain beliefs—first and foremost, that the bad prevails over the good—which are subject to an important qualifying condition: they are always about outcomes and states of affairs in which one is personally invested. This serves to distinguish pessimism from other views with which it is routinely conflated— including skepticism and nihilism—and to allow for the extent to which pessimism necessarily involves more than the intellectual endorsement of a doctrine. I. WHAT IS PESSIMISM? Many normative theories presuppose optimism—or, at least, so it has been argued1— and a close relationship between pessimism and existential topics in philosophy is clear. Much as epistemology is driven by the provocations of the skeptic, so the provocations of the pessimist implicitly lie behind many existential concerns: the meaning and value of life, the disvalue (or value) of death, and the nature of happiness and well-being, to name just a few.2 Meanwhile, in contemporary psychiatry, dominant therapeutic models (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy) and diagnostic manuals (DSM-IV, ICD-10) routinely use pessimism as a criterion of emotional or psychiatric disorder.3 In all such cases, we find normative theories—whether ethical, social-political, or nosological—sup- ported by views about the possibilities for which the world allows, and the reasonable or appropriate attitude to take in response.
    [Show full text]
  • Coursebooklet 2012-13
    EPISTEMOLOGY LEVEL 3, PHI313 SEMESTER 2, 2012-13 TIMETABLING P.2 COURSE OUTLINE AND SEMESTER STRUCTURE P.3 LECTURE TIMETABLE P.4 HANDOUTS, SEMINARS AND COURSE ASSESSMENT P.5 ESSAYS P.6 READING LIST P.7 SEMINARS P.11 1 EPISTEMOLOGY LEVEL 3, PHI313 SEMESTER 2, 2012-13 LECTURES Tuesday 16:00, Hicks LT B Thursday 11:00, Hicks LT B LECTURE SLIDES / HANDOUTS Download from course website SEMINARS Thursday 13:00, Bartolomew, SR BLG05 COURSE WEBSITE Access via MUSE or MOLE SEMINAR READINGS From page 12 below COURSEWORK One essay from questions on page 6. Due date: 16:00, Thursday 9 May. COURSEWORK RETURN 23 May (or earlier) EXAMS Part pre-released only: see page 5. LONG ESSAY A long essay can be taken in place of an examination. Deadlines: Plan approval by 1600, Wednesday 17 April Essay deadline 1600, Wednesday 29 May LECTURER Paul Faulkner. E.: [email protected] T.: 0114 222 0576 Office hours: 1000-1200, Tuesday or by appointment. 2 Outline of the Course The aim of the course is to provide an introduction to more advanced epistemological texts and issues. The course thereby builds on the first year course Knowledge, Justification and Doubt and the second year course Theory of Knowledge, though neither course is a pre-requisite since the first three weeks, or six lectures, give a general introduction to epistemology. Thereafter each week focuses on an influential article in epistemology; the first lecture outlines the background to the article and second gives a detailed account of the article, and the week concludes with a seminar discussing the article and its place in epistemological theory.
    [Show full text]
  • Edinburgh Research Explorer
    Edinburgh Research Explorer Knowledge from a Human Point of View Citation for published version: Cretu, A & Massimi, M (eds) 2019, Knowledge from a Human Point of View. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27041-4 Digital Object Identifier (DOI): 10.1007/978-3-030-27041-4 Link: Link to publication record in Edinburgh Research Explorer Document Version: Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record General rights Copyright for the publications made accessible via the Edinburgh Research Explorer is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. Take down policy The University of Edinburgh has made every reasonable effort to ensure that Edinburgh Research Explorer content complies with UK legislation. If you believe that the public display of this file breaches copyright please contact [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 04. Oct. 2021 Synthese Library 416 Studies in Epistemology, Logic, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science Ana-Maria Crețu Michela Massimi Editors Knowledge from a Human Point of View Synthese Library Studies in Epistemology, Logic, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science Volume 416 Editor-in-Chief Otávio Bueno, Department of Philosophy, University of Miami, USA Editors Berit Brogaard, University of Miami, USA Anjan Chakravartty, University of Notre Dame, USA Steven French, University of Leeds, UK Catarina Dutilh Novaes, VU Amsterdam, The Netherlands The aim of Synthese Library is to provide a forum for the best current work in the methodology and philosophy of science and in epistemology.
    [Show full text]
  • A Defense of Explanatory Coherentism December 13, 2013
    Reason & Explanation: A defense of explanatory coherentism Ted L. Poston University of South Alabama December 13, 2013 ii Contents Preface vii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 A brief history of coherentism . 2 1.2 Two traditional objections to coherentism . 7 1.2.1 The Input Objection . 7 1.2.2 Alternative Systems Objection . 9 1.3 Overview . 11 2 Epistemic Conservatism 17 2.1 The anti-conservative probability argument . 19 2.2 Conservative Justification & Warranted Assertion . 26 2.3 Conservatism & Autobiographical Epistemology . 28 2.4 The `Extra Boost' and Conversion objections . 32 2.4.1 The \Extra Boost" Objection . 32 2.4.2 Conversion objections . 33 2.5 Conservatism & the perspectival character of justification . 35 2.5.1 The argument from perspective . 36 2.5.2 Two challenges . 38 2.6 Conclusion . 40 3 Reasons without first philosophy 41 3.1 The Basic Reasons Dilemma . 42 3.1.1 The First Horn . 42 3.1.2 The Second Horn . 44 3.2 The argument against first philosophy . 45 3.2.1 The nature of basic reasons . 45 3.2.2 No First Philosophy . 48 3.3 Framework Reasons . 51 iii iv CONTENTS 3.4 Weak foundationalism & framework reasons . 56 3.5 Bergmann on foundationalism and epistemic circularity . 58 3.6 Conclusion . 62 4 Explanation & Justification 63 4.1 Explanation & its virtues . 64 4.1.1 Three arguments for primitiveness . 67 4.1.2 The virtues of explanation . 73 4.2 An explanationist theory of justification . 78 4.2.1 The goal . 78 4.2.2 The Ex-J account . 79 4.2.3 Ex-J & Mentalism .
    [Show full text]
  • The Problem of the Criterion1
    The Problem of the Criterion1 Introduction: The problem of the criterion in epistemology raises certain fundamental questions concerning the methods a philosopher ought to use in arriving at both analyses of epistemic concepts and conclusions concerning legitimate principles of reasoning and justification. The answers one gives to these questions are thought to bear directly on the challenge of skepticism. The outcome of battles is often determined by the ground occupied by opposing forces. Interest in the problem of the criterion is often a function of the desire to occupy favorable ground in the battle with the skeptic. Despite the title of this paper, there are, I believe, at least two different problems one might associate with “the criterion.” One is, perhaps, best known through the work of Roderick Chisholm, whose various editions of Theory of Knowledge all devote a chapter to it. As Chisholm develops the problem, it concerns methodological questions concerning how to identify sources of knowledge or justified belief. But there is a closely related question concerning how to identify necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of epistemic concepts like knowledge and justified belief. In the following discussion I’ll distinguish these two methodological issues, and I’ll begin by looking at the question of how one should go about discovering the correct analysis of epistemic concepts. Metaepistemology and the Problem of the Criterion: Metaepistemological questions seek to uncover through philosophical analysis the nature of fundamental epistemic concepts or properties. In metaepistemology, we are interested in getting an account of what knowledge, evidence, justified belief, and so on are.
    [Show full text]