Hidden in Plain Sight: The their native lands, to which they had been 4 tied to for over 10,000 years. ​ Parents taught American Indian Movement and the ​ their children to hide their native heritage in Revival of the Nanticoke hopes that they would not be forced from Lenni-Lenape, 1969-1982 their home as well. Generation after generation, fewer and fewer children were Ashton Dunkley aware of their nativeness. The Lenape Senior, Anthropology & History traditions, language, and cultural practices which had only been passed down orally The Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape are an were beginning to fade away. By the 1960’s, American Indian tribe from the southern what started off as a survival tactic to cope New Jersey, specifically the Cumberland with white encroachment metamorphosed and Salem counties. Their headquarters are into an everyday part of life and as a result, based in Bridgeton, New Jersey. This tribe, this tight-knit community’s Native identity resulting from the intermarriage of Lenape had been displaced. Outside communities and Nanticoke people, currently advocates frequently placed the Nanticoke for the well-being of their people and Native Lenni-Lenape in the categories of colored or Americans, in general, with great pride. white, as the binary understanding of race With permanent seats on the New Jersey during this time period allowed for nothing Commission on American Indian Affairs else. Within the community, their Native and their very own Co-Chief acting as roots were ignored by some, kept a secret by Commissioner Chair, this tribe works to others, and forgotten by many. Many people “further understanding of New Jersey's within the community did not know more 1 American Indian history and culture.” ​ They than the fact that they were not black and ​ also aim to achieve this goal with their that they were not white. annual pow-wow, a Native American In the late 1960's and ‘70's, cultural festival, which is open to the public American Indian Movement, also known 2 and in Woodstown, NJ. ​ In 2014, tribal AIM, began to grab the attention of ​ members partnered with the University of Americans across the country and spread the Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and message that being Native American was Anthropology to inform their "Native something to be proud of, “with that pride, American Voices" exhibit and continue to there was hope where there was little 5 before.” ​ While AIM is well-known for its promote the presence of the Nanticoke ​ 3 Lenni-Lenape people. ​ However, this dedication to the plight of Native people in ​ community's native identity had not always the Western United States, the impact of this been fervently championed. movement for tribes on the East Coast is From the eighteenth century, tribes often overlooked. The Nanticoke on the East Coast were forced westward and Lenni-Lenape tribe was repressed by a north, but the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape problematic system of American binary people remained hidden in plain sight on racial attitudes; the movement, with its

encouragement of Native existence and What the general public and scholars pride, along with Pan-Indianism, unity know about the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape amongst all tribes, acted as a driving factor people is limited, as they spent much of the th th in the revival of the Eastern Woodland tribe, 19 ​ and 20 ​ century in hiding. They largely ​ ​ the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape. In the early kept their identities undisclosed in an effort 1970’s, the few families that secretly to remain on their ancestral lands and avoid acknowledged their Nanticoke discrimination. There has been Lenni-Lenape heritage worked to reverse the historiography regarding the Nanticoke tribe loss of their traditions and identity, reunify of Indian River Hundred, Delaware, a tribe the community and retain a collective related closely to the Nanticoke recognition of being Native American and a Lenni-Lenape ancestrally, geographically, 6 pride in that ancestry. ​ However, this and therefore characteristically. However, ​ revitalization would not have been possible scholarship regarding the Nanticoke if it were not for the political atmosphere of Lenni-Lenape Tribe of New Jersey, the time. especially their experience in the 20th ​ Scholarship regarding the American century, is almost nonexistent. The most Indian Movement predominantly focuses on modern references come from the early the organization in relation to its 1980’s. Further, much of what is involvement and impact on the West Coast. documented about this tribe in the twentieth This is not surprising as the founders of the century was done from a present-day organization were from the Western United perspective. The experiences of the States, and therefore had a major focus on Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape were recounted as and understood the plight of Native people they were occurring, therefore, there have in that area. There are some useful sources been no in-depth analyses of the events. This for this particular thesis, such as Ojibwa has been a major gap in historical ​ Warrior: Dennis Banks and the Rise of the scholarship as the cultural revitalization of American Indian Movement by Dennis the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape is not ​ Banks and Like a Hurricane: The Indian uncommon among Native tribes, being quite ​ Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee prevalent on the East Coast. by Paul Chaat Smith. These sources discuss Clinton Albert Weslager, better the driving factors of the American Indian known as C.A. Weslager, was a Delawarean Movement and the organization’s greatest accountant turned historian who wrote contributions to Indian Country, the general extensively about the Lenape and Nanticoke consensus being the resurrection of Native tribes within Delaware. This tribe relates Pride. Still, the scope of AIM’s influence is closely to the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape missing in historiography regarding AIM. characteristically because of their close Their advocacy for Native Pride resonated geographical and ancestral ties. Weslager is with many Eastern Woodland tribes, such as one of the few scholars to write about the the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape. Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape of Bridgeton, NJ.

Weslager’s The Nanticoke Indians: Past and The pressures of white ​ Present, is an in-depth history of the encroachment, as well as the diseases that ​ Nanticoke tribe from their first encounter came as a result of European settlers like the with John Smith in 1608, all the way to Dutch, Swedes, and English quickly resulted 1982, the author’s present-day. Most in most Lenape people being pushed from importantly, Weslager briefly mentions the their homelands. The area of southern New Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape of New Jersey, the Jersey which the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape subject of this thesis, towards the end of his call home, Cumberland and Salem counties, book. C.A. Weslager, even being invited to is a flat, low-lying coastal territory, an ideal the tribe’s second major gathering in July setting for their ancestors to fish, hunt, and 7 1980, had a fairly close relationship to the farm. ​ Along with the land’s rich resources, ​ community and recounts the Nanticoke it was and still is sacred to the Lenape who Lenni-Lenape’s revival as a native have been tied to it for over 10,000 years. th community in the late 1970’s and 1980’s. From the 18 ​ century, many Native people ​ This source provides specific details, such as saw no other choice but to go westward or the dates in which the community held north into Canada, yet some decided to gatherings, powwows, and meetings. This remain on their ancestral grounds. Often type of information was difficult to obtain referred to as “the keepers of the land,” the through the oral sources for this thesis, as Nanticoke-Lenni Lenape maintained a series many interviewees have forgotten the exact of behavioral changes to protect themselves dates of their actions and simply relay the from removal and to cope with the racial order of events. discrimination and persecution often 8 Since secondary sources regarding afforded to Indian people. ​ They did their ​ the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape are limited, a best to assimilate to the increasingly multitude of oral histories from their tribal dominant society, as a result, many began to members have been absolutely essential to hold their own individual tracts of land to this thesis. The sources of these oral farm as white settlers did around them. After histories predominantly include leaders of generations of discrimination and the tribe’s revival, as well as people within persecution, most parents taught their the tribal community who were not active in children to keep to themselves, emphasized the movement but were made aware of their familial connections, and to the best of their Native identity as a result of it. Local ability remained separate from the newspapers, such as the now discontinued surrounding society. Consequently, it Bridgeton Evening News, have also become became a societal transgression to marry ​ an important primary resource. They have "outsiders," although some people did so. provided insight into the socio-political The Nanticoke tribe of Indian River atmosphere within southern New Jersey, as Hundred, Delaware, maintained a similar well as evidence for the area’s awareness of separation from the other communities the American Indian Movement’s activism. living in southern Delaware. Their

separation was further widened by Whites’ often passed as White in hopes of economic perception of them as mulatto or prosperity and less racial discrimination. “mixed-bloods,” in effect “they experienced Much of the community knew they weren’t the same cultural and spatial segregation and white and were sure they weren't black, so 9 treatment accorded” to people of color. ​ Due when they were put in a situation where they ​ to the similarities between this tribe and the had to choose a racial identity, they often Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape, it is quite possible just chose "Other." Colloquially, identifiers that this phenomenon also created a divide such as "Moor" and "Yellow" were between the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape and occasionally used for the Nanticoke their surrounding white communities. The Lenni-Lenape community, although the members of this tribe also avoided usage was much more prevalent in reference association with the black people in the to their Lenape and Nanticoke relatives in 11 surrounding area in order to avoid the Southern Delaware. ​ With the lack of a ​ hindrances and challenges that came with tribal organization in the Bridgetown area, it being labeled as Colored. Most importantly was quite common of census takers, school though, the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape people authorities and other government officials to ensured their well-being by keeping their record the people within the community as Indian identity a secret. Witnessing the Negro or Colored. Often official documents removal and persecution of their close such as birth and death certificates stated the relatives, parents within the tribe protected same. It was quite uncommon for tribal their children by not discussing their members to challenge the labels decided 12 heritage with them and in the next upon by authorities. ​ Eventually, these ​ generation, those kids did the same to their labels led to a popular belief that the children. “My grandmother was taught to be Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape tribe was a colored quiet and ‘Don’t talk that Indian talk.’ So, ya community, the oldest colored community in know…. you learned to keep your mouth America, in fact. In February of 1952, ​ shut,” tells Theo Braunskill of the nearby Ebony magazine released an article called, ​ Lenape Tribe of Delaware, another “America’s Oldest Negro Community,” community closely related to the Nanticoke detailing the history and interworkings of Lenni-Lenape.10 ​ By not claiming an Indigenous identity, these community members were arbitrarily placed in a variety of racial categories throughout the early twentieth century. At this time, America was a biracial society, one could be White, Colored, or when offered as an option on an official document, one could be "Other." Tribal members with straighter hair and lighter skin

Gouldtown, NJ. the dark about his heritage for many years. Figure : “America’s Oldest Negro Community,” Ebony, As a child, he overheard his grandmother February 1952, 42. and great-aunts having a conversation about The author explains how Gouldtown being Native American and the hardships has been called the oldest colored settlement that came along with it. in America, proudly claiming the unbroken “I asked my Grandma about being continuity of the town’s main families, like Native after I heard what she was the Goulds and the Pierces, for 250 years.13 ​ saying with her sisters. She told me, Today, these family names are proudly ‘You don’t need to know, that’s claimed by the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape grown-folks talk.’ So one of the Tribe.14 ​ things I did when I was growing up Being reclassified within an was when I saw Aunt Mary and Aunt assortment of racial categories was a major Mable coming over, I would go hide factor in the loss of this community’s on the steps. Just so I could listen. Lenape identity. This was a common That was the only talk about being occurrence for tribal communities along the Indian of any kind.”17 ​ east coast, “Native American identity has been badly shattered and then rebuilt, as it Terry Sammons, the spiritual leader of the were, along new (and often false) lines.”15 ​ nearby Lenape Tribe of Delaware, had This became an issue that the American similar experiences as a child. After learning Indian Movement would later work to about the Indian people native to Delaware rectify, even with the Nanticoke in school, Sammons began to wonder about Lenni-Lenape, using an East Coast-based his own identity. “Gee wiz, they say that ​ ​ project known as “The Resurrection of there are Indians in Cheswold, we’re hearing Indians on the East.”16 ​ people tell us all the time, that we don’t look By 1960, the Native identity of white and that we don’t look black…Well, Nanticoke-Lenni Lenape had been shaken. maybe were Indians.” One evening at dinner ​ Silence and racial miscategorization left he brought this inclination to his father and many people within the community unaware “POP! I got popped in the mouth,” Terry ​ ​ of their heritage and wondering, “Who am recalls, “You don’t speak that here at this ​ I?” Unfortunately, discussion of identity table! I don’t wanna hear it!” his father ​ 18 became taboo in this community, as a result, scolded. ​ It was quite common in this time ​ that question was rarely asked out-loud. On for older generations to clam up when occasion though, curiosity overpowered questioned about their identity; many people societal norms and someone, usually the just emulated their parents and the way in youth, would query their identity. They were which they would have handled similar hardly ever met with an answer. Mark questions. Others would suppress the Gould, the present-day chief of the conversation because they simply did not Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape, had been left in have an answer to give to their children.

Many families had long forgotten their poverty that ravaged Indian reservations or Native heritage. the boarding schools that tore children from Still, there were some families that their homes and traditional ways. As a managed to hold onto their heritage. young adult, he witnessed countless Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape spiritual leader, episodes of police brutality towards Indian Urie Ridgeway, remembers going to Indian people and the incredibly high numbers of Head, Maryland from a very young age to Native people in the Minnesota prison join the Piscataway people in ceremonies. system, eventually becoming an inmate His parents, Rose and Raymond Ridgeway himself. During his two years in prison, Jr., better known by their nicknames, Banks spent his time researching American Sweetsie and Jimmy Flicker, had a close Indian civil rights issues, as well as the relationship with the Piscataway tribe of sociopolitical unrest occurring throughout Maryland and would bring young Urie there the entire country. He began taking an to learn more about his Native heritage. His in-depth look at movements like at the grandmother, however, was deeply Students for a Democratic Society, the concerned, not wanting her family to Black Panthers, and the Civil Rights become too vocal about their American Movement; it was there, inside the Indian ancestry. “You can’t do that!” she Minnesota State Prison, that Banks decided ​ would say, “You can’t--You can’t tell them that there would be an Indian Movement, as th that you’re Indian! They’ll take well. On July 28 ,​ 1968, Banks and his ​ ​ ​ 19 everything!” ​ She had been taught that her friend, George Mitchell, held a meeting in a ​ well-being relied on her ability to hide her church basement to discuss issues affecting Indianness. Her fear for her family’s Indian communities in Minneapolis, well-being stemmed from those lessons. Minnesota. They only expected forty to fifty Despite these forewarnings, Sweetsie and Native people to come to the meeting. To Jimmy Flicker would become instrumental their surprise, almost 200 gathered to voice advocates for the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape their frustrations. Dennis Banks passionately cultural revival. started the meeting off: Dissent was a critical thread sewn through the fabric of the United States in the “People are fighting battles in the 1960’s. This socio-political climate was the streets of Chicago. They’re fighting perfect atmosphere for the rise of an to stop the Vietnam war and bring American Indian Rights Movement. Dennis about changes in the political party Banks, Anishinaabe Ojibwa activist, was system. They’re fighting in the ​ born on April 12, 1937, at Federal Dam on streets of Alabama to change the Leech Lake Indian Reservation.20 situation for Blacks. The SDS ​ Throughout his lifetime, he witnessed movement is trying to change the countless injustices to Native people. whole structure of the universities. Growing up, he was no stranger to the What the hell are we going to do?

Are we going to sit here in Island, the local Bridgetown Evening News ​ Minnesota and not do a goddamn newspaper proclaimed, “Alcatraz Viewed as ​ thing? Are we going to go on for a Step Forward for Indians.” “We have been ​ another two hundred years, or even silent and turned the other cheek too damn another five, the way we are without long,” Lehman Brightman, Native American doing something for our Indian civil rights activist asserted, “this is the most people?”21 important event since we actually stopped ​ 24 warfare with white men in 1889.” ​ The ​ Accepting the status quo was no longer an silence that had long held Native American option. Banks’ words of unification and people was breaking. One could suspect that change resonated with Native people that this article resonated with the Nanticoke night, leading to the creation of the Lenni-Lenape, who understood the silence American Indian Movement, and a rise in Lehman Brightman referenced all too well. Indian activism working to spread Native There was a shift in the nation, Indigenous Pride throughout the nation.22 people were choosing Native Pride over ​ The activism of American Indian silence and in the coming years, this would Movement became well-known to United be a choice made by the Nanticoke States citizens throughout the country, the Lenni-Lenape, as well. Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape included. On As one of the first political th November 20 ,​ 1969, seventy-eight Native pan-Indian movements in the country, the ​ American people of different tribal origins occupation of Alcatraz displayed how and some Native students from Berkeley important unity would be in the came together to occupy the Alcatraz Island, strengthening of Native American tribes 25 which was closed by the federal government across the country. ​ Native people, split into ​ seven years earlier. AIM quickly became isolated tribal groups, rarely came together involved in the demonstration which to help each other or to create a better future symbolized, above all else, Native for Indian Country, as a whole. Alcatraz empowerment and the importance of unity symbolized a shift in that demeanor. The among all Native people. “The 1969 demonstration’s emphasis on unity takeover of Alcatraz was the continuation of resonated in their name for themselves, that ‘stand up’ attitude for Indian “Indians of All Tribes,” Native people empowerment,” this bold and defiant unified and crossed tribal lines for the occurrence sent a message to the entire greater good of Indian Country.26 ​ world that the myth of the “vanished Indian” It was these messages of unity 23 would be tolerated no more. ​ On the between all tribal nations, a brotherhood, ​ opposite side of the country, the Nanticoke that ultimately sparked the Piscataway Lenni-Lenape people were hearing these Nation’s Chief, Chief Billy Red Wing messages of Native empowerment. About Tayac’s involvement in the American Indian two-weeks into the occupation of Alcatraz Movement. While Tayac was enjoying a

meal at a fast food restaurant in Washington when Gene pulled up outside his job D.C., a long-haired Native American man, offering, once again, to bring Tayac to hear clad in a leather jacket, headband, and George Mitchell speak. This AIM activist’s choker, walked in and introduced himself to speech changed Tayac’s life. him. The man’s name was Gene; he was a “He said things I never heard said Wisconsinite of the Oneida Nation. “You’re before in my life. He talked about the an Indian, aren’t ya?” Gene said. Once genocide of Indian people, he said Tayac confirmed his suspicion, Gene boldly there is not just only physical responded, “Well then, I want you to buy me genocide but there is paper genocide. something to eat.” 27 Where they take your identity on a ​ “What the hell did you just piece of paper, a birth certificate, or ​ ​ say?!—Why should I buy you something to driver’s license, or whatever. People eat?” are being eradicated from history.”29 ​ “Because you’re my brother, we’re all related. I don’t have any money to eat, Since then, Chief Tayac has been involved I’m asking you as a brother to get me in countless AIM Movements, striving to something to eat.” Impressed by Gene’s reverse the eradication of Native identity on guts, Tayac bought him a meal. Together, the East Coast. He soon would head an AIM the two ate their meals and started to chat. program known as “Resurrection of Indians Gene was in D.C. volunteering with the on the East,” which aided “Indian remnant” American Indian Movement. communities from Massachusetts to Florida “Who the hell are they?” Tayac who, just like the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape, asked. had lost their Indigenous identity. Chief “They’re the future, brother—It’s Tayac was able to successfully provide each about saving our people.” Gene then invited tribal community with an emotional support him to George Washington University system, information about their heritage, and where George Mitchell, the co-founder of emphasize messages of Native Pride. AIM, would be speaking the following “Indians lied dormant. They never had evening. 28 anybody to fight,” Tayac says, “The AIM ​ “Man, I don’t have time for that movement came along and there was a sense ​ ​ jazz,” Tayac responded. Although he liked of pride. There was a wind blowing and what Gene had to say about the movement, people got swept up in it. People really did he had work the next night, along with a their best to help other people." The same wife and kids to provide for. Tayac gave sense of unity and brotherhood that brought Gene his business card, in case he was ever Chief Tayac to AIM, was also a huge factor in town again, and the two went their in the revival of the Nanticoke separate ways. By chance, on the next night, Lenni-Lenape. People helped each other in Billy’s scheduled appointments were hopes of bettering Indian Country, as a canceled. He was just about to head home whole.30 ​

Around 1970, a young man by the unity amongst all tribal nations, the leaders name of Mark Gould began having difficulty within the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape tribe finding work as a carpenter in his were in an ideal socio-political atmosphere hometown. As a result, he and his wife, to seek out assistance from other Native Phyllis, temporarily moved to Maryland and communities as they worked to revive their eventually, Gould found himself in own. “We asked for help and it opened up a Piscataway territory. After attending some whole new world,” Mark Gould recalls. That of their community dinners that he ran into aid often came from the people of the Billy Tayac. “Mark, what are you doing for Piscataway Tribe of Maryland. “They knew ​ your people?” Tayac asked. It was then that a lot of our culture and they were able to Billy Tayac began to explain the ancestry of preserve some of it and they taught us. We the Lenape, Nanticoke, and Piscataway would then bring it back to our community, people to him. They were all descendants of or they would come up and talk to people in the Lenape; they were all related. Mark the community,” the current Nanticoke Gould was aware of the Nanticokes in Lenni-Lenape Co-Chief, Sonny Pierce, Indian River Hundred, Delaware, but he had remembers. Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape ​ never ventured to the community. After families began to travel to Maryland to learn learning more about his ancestry and close more about their heritage, the Piscataway ties with the tribe, Mark Gould, his wife, tribe having been born out of the Lenape Phyllis, along with her sister, Betty and her centuries before. Billy Tayac had his own husband, Harry Jackson, ventured down to property there in Maryland, where they all meet with the Nanticoke people. The could get together, sing, talk, and practice members the Nanticoke Tribe quickly certain ceremonies without interference. realized how closely they were related. As a This was also an ideal location for teaching result, they to the tribal rolls. Having a certain Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape people the reputation of being quite closed off to ways of a spiritual leader. With the Chief of ​ outsiders, the Nanticoke tribe’s acceptance the Piscataway Nation, Billy Tayac, being provided Mark Gould with the reassurance an incredibly active member and fervent that he was on the right path and would not supporter of AIM, the movement also be in this process alone. Subsequently, became a topic of frequent discussion. Many where ever they could find space—each members of the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape other’s basements, the Greenwich Firehouse eventually became members of AIM, as or in local motorcycle clubs—a few well. The people of the Piscataway tribe ​ Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape families began would also travel to southern New Jersey. meeting with each together to discuss Their children could play together, while reviving their community’s collective Piscataway tribal members shared their recognition of their Indigenous heritage. knowledge with the Nanticoke With the American Indian Lenni-Lenape. An array of customs and Movement emphasizing the importance of traditions were discussed, such as sweat

lodges and the Sun Dance, a ceremony similarities between their people and the native to the Plains Indians but adopted all Delaware of Bartlesville. “ ​Now this is the throughout Indian Country, as a result of the scary part,” Mark Gould recalled, “When we unification of Native peoples during the Red went to Oklahoma, we went to a gathering. Power Movement. During their weekend We were staring at this woman and visits, Piscataway tribal members would go we didn’t even realize we were staring. So to the homes of those Nanticoke she came over and asked what we wanted. Lenni-Lenape people who were unaware of just We told her, you look ​ l​ ike Sonny’s or afraid to claim their Native heritage. Over The prevalence of shared family sister!”​ time, there was a visible increase in the names and the similarities between their interest to reunify throughout the appearances made their ancestral community. This Piscataway Tribe was connections ever more evident, reinforcing more than willing to do all they could to the unity between the two communities. help them come together and to break the This allowed for a more open sharing of pattern of silence that had gripped the sacred cultural practices. Having already community for so long. The encouragement been pushed from their ancestral lands, the and aid of the Piscataway people were people of Bartlesville could more openly particularly helpful to the Nanticoke claim their Lenape heritage without fear of Lenni-Lenape tribal revival.31 “re-removal.” For these reasons, they were ​ In an effort to learn more about their commonly referred to as the “Keepers of the heritage, tribal members, such as Mark Tradition,” whereas the Nanticoke Gould and Sonny Pierce followed the trails Lenni-Lenape were referred to as the their Lenape relations had previously “Keepers of the Land.” The Oklahoma trekked when they were pushed from their Delaware Tribe of Indians taught the th th homelands in the 18 ​ and 19 ​ centuries. Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape people traditional ​ ​ This journey led them to the Delaware Tribe dances, various Lenape songs, as well as the of Indians in Bartlesville, Oklahoma, the art of crafting and playing the water-drum. name “Delaware” being a commonly used After establishing a close relationship, the synonym for “Lenape.” The tribes were like two tribes have continued to visit each ​ two estranged siblings reunited and unified other’s communities and preserves close after years of separation. While driving ties.32 ​ ​ through Bartlesville, Mark Gould and Sonny The Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape’s will Pierce were surprised to see Nanticoke to revive their lost traditions also lead them Lenni-Lenape family names printed on to the Delaware Nation at Moravian 47 various street signs in the area. “We saw Indian Reserve in Chatham-Kent, Ontario, ​ Pierce, Jackson, Carney!” exclaimed Mark known simply as Moraviantown. On an Gould, “They had almost all of our names.” Indian reserve, the people of Moraviantown Beyond just sharing names, Sonny and Mark were better able to preserve their Lenape soon realized that there were many physical ceremonies and cultural practice, hence they

were an ideal source of information for the While this was successful to some extent, Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape. Upon their arrival, this area was steeped in societal norms that Mark Gould and Sonny Pierce were asked to had caused them to be communally oriented join in a sweat lodge ceremony. It was there and incredibly private. Therefore, it was that they learned the extent of their common important to have a trusted member from ancestry with the community. Family names within the community to act as an educator, that were prevalent in the Nanticoke as well. Lenni-Lenape community, such as Durham, This role was filled by Raymond were also quite common in Moravian 47 Ridgeway Jr, who owned a plumbing and Indian Reserve. Once their close relationship heating supply business in Bridgeton. He was established, the two communities was well-known and respected by many 34 frequently invited one another to their tribal people in the area. ​ Ridgeway was known ​ territories for gatherings where the to all by his nickname, Jimmy Flicker. His Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape people could occupation, master plumber, required him to continue to learn from the Delaware people. frequent the homes of countless families “For at least forty years, people have been within the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape coming into our community specifically to community and as a result, Jimmy Flicker 33 bring stuff back,” says Mark Gould. ​ The knew everyone and everyone knew him. ​ unity promoted by the American Indian Well-aware of the impact he could have, Movement created a Pan-Indian cultural active participants of the Nanticoke trading system. People of all different tribal Lenni-Lenape revival quickly sought out origins were sharing their ceremonies, Jimmy Flicker to aid them. “They spoke to songs, language, and dances. This him and he agreed to go and speak to the atmosphere was an ideal setting for the families,” his son, Urie Ridgeway says, “He revival of the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape knew everyone.” people, with a myriad of tribes openly The word was spreading; a collective supporting their “Indian brothers,” the recognition of their Native heritage was Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape could revive their becoming ever more prevalent for Nanticoke lost traditions, essential for creating pride Lenni-Lenape families in the area. In effect, th amongst their people. on August 7 ,​ 1978, “The New Jersey ​ Many visiting tribes would travel people finally decided to organize formally throughout southern New Jersey and visit and incorporate under the name of the the homes of Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Nanticoke-Lenni Lenape Indians of New 35 families to educate those who were not Jersey, Inc.” ​ The incorporators would be ​ aware of their Indigenous heritage. Families Mark Gould, Harry Jackson, Carol Gould, who did recognize their ancestry were Marion Gould, and Edith Peirce. Along with persuaded to openly and pridefully discuss the incorporation, the Nanticoke it, despite the fact that this discussion went Lenni-Lenape also drafted bylaws and on against generations of teachings in the area. December 16, 1978, they held an official

37 election in which tribal members chose nine fundraisers, such as cake sales. ​ According ​ officers, including the Tribal Chairman or to C.A. Weslager’s The Nanticoke ​ Chief. The elected were as followed: 36 Indians—Past and Present, the tribal ​ ​ community also began to benefit “from Tribal Chairman: Mark Gould modest CETA funds administered by the Assistant Tribal Chairman: Harry S. Jackson Native American Cultural Center in Secretary: Marion Gould Medford, New Jersey, the prime recipient of Treasurer: Carol Gould government grants to assist the New Jersey 38 Indians.” ​ A few years later, a dress shop ​ Members at Large: down the street from 28 E. Commerce Street Mary Ward went for sale. The Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Raymond Ridgeway jumped at the opportunity to own their own Phyllis Gould building, paying $18,000 dollars for it on nd Edith Pierce February 2 ,​ 1983. Much of the community ​ Frank Munson was overjoyed to have finally attained a truly permanent tribal headquarters and Efforts to revive the tribe were storefront where they could meet and sell becoming increasingly organized, be that is Native American art and crafts. Yet, it may, in order to truly come together and volunteers from the tribe would have to ​ ​ maintain a collective recognition of the spend quite some time fixing the leaky roof Native heritage, the Nanticoke and installing new walls and floors before Lenni-Lenape would need a permanent the building would be fully functional. This location where they could meet, educate location, 18 E. Commerce Street, has been themselves and their children, and partake in their tribal headquarters up to present day.39 ​ various cultural activities. For this reason, In the summer of 1978, the the organization began to rent a small American Indian Movement organized the storefront on 28 E. Commerce Street, “Longest Walk,” a Treaties Rights’ protest Bridgeton, NJ, which became their tribal march symbolic of the forced removal of headquarters. The location of the American Indians from their homelands. headquarters, on a main street in the center The Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape people, a of Bridgeton, NJ, acted as an effective way number becoming members of AIM by this of advertising the active Nanticoke point, did all they could to support the 40 Lenni-Lenape tribe. Many people passed it, event. ​ Various members opened up their ​ came in to buy Native crafts or ask homes to Native American activists in need questions, and resultantly, became familiar of lodging during the Longest Walk. The with the Native community. To pay the rent, protest, defending the rights of Indigenous telephone bills, maintenance, and other people, also became a great way for the expenses, the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape to build relied mostly on donations and community relationships and connections with tribal

communities and people throughout Indian Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape people and friends Country, some of whom would become from outside tribes to come together, dance, guests at the future Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape sing, pray and learn from one another. The gatherings and pow-wows. gathering was also a chance to have a good As the recognition of their Native time. Once the sun set and the cultural heritage increased, the Nanticoke festivities died down, some attendees would Lenni-Lenape began to institute tribal break out a bottle of corn liquor and a radio, gatherings and public pow-wows for the partying together in the field until late in the purpose of educating their own community evening. th th and the surrounding public about their One year later on July 19 ​ and 20 ,​ ​ ​ existence and heritage. The gatherings were 1980, a second gathering was held, again, on an ideal way to strengthen the feeling of the Pierce property near Quinton, New community within the tribe and the Jersey, a small town that is set between pow-wows were a perfect platform to Bridgeton and Salem. The Nanticoke educate the surrounding public about the Lenni-Lenape invited the mayor of tribe. Their first major tribal gathering Bridgeton, NJ to their gathering as a guest, occurred on the weekend of June 20-22, here, the mayor promised, over a 1979. Held on the property of a Nanticoke loudspeaker, to help the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape couple, Lorraine and Carl Lenni-Lenape tribe gain state recognition. Pierce, the gathering was attended by Historian, C.A. Weslager, was also a guest several hundred Native American people.41 at this second gathering. He noted, “No one ​ Attendees included Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape could have attended this gathering without tribal members and many members from being conscious of the admirable efforts outside tribes, such as the Abenaki and being made by active members of the New Cherokee. Among the visitors was James Jersey organization to promote an interest in Lone Bear Revey of the Cherokee and Indianism,” they were even openly Delaware nations; he was a well-known discussing plans for an annual powwow to 43 advocate for Native people on the East occur in the coming years. ​ The tribe’s ​ Coast. By a large bonfire, which was kept enthusiasm and dedication are evident as the alight for two days, Revey encouraged the discussions of a pow-wow quickly Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape to “keep alive the metamorphosed into a bonafide event, held rd th flame of an Indian consciousness in their on October 3 ​ and 5 ,​ 1981. Despite the ​ ​ 42 families.” ​ Lone Bear, incredibly unideal weather conditions, wet and chilly, ​ knowledgeable on the subject of Lenape the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape’s first regalia, dances, and songs, also used this pow-wow persevered with twenty-one weekend to share such information with Native American vendors set up booths to various Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape tribal sell to visiting patrons. members who were eager to learn. This The following year, on the weekend nd rd gathering became a great opportunity for the of October 2 ​ and 3 ,​ 1982, the Nanticoke ​ ​

Lenni-Lenape held their second pow-wow at admission was free, likely to encourage Cool Run Race Track off Route 49 in more visitors. The program included an Quinton, Salem County, NJ. This event was educational film about “American Indians ​ ​ much more successful than the first. The Today,” bonfires and story-telling, and pow-wow, along with a craft fair and Fall Saturday afternoon chicken barbeque, which festival, was advertised on a two-page all facilitated understanding, discussion, and spread titled “Craft Fair And Pow-Wow goodwill between the Nanticoke Highlight Weekend” in the Bridgeton Lenni-Lenape people and the New Jersey ​ Evening News newspaper on the day before public.46 ​ ​ the event. Despite the multitude of activities The gatherings and pow-wows also to choose from that weekend, the Nanticoke provided an opportunity to involve the tribal nd Lenni-Lenape’s 2 ​ Annual Pow-Wow youth. In an effort to pique their interests, a ​ received a large number of patrons with tribal princess competition was put in place almost 5,500 persons joining in the in which young women, ages fifteen to festivities, including tribal members. At twenty, would compete for the title of Miss 11:00 a.m. on Saturday, the pow-wow Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape. Other tribes had started with tribal dancing and drumming. seen a lot of success with youth activities There were a variety of crafters and vendors, such as these and passed the idea on to the showcasing everything from handmade people of southern New Jersey, yet another beadwork to Native regalia-making to example of the pan-Indian unity, a bow-drilling. There was clearly a strong willingness to help and support other Native focus on creating an educational and communities, that was prevalent in the years 47 sociable experience for the southern New of the Red Power Movement. ​ In 1980, the ​ Jersey public, who were likely skeptical of first year the program was instituted, Miss the newly boisterous tribal community. The Natalyn Ridgway was crowned at that year’s birth of Native American consciousness in gathering; four other teenage girls acted as this region “has come as a surprise to many her “court.” Every year since, the Nanticoke non-Indians, who were taught as Lenni-Lenape tribe has continued their schoolchildren that Indians were either Tribal Royalty Program, eventually killed by European settlers or driven west to incorporating young men as well, with a 44 live on reservations.” ​ Pow-wow organizers “Tribal Warrior” title. In 1981, the current ​ wanted to show that the Indigenous peoples Miss Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape, Miss Linda were not like those in John Wayne Reed, proudly represented the tribe while Westerns. “We need to communicate with riding on a float during the Deerfield the non-Indian public that we’re not the Township Harvest Festival Parade. The Indians they see on TV,” said Mark Quiet Jersey Life section of the Philadelphia ​ ​ Hawk Gould to the Philadelphia Inquirer in Inquirer would later compliment Miss ​ ​ ​ 1984 while discussing the purpose of the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape, “looking like a 45 48 tribe’s annual pow-wow. ​ The pow-wow true Indian Princess,” for her cheeriness. ​ It ​ ​

is clear that the program’s goal of instilling gives light to the stereotypical view of the youth with an interest in their heritage Indigenous people prevalent in the area at and a sense of Native Pride was quite this time. It was stereotypes and successful by this point. Other programs generalizations like, “All Native Americans included holiday parties and dance practices do rain dances” or the image of the which were held at the tribal headquarters. “Hollywood Indian” that Nanticoke Here, the children ages twelve and under Lenni-Lenape public programming and would learn a multitude of Native dances, pow-wows worked against. some of which they could then participate in The Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape during the annual pow-wow. There was a fervently worked to break the silence that separate practice for adults and young had held their community for so many adults.49 generations and they were heard. Tribal ​ The annual pow-wow was not the members who had long been afraid to claim only way the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape their ancestry began to proudly participate in worked to inform local southern New tribal functions. Local southern New Jerseyans about Indigenous people. Tribal Jerseyans were becoming increasingly aware members such as Betty Jackson of the communities, as were New Jersey “volunteered her time presenting programs state officials. On December of 1982, “the to public schools, church groups, Girl New Jersey state legislature adopted a 50 Scouts, Boy Scouts, etc.” ​ The tribe also resolution officially naming the Nanticoke ​ participated in the second annual Bridgeton Lenni-Lenape as a bona fide 52 Cultural Awareness Festival performing state-recognized tribe.” ​ It is important to ​ dances such as the rabbit dance and a note that this tribe’s Native identity does not “welcoming dance,” while dressed in rely on New Jersey’s provision of state traditional Lenape regalia. While reporting recognition. This moment does not mark the the event, the Philadelphia Inquirer cited day that the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape ​ ​ this occurrence: became “official” Native Americans, for So when long lines of Nanticoke they had been an Indigenous community Lenni-Lenape Indians, dressed in long before this moment. Instead, the state’s costumes of fringed leather, shuffled acknowledgment is symbolic of the tribe’s up to the stage to do what they said transition away from a community hidden in was a “welcoming dance,” Paula plain sight to a proud Tribal Nation who Stewart, 16, of Bridgeton muttered stood up and said, “We Are Still Here.” fervently: “Just don’t do a rain This revitalization and recognition dance.”51 could not have occurred without the ​ American Indian Movement which While this presumably was a light-hearted invigorated a sense of Native Pride which joke in reference to the impending rainstorm had been lost in many Native communities that day, this “rain dance” comment still like the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape people.

This pride spread like wildfire. Along with it to bring their traditional ways back to came a sense of unity throughout Indian consciousness. With the American Indian Country. In order for the Nanticoke Movement’s strong support for unity Lenni-Lenape Indians of New Jersey to amongst all tribes, the Nanticoke unify and proudly proclaim their existence Lenni-Lenape people were in the perfect as Native Americans, it was essential to sociopolitical climate to ask for assistance have a nationwide movement, like AIM, and to receive it. Hence, AIM became a which encouraged and inspired them to driving factor in the revival of this small break away from their societal norms. The tribal community on the East Coast, Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape’s revival also showing that the movement’s impact depended on the willingness of other tribal reached much further than recent communities to support them and help them historiography suggests.

NOTES

1 ​ “New Jersey Commission on America Indian Affairs,” NJ.gov, January 2018, http://www.nj.gov/state/programs/dos_program_njcaia.html.

2 ​ “The Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape: An American Indian Tribe,” Nanticoke-lenape.info, 2007, http://www.nanticoke-lenape.info/community.htm.

3 ​ “Native American Voices: The People-Here and Now-Principal Contributors,” Penn Museum, 2018, ​ ​ https://www.penn.museum/sites/nativeamericanvoices/contributors.php#navadv.

4 ​ “The Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape: An American Indian Tribe,” Nanticoke-lenape.info, 2007.

5 ​ Kenneth S. Stern, Loud Hawk: The United States Versus The American Indian Movement (Norman: University of ​ ​ Oklahoma Press, 2002), vii.

6 ​ C.A. Weslager, The Nanticoke Indians – Past and Present (London and Toronto: Associated University Press, ​ ​ 1983), 245-259; Frank W. Porter III, Strategies for Survival: American Indians in the Eastern United States ​ (Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1986), 139-172.

7 ​ Weslager, The Nanticoke Indians – Past and Present, 250-251. ​ ​ 8 ​ “The Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape: An American Indian Tribe,” Nanticoke-lenape.info, 2007.

9 ​ Frank W. Porter III, Strategies for Survival: American Indians in the Eastern United States, 140. ​ ​ 10 ​ Theo Braunskill, interview by Ashton Dunkley, September 23, 2017, Discussion 4.

11 ​ Weslager, Delaware’s Forgotten Folk: The Story of the Moors & Nanticokes, 128-154. ​ ​ 12 ​ Weslager, The Nanticoke Indians – Past and Present, 254. ​ ​ 13 ​ “America’s Oldest Negro Community,” Ebony, February 1952, 42. ​ ​ 14 ​ Weslager, The Nanticoke Indians – Past and Present, 256. ​ ​ 15 ​ Jack D, Forbes. The Use of Racial and Ethnic Terms in America: Management by Manipulation." Wicazo Sa ​ ​ Review 11, no. 2 (1995), 62. ​ ​ 16 ​ Chief Billy Red Wing Tayac, interview by Ashton Dunkley, February 10, 2018, Chief Tayac Interview; Chief Billy Red Wing Tayac, interview by Ashton Dunkley, March 20, 2018, Chief Tayac Interview 2.

17 ​ Chief Mark Quiet Hawk Gould, interview by Ashton Dunkley, November 27, 2017, Chief Mark Gould Interview

18 ​ Terry Sammons, interview by Ashton Dunkley, September 23, 2017, Discussion 4.

19 ​ Urie Ridgeway, interview by Ashton Dunkley, January 6, 2018, Urie Ridgeway Interview.

20 ​ Dennis Banks and Richard Erdoes, Ojibwa Warrior: Dennis Banks and the Rise of the American Indian Movement ​ (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004), 12.

21 ​ Dennis Banks and Richard Erdoes, Ojibwa Warrior: Dennis Banks and the Rise of the American Indian ​ Movement, 62. ​ 22 ​ Ibid, 12-66. ​ ​ 23 ​ Ibid, 106.

24 ​ Robert Strand (December 5, 1969). “Alcatraz Viewed as a Step Forward for Indians.” Bridgeton Evening News, ​ ​ page 2. B-230, November-December 1969, Bridgeton Free Public Library Central Library.

25 ​ Paul Chaat Smith and Robert Allen, Like a Hurricane: The Indian Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee ​ (New York: The New Press, 1996), 26.

26 ​ Ibid, 27.

27 ​ Chief Billy Red Wing Tayac, interview by Ashton Dunkley, February 10, 2018, Chief Tayac Interview.

28 ​ Ibid.

29 ​ Ibid.

30 ​ Ibid; Chief Billy Red Wing Tayac, interview by Ashton Dunkley, March 20, 2018, Chief Tayac Interview 2.

31 ​ Chief Billy Red Wing Tayac, interview by Ashton Dunkley, February 10, 2018, Chief Tayac Interview; Chief Mark Quiet Hawk Gould, interview by Ashton Dunkley, November 27, 2017, Chief Mark Gould Interview; Edith Little Swallow Pierce, interview by Ashton Dunkley, December 3, 2017, Sonny and Edie Pierce Interview; Lewis Grey Squirrel Pierce Sr., interview by Ashton Dunkley, December 3, 2017, Sonny and Edie Pierce Interview.

32 ​ Chief Mark Quiet Hawk Gould, interview by Ashton Dunkley, November 27, 2017, Chief Mark Gould Interview; “The Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape: An American Indian Tribe,” Nanticoke-lenape.info, 2007.

33 ​ Chief Mark Quiet Hawk Gould, interview by Ashton Dunkley, November 27, 2017, Chief Mark Gould Interview.

34 ​ Marc Duvoisin (May 21, 1984). “Making the urban land their land.” Philadelphia

35 ​ Weslager, The Nanticoke Indians – Past and Present, 255. ​ ​ 36 ​ Ibid.

37 ​ Chief Mark Quiet Hawk Gould, interview by Ashton Dunkley, March 20, 2018, Chief Mark Gould Interview 2; “Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Indians: Newsletter” (April 1982). Newsletter, page 1-2. Newsletter [Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Indians of New Jersey], The Historical Society of Pennsylvania.

38 ​ Weslager, The Nanticoke Indians – Past and Present, 256. ​ ​ 39 ​ Marc Duvoisin (May 21, 1984). “Making the urban land their land.” Philadelphia

40 ​ Edith Little Swallow Pierce, interview by Ashton Dunkley, December 3, 2017, Sonny and Edie Pierce Interview; Lewis Grey Squirrel Pierce Sr., interview by Ashton Dunkley, December 3, 2017, Sonny and Edie Pierce Interview.

41 ​ Weslager, The Nanticoke Indians – Past and Present, 257. ​ ​ 42 ​ Ibid. ​ 43 ​ Ibid, 258.

44 ​ Marc Duvoisin (May 21, 1984). “Making the urban land their land.” Philadelphia

45 ​ Patrisia Gonzales (October 1, 1984). “Powwow: Indians display culture and dispel an image.” Philadelphia Inquirer, page 3-B. Philadelphia Inquirer 1969-2010, ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The Philadelphia Inquirer.

46 ​ Donna Musso (October 1, 1982). “Craft Fair and Pow-Wow Highlight Weekend.” Bridgeton Evening News, page 7. B-307, September-October 1982, Bridgeton Free Public Library Central Library; Weslager, The Nanticoke ​ Indians – Past and Present, 258-259. ​

47 ​ Chief Mark Quiet Hawk Gould, interview by Ashton Dunkley, March 20, 2018, Chief Mark Gould Interview 2.

48 ​ Eye/Ear (October 18, 1981). “A spirited salute to those who till the soil.” Philadelphia Inquirer, page 2-J. Philadelphia Inquirer 1969-2010, ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The Philadelphia Inquirer; Rose Ridgway, Linda Reed, and Carnellia. (November 1981). “Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Indians: Newsletter.” Newsletter, page 3. Newsletter [Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Indians of New Jersey], The Historical Society of Pennsylvania. The Newsletter listed three editors by their first names. While the last names of other editors, Rose Ridgway and Linda Reed, could be inferred based on other sources, reference to Carnellia was not found. For this reason, she is listed with no last name.

49 ​ Rose Ridgway, Linda Reed, and Carnellia. (November 1981). “Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Indians: Newsletter.” Newsletter, page 3. Newsletter [Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Indians of New Jersey], The Historical Society of Pennsylvania; “Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Indians: Newsletter” (April 1982). Newsletter, page 1-2. Newsletter [Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Indians of New Jersey], The Historical Society of Pennsylvania.

50 ​ Weslager, The Nanticoke Indians – Past and Present, 260. ​ ​ 51 ​ Eye/Ear (June 8, 1980). “They came, they saw, they pondered a plunger.” Philadelphia

52 ​ Weslager, The Nanticoke Indians – Past and Present, 259. ​ ​