THTHEE PLACEPLACE OFOF THUCYDIDESTHUCYDIDES ININ
ANCIENANCIENTT HISTORIOGRAPHYHISTORIOGRAPHY
byby
WilliamWilliam KarlKarl MartinMartin
A thesithesiss submittesubmittedd ttoo ththee facultfacultyy ooff TheThe UniversityUniversity ofof UtahUtah InIn partiapartiall fulfillmenfulfillmentt ooff ththee requirementsrequirements forfor ththee degredegreee ooff
MasterMaster ooff ArtsArts
DepartmentDepartment ooff HistoryHistory
TheThe UniversityUniversity ooff UtahUtah
MayMay 20092009 CopyrightCopyright © WilliamWilliam KarlKarl MartinMartin 20092009
AlAlll RightsRights ReservedReserved THE UNIVERSTITY OF UTAH GRADUATE SCHOOL
SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE APPROVAL
of a thesis submitted by
William K. Martin
This thesis has been read by each member of the following supervisory committee and by majority vote has been found to be satisfactory.
/ / ,G1.c. Zl()�
II Ju '2 0 0 « Glenn Olsen
Randall Stewart' THE UNIVERSTITY OF UTAH GRADUATE SCHOOL
FINAL READING APPROVAL
To the Graduate Council of the University of Utah:
I have read the thesis of William K. Martin in its final form and have found that (1) its format, citations, and bibliographic style are consistent and acceptable; (2) its illustrative materials including figures, tables, and charts are in place; and (3) the final manuscript is satisfactory to the supervisory committee and is ready for submission to The Graduate School.
W. Lindsay Adams J Chair: Supervisory Committee
Approved for the Major Department
R. James Lehning Chair/Dean
Approved for the Graduate Council
David S. Chap an Dean of The Graduate School ABSTRACTABSTRACT
ThucydideThucydidess definedefinedd anan importantimportant momentmoment iinn ancientancient historiography.historiography. HisHis worworkk oonn ththee PeloponnesianPeloponnesian WaWarr representerepresentedd a significansignificantt departuredeparture frofromm thethe worworkk ooff Herodotus.Herodotus. HeHe rejectedrejected ththee story-tellingstory-telling narrativenarrative ooff hishis predecessorpredecessor inin favofavorr ooff a moremore analyticaanalyticall reportingreporting ooff hishis chosechosenn subjectsubject.. HeHe statedstated explicitlyexplicitly whawhatt hahass beenbeen termetermedd "th"thee ThucydideaThucydideann method,"method," whicwhichh embraceembracedd personalpersonal experience,experience, eyewitneseyewitnesss testimonytestimony,, personalpersonal investigationinvestigation ooff location,location, a commitmencommitmentt ttoo verifiablverifiablee factsfacts,, anandd aann acutacutee inquiryinquiry intointo thethe humanhuman psychologicalpsychological anandd politicalpolitical underpinningsunderpinnings ooff causationcausation.. HHee at timetimess offeredoffered authorialauthorial judgmentsjudgments onon eventsevents,, butbut hishis narrativenarrative stylestyle wawass calculatecalculatedd ttoo enablenablee ththee readerreader ttoo comcomee toto hishis owownn conclusionsconclusions.. HisHis impactimpact oonn ththee subsequensubsequentt historianshistorians ofof GreecGreecee andand thethe
RomanRoman Republi~epublicc anandd earlyearly EmpireEmpire wawass considerable.considerable. CONTENTCONTENTSS
ABSTRACABSTRACTT ...... i ivv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTACKNOWLEDGEMENTSS ...... vvii
INTRODUCTIOINTRODUCTIONN ...... 1 1
ChapteChapterr
II.. HISTORHISTORYY BEFORBEFOREE THUCYDIDETHUCYDIDESS ...... , ...... 1100
IIII.. THUCYDIDESTHUCYDIDES'' INNOVATIONSINNOVATIONS IN METHOD AND NARRATIVE TECHNIQUE...... 28 IN METHOD AND NARRATIVE TECHNIQUE 28 III. THE GREEK CONTINUATORS ...... 58 III. THE GREEK CONTINUATORS 58 IV. THE ROMAN CONTINUATORS ...... 83 IV. THE ROMAN CONTINUATORS 83 CONCLUSiON ...... 111 CONCLUSION 111 EPILOGUE: ON THE DEATH OF THUCYDIDES ...... 123 EPILOGUE: ON THE DEATH OF THUCYDIDES 123 APPENDiX ...... '...... 136 APPENDIX 136 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 137 BIBLIOGRAPHY 137 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTACKNOWLEDGEMENTSS
I wishwish toto thankthank ProfessorsProfessors OlsenOlsen andand StewartStewart forfor theirtheir closeclose reviewreview ofof mymy manuscriptmanuscript andand alalll ofof theirtheir suggestionssuggestions ttoo improveimprove it.it. I extendextend mymy gratitudegratitude especiallyespecially toto Lindsay,Lindsay, forfor nearlynearly a decaddecadee ofof conversationconversation aboutabout historyhistory andand ourour sharedshared lovelove forfor ththee studystudy ofof it.it. FinallyFinally ttoo thethe kids,kids, inin particularparticular ththee BeanBean,, forfor allall ofof theirtheir supportsupport andand takingtaking inin stridestride thethe manymany updatesupdates I gavegave thethemm onon thethe progressprogress ofof thithiss work.work. INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION
ThThee fulcrufulcrumm upouponn whicwhichh thisthis thesithesiss turnturnss isis Thucydides'Thucydides' methodmethod andand narrativenarrative technique,technique, hishis innovationsinnovations oveoverr precedingpreceding historianshistorians,, andand thethe debtdebt owedowed himhim byby succeedinsucceedingg historians.historians. InIn ordeorderr ttoo understanunderstandd hishis impact,impact, itit isis firsfirstt helpfulhelpful ttoo looklook aatt thethe statstatee ooff "history"history"" beforbeforee hishis worworkk oonn ththee PeloponnesianPeloponnesian WaWarr andand determindeterminee exactlexactlyy whawhatt hishis improvementimprovementss werweree overover thethe priorprior generations.generations. ThisThis wilwilll bebe ththee subjectsubject ooff ChapteChapterr I.I. ChapterChapter IIII wilwilll bebe devoteddevoted ttoo hishis work.work. ThThee nextnext twtwoo chapterschapters wilwilll looklook at hishis GreekGreek andand RomanRoman continuatorscontinuators.. TheseThese wilwilll bebe continuatorscontinuators notnot onlyonly inin ththee senssensee thathatt thetheyy "picke"pickedd uupp wherwheree hhee leftleft off,"off," butbut alsoalso thosthosee whwhoo werweree influencedinfluenced bbyy hishis methodmethod anandd narrativenarrative techniquetechnique.. ChapterChapter IIIIII willwill bebe devotedevotedd ttoo XenophoXenophonn anandd ththee fragmentarfragmentaryy evidenceevidencess ooff ththee otheotherr GreekGreek historianhistorianss ooff thethe fourtfourthh andand thirthirdd centuriescenturies BCBC.. ChapterChapter IVIV wilwilll shifshiftt attentionattention toto ththee majormajor LatinLatin historians:historians: SallustSallust,, LivUvyy anandd TacitusTacitus.. TheThe ConclusionConclusion wilwilll offeroffer notnot onlonlyy somesome finafinall observationobservationss oonn Thucydides'Thucydides' placeplace inin ancienancientt historiography,historiography, butbut wilwilll poinpointt ttoo somesome ofof thethe basicbasic distinctiondistinctionss betweebetweenn GreeGreekk andand RomanRoman historianshistorians aparapartt frofromm stylestyle anandd methodmethod.. ThesThesee differencedifferencess defindefinee ththee historicalhistorical philosophyphilosophy anandd ththee limitslimits ooff ththee RomanRoman approachapproach.. ThesThesee finafinall remarksremarks wilwilll alsoalso considerconsider thethe historianhistorian Polybius,Polybius, a GreekGreek historianhistorian writinwritingg at ththee timtimee ooff thethe ascendancascendancyy ooff thethe
RepublicanRepublican empire.empire.
ThThee questionquestionss thathatt surroundsurround ththee abrupabruptt endend ooff Thucydides'Thucydides' worworkk areare addresseaddressedd inin ththee Epilogue,Epilogue, "On"On ththee DeathDeath ooff Thucydides.Thucydides."" ItIt makesmakes foforr interestinginteresting 2 readingreading bubutt doedoess notnot fifitt neatlyneatly intointo ththee bodybody ooff ththee mainmain topic.topic.
JusJustt aass thertheree iiss nnoo singlsinglee lineline ooff literaryliterary evolutionevolution fromfrom HomerHomer (fl. secondsecond halfhalf eightheighth c.c. Be?)BC?) toto HerodotusHerodotus (c(c.. 480s-c480s-c.. 420420ss Be)BC) andand ThucydidesThucydides (c.(c.
460/465-c460/465-c.. 404000 Be),BC),11 ththee workworkss ofof Herodotus,Herodotus, Thucydides,Thucydides, XenophonXenophon,, Polybius,Polybius,
Sallust,Sallust, Livy,Livy, andand TacitusTacitus ddoo notnot illustrateillustrate a continuoucontinuouss developmentdevelopment ofof historicalhistorical writinwritingg oveoverr thethe courscoursee ooff ththee fivefive hundredhundred yearsyears spannespannedd byby ththee liveslives ofof thesethese men.22 ItIt woulwouldd bebe nicenice ttoo finfindd a goldengolden threadthread inin ththee worksworks ooff thethe ancientancient historianshistorians ttoo thethe pointpoint thathatt ththee threathreadd hashas formeformedd intointo a greagreatt ropropee ooff intertwiningintertwining strandstrandss whicwhichh alalll havehave theitheirr sourcsourcee inin thethe nascentnascent beginningsbeginnings ofof historicalhistorical writingwriting..
SuchSuch a thread,thread, ooff coursecourse,, doedoess nonott existexist.. NeitherNeither isis a linearlinear progressionprogression ofof suresure historicalhistorical methodmethodss evidenevidentt inin aann investigationinvestigation ooff thethe workworkss ofof thesthesee writerwriterss ooff history.history. TherTheree areare certaicertainn familiarfamiliarss thathatt emergemergee inin ononee historian,historian, absentabsent inin thethe nextnext anandd founfoundd againagain inin a laterlater oneone..
Nonetheless,Nonetheless, DionysiusDionysius ofof Halicarnassus,Halicarnassus, iinn hishis worworkk On Thucydides, outlinesoutlines a linearlinear developmentdevelopment ooff historicahistoricall method.method. HeHe sayssays thathatt history,history, aass a discipline,discipline, startestartedd witwithh a numbernumber ofof ancienancientt historianshistorians writingwriting withwith "lik"likee bentbent inin thethe
3 choicechoice ofof theirtheir subjects"subjects" anandd "little"little differencedifference inin theitheirr abilities.abilities." ,,3 TheyThey wrotwrotee locallocal historieshistories,, givingivingg separatseparatee accountaccountss ooff eaceachh nation oorr state,state, GreekGreek andand nonnon--
GreekGreek.. ThesThesee barbaree records,records, writtewrittenn inin unadornedunadorned anandd meagemeagerr stylestyle,, werweree thenthen
"expande"expandedd andand renderedrendered moremore splendidsplendid"" bbyy HerodotusHerodotus inin hishis all-encompassingall-encompassing
1 rd 1 ExceptExcept wherewhere noted,noted, allall datesdates havehave beenbeen takentaken fromfrom The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd3 editionedition,, revisedrevised,, eded.. SimonSimon HornblowerHornblower anandd AnthonAnthonyy SpawfortSpawforthh (Oxford,(Oxford, 2003).2003).
2 2 C.C. WW.. Fornara,Fornara, The Nature of History in Ancient Greece and Rome (Berkeley,(Berkeley, 1983),1983), ix.ix.
3 3 Dion.Dion. Hal.Hal. Thuc. 5;5; unlessunless notednoted otherwise,otherwise, allall translationstranslations areare frofromm thethe textstexts listedlisted inin thethe Bibliography,Bibliography, AncienAncientt SourceSourcess andand Translations.Translations. 3 narrationnarration ofof thethe PersianPersian WarsWars.. "Then,""Then," hehe says,says, "came"came Thucydides.,,4Thucydides."4 ConsideringConsidering muchmuch ofof whawhatt hishis predecessorpredecessor accomplishedaccomplished asas "trifling,"trifling, petty,petty, andand ofof littlelittle value,value,""
ThucydidesThucydides selectedselected a singlesingle monumentalmonumental event,event, andand hehe wawass "most"most carefulcareful ofof thethe truth."truth.,,55
ThisThis ancientancient schema,schema, heldheld toto bebe crediblecredible untiluntil thithiss lastlast century,century, waswas rejectedrejected primarilyprimarily duedue ttoo itsits blatantblatant teleology.teleology. ItIt wawass tootoo simple.simple. FelixFelix Jacoby,Jacoby, inin thethe firstfirst decadedecade ofof thethe lastlast century,century, developeddeveloped a modelmodel thatthat sufferedsuffered fromfrom thethe samesame neatnessneatness asas thathatt ofof Dionysius.66 HisHis majormajor departuredeparture frofromm Dionysius,Dionysius, though,though, isis hishis findinfindingg thatthat thethe locallocal AttiAtticc historians,historians, oror "Atthidographers,""Atthidographers," werewere a latelate creationcreation inin thethe historiologicalhistoriological evolution,?evolution,7 thethe earliestearliest "first"first realreal AttiAtticc chronicle"chronicle" publishedpublished inin 380380 BC.88 ThisThis assessmentassessment hashas comecome underunder itsits shareshare ofof criticscritics andand defenders.defenders.99 Nonetheless,Nonetheless, thethe listlist ofof "subgenres""subgenres" thatthat JacobyJacoby developeddeveloped hashas founfoundd a lastinglasting placeplace inin allall discussionsdiscussions ofof ancientancient historiography.historiography. ItIt isis wellwell worthworth notingnoting hishis typetypess ofof ancientancient historyhistory andand theitheirr descriptionsdescriptions inin orderorder toto illustrateillustrate thethe
4 Dion.Dion. Hal.Hal. Thuc. 6.6.
5 5 Dion.Dion. Hal.Hal. Thuc. 8.8.
6 6 FelixFelix Jacoby,Jacoby, "Ober"Uber diedie EntwicklungEntwicklung derder griechischengriechischen HistoriographieHistoriographie undund denden PlanPlan einereiner neuenneuen SammlungSammlung derder griechischengriechischen Historikerfragmente,"Historikerfragmente," Klio 9 (1909),80-123;(1909), 80-123; thethe followingfollowing listlist andand descriptionsdescriptions areare takentaken frofromm Fornara,Fornara, Nature of History (1983)(1983) 1-46,1-46, witwithh attributionattribution toto Jacoby'sJacoby's initialinitial article.article. SeeSee JohnJohn Marincola,Marincola, Authority and Tradition in Ancient Historiography (Cambridge,(Cambridge, 1997),1997), 1-3;1-3; TruesdellTruesdell S.S. Brown,Brown, The Greek Historians (Los(Los AngelesAngeles,, 1973),5.1973), 5.
7 7 FelixFelix Jacoby,Jacoby, Atthis: The Local Chronicles of Ancient Athens (Oxford,(Oxford, 1949),1949), v,v, 5.5.
8 8 Jacoby,Jacoby, Atthis (1949),5.(1949), 5.
9 9 D.D. L.L. Toye,Toye, "Dionysius"Dionysius ofof HalicarnassusHalicarnassus onon thethe FirstFirst GreekGreek Historians,"Historians," AJP/UP Vol.Vol. 116,116, No.2.No. 2. (Summer,(Summer, 1995),1995), pg.pg. 281,281, isis a finfinee exampleexample ooff agreeingagreeing withwith JacobyJacoby witwithh regardregard ttoo thethe beginningsbeginnings ofof locallocal historyhistory whilwhilee atat ththee samesame timetime arguingarguing thatthat JacobyJacoby misreadmisread Polybius!Polybius! SeeSee ArnaldoArnaldo Momigliano,Momigliano, "Traditio"Traditionn andand ththee ClassicaClassicall Historian,"Historian," History and Theory 1111 (1972),287-288.(1972), 287-288. ThisThis questionquestion willwill notnot bebe dealtdealt withwith toto anyany extentextent hereinherein.. 4
1o10 typetypess ofof writingwritingss thathatt contributecontributedd ttoo ththee craftcraft ofof ththee historianshistorians discussediscussedd here.
1.1. GenealogyGenealogy recordsrecords thethe heroicheroic traditiontradition,, seekinseekingg ttoo bringbring consistencyconsistency toto
ofteoftenn conflictinconflictingg datdataa ofof legend,legend, mythmyth andand originsorigins..
22.. EthnographyEthnography describesdescribes foreignforeign landslands andand peoplespeoples,, aimingaiming ttoo presentpresent a
broabroadd descriptiondescription ofof a grougroupp ooff peoplepeople,, theitheirr customcustomss anandd wawayy ofof lifelife..
3.3. HistoryHistory narrates,narrates, separatelseparatelyy oror togethertogether,, contemporarcontemporaryy andand nonnon--
contemporarcontemporaryy events.events. ThiThiss typtypee includeincludess monographmonographss andand memoirs.memoirs.
44.. ChronographyChronography provideprovidess a systesystemm ooff reckoninreckoningg timtimee onon aann internationalinternational
levellevel ratherrather thanthan ththee locallocal levels,levels, whicwhichh areare typicallytypically systematizesystematizedd iinn
referencereference ttoo kingskings oror magistrates.magistrates.
5.5. HorographyHorography recordrecordss ththee year-by-yeayear-by-yearr lifelife ofof a particularparticular city-statcity-statee oorr
nation.nation.
JacobJacobyy sasaww thesthesee differendifferentt partpartss aass connectingconnecting inin timtimee toto eacheach succeedinsucceedingg piecepiece leadingleading ttoo a "perfected"perfected"" historiography.historiography.1111 ItIt iiss helpfulhelpful ttoo notenote thatthat,, whatevewhateverr thethe lineline ofof progress,progress, ththee practitionerspractitioners ooff thesethese "subgenres"subgenres"" werweree significantsignificant inin thethe historicalhistorical development.1212 ThesThesee elementelementss wilwilll bbee discussediscussedd moremore completelycompletely inin
ChapterChapter II..
ModernModern approachesapproaches ttoo ancientancient historiographhistoriographyy havehave distilleddistilled ooff latelate intointo twotwo postures:postures: firstfirst,, thathatt ththee ancienancientt historieshistories areare reliablereliable ttoo thethe extenextentt thatthat thetheyy areare repositoriesrepositories ooff truttruthh ttoo ththee bestbest abilitieabilitiess ooff ththee writerwriter,, anandd secondsecond,, thathatt ththee truthtruth
1100 DionDion.. Hal.Hal. Thuc. 88..
11 11 JohJohnn MarincolaMarincola,, Greek Historians (Oxford(Oxford:: 2001)2001),2., 2.
1212 JacobyJacoby,, Atthis (1949)(1949),216,, 216, sayssays thathatt "contemporar"contemporaryy history"history" startestartedd witwithh Thucydides;Thucydides; forfor Marincola,Marincola, Greek Historians (2001)(2001),4-7,, 4-7, itit isis Herodotus;Herodotus; foforr JJ.. B.B. Bury,Bury, The Ancient Greek Historians (Ne(Neww YorkYork:: 1909),1909), 17-18,17-18, itit isis Hecataeus.Hecataeus. 5 ancienancientt historianshistorians werweree iinn searcsearchh ooff wawass ththee "truth"truth"" ooff fictiofictionn anandd poetry,poetry, thathatt theirtheir historieshistories araree simplsimplyy workworkss ofof literatureliterature witwithh attendanattendantt structurestructuress andand themes.1313
ThThee formeformerr positionposition iiss closecloserr ttoo ththee normativenormative approachapproach thatthat modernmodern scholarsscholars taktakee regardingregarding ththee ancienancientt historians,historians, convinceconvincedd thatthat thethe ancientsancients werewere inin searcsearchh ooff factfactss andand thathatt theitheirr "truth"truth"" wawass interpretedinterpreted witwithh fidelitfidelityy ttoo actualactual events.events. SucSuchh activitactivityy isis ththee disciplinediscipline anandd geniusgenius ooff ththee greatgreat ancientancient GreekGreek andand
LatiLatinn historians.historians. TherTheree isis muchmuch ttoo creditcredit iinn thithiss approachapproach asas anan exampleexample fromfrom
ThucydidesThucydides illustratesillustrates.. HeHe complaincomplainss thatthat peoplpeoplee willwill generallgenerallyy holdhold fasfastt toto traditiontraditionss withouwithoutt applyinapplyingg criticacriticall tests.tests.1414 ThThee AthenianAthenianss commemoratedcommemorated thethe killinkillingg ooff HipparchusHipparchus byby HarmodiusHarmodius anandd AristiogitoAristiogitonn inin ththee sixtsixthh century BeBC aass thethe firsfirstt stestepp iinn ththee eventuaeventuall overthrooverthroww ooff PisistratiPisistratidd tyrannytyranny.. ThucydidesThucydides,, basinbasingg hishis conclusionconclusionss onon personalpersonal examinatioexaminationn ooff a pillapillarr placedplaced inin ththee Acropolis,Acropolis, determinedeterminess thathatt HipparchusHipparchus wawass notnot ththee tyrantyrantt ooff AthenAthenss afteafterr all,all, butbut hishis brotherbrother
Hippias,Hippias, thethe oldesoldestt sonson andand heirheir ooff theitheirr fathefatherr Pisistratus. 1515 MoreMore circumstantialcircumstantial evidencevidencee leadsleads hihimm ttoo concludeconclude thathatt ththee murdermurder hadhad nothingnothing ttoo ddoo witwithh thethe overthrooverthroww ooff tyrannytyranny,, bubutt wawass ththee resultresult ooff a lovelove affairaffair gonegone awry.awry. SimplySimply put,put,
ThucydideThucydidess lookedlooked at ththee traditiontradition,, inquireinquiredd intointo ththee availableavailable evidence,evidence, andand interpretedinterpreted ththee actuaactuall truttruthh ooff ththee matters,matters, keepingkeeping hishis conclusionsconclusions inin lineline witwithh thethe undeniableundeniable factsfacts.. ThesThesee twtwoo elementelementss araree criticalcritical iinn thethe useuse ofof thesethese writerswriters ofof ancientancient history:history: thathatt thetheyy havehave theitheirr factfactss straightstraight,, andand thathatt theitheirr conclusionsconclusions areare
13 13 JohJohnn MarincolaMarincola,, Greek Historians (2001)(2001),4-7;, 4-7; cfct.. KK.. JJ.. DoverDover,, "Thucydide'Thucydidess 'a'ass History'History' andand 'as'as Literature',"Literature'," History and Theory 2222 (1983),(1983), 54-6354-63..
1414 ThucThuc.. 1.20.1.1.20.1.
1515 ThucThuc.. 6.53-59.6.53-59. 6 believable.believable.
TheThe lattelatterr positiopositionn interpretsinterprets thethe ancienancientt workworkss witwithh a concerconcernn ofof whawhatt iiss seeseenn asas rhetoricrhetoric ooff exaggeration,exaggeration, inventioninvention ofof speechespeechess andand otherother historicalhistorical detailsdetails,, a pleasantpleasant anandd agreeablagreeablee narrative,narrative, anandd a commitmentcommitment ttoo structurstructuree andand themethemess lessless conducivconducivee ttoo historyhistory writinwritingg thathann otheotherr workworkss ofof literature.literature. ThesThesee areare alalll valivalidd pointspoints anandd thetheyy all contributecontribute ttoo ththee difficultdifficultyy thathatt thethe modernmodern scholascholarr hashas whewhenn gatheringatheringg frofromm thethe ancientsancients mattersmatters ofof facfactt andand truthtruth.. EffortsEfforts havehave beenbeen mademade toto reconcilereconcile thesthesee positionspositions withouwithoutt anyany hopehope ooff amicablamicablee settlement.1616
WithouWithoutt exceptionexception,, eaceachh ooff ththee ancientancient writerwriterss namednamed abovabovee prefacedprefaced hishis worworkk witwithh a commencommentt onon hihiss efforeffortt ttoo comcomee ttoo ththee truthtruth.. DionysiusDionysius ofof
Halicarnassus,Halicarnassus, foforr exampleexample,, speakinspeakingg ooff ththee responsibilityresponsibility ofof ththee writewriterr ooff history,history,
17 emphasizeemphasizess thathatt truttruthh iiss "the"the sourcsourcee ooff botbothh prudenceprudence anandd wisdom."wisdom ... 17 ThisThis questioquestionn ooff thethe ancienancientt attitudesattitudes towardtoward ththee meaningmeaning ofof truthtruth,, remarkedremarked uponupon throughouthroughoutt thithiss thesisthesis,, needsneeds ttoo bebe addresseaddressedd inin ononee place,place, ratheratherr thathann inin bitsbits andand pieces.pieces. '
InIn hishis seminalseminal paper,paper, "Myth"Myth Memory,Memory, andand History,"History," M.1.M.I. FinleyFinley statestatess thatthat truthtruth,, inin thethe essencessencee ofof "ho"howw thingthingss reallreallyy were,were,"" "wa"wass neitherneither aann importantimportant consideratioconsiderationn nonorr a claim"claim" thathatt ththee ancientancient GreeksGreeks coulcouldd confirm.18confirm.18 HeHe makesmakes a
16 AA.. JJ.. WoodmanWoodman,, Rhetoric in Classical Historiography: Four Studies (London andand Sydney:Sydney: 1988),1988), 198-199.198-199. AgainAgain,, Marincola,Marincola, Greek Historians (2001)(2001),7,, 7, statestatess thathatt ththee positionspositions areare "not"not easilyeasily reconciled,"reconciled," andand whilwhilee hehe saysayss hehe wilwilll notnot attempattemptt a compromiscompromisee ofof ththee twtwoo positions,positions, hehe believes,believes, "the"theyy cancan,, ooff course,course, bebe nuanced.nuanced.""
1717 Dion.Dion. Hal.Hal. Ant. Rom. 1.2.1.2.
18 18 MM.. I.I. Finley.Finley. "Myth,"Myth, Memory,Memory, anandd History,History,"" History and Theory, VolVol.. 44,, No.3.No. 3. (1965),(1965), 299299.. 7 goodgood pointpoint inin hishis typicatypicall polemicalpolemical way.way.1919 ThThee GreeksGreeks acceptedaccepted ththee mythicmythic traditiontradition asas beingbeing groundegroundedd inin hardhard fact,fact, andand througthroughh ththee epicepicss ooff HomerHomer andand thethe laterlater workworkss ooff HesiodHesiod thithiss mythicmythic traditiotraditionn wawass notnot onlyonly transmittetransmittedd butbut alsoalso created.2o20 ThThee ancienancientt distinctiodistinctionn betweenbetween mythologymythology anandd whawhatt laterlater becamebecame historyhistory wawass thin.thin.2121 ThaThatt RomanRoman traditiotraditionn isis quitequite similasimilarr isis illustrateillustratedd inin ththee earlyearly booksbooks ooff Livy'sLivy's History. InIn hishis cogentcogent appraisal,appraisal, FinleyFinley rightlyrightly statestatess thathatt ththee poetspoets hadhad taketakenn carcaree ofof ththee heroicheroic past,past, andand thougthoughh largelylargely oral,oral, thesthesee explanationsexplanations werweree entirelentirelyy sufficiensufficientt foforr historicalhistorical self-interpretation.2222 TruthTruth,, ttoo a largelarge extent,extent, woulwouldd havehave irreparablyirreparably damagedamagedd thethe identityidentity ooff whwhoo ththee GreeksGreeks thoughtthought theythey werewere.. IndeedIndeed,, ThucydidesThucydides'' efforteffortss ttoo correctcorrect pastpast misconceptionsmisconceptions regardingregarding thethe murdermurder ooff HipparchusHipparchus dididd notnot meetmeet witwithh completcompletee acceptanceacceptance inin antiquity;antiquity; traditionstraditions,, ratherrather thanthan factsfacts,, werweree mormoree inin lineline witwithh ththee AtheniaAtheniann imageimage ooff self,self, asas thetheyy werweree witwithh manymany ooff thethe RomanRoman historians.2323
TherTheree isis alsoalso a senssensee inin ancientancient historyhistory thathatt cancan irritateirritate ththee modernmodern reader,reader, illustratedillustrated inin a complimencomplimentt CicerCiceroo mademade regardingregarding Xenophon'sXenophon's descriptiodescriptionn ooff Cyrus,Cyrus, ththee pretenderpretender ttoo ththee PersianPersian throne:throne: CyruCyruss wawass portrayedportrayed
"no"nott accordingaccording ttoo historicalhistorical truttruthh butbut aass ththee imageimage ooff a jusjustt ruler.,,24ruler."24 InIn additioadditionn toto
1919 E.g.,E.g., "Thi"Thiss essaessayy hahass a pervasivelypervasively criticalcritical tonetone,, whicwhichh isis neitherneither accidentaaccidentall nonorr 'unconscious',"'unconscious'," isis thethe firsfirstt sentencsentencee ooff anotheanotherr essay,essay, M.M. I.I. Finley,Finley, "Generalizations"Generalizations inin AncienAncientt History,"History," The Use and Abuse of History (Ne(Neww YorkYork:: 1971),1971), 6060..
2020 Finley,Finley, "Myth,"Myth, MemoryMemory,, anandd History"History" (1965),(1965), 283,283, 295295..
2211 ChesterChester StarrStarr,, The Awakening of the Greek Historical Spirit (New(New YorkYork:: 1968),1968), 7-8.7-8.
2222 Finley,Finley, "Myth,"Myth, Memory,Memory, andand History"History" (1965),(1965), 283283..
23 23 Finley,Finley, "Myth"Myth,, Memory,Memory, andand History"History" (1965)(1965),, 299299;; ct.cf. Jacoby,Jacoby, Atthis (1949),(1949), 152-68152-68..
2244 WoodmanWoodman,, Rhetoric (1988)(1988),94., 94. 8 thithiss bruisinbruisingg ooff ththee trutruee eventsevents,, mostmost ooff ththee workworkss byby ththee historianshistorians underunder considerationconsideration herehere werweree meantmeant ttoo bbee ttoo bebe readread aloudaloud.. BehindBehind eacheach ofof thesethese worksworks iiss ththee skilskilll ooff ththee oratororator.. AlAlll ofof thesthesee writerwriterss werweree experiencedexperienced inin politicspolitics anandd allall,, especiallespeciallyy ththee Romans,Romans, werweree schooledschooled inin ththee rhetoricalrhetorical skillskillss ofof thethe timestimes..
ThiThiss cacann bebe unsettlinunsettlingg ttoo someonsomeonee whwhoo isis tryintryingg toto determinedetermine thethe veracitveracityy ooff a passagepassage.. ThThee talenttalent foforr rhetorirhetoricc wilwilll hopefullyhopefully makemake ththee readingreading ofof oorr listeninglistening toto a historyhistory moremore enjoyable,enjoyable, bubutt aass anyany attorneattorneyy wilwilll confirmconfirm,, whilwhilee ththee presentationpresentation willwill bebe delivereddelivered inin a stylestyle equalequal ttoo oorr greategreaterr thathann ththee material,material, ththee powerpower ooff thethe rhetoricrhetoric cannotcannot butbut helhelpp distortdistort ththee unrefinedunrefined informationinformation ttoo bebe related.2525
TheThe efforeffortt ttoo convinceconvince,, whicwhichh isis ththee historian'shistorian's aimaim,, wilwilll alonalonee altealterr "how"how thingthingss reallreallyy were.were."" AdAddd ttoo thithiss ththee writer'writer'ss politicapoliticall agendagendaa oror ththee didactididacticc aspectaspect ofof hishis workwork,, anandd ththee deliberativdeliberativee writinwritingg wilwilll forcforcee thethe narrativenarrative toto ththee oppositeopposite enendd ooff ththee scalscalee frofromm truth.2626 ThaThatt ththee ancientancientss werweree awareaware ofof thithiss isis evidentevident inin theitheirr protestationsprotestations,, oorr aatt leastleast inin theitheirr statestatedd desiredesiress ttoo bebe impartial.impartial. CicerCiceroo iiss emphaticemphatic,, inin ththee forformm ooff rhetoricalrhetorical questionsquestions,, thathatt truttruthh isis impartiality:impartiality:
ForFor whwhoo doesdoes notnot knowknow history'shistory's firsfirstt lawlaw (primam esse historiae legem) toto bebe thathatt aann authoauthorr mustmust notnot daredare ttoo teltelll anythinganything butbut ththee truthtruth?? AnAndd ititss seconsecondd thathatt hehe mustmust makmakee boldbold ttoo teltelll ththee wholwholee truthtruth?? ThaThatt therethere mustmust bebe nnoo suggestiosuggestionn ooff partialitpartialityy (gratia) anywheranywheree inin hishis writingswritings?? NorNor ofof malicemalice (simu/atas)?(simulatas)? CicCic.. De. or. 2.62.3-62.62.3-6
InIn hishis revealing letterletter ttoo Lucceius,Lucceius, hopefuhopefull ooff a favorablefavorable treatmentreatmentt ooff hishis consulship,consulship, CiceroCicero askaskss ththee historianhistorian ttoo disregardisregardd thesthesee lawslaws inin favofavorr ofof partiality:partiality:
AnAndd soso I againagain andand agaiagainn asaskk yoyouu outright,outright, bothboth toto praisepraise thosthosee actionactionss ofof
25 25 TT.. P.P. WisemanWiseman,, Clio's Cosmetics: Three Studies in Greco-Roman Literature (Leicester:(Leicester: 1979),1979), 38.38.
26 26 WoodmanWoodman,, Rhetoric (1988)(1988),94., 94. 9
minemine iinn warmewarmerr termsterms thanthan youyou perhapsperhaps feelfeel,, andand thathatt respectrespect toto neglectneglect (neglegas) ththee lawlawss ooff historhistoryy (leges nistoriae)...historiae) ...yield yield toto youyourr affectioaffectionn forfor 272 7 meme a littllittlee mormoree thathatt truttruthh (veritas)(Veritas) shallshall justify.justify. Cic.Cic. Fam.Fam. 5.12.3.5.12.3.
SallusSallustt saysayss thathatt truttruthh iiss inin ththee writewriterr unaffectedunaffected byby ambitionambition,, fearfear,, oorr partisanpartisan politics:politics: "I"I determinedeterminedd ttoo write...awrite ... ass mymy minmindd wawass uninfluenceduninfluenced byby hope,hope, fearfear,, oror politicalpolitical partisanship.partisanship. I shalshalll accordinglaccordinglyy givgivee a briefbrief account,account, witwithh asas muchmuch truthtruth asas I can."can."2B28 TacituTacituss believesbelieves thathatt ththee writewriterr musmustt bebe voivoidd ooff lovelove oorr hate:hate: "But"But thosthosee whwhoo professprofess inviolableinviolable truthfulnestruthfulnesss (incorruptam fidem) mustmust speaspeakk ofof all withouwithoutt partialitypartiality (neque amore) anandd withoutwithout hatredhatred (sine odio).,,29odio)."29
TheseThese definitiondefinitionss byby modernmodern standardstandardss araree clearlyclearly na"ive.naive. ForFor thethe ancientsancients,, thetheyy provedproved toto bebe impossiblimpossiblee standardsstandards:: alalll ooff ththee LatinLatin historianshistorians wrotwrotee politicallypolitically anandd frofromm a moral position;30position;30 ththee GreeksGreeks,, moreover,moreover, thethe inventorsinventors ooff WesternWestern historyhistory,, hadhad ththee neeneedd ttoo convinceconvince theitheirr listenerslisteners anandd readersreaders ooff thethe benefitsbenefits andand wortworthh ooff a newnew genregenre..
27 ThiThiss isis perhapsperhaps unfaiunfairr onon mymy partpart.. B.B. l.L. UllmanUllman,, "Histor"Historyy anandd Tragedy,"Tragedy," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, VolVol.. 73,73, (1942)(1942),, pppp.. 4545,, 53,53, arguesargues thatthat CiceroCicero onlonlyy madmadee availableavailable ttoo himselfhimself ththee conventioconventionn ofof ththee timetime,, thathatt a monographmonograph departedepartedd fromfrom a generalgeneral historyhistory inin thatthat thethe formerformer allowedallowed forfor rhetoricalrhetorical treatment,treatment, servingserving delectatio (i.e.,(i.e., delightdelight oror pleasure)pleasure) ratherrather thathann veritasVeritas oror utilitas.utilitas.
2288 SailSail.. Cat. 4.2-34.2-3..
29Tac Tac.. Hist. 1.1.31.1.3..
3030 RonalRonaldd Mel/or,Mellor, The Roman Historians (New(New YorkYork:: 1999),1999), 198-199.198-199. CHAPTERCHAPTER I
HISTORYHISTORY BEFOREBEFORE THUCYDIDESTHUCYDIDES
TheThe greagreatt epiepicc poetpoet HomerHomer employeemployedd atat leastleast twtwoo elementselements thatthat werewere includedincluded inin ththee workworkss ooff ththee ancienancientt historianshistorians;; HomerHomer toldtold a storystory inin a narrativenarrative ooff eventeventss anandd ththee dominantdominant themthemee ooff hishis narrativenarrative wawass war.31war.31 MosesMoses F.F. FinleyFinley observeobservedd thathatt Homer'sHomer's workworkss embracembracee ththee "germ"germ ooff historicalhistorical attitude.,,32attitude."32 ItIt isis thethe samsamee historicahistoricall attitudattitudee thathatt prevailedprevailed iinn all ooff ththee greagreatt GreekGreek anandd mostmost ofof thethe
RomanRoman historians,historians, HomerHomer includedincluded inin hishis narrativenarrative speechespeechess ooff ththee actorsactors andand a fundamentafundamentall picturepicture ooff timtimee movingmoving frofromm ononee momentmoment ttoo ththee nexnextt ttoo ththee finafinall endend ooff hishis storystory.. HeHe diddid thithiss witwithh a sensesense ofof ththee visualvisual,, a storstoryy thatthat wawass enjoyedenjoyed,, anticipatoryanticipatory,, anandd recreatedrecreated inin a wawayy ttoo givegive ththee listenerlistener anan experienceexperience ofof beingbeing therethere.. ToTo ththee Greeks,Greeks, thethe epicepicss ooff HomerHomer werweree historyhistory inin thatthat thetheyy offeredoffered anan ancestralancestral relationshiprelationship toto theitheirr present.present. FinleyFinley statestatess thatthat,, givengiven thathatt itit lackedlacked a schemschemee ooff datingdating,, "whatever"whatever elselsee itit maymay havehave been,been, ththee epiepicc was notnot history.,,33history."33
Homer,Homer, however,however, stronglstronglyy influenceinfluencedd whawhatt camcamee ttoo bbee historyhistory inin ththee wawayy inin whichwhich hehe cascastt ththee epics.epics. AlonAlongg witwithh a narrativenarrative ofof eventsevents,, thertheree werweree speechesspeeches,, a recreationrecreation ooff a timtimee paspastt thathatt wawass givegivenn aann immediateimmediate present,present, anandd a descriptiondescription
3311 TT.. JJ.. Luce,Luce, The Greek Historians (London(London anandd NewNew YorkYork:: 1997),3.1997), 3.
32 32 Finley,Finley, "Myth,"Myth, Memory,Memory, anandd History"History" (1965),(1965), 284284..
3333 Finley,Finley, "Myth,"Myth, Memory,Memory, anandd History"History" (1965),(1965), 284284.. 1111 ofof peoplespeoples GreeGreekk anandd foreignforeign..
BeforeBefore ththee "birth""birth" ooff historyhistory witwithh iinn ththee workworkss ooff HerodotusHerodotus andand
ThucydidesThucydides,, however,however, thertheree werweree otherother effortsefforts.. "History""History" aass a genregenre hadhad a numbernumber ofof foundersfounders,, notnot solelysolely Herodotus,Herodotus, ththee FatherFather ooff History,History, oorr Thucydides,Thucydides, toto some,some, ththee FatherFather ofof "Modern"Modern oror Scientific"Scientific" History.History. Homer'sHomer's nearnear contemporarycontemporary
Hesiod,Hesiod, alsoalso writinwritingg inin verse,verse, sortesortedd ououtt ththee unreasonableunreasonable contradictory datdataa ooff legendlegend anandd myth,myth, origins,origins, genealogies,genealogies, andand chronologchronologyy inin hishis Theogony. TheThe fragmentfragmentss ofof ththee Genealogies ooff HecataeusHecataeus ooff MiletusMiletus (fl. latelate sixth-earlsixth-earlyy fiftfifthh c.c.
Be)BC) illustrateillustrate a rationalizinrationalizingg approach.3434 HisHis famoufamouss openinopeningg wordwordss ttoo thithiss proseprose worworkk underscoreunderscore thithiss interpretationinterpretation:: "What"What I writwritee herehere iiss ththee accountaccount thatthat I consideredconsidered ttoo bebe truetrue.. ForFor ththee storiesstories ofof ththee GreeksGreeks araree numerounumerouss andand,, inin mymy opinion,opinion, ridiculous.,,35ridiculous."35 ThThee difficultydifficulty inin lettinlettingg ggoo ofof ththee pastpast anandd thosthosee attitudesattitudes thathatt ththee GreeksGreeks hadhad foforr ththee timetimess ooff myth,myth, legendlegend,, anandd heroesheroes isis evident,evident, nonetheless,nonetheless, inin hishis recountingrecounting fabulousfabulous storiestoriess anandd eveevenn tracintracingg hihiss ownown genealoggenealogyy backback sixteesixteenn generationgenerationss ttoo ththee gods. 3636 TToo Hecataeus'Hecataeus' originaoriginall worworkk iinn mythography,mythography, genealogygenealogy anandd geographygeography,, HerodotusHerodotus oweowedd anan obviouobviouss heavyheavy debtdebt thathatt wawass notnot acknowledged. 3737 Hecataeus'Hecataeus' principalprincipal achievementachievement waswas
34 Jacoby,Jacoby, Atthis (1949),68,(1949), 68, considerconsiderss HecataeusHecataeus "the"the fathefatherr ooff GreeGreekk historiography;historiography;"" BrownBrown,, The Greek Historians (1973),7,(1973), 7, considerconsiderss himhim ttoo bebe ththee "mos"mostt important"important" prosprosee writewriterr beforebefore Herodotus.Herodotus.
35 35 Bury,Bury, Greek Historians (1909),(1909), 13,13, translatiotranslationn ofof FGrH. 1F11F1 inin FelixFelix JacobyJacoby,, Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker, VolVol.. 1 (Leiden(Leiden:: 1950)1950)..
36 36 Hdt.Hdt. 2.1432.143;; Fornara,Fornara, Nature of History (1983),(1983), 55,, notes,notes, foforr exampleexample,, HecataeusHecataeus tellintellingg ooff "a"a vinvinee springingspringing fromfrom thethe bloodblood ooff a dogdog"" anandd a "talkin"talkingg ram.ram.""
37 37 Bury,Bury, Greek Historians (1909),49-50.(1909), 49-50. 1122 beginninbeginningg whawhatt mighmightt bbee considereconsideredd ththee historicahistoricall process.3838
HomeHomerr dididd nonott displadisplayy aann interesinterestt iinn oorr eveevenn aann awarenesawarenesss ooff chronologychronology..
HHee offereofferedd nnoo senssensee thathatt eventeventss coulcouldd bbee locatelocatedd iinn timtimee otheotherr thathann somethinsomethingg beforbeforee oorr somethinsomethingg afterafter.. HiHiss charactercharacterss ddoo havhavee aann awarenesawarenesss ooff ththee pastpast::
AchilleAchilless singsingss ooff famoufamouss deeddeedss ooff eveevenn oldeolderr heroesheroes;; HeleHelenn weaveweavess a self-pityingself-pitying
39 tapestrtapestryy ooff ththee sufferingsufferingss ooff TroTroyy sincsincee ththee beginninbeginningg ooff ththee war. 39 HoweverHowever,, ththee heroeheroess ooff hihiss epicepic,, anandd iinn generagenerall ooff all epiepicc poetrypoetry,, araree essentiallessentiallyy timelesstimeless..
WheWhenn OdysseuOdysseuss returnreturnss ttoo IthacIthacaa afteafterr almosalmostt twenttwentyy yearyearss absenceabsence,, aideaidedd bbyy
AthenaAthena,, hhee musmustt disguisdisguisee hihiss featuresfeatures;; hihiss physicaphysicall appearancappearancee hahass nonott changedchanged foforr alalll hihiss physicaphysicall trialtrialss oorr eveevenn frofromm aginagingg twtwoo decades.4o40 IInn hihiss famoufamouss firsfirstt chaptechapterr ooff ththee Mimesis, "Odysseus"Odysseus'' Scar,Scar,"" EricErichh AuerbacAuerbachh addresses thithiss
HomericHomeric timelessnestimelessnesss whenwhen hehe saysayss thathatt thertheree isis "onl"onlyy present,present, purepure anandd withoutwithout perspective.perspective." ,,4141
Hesiod'sHesiod's accountaccount ooff man'sman's declindeclinee frofromm ththee ageage ooff goldgold downdown ttoo thethe presentpresent dadayy ooff ironiron dididd notnot havehave ttoo consideconsiderr a chronology;chronology; onlonlyy ththee sequencsequencee was essential.essential. ThereThere werweree nono datesdates ttoo bebe harmonizedharmonized sincsincee thertheree wawass nono gradualgradual sensesense ofof movementmovement fromfrom oneone ageage toto thethe next.next. HisHis vision,vision, asas illustratedillustrated inin Works and Days, waswas notnot oneone ofof deterioration,deterioration, butbut oneone ofof destruction,destruction, withwith thethe
38 SimonSimon Hornblower,Hornblower, Greek Historiography (Oxford:(Oxford: 1994),1994), 11..
3939 Hom.Horn. II.//. 9.182-3.1219.182-3.121..
4040 Hom.Horn. Od. 13.429.13.429.
41 41 ErichErich Auerbach,Auerbach, Mimesis (Garden(Garden City,City, NewNew York:York: 1957),9;1957), 9; EgbertEgbert J.J. Bakker,Bakker, "Mimesis"Mimesis asas Performance:Performance: RereadingRereading Auerbach'sAuerbach's FirstFirst Chapter,"Chapter," Poetics Today, Vol.Vol. 20,20, No.1No. 1 (Spring,(Spring, 1999),1999), 12.12. 1313 wholesalwholesalee replacemenreplacementt ofof oneone agagee witwithh another.4242 InIn hishis processprocess ooff systematizingsystematizing ththee genealogiegenealogiess andand makingmaking senssensee ooff ththee ancientancient storiesstories,, HecataeusHecataeus maymay bebe saidsaid
4433 ttoo havehave mademade a demarcatiodemarcationn betweenbetween ththee "heroic""heroic" anandd ththee "historical""historical" times.times
IncludedIncluded inin thithiss procesprocesss waswas measurementmeasurement ooff timetime inin generationgenerationss ooff fortyforty yearsyears each.each. HerodotusHerodotus continuecontinuedd ththee useuse ooff generations,generations, alteringaltering ththee periodperiod toto totaltotal threthreee generationgenerationss inin a century.century.
HellanicusHellanicus ofof LesbosLesbos (c.(c. 480-39480-3955 Be)BC) workeworkedd ttoo construcconstructt a completecomplete historyhistory ooff ththee Greeks.Greeks.4444 HisHis majormajor contributioncontribution ofof placingplacing eventeventss oonn a setset chronologychronology,, a creativcreativee activitactivityy ofof incalculableincalculable effecteffect,, hashas beenbeen termedtermed "the"the cornerstonecornerstone"" ofof thethe historicalhistorical traditiotraditionn ooff ththee Greeks.45Greeks.45 HeHe developedevelopedd thethe chronologychronology,, asas dididd Hecataeus,Hecataeus, byby ththee numberingnumbering ooff generationsgenerations basedbased onon genealogiesgenealogies,, butbut alsalsoo utilizingutilizing ththee dimdim oror traditionatraditionall datedatess ofof eventsevents,, magistratesmagistrates andand priests.priests. HisHis inspiredinspired methodmethod andand scopscopee ofof worworkk hashas beebeenn termedtermed "an"an ingeniousingenious edificedificee oonn foundationfoundationss whicwhichh hahadd nono solidity."solidity.,,4646 ThisThis surelsurelyy isis thethe casecase,, butbut thethe complementarcomplementaryy treatmentreatmentt ooff genealoggenealogyy anandd chronologychronology wawass anan achievementachievement necessarynecessary foforr ththee breadthbreadth ooff hishis story.story. ThisThis wawass thethe onlyonly sensesense
42 42 Hes.Hes. Op. 110-179;110-179; Finley,Finley, "Myth,"Myth, Memory,Memory, anandd History,"History," 286286;; cfcf.. FrederickFrederick J.J. TaggartTaggart.. "The"The ArgumenArgumentt ooff Hesiod'sHesiod's Works and Days," Journal of the History of Ideas, VolVol.. 8,8, No.1No. 1 (Jan,(Jan, 1947)1947),, pp.50-57.pp. 50-57.
43 43 Fornara,Fornara, Nature of History (1983)(1983),4-5,, 4-5, callscalls thithiss momentmoment "epoc"epochh making;making;"" cfcf.. ArnaldoArnaldo Momigliano,Momigliano, Essays in Ancient and Modern Historiography (Middletown:(Middletown: 1977),1977), 163.163. OfOf coursecourse HomerHomer recognizedrecognized ththee differencdifferencee betweenbetween thesthesee heroeheroess anandd ththee menmen inin hihiss day.day.
44 3 44 PhilipPhilip EdwardEdward HardingHarding,, "Hellanicus,""Hellanicus," OCD ,, 677;677; HellanicusHellanicus wrotwrotee a numbernumber ooff worksworks ofof mythography,mythography, ooff whicwhichh onlonlyy somsomee 200200 fragmentfragmentss survivesurvive..
45 45 Bury,Bury, Greek Historians (1909),27.(1909), 27.
46 46 Bury,Bury, Greek Historians (1909)(1909),30,, 30, evidentlevidentlyy speakinspeakingg foforr Hellanicus.Hellanicus. ItIt isis wortworthh recallingrecalling thethe medievalmedieval scholiast'sscholiast's commentcomment ttoo FGrHA,FGrH 4, 323a323a:: u"isis estest satis satis mihi."mihi." 1414 chronologychronology offeredoffered foforr thosthosee yearyearss beforebefore 650 BCBC oorr eveevenn 550550 BC;BC; thesthesee yearsyears areare a jumbljumblee ooff facfactt andand fictiofiction.47n 47
WheWhenn HellanicusHellanicus firsfirstt publishedpublished hishis workworkss isis questionable,48questionable,48 butbut therethere werweree certainlcertainlyy profoundprofound developmentsdevelopments thatthat influenced thethe scopscopee ooff hishis writingwriting anandd thosthosee ofof subsequentsubsequent historians.historians. ByBy ththee mid-fifthmid-fifth centurycentury therethere waswas a cessatiocessationn ofof hostilitieshostilities witwithh Persia,Persia, anandd contactcontact wawass restoredrestored withwith ththee East,49East,49 andand witwithh ththee AtheniaAtheniann tragediantragedianss devotindevotingg theitheirr worworkk ttoo treatmentreatmentt ofof mythologicalmythological themesthemes,, ththee proseprose writerwriterss lookedlooked foforr newnew andand uniqueunique topicstopics.. ThThee rationalistrationalist questionsquestions anandd answeranswerss emanatinemanatingg frofromm ththee conversationconversationss ofof IonianIonian philosophyphilosophy complementedcomplemented thesthesee otheotherr developmentdevelopmentss ttoo ththee pointpoint thathatt proseprose treatmentreatmentt ofof mythsmyths anandd legendslegends wawass startingstarting ttoo declindeclinee oorr aatt ththee ververyy leastleast bebe givegivenn a hardhard looklook.. IndeedIndeed HellanicusHellanicus maymay havehave startedstarted hishis careercareer aass a mythographermythographer butbut latelate iinn liflifee turneturnedd ttoo ethnography.50ethnography.50
IfIf therethere iiss anyany continuatorcontinuator inin ththee spirispiritt ofof HomerHomer itit woulwouldd ofof coursecourse bbee
Herodotus.Herodotus. RelativeRelative toto hishis placeplace iinn historiography,historiography, itit hashas beenbeen saidsaid inin a famousfamous tautologytautology,, "Ther"Theree wawass nono HerodotusHerodotus beforebefore Herodotus.,,51Herodotus."51 EmployingEmploying proseprose ratherrather
47 47 Finley,Finley, "Myth,"Myth, Memory,Memory, anandd History"History" (1965),(1965), 287287;; Hornblower,Hornblower, Greek Historiography (1994)(1994),, 1010,, regardingregarding HellanicuHellanicuss andand ththee firsfirstt storstoryy ooff ththee TrojaTrojann AeneaAeneass foundinfoundingg Rome,Rome, sayssays,, "We"We araree nownow inin aann areareaa wherwheree mythmyth andand history,history, 'true'true'' andand 'false'false'' history,history, overlap.overlap.""
48 48 LioneLionell Pearson,Pearson, Early Ionian Historians (Oxford(Oxford:: 1939),1939), 152-155,152-155, 226226,, reviewsreviews ththee debatdebatee oonn ththee publicationpublication datesdates foforr hishis workwork.. TheTheyy typicalltypicallyy rangrangee frofromm 454566 ttoo 423,423, andand somesome ttoo laterlater thanthan 406406..
49 49 Diod.Diod. SicSic.. 12.4;12.4; LionelLionel PearsonPearson,, The Local Historians of Attica (Philadelphia:(Philadelphia: 1942),1942), 5-65-6..
50 50 Pearson,Pearson, Historians of Attica (1942),(1942), 44..
51 51 ArnoldArnoldoo Momigliano,Momigliano, "The"The PlacPlacee ooff HerodotusHerodotus inin ththee HistoryHistory ooff Historiography,"Historiography," Studies in Historiography (London(London:: 1966),1966), 129;129; PetePeterr Green,Green, "Th"Thee GreaGreatt MarathonMarathon Man,"Man," The New YorkYork Review of Books, Vol.Vol. 55,55, NO.8No. 8 (May(May 15,15, 2008)2008),, 22,, statesstates "His"His greatesgreatestt debdebtt wawass undoubtedlyundoubtedly toto Homer,Homer, whwhoo showeshowedd him howhow ttoo managemanage characterization,characterization, speechesspeeches,, ththee manipulationmanipulation ooff timetime 1515 thathann verseverse,, HerodotusHerodotus includedIncluded inin ththee main,main, ththee historicalhistorical elementelementss ooff Homer.Homer.
ThisThis beingbeing so,so, muchmuch academiacademicc efforteffort hahass beenbeen expendedexpended asas toto ththee impulsesimpulses
HerodotusHerodotus mamayy havehave hadhad inin embarkinembarkingg oonn ththee Histories.Histories5252 WhilWhilee itit isis fortunatefortunate thathatt hishis isis ononee worworkk ooff ancienancientt GreecGreecee thathatt hashas survivesurvivedd inin completecomplete formform,, nowhernowheree inin ththee totatotall worworkk doedoess hehe offeofferr anythinanythingg butbut thethe minimumminimum ofof informationinformation aass ttoo ititss genesisgenesis.. HisHis celebratecelebratedd Proem,Proem, a prefacepreface ooff lessless thathann fourfour lines,lines, statestatess a generagenerall purpose:purpose:
Herodotus ofof HalicarnassusHalicarnassus herheree presentspresents hihiss researcresearchh ssoo thatthat humanhuman eventeventss dodo notnot fadfadee witwithh timetime.. MayMay ththee greagreatt andand wonderfuwonderfull deeddeedss - somesome broughbroughtt fortforthh byby ththee Hellenes,Hellenes, otherotherss byby ththee barbariansbarbarians - notnot ggoo unsungunsung;; asas welwelll aass ththee causecausess thathatt ledled thethemm ttoo makemake wawarr oonn eaceachh otherother.. Hdt.Hdt. "Proem"Proem""
InIn a sensesense,, ThucydideThucydidess sayssays ththee samsamee thinthingg at ththee beginningbeginning ofof hishis history,history, butbut beforbeforee ThucydideThucydidess thertheree wawass Herodotus.Herodotus. ThThee conventionaconventionall answer,answer, anandd notnot withouwithoutt merit,merit, wawass thathatt witwithh ththee adventadvent ooff IonianIonian philosophyphilosophy andand itsits bentbent towardtoward skepticism,skepticism, camecame thithiss inclinationinclination towartowardd inquiry,53inquiry,53 whichwhich initiallyinitially defineddefined thethe GreekGreek worwordd historia.5454 SkepticismSkepticism inin oneone areaarea,, bebe itit abouaboutt ththee gods oror thethe makeupmakeup ooff ththee worldworld,, woulwouldd certainlycertainly leadlead ttoo skepticismskepticism inin otherother areasareas andand,, sequencessequences,, anandd vivivividd description,description, anandd alsalsoo gavgavee him hihiss firsfirstt greagreatt themetheme,, thathatt ofof recordingrecording greatgreat deeddeedss foforr posterity."posterity."
52 52 E.g.,E.g., Bury,Bury, Greek Historians (1909)(1909),39;, 39; BrownBrown,, The Greek Historians (1973),28-37;(1973), 28-37; ArnaldoArnaldo Momigliano,Momigliano, The Classical Foundations of Modern Historiography (Berkeley(Berkeley:: 1990),34-39;1990), 34-39; ChesterChester GG.. StarrStarr,, The Awakening of the Greek Historical Spirit (Ne(Neww YorkYork:: 1986)1986) 10-11,10-11, 132-136.132-136.
53 53 Finley,Finley, "Myth,"Myth, MemoryMemory,, anandd History"History" (1965)(1965),, 299299..
54 54 ItIt iiss interestininterestingg thathatt ththee firsfirstt literaryliterary ususee ooff ththee worwordd "history""history" isis frofromm Homer'sHomer's Iliad, 18.497-508,18.497-508, inin ththee descriptiodescriptionn ooff AchillesAchilles'' shield.shield. A portioportionn ooff ththee shielshieldd portrayportrayss anan arbitratioarbitrationn oorr inquiryinquiry intointo chargescharges andand grievancegrievancess betweenbetween twtwoo memenn "wranglin"wranglingg abouaboutt ththee blood-priceblood-price foforr a manman whwhoo hadhad died."died." (498)(498) BetweeBetweenn ththee menmen stoostoodd ththee istor, ththee arbitratorarbitrator,, ""aa wiswisee man,man, oneone whwhoo knowsknows right,right, a judge.judge."" TranslationTranslationss foforr istor araree inin H.H. GG.. LiddelLiddelll andand RobertRobert ScottScott,, An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford(Oxford:: 1994)1994),, pgpg.. 385385.. ThaThatt HerodotusHerodotus usesuses ththee worwordd isis additionalladditionallyy appropriateappropriate inin hishis inquiryinquiry intointo causationcausation,, whicwhichh involveinvolvess inin parpartt deathdeath,, blame,blame, abductionabduction,, andand guilt.guilt. HisHis treatmentreatmentt ooff causationcausation wilwilll bebe developedevelopedd below.below. 1616 reasonably,reasonably, toto aann inquiryinquiry intointo ththee past.past. ThThee pre-Socraticspre-Socratics ooff ththee earlearlyy fiftfifthh centurycentury ofteoftenn rejectedrejected traditionaltraditional beliefs,beliefs, anandd thetheyy werweree fascinatefascinatedd byby ththee phenomenonphenomenon ofof changeschanges inin nature,nature, peoplepeople anandd nations.5555 AnotheAnotherr forcforcee foforr thethe advenadventt ofof historicalhistorical proseprose wawass thathatt politicspolitics nownow functionedfunctioned aass ththee mostmost criticalcritical anandd importantimportant socialsocial activity. 5656 TheThe GreekGreek polis, especiallyespecially AthensAthens,, offereofferedd continuity ttoo itsits citizenscitizens..
ThThee continuitycontinuity ooff thethe "political"political"" structurestructure anandd itsits parts,parts, requirerequiredd aatt thethe ververyy leasleastt a specifispecificc awarenessawareness ooff itsits pastpast andand a generalgeneral awarenessawareness ofof ththee pastpast itself.itself.5757 TheThe
HomericHomeric traditiotraditionn gavegave ttoo all ththee GreekGreekss a generalgeneral consciousnessconsciousness inin a mythopoeicmythopoeic sense.sense. TheThe innovationsinnovations ooff Herodotus offereofferedd historicalhistorical narrativnarrativee andand explanatioexplanationn ooff a pastpast thathatt wawass atat onconcee humanhuman anandd secularsecular,, andand mostmost particularly,particularly, political. 5858
Together,Together, all ooff thesthesee influencesinfluences howeverhowever ddoo notnot necessitatenecessitate ththee criticalcritical momentmoment foforr Herodotus.Herodotus. ThalesThales,, thethe first IonianIonian philosophephilosopherr ooff record,record, was bornborn iinn ththee mid-seventhmid-seventh century.century, andand AthenAthenss begabegann ttoo flourisflourishh underunder thethe PisistratidsPisistratids iinn ththee seconsecondd halfhalf ooff ththee sixthsixth century.century. TheThe notionsnotions ofof inquiry,inquiry, skepticisskepticismm andand politicspolitics hadhad longlong beenbeen inin existencexistencee beforebefore HerodotusHerodotus startestartedd onon hishis historyhistory sometimesometime arounaroundd ththee middlemiddle ofof ththee fiftfifthh century. 5959 ThThee particularparticular "human"human eventsevents""
55 55 Luce,Luce, Greek Historians (1997),8.(1997), 8.
56 56 Finley,Finley, "Myth"Myth,, Memory,Memory, andand History"History" (1965)(1965),300., 300.
57 57 J.G.AJ.GA. PocockPocock,, "The"The OriginsOrigins ooff StudyStudy ooff ththee Past:Past: A ComparativComparativee Approach,Approach,"" Comparative Studies in SOCietySociety and History, VolVol.. 44,, No.2No. 2 (Jan.(Jan.,, 1962),212.1962), 212.
58 58 Finley,Finley, "Myth,"Myth, Memory,Memory, andand History"History" (1965)(1965),, 300300..
59 3 59 JohnJohn PAP.A. GouldGould,, "Herodotus,"Herodotus,"" OG0OCD ,, 696696,, saysayss whilwhilee itit iiss impossiblimpossiblee ttoo determinedetermine whenwhen HerodotusHerodotus wrotwrotee ththee Histories, ththee worworkk wawass familiafamiliarr inin AthenAthenss bbyy ththee timtimee ofof AristophanesAristophanes'' Achaeans inin 424255 BG,BC, whicwhichh includedincluded a parodyparody ooff HerodotusHerodotus'' openinopeningg chapters.chapters. ThiThiss woulwouldd makemake HerodotusHerodotus a contemporarcontemporaryy ofof HellanicusHellanicus ratherrather thathann a follower.follower. 1717 aboutabout whicwhichh HerodotusHerodotus writeswrites soso thatthat thetheyy "do"do notnot fadefade witwithh time"time" areare thethe eventsevents surroundingsurrounding thethe PersianPersian WarsWars ofof 490490 andand 480-479480-479 Be.BC. TheThe worworkk hashas beenbeen appropriatelyappropriately termedtermed a "monster"monster text.'>60text."60 ItIt isis a combinationcombination ofof fantasticfantastic disturbancesdisturbances ofof timetime andand place,place, infusionsinfusions ofof legend,legend, folktalefolktale andand saga,saga, andand oftenoften frequentefrequentedd witwithh ththee occasionaloccasional insufferableinsufferable digressiondigression seldoseldomm withwith excuseexcuse oror motive.motive. ThesThesee excursesexcurses cancan varvaryy inin length fromfrom a fewfew lineslines toto manymany chapters.chapters. IItt isis a seemingseeming attemptattempt ttoo combinecombine all knowledgeknowledge intointo oneone massivemassive work,work, toto includeinclude geographygeography,, science,science, anthropologyanthropology,, philosophyphilosophy andand theology,theology, historyhistory properproper beingbeing
61 a smallsmall part.part. 51
TheThe worworkk ofof historicalhistorical writingwriting hashas itsits conceptionconception inin thoughtthought.. AnyAny approachapproach
Herodotus tooktook ttoo hishis worworkk cancan bebe reducedreduced toto a couplecouple ofof options.options. EitherEither
HerodotusHerodotus conceivedconceived ththee workwork asas a wholewhole,, oror hehe embarkedembarked onon a lessless grandgrand schemescheme andand subsequentlysubsequently expandedexpanded itit toto includeinclude allall thethe partsparts ofof thethe finalfinal product.5262 ItIt isis possiblepossible thathatt hehe recognizedrecognized thathatt thethe ethnographicethnographic informationinformation hehe hadhad gatheredgathered inin ththee forformm ofof traveloguestravelogues couldcould bebe integratedintegrated intointo a largerlarger scheme.scheme.
TheThe theortheoryy thatthat hishis ethnographicethnographic worworkk wawass anan accessaccess toto anan historicalhistorical narrativenarrative
63 wouldwould explainexplain welwelll manymany ofof ththee excursesexcurses thathatt areare stand-alonestand-alone narratives. 53
b 60 DonaldDonald Lateiner,Lateiner, The Historical Method of Herodotus (Toronto:(Toronto: 1989),1989), 13.13.
61 61 JosepJosephh WellsWells,, Studies in Herodotus (Freeport,(Freeport, NewNew YorkYork:: 1923),1923), 189189..
62 62 Luce,Luce, Greek Historians (1997),(1997), 17;17; ifif thethe latterlatter isis thethe case,case, HerodotusHerodotus justifiejustifiedd thesethese excursesexcurses aass supplyingsupplying ththee backgroundbackground necessarynecessary toto understandunderstand thethe conflictconflict betweenbetween PersiaPersia andand thethe Greeks.Greeks.
63 63 Marincola,Marincola, Greek Historians (2001),(2001), 23,23, doesdoes notnot believebelieve thisthis toto bebe thethe casecase andand takestakes exceptioexceptionn toto Lateiner,Lateiner, Method of Herodotus (1989),(1989), 145-62;145-62; contra ttoo Marincola,Marincola, thisthis "snowballing""snowballing" ofof hihiss stories,stories, parataxis, woulwouldd accountaccount forfor bks.bks. 6-9,6-9, likelylikely donedone first andand readread inin publicpublic inin AthenAthenss andand atat thethe OlympicOlympic games.games. HenryHenry R.R. Immerwahr.Immerwahr. Form and Thought in Herodotus. Cleveland:Cleveland: PublishedPublished forfor ththee AmericaAmericann PhilologicalPhilological AssociationAssociation (Chapel(Chapel Hill,Hill, N.C.)N.C.) byby 1818
WhateveWhateverr thethe case,case, hishis worworkk isis deemedeemedd "history"history"" notnot becausebecause ofof ththee ethnographicethnographic elements,elements, butbut inin spite ofof them.64them.64 ThiThiss mamayy appeaappearr a blasphemyblasphemy ttoo ththee modernmodern historianhistorian forfor whowhomm understanding,understanding, oror at leastleast descriptions,descriptions, ooff a people'speople's culturalcultural andand sociasociall experiencexperiencee isis rightlyrightly consideredconsidered a necessitynecessity inin ththee writinwritingg ofof history.history. IIff
HerodotusHerodotus hadhad nonott explainedexplained oorr developeddeveloped hishis storystory sequentially, however,however, hehe woulwouldd havehave beenbeen remembered,remembered, possiblypossibly frofromm extanextantt fragmentfragmentss ooff hishis workwork,, asas simplysimply anotheranother inin ththee longlong lineline ooff ethnographers.6565
AAss indicatedindicated above,above, thertheree werweree certaincertain elementelementss thathatt contributedcontributed ttoo thethe milieumilieu ofof ththee makingmaking ofof ththee firsfirstt historian:historian: interest inin geography;geography; disappearancdisappearancee ooff ththee epicepic poet;poet; comingcoming ooff agagee ofof ththee polis; thethe criticalcritical analyseanalysess ooff philosophy;philosophy; reevaluationreevaluation ooff ththee mythicmythic traditiontradition;; andand,, ooff coursecourse,, ththee worworkk iinn proseprose byby hishis predecessors.predecessors. ToTo thesethese cacann bebe addedadded ththee defeadefeatt ofof ththee PersiansPersians andand thethe
AtheniaAtheniann pridepride inin empireempire,, whicwhichh embraceembracedd andand freefreedd ththee AegeaAegeann frofromm barbarianbarbarian dominancedominance.. NoneNone ooff this,this, separatelyseparately oorr eveneven togethertogether,, determinedeterminedd ththee leapleap ttoo thethe inventioninvention ofof a newnew genre.genre. ItIt isis quitequite possiblpossiblee thatthat Herodotus,Herodotus, whwhoo certainlcertainlyy knewknew a goodgood storystory whenwhen hehe sawsaw one,one, shouldshould simplysimply bebe takentaken atat hishis word:word: hehe hadhad a desiredesire thathatt ththee momentoumomentouss eventeventss ooff ththee priopriorr generationgeneration shoulshouldd notnot paspasss fromfrom memory.memory. ThThee passagepassage ooff twtwoo millenniamillennia hashas provenproven himhim right;right; ththee vasvastt majoritymajority ooff whawhatt wwee knowknow aboutabout ththee PersianPersian WarWarss wwee knowknow frofromm hishis efforts,efforts, andand aass ththee focusfocus oonn politicspolitics anandd wawarr hashas fadedfaded aass ththee primeprime pointpoint ofof writinwritingg history,history, hihiss ththee PressPress ofof WesterWesternn ReserveReserve University,University, 1966,1966, 79-14779-147,, offerofferss a fulfulll analysianalysiss inin hishis chaptechapterr ''The"The UnitsUnits ooff thethe Work."Work."
64 64 Fornara,Fornara, Nature of History (1983),15.(1983), 15.
65 65 Finley,Finley, "Myth,"Myth, Memory,Memory, anandd History"History" (1965),(1965), 287,287, statesstates:: "Th"Thee intellectualintellectual linkinglinking ttoo a chronologicachronologicall systesystemm waswas perhapsperhaps ththee greatesgreatestt ooff Herodotus'Herodotus' achievements."achievements." 1919 digressionsdigressions,, furthermorefurthermore,, havhavee provenproven ttoo bebe a cachecache foforr modernmodern historianshistorians inin theitheirr investigationinvestigation ooff ththee ancienancientt ageage..
InterestInterest inin historyhistory isis moremore thathann a wondewonderr aboutabout ththee past.past. IfIf itit werweree nono moremore thanthan thatthat,, epiepicc poetrypoetry woulwouldd bebe sufficientsufficient ttoo satisfsatisfyy thithiss interest.interest. TheThe desiredesire toto penetratpenetratee firsfirstt causecausess isis primarprimaryy inin ththee activitactivityy ooff aann historian.6666 AmonAmongg thethe reasonsreasons foforr Herodotus'Herodotus' interestinterest iinn historyhistory isis hishis obviouobviouss desiredesire toto understandunderstand whywhy andand howhow thingthingss happenhappen.. ThucydideThucydidess inquireinquiredd intointo ththee causecause ofof thethe
PeloponnesianPeloponnesian WarWar;; PolybiusPolybius ththee reasonsreasons foforr Rome'sRome's supremacysupremacy;; SallusSallustt thethe collapscollapsee ooff ththee Republic;Republic; anandd TacitusTacitus ththee emergenceemergence ofof imperialimperial despotismdespotism..
AmonAmongg ththee concernsconcerns ofof ththee pre-Socraticspre-Socratics frofromm ThaleThaless ttoo DemocritusDemocritus (b.(b. 460-57460-57
67 Be),BC), changechange wawass a majormajor focufocuss ooff inquirinquiryy intintoo ththee physicalphysical world, 67 specificallyspecifically ththee causescauses regardingregarding ananyy significansignificantt changechange suchsuch asas warwar oror diseasedisease.. WhatWhat makemakess Herodotus ththee FatherFather ooff HistoryHistory isis hihiss innovationinnovation ttoo taktakee holdhold ofof thethe elemenelementt ooff ththee pre-Socratipre-Socraticc causalitycausality ooff ththee sciencessciences,, discoverindiscoveringg thethe interconnectioninterconnection ofof eventsevents,, transferrintransferringg itit ttoo a proseprose genre,genre, anandd therebtherebyy inventinginventing ththee historicalhistorical narrative.6868 TherTheree isis oneone obviousobvious implicationimplication thathatt cannotcannot bebe
66 FinleyFinley,, "Myth"Myth,, Memory,Memory, anandd HistoryHistory"" (1965),301;(1965), 301; ItIt isis notnot mymy intentionintention ttoo investigateinvestigate HerodoteanHerodotean apparenapparentt lacklack ofof concerconcernn foforr "th"thee chickechickenn oror ththee eggegg"" conundruconundrumm relativrelativee ttoo causecause anandd effecteffect.. FF.. R.R. AnkersmitAnkersmit,, "Historiograph"Historiographyy anandd Postmodernism,"Postmodernism," History and Theory, Vol.Vol . 28,28 , NoNo.2.. 2. (May,(May, 1989),1989), 141-142,141-142, raisesraises ththee generagenerall questioquestionn byby quotinquotingg (without(without Citation)citation) Nietzsche,Nietzsche, "If"If ththee effeceffectt isis whawhatt causecausess ththee causecause ttoo becombecomee a causecause,, thethenn thethe effecteffect,, notnot ththee cause,cause, shouldshould bbee treatetreatedd aass ththee origin.origin."" ThosThosee interestedinterested iinn thithiss mentalmental abusabusee areare referredreferred ttoo thethe sourcesource,, "Agains"Againstt Causalism,"Causalism," inin FriedrichFriedrich Nietzsche,Nietzsche, The Will to Power, eded.. WalteWalterr KaufmannKaufmann andand transtrans.. WalteWalterr KaugmannKaugmann andand RR.. J.J. HollingdaleHollingdale (Ne(Neww YorkYork:: 1967),293-300.1967), 293-300.
67 67 GG.. SS.. KirkKirk anandd JJ.. E.E. Raven,Raven, The Presocratic Philosophers (Cambridge(Cambridge:: 1964),1964), 191,191, notenote thatthat HeraclitusHeraclitus determinedeterminess thathatt alalll changchangee shoulshouldd bebe regarderegardedd ththee resultresult ofof ththee interactioninteraction ofof oppositesopposites.. ThiThiss isis interestinginteresting inin lighlightt ofof howhow HerodotuHerodotuss organizeorganizess ththee physicalphysical anandd culturalcultural worldworld..
68 68 HenryHenry RR.. Immerwahr.Immerwahr. "Aspects"Aspects ofof HistoricalHistorical CausationCausation iinn Herodotus,"Herodotus," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, VolVol.. 8877 (1956),277.(1956), 277. 2020 overestimatedoverestimated:: chronologchronologyy inin itselfitself doesdoes nonott makemake historyhistory.. WhetheWhetherr oorr notnot hehe was accurateaccurate inin hishis connections,connections, oorr ththee reasonreasonss whwhyy oneone thinthingg succeededsucceeded somethingsomething elseelse wilwilll alwayalwayss bebe a mattermatter ofof debatedebate.. ThisThis isis ththee case witwithh historianshistorians fromfrom ancienancientt timetimess ttoo oursours.. WhaWhatt isis importantimportant isis thathatt hehe isis ththee firsfirstt historianhistorian byby whomwhom thesthesee questionsquestions araree eveevenn askedasked..
ThThee GreeGreekk aitien isis typicalltypicallyy translatetranslatedd asas "causes""causes" inin Herodotus'Herodotus' openingopening
69 line:line: "...a" ... ass welwelll asas ththee causes thathatt ledled thethemm ttoo makemake war..."war. .. ,,69 Aitie, however,however, doesdoes notnot possess thethe neutraneutrall connotationconnotation thatthat ththee EnglishEnglish worwordd enjoysenjoys.. TheThe primaryprimary meaningmeaning ofof ththee GreeGreekk worwordd isis charge,charge, accusationaccusation,, guilt,guilt, oror fault.faulty°70 ItIt iiss easyeasy ttoo framframee ththee causecausess forminformingg Herodotus'Herodotus' narrativenarrative connectionsconnections inin hishis characters'characters' drivdrivee foforr revengerevenge anandd vengeancevengeance.. AscribinAscribingg thithiss guiltguilt,, hhee beginsbegins hishis inquiryinquiry witwithh twotwo possiblepossible scenariosscenarios:: ththee firstfirst,, a serieseriess ofof abductionsabductions andand rapesrapes initiateinitiatedd bbyy ththee Phoenicians,Phoenicians, anandd ththee secondsecond,, ththee activitiesactivities ooff Croesus,Croesus, whowhomm hehe
71 declaredeclaress wawass ththee "first"first manman ttoo beginbegin unjustunjust actactss againstagainst thethe Hellenes.Hellenes." ,,71 BothBoth ofof thesethese possibilitiespossibilities araree frameframedd inin anan aspecaspectt ooff injustice.injustice. HisHis historicalhistorical methodmethod,, whawhatt thertheree isis ofof it,it, hashas indeedindeed beenbeen describedescribedd asas a "judicia"judiciall interrogationinterrogation ofof witnesses."witnesses."7272 InIn thethe Histories, bringingbringing ththee scalescaless backback ttoo equilibriumequilibrium wilwilll proveprove toto
6699 Hdt.Hdt. ProemProem..
70 70 InIn LiddelLiddelll andand ScottScott,, Lexicon (1994),(1994), pg.pg. 2424,, allall ofof thesthesee translationtranslationss foforr thethe entryentry aitia, e, (aited)(aiteo),, referencreferencee HerodotusHerodotus asas ththee primaryprimary examplexamplee ooff use.use. ThThee secondarsecondaryy translatiotranslationn ofof "cause"cause"" referencesreferences PlatoPlato andand AristotleAristotle,, aass illustratedillustrated iinn ththee tatter'slatter's theortheoryy ofof ththee "fou"fourr causes.causes."" ArisAris.. Met., 994994a1.a 1. Note alsoalso thatthat thethe wordswords aitios andand aitia dodo notnot occuroccur inin thethe extantextant fragmentsfragments ofof thethe prepre- SocraticsSocratics,, PhillipPhillip H.H. Delacy,Delacy, "The"The ProblemProblem ooff CausationCausation inin Plato'sPlato's Philosophy,"Philosophy," Classical Philology, VolVol.. 34,34, No.2No. 2 (Apr.,(Apr., 1939),1939), 98,98, fnfn.. 22..
7711 Hdt.Hdt. 1.5.31.5.3..
72 72 Immerwahr,Immerwahr, "Causatio"Causationn inin HerodotusHerodotus"" (1956)(1956),, 276276;; R.R. G.G. Collingwood,Collingwood, The Idea of History (Oxford(Oxford:: 1993),1993), 24-2524-25.. 2121 bebe notnot onlyonly anan elementelement ofof Herodotus'Herodotus' worldvieworldvieww butbut alsoalso a partpart ooff hishis methodmethod..
ThThee elementselements ofof hishis historicalhistorical methodmethod cancan bebe summedsummed upup inin fourfour wordswords:: logos (the(the narrative),narrative), apsisopsis (sight),(sight), historia (inquiry),(inquiry), anandd gnome (thought(thought oorr judgment).judgment).7373 HisHis procesprocesss isis a narrativenarrative basedbased onon traditiontraditionss ooff statesstates andand peoples,peoples, comprehendecomprehendedd byby himhim inin thethe courscoursee ooff hishis traveltravelss anandd investigations,investigations, andand finallyfinally drawdrawnn togethetogetherr throughthrough rationalrational choice.choice. TherTheree is,is, ofof course,course, controversycontroversy asas toto whethewhetherr HerodotusHerodotus traveletraveledd toto all oorr anyany ooff ththee placesplaces thatthat hehe saysayss hehe diddid..
ExtremeExtreme positionspositions havehave beenbeen taketakenn ttoo dendenyy Herodotus'Herodotus' claimsclaims ooff utilizingutilizing notnot onlonlyy writtewrittenn sourcessources butbut alsoalso oraloral informants.74informants.74 IfIf thesthesee criticcriticss araree right,right, HerodotusHerodotus woulwouldd havehave ttoo bebe celebratedcelebrated aass havinghaving oneone ofof thethe greatesgreatestt imaginationsimaginations ooff thethe ancient,ancient, oror ananyy otherother ageage.. WhilWhilee ththee speechespeechess anandd dialoguesdialogues ooff ththee Histories areare generallygenerally recognizedrecognized asas frefreee inventions,75inventions,75 itit woulwouldd begbeg logiclogic ttoo believebelieve thathatt hishis richrich narrativenarrative wawass formedformed frofromm onlonlyy a firsthanfirsthandd experienceexperience ooff a fefeww AegeanAegean islandsislands andand somsomee timtimee spenspentt oonn ththee GreekGreek mainland.mainland. A feafeatt ooff thathatt dimensiondimension woulwouldd bebe fafarr greategreaterr thathann thethe ononee thatthat Herodotus dididd accomplish.accomplish. ArguablArguablyy therethere werweree fewfew,, iiff anyany,, writtenwritten sourcessources availableavailable outsidoutsidee logographers,logographers, ththee writingwritingss ooff
Hecataeus,Hecataeus, anandd perhapsperhaps writingwritingss ooff HellanicusHellanicus anandd EgyptianEgyptian priestpriest records.records. NotNot all ooff hishis oraorall sourcesourcess werweree real;real; inin additioadditionn ttoo manymany ooff ththee dialoguesdialogues andand speechesspeeches thertheree isis enoughenough inin ththee Histories toto suggestsuggest thathatt hehe wawass notnot beyondbeyond fictionfiction,, butbut notnot eveneven hishis strongeststrongest criticcriticss consideconsiderr thesthesee inventionsinventions actactss ofof fraudfraud oror
73 73 Hdt.Hdt. 2.992.99;; Immerwahr,Immerwahr, "Causatio"Causationn iinn Herodotus"Herodotus" (1956)(1956),, 276276;; MomiglianoMomigliano,, "Place"Place ooff Herodotus"Herodotus" (1996),(1996), 129129..
74 74 DetlevDetlev Fehling,Fehling, Herodotus and his "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art (Leeds(Leeds:: 1990),1990), 99,, declares,declares, "th"thee fictivfictivee charactercharacter ofof HerodotusHerodotus'' sourcesourcess isis beyondbeyond a reasonablereasonable doubt."doubt."
75 75 Fehling,Fehling, Herodotus and his "Sources" (1990),(1990), 175175.. 2222 counterfeit.7676
ThThee specifispecificc themthemee ofof hishis worworkk wawass ththee PersianPersian Wars;Wars; thethe generagenerall themetheme wawass ththee collisioncollision ofof ththee differendifferentt culturescultures ooff thethe EastEast anandd WesWestt andand specificallspecificallyy ofof
GreekGreekss anandd barbarians.barbarians. ThiThiss worlworldd narrative,narrative, oror hishis worldviewworldview,, hehe developeddeveloped withwith a sensesense ofof investigationinvestigation into thethe causescauses leadingleading toto thethe finalfinal confrontationsconfrontations betweenbetween ththee GreekGreekss andand Persians.Persians. ThThee patternpatternss ooff greegreedd anandd vengeancevengeance
HerodotusHerodotus choschosee asas ththee primaryprimary motivations.7777 InIn ththee mixmix ooff thesethese equallyequally weighteweightedd psychologicapsychologicall activitiesactivities,, hishis narrativenarrative isis structurestructuredd witwithh ththee samesame balancebalance andand ordeorderr thathatt hhee founfoundd inin ththee worlworldd abouaboutt him.him. ItIt isis notablenotable thatthat
HerodotusHerodotus succumbsuccumbss ttoo ththee samsamee hazardhazard thathatt somsomee modernmodern historianshistorians willwill experience.experience. ThThee historian,historian, whwhoo hashas a predispositionpredisposition towartowardd lifelife patterns,patterns, isis likelylikely ttoo discoverdiscover anandd sometimesometimess inventinvent themthem.. Herodotus illustratedillustrated mirrormirror oppositesopposites ofof
southersouthernn EgyptEgypt anandd northernnorthern Scythia7878 andand alsalsoo inin ththee alignmentalignmentss ofof ththee DanubeDanube
andand ththee Nile.7979 HeHe concludeconcludedd thathatt ifif creaturescreatures thathatt araree weaweakk anandd timitimidd havehave manymany
offspringoffspring,, thethenn itit mustmust follofolloww thathatt ththee savagsavagee anandd predatory havehave few;few;8o80 anandd iiff
HyperboreansHyperboreans dweldwelll beyondbeyond thethe northnorth windwind,, thertheree mustmust alsoalso bebe HypernotionsHypernotions
whwhoo dweldwelll beyonbeyondd thethe soutsouthh wind.8181 ForcedForced andand artificial,artificial, ththee balancebalance andand orderorder
inin geographygeography,, nations,nations, customcustomss anandd naturenature enableenabledd HerodotusHerodotus toto fashiofashionn a worldworld
7676 Fehling,Fehling, Herodotus and his "Sources" (1990)(1990),, 1111..
77 77 Hornblower,Hornblower, Greek Historiography (1994)(1994),, 11..
7788 Hdt.Hdt. 2.5-62.5-6;; 4.1004.100..
7799 Hdt.Hdt. 2.33-34.2.33-34.
8800 HdtHdt.. 3.108.2.3.108.2.
8811 Hdt.Hdt. 4.36.1.4.36.1. 2323 thatthat mademade sensesense givegivenn ththee perceiveperceivedd patternspatterns ooff ththee timetimess andand ththee neatnessneatness ooff traditionaltraditional literaryliterary structuresstructures ofof ththee epiepicc poetspoets andand contemporarycontemporary dramatists.8282 InIn
Herodotus'Herodotus' eyeseyes,, itit wawass a worlworldd dominateddominated inin alalll waywayss byby symmetry,symmetry, antithesis,antithesis, anandd balance.8383
ToTo bbee expectedexpected,, ththee contaccontactt anandd collisiocollisionn ofof GreeceGreece anandd PersiaPersia offeofferr thethe mosmostt consequentialconsequential contrasts:contrasts: differentdifferent civilizationscivilizations,, cultures,cultures, characters,characters, andand politicalpolitical institutionsinstitutions;; ththee slaveryslavery ooff ththee barbariansbarbarians andand ththee libertyliberty ofof ththee Hellenes,Hellenes, orientaorientall autocracyautocracy anandd GreeGreekk constitutionalism.8484 Herodotus contrastcontrastss thethe
"hardness"hardness"" anandd "softness""softness" ooff certaicertainn peoplespeoples anandd iiss purposefulpurposeful inin extendinextendingg thisthis ttoo GreeceGreece anandd Persia,Persia, illustratingillustrating inin partpart a majormajor causcausee foforr GreekGreek victories.8s85 ToTo
XerxesXerxes'' questionsquestions regardingregarding ththee mettlemettle ooff ththee GreekGreek warriorwarrior,, ththee exiledexiled SpartanSpartan king,king, Demaratus,Demaratus, responds,responds,
InIn Hellas,Hellas, povertypoverty iiss alwayalwayss anandd foreveforeverr a nativenative resident,resident, whilwhilee excellenceexcellence isis somethinsomethingg acquiredacquired througthroughh intelligencintelligencee anandd thethe forceforce ooff strictstrict law.law. ItIt iiss througthroughh ththee exercisexercisee ofof thithiss excellencexcellencee thathatt HellasHellas wardwardss offoff bothboth povertypoverty anandd despotismdespotism.. Hdt.Hdt. 7.102.7.102.11
AfteAfterr ththee PersianPersian defeadefeatt aatt Salamis,Salamis, XerxeXerxess fleefleess backback ttoo Persia,Persia, leavingleaving hishis son80n-- in-lawin-law,, Mardonius,Mardonius, ttoo executexecutee ththee finafinall submissiosubmissionn ofof ththee GreekGreekss atat Plataea.Plataea. TheThe generalgeneralss ooff ththee victoriouvictoriouss GreeksGreeks araree entertaineentertainedd byby thethe SpartanSpartan regent,regent,
Pausanias,Pausanias, witwithh thethe laughabllaughablee contrascontrastt ooff a PersianPersian feasfeastt setset alongsidealongside a SpartanSpartan meal:meal:
82 82 Lateiner, 14. Lateiner, 14. 83 Luce, 32. 83 Luce, 32. 84 Bury, Greek Historians (1909),44. 84 Bury, Greek Historians (1909), 44. 85 Luce, Greek Historians (1997), 57. 85 Luce, Greek Historians (1997), 57. 2424
MenMen ofof Hellas,Hellas, I havehave broughtbrought yoyouu herehere togethertogether,, becausebecause I wantewantedd ttoo shoshoww youyou whatwhat aann idiotidiot ththee leaderleader ofof ththee MedesMedes waswas.. ThiThiss wawass hishis lifestyle,lifestyle, butbut hehe camecame ttoo us,us, whwhoo havehave thithiss miserablemiserable wawayy ofof life,life, inin ordeorderr toto deprivdeprivee usus ofof it.it. Hdt.Hdt. 9.82.39.82.3
ThThee balancebalance thathatt Herodotus perceivedperceived inin thethe physicalphysical anandd ethnographicethnographic worlworldd hehe clearlyclearly sasaww illustratedillustrated inin thethe opposinopposingg forceforcess iinn ththee politicalpolitical spheresphere.. TheThe laterlater historianshistorians ooff GreeceGreece anandd RomeRome hardlyhardly camcamee closeclose ttoo matching ththee breadtbreadthh ooff
Herodotus'Herodotus' worldview.worldview.8686 TheThe laterlater historianshistorians werweree contencontentt toto narratenarrate a chauvinisticchauvinistic parochialismparochialism ooff theitheirr ownown peoplepeople,, witwithh somesome knowledgeknowledge andand littlelittle interestinterest inin foreignforeign peoples.peoples. Doubtless,Doubtless, itit iiss becausebecause ooff thithiss thathatt HerodotusHerodotus iiss accusedaccused ooff beingbeing a "barbarophile,""barbarophile," a charge expandeexpandedd byby PlutarchPlutarch (before(before 5050-- afteafterr 124124 ADAD)) fivfivee hundredhundred yearyearss laterlater inin The Malice of Herodotus.Herodotus 8787
TheThe orderorder thathatt Herodotus perceivedperceived iinn ththee worldworld,, thatthat orderorder whicwhichh whenwhen putput outout ofof balancebalance isis rightlyrightly balancedbalanced soonesoonerr oror later,later, isis notnot oneone ooff a staticstatic statestate..
AAss ththee pre-Socraticspre-Socratics recognizedrecognized changes,changes, causescauses andand effectseffects,, Herodotus alsoalso recognizedrecognized thatthat whateverwhatever ththee cosmiccosmic orderorder,, itit certainlcertainlyy wawass dynamicdynamic andand oftentimesoftentimes irregular:irregular: "Many"Many ofof thosthosee thathatt werweree greagreatt longlong agoago havehave becomebecome inferior,inferior, anandd somsomee thathatt araree greagreatt inin mymy owownn timtimee werweree inferiorinferior beforebefore...huma ... humann prosperityprosperity nevernever remainsremains constant.,,88constant."88 TheThe obviouobviouss extensioextensionn ooff ththee personalpersonal levellevel isis ttoo thethe "world"world"" level.level. AlAlll ofof hishis balancingbalancing ooff ththee worldworld,, geographgeographyy andand
8866 Luce,Luce, Greek Historians (1997)(1997),, 5959..
8787 Plut.Plut. de mal. Herod., 857A-858D;857A-858D; SimonSimon Hornblower,Homblower, "Herodotus"Herodotus'' InfluenceInfluence inin Antiquity,Antiquity,"" The Cambridge Companion to Herodotus, eds.eds. CarolyCarolynn DewaldDewald anandd JohJohnn MarincolaMarincola (Cambridge:(Cambridge: 2006)2006),, 316,316, notesnotes thathatt PlutarchPlutarch risesrises inin defensdefensee ooff BoeotianBoeotianss "o"onn behalbehalff ooff mymy ancestorancestorss anandd ooff ththee truth."truth." HornblowerHomblower pointspoints ououtt thatthat ththee truttruthh wawass secondarsecondaryy for Plutarch.Plutarch. HornbloweHornblowerr isis nitpickingnitpicking regardingregarding ththee orderorder ofof complaints.complaints. Momigliano,Momigliano, Classical Foundations (1990),(1990), 4040,, states,states, "Even"Even thosethose whwhoo admireadmiredd HerodotusHerodotus ththee most,most, sucsuchh aass DionysiusDionysius ooff HalicarnassuHalicarnassuss anandd Lucian,Lucian, praisedpraised hishis stylestyle ratherrather thathann hishis reliability."
8888 Hdt.Hdt. 1.5.41.5.4.. 2525 inhabitants,inhabitants, allowsallows Herodotus ttoo perceiveperceive thethe greagreatt shiftshiftss ooff empiresempires asas eitheeitherr a shifshiftt ttoo imbalance oror a ononee backback ttoo order.order. ThThee Histories cacann bebe readread aass anan ongoinongoingg processprocess ooff seekinseekingg balancebalance betweenbetween ththee easteast anandd ththee westwest.. ThiThiss isis thethe poinpointt ofof ththee dialogudialoguee betweenbetween CroesusCroesus anandd SolonSolon.. TToo measuremeasure a man,man, ththee enendd ooff thethe lifelife mustmust bebe aann integralintegral partpart ooff anan individual'sindividual's "balance.""balance."s989 SoloSolonn statesstates,, "We"We mustmust looklook ttoo thethe endend ooff everyevery mattematterr ttoo seseee howhow itit wilwilll turturnn out.out. GoGodd showshowss manymany peoplepeople a hinthint ofof happinesshappiness andand prosperity,prosperity, onlonlyy ttoo destroy thethemm utterlyutterly later.,,9olater."90
ThThee ironyirony ofof courscoursee isis thathatt CroesusCroesus isis ononee thathatt wilwilll bebe destroyedestroyedd utterlyutterly afteafterr livingliving a lifelife ofof greatgreat prosperity.prosperity. ThereThere isis anan ironicironic elementelement inin thethe defeatdefeat ofof twotwo massivemassive
PersianPersian forcesforces byby thethe Greeks,Greeks, jusjustt aass thertheree iiss ththee destructiondestruction ofof CroesuCroesuss bbyy
Cyrus,Cyrus, ththee PersianPersian king.king.
SinceSince Herodotus cancan orderorder ththee universe,universe, hhee certainlcertainlyy cacann writwritee thethe script.script.
ItIt isis thithiss "writing"writing ofof ththee script"script" thathatt shoulshouldd closclosee thesethese mainmain considerationconsiderationss ooff
Herodotus'Herodotus' rolerole inin ancientancient historiography.historiography.
GreekGreek tragedtragedyy wawass bornborn duringduring thethe tyranntyrannyy ooff PisistratusPisistratus inin ththee sixthsixth centurcenturyy anandd reachedreached itsits maturitymaturity duringduring ththee timtimee ofof Herodotus.9191 InIn hishis Poetica,
AristotlAristotlee (384-322(384-322 BC)BC) distinguishedistinguishess betweenbetween poetry,poetry, includingincluding tragedytragedy,, andand
history.history. ForFor ththee studenstudentt ofof history,history, itit isis unfortunateunfortunate thathatt hehe definedefiness ththee elementselements ooff
historyhistory onlonlyy inin thethe negative,negative, i.e.,i.e., thethe reasonsreasons whwhyy historyhistory iiss notnot poetry.poetry. ElementsElements
89lmmerwahr,89 Immerwahr, Form and Thought in Herodotus (1966)(1966),, 157157..
9090 Hdt.Hdt. 1.32.9.1.32.9.
91 91 TheThe threthreee celebratedcelebrated tragitragicc dramatists,dramatists, AeschyluAeschyluss (7525/4-456/5)(?525/4-456/5),, SophocleSophocless (490s-406)(490s-406),, andand EuripidesEuripides (480s-406)(480s-406),, producedproduced theitheirr greatestgreatest workworkss betweenbetween 484844 (Aeschylus'(Aeschylus' firsfirstt wiwinn iinn ththee CityCity Dyionisia)Dyionisia) anandd 406406.. ItIt isis unknownunknown whenwhen HerodotusHerodotus startestartedd oror completecompletedd hishis workwork;; ththee first ancientancient referencreferencee ttoo it,it, asas notednoted aboveabove,, iiss inin 425425.. 2626 ooff hishis claimsclaims helphelp toto placeplace HerodotusHerodotus inin thethe creativecreative milieumilieu ofof thethe GreekGreek fifthfifth century.92century.92 A cursorycursory listlist ofof poeticpoetic essentialsessentials illustratesillustrates thisthis::
1.1. PoetsPoets imitateimitate thethe actionsactions ofof men.9393
2.2. A tragictragic workwork imitatesimitates thesethese actions,actions, whichwhich havinghaving somesome magnitudemagnitude willwill
evokeevoke pity,pity, fearfear,, andand inin ththee enendd produceproduce a catharsis.9494
3.3. TheThe poetpoet dealsdeals withwith universals.9595
44.. ActioActionn oror plotplot (arrangements(arrangements ofof incidents)incidents) isis thethe mostmost essentiaessentiall elementelement inin
tragedy.96tragedy.96
55.. OtherOther elementselements essentialessential toto thethe poetpoet areare developmentdevelopment ofof character,character,
expressioexpressionn ofof thoughtthought (in(in speech),speech), andand spectacle.9797
AristotleAristotle,, writingwriting afterafter thethe ageage ofof GreekGreek tragictragic dramadrama andand afterafter ththee greatgreat earlyearly historianshistorians (Herodotus,(Herodotus, Thucydides,Thucydides, anandd Xenophon),Xenophon), certainlycertainly hadhad a vantagevantage pointpoint forfor drawingdrawing distinctionsdistinctions betweenbetween tragedtragedyy andand history.history. WhileWhile hehe makesmakes a goodgood argumentargument forfor excludingexcluding historianshistorians fromfrom thethe rankrank ofof poets,poets, hehe isis notnot convincingconvincing abouaboutt thethe absenceabsence ofof thethe dramaticdramatic inin ththee ancientancient historian,historian, especiallyespecially Herodotus.Herodotus.
ModernModern scholarsscholars havehave notednoted therethere isis muchmuch inin Herodotus (including(including somesome ofof ththee aboveabove elements)elements) thatthat woulwouldd associateassociate hishis workwork witwithh dramaticdramatic andand tragictragic
92 Ullman,Ullman, "History"History andand Tragedy"Tragedy" (1942),(1942), 25-2625-26..
93 AristArist.. Poet. 1.1448a11.1448a1..
94 AristArist.. Poet. 6.1149b27;6.1149b27; 1450a1.5ff.1450a1.5ff.
95 AristArist.. Poet. 9.1451a37-1451b10.9.1451a37-1451b10.
96 AristArist.. Poet. 9.1451b27.9.1451 b27 .
97 AristArist.. Poet. 15.15. 1454a14-1454b15.1454a14-1454b15. 2727 fundamentalsfundamentals.. A shortshort catalogcatalog ofof thesthesee includes:includes:9898
1.1. PhrasesPhrases andand comparablcomparablee materialmaterial drawindrawingg frofromm thethe tragitragicc poets.poets.
22.. ThThee useuse ooff ththee mythicalmythical anandd historicalhistorical pastpast inin anan efforeffortt ttoo transcentranscendd thethe
momentmoment ooff ththee narrativenarrative inin orderorder ttoo achievachievee a universaluniversal illustrationillustration..
3.3. ThThee employmenemploymentt ooff tragitragicc literaryliterary techniquetechnique inin ordeorderr ttoo "dramatize""dramatize" thethe
historyhistory witwithh speeches,speeches, conversationsconversations,, vividnesvividnesss ofof descriptiondescription,, andand
sensationalism.sensationalism.
44.. MostMost significantlysignificantly,, ththee useuse ooff tragictragic themesthemes:: unavoidableunavoidable fatefate,, ththee laborslabors ooff
ththee divine,divine, tragitragicc cyclescycles,, vulnerabilitvulnerabilityy ttoo timtimee andand change,change, curses,curses, dreamsdreams,,
oraclesoracles,, tragitragicc discoveries,discoveries, anandd tragitragicc advisors.advisors.
TheThe purposepurpose ooff thesthesee listslists isis notnot ttoo questioquestionn ththee "historical"historical"" inin Herodotus'Herodotus' workwork,, butbut ratherrather ttoo illustrateillustrate howhow contemporarycontemporary dramatidramaticc innovationsinnovations surelysurely influencedinfluenced hishis creationcreation.. AddeAddedd toto thethe pastpast influencesinfluences ofof ththee epicepic,, mythography,mythography, genealogy,genealogy, ethnography,ethnography, chronography,chronography, andand horography,horography, werweree thesethese tragictragic elements.elements. ItIt isis difficultdifficult ifif notnot impossibleimpossible ttoo imagineimagine ththee birthbirth ofof historyhistory inin ananyy otherother mix;mix; HerodotusHerodotus createcreatedd ththee genregenre ofof historyhistory notnot outout ooff thithinn aiairr butbut outout ofof thethe prevailingprevailing atmosphere.atmosphere. FromFrom thithiss point,point, at leasleastt witwithh ththee benefitbenefit ofof hindsight,hindsight, beginsbegins aann inexhaustibleinexhaustible debatdebatee onon whawhatt historyhistory isis anandd hohoww itit shoulshouldd bebe writtenwritten.. IItt isis aann accidenaccidentt inin timtimee thathatt ththee "alternative"alternative"" aass ttoo ththee "what"what"" andand ththee "how""how" shouldshould immediatelyimmediately appearappear inin equalequal brilliancebrilliance anandd geniusgenius..
98 WhaWhatt followfollowss iiss illustratedillustrated inin SuzannSuzannee SaidSaid,, "Herodotu"Herodotuss andand Tragedy,Tragedy,"" Brill's Companion to Herodotus, edseds.. EgbertEgbert JJ.. Bakker,Bakker, etal.et a/. (Leiden(Leiden anandd BostonBoston:: 2002)2002),, 117-120.117-120. SheShe sayssays,, ""II shallshall attempattemptt ttoo assessassess ththee trutruee impacimpactt ooff tragedtragedyy onon Herodotus'Herodotus' visiovisionn ofof ththee workinworkingg ofof humanhuman lifelife— aann impacimpactt whicwhichh hahass beenbeen takentaken foforr grantegrantedd byby totooo manmanyy scholars.scholars."" (119).(119). ShShee iiss mistakenmistaken butbut aatt ththee samesame timetime helpfulhelpful iinn collectincollectingg ththee evidence.evidence. CHAPTERCHAPTER IIII
THUCYDIDES'THUCYDIDES' INNOVATIONSINNOVATIONS ININ METHODMETHOD
ANANDD NARRATIVENARRATIVE TECHNIQUETECHNIQUE
TToo borrowborrow thethe dialecticdialectic ofof Plato,Plato, ifif thethe HerodoteanHerodotean methodmethod wawass thethe thesisthesis ooff howhow "history""history" shouldshould bebe written,written, ththee antithesisantithesis waswas ththee ThucydideanThucydidean methodmethod..
ThThee effortsefforts towardtoward synthesissynthesis havehave beenbeen incendiaryincendiary at timestimes andand untiluntil thethe nineteenthnineteenth century adventadvent ofof thethe "scientific""scientific" approachapproach toto history,history, itit waswas unresolved.unresolved. EvenEven thisthis seeminseemingg conclusionconclusion wawass problematicproblematic withwith newnew twentiethtwentieth centurycentury methods,methods, whicwhichh advancedadvanced questionsquestions ofof whawhatt historicalhistorical certaintycertainty wawass andand raisedraised doubtsdoubts whethewhetherr sucsuchh a thinthingg eveneven exists.99" ForFor Thucydides,Thucydides, however,however, historicalhistorical certaintycertainty waswas affirmedaffirmed throughthrough a preciseprecise method.10o100
ItIt isis almostalmost impossibleimpossible toto considerconsider thethe worksworks ofof HerodotusHerodotus andand ThucydidesThucydides withouwithoutt contrastingcontrasting theirtheir approachesapproaches toto writingwriting history.history. ThThee greatgreat intellectualintellectual exerciseexercise,, mentionedmentioned at ththee endend ofof thethe lastlast chapter,chapter, cancan bebe appreciatedappreciated asas oneone ofof preferencepreference andand inclination.101101 ThThee nascentnascent beginningbeginning ofof ththee conflictconflict betweenbetween thethe twtwoo methodsmethods wawass partlypartly oneone ofof Thucydides'Thucydides' ownown making,making, thougthoughh itit isis doubtfuldoubtful thatthat
99 99 WW.. R.R. Connor,Connor, "A"A PostPost ModernistModernist ThucydidesTThucydides?" The ClaSSicalClassical Journal, Vol.Vol. 72,72, No.4No. 4 (Apr.(Apr. - May,May, 1977),1977), 289-298,289-298, reviewsreviews thesthesee changeschanges inin attitude.attitude. TheseThese attitudesattitudes areare notnot newnew andand areare reflectedreflected inin F.F. M.M. Cornford,Cornford, Thucydides Mythhistoricus (London:(London: 1907)1907) andand moremore recentlyrecently VirginiaVirginia J.J. Hunter,Hunter, Thucydides: The Artful Reporter (Toronto:(Toronto: 1973).1973).
100100 Momigliano,Momigliano, Classical Foundations (1990),40.(1990), 40.
101 101 Marincola,Marincola, Greek Historians (2001),(2001), 6262.. 2299 subsequentsubsequent historiographerhistoriographerss neededneeded ananyy helphelp ttoo initiateinitiate ththee conversationconversation.. InIn hishis firstfirst bookbook ThucydideThucydidess statestatess thathatt hishis worworkk isis notnot motivatemotivatedd ttoo bringbring applauseapplause nonorr woulwouldd itit likelylikely pleaseplease thosthosee whwhoo werweree entertainedentertained througthroughh "romance.,,102"romance."102 TheThe purposepurpose ofof hishis worworkk wawass toto leaveleave a recordrecord ooff whawhatt happenedhappened anandd ttoo explainexplain thethe causes. 103103
InIn BookBook TwTwoo ththee warwar begins. 104104 TheThe wholwholee ooff thethe History beforebefore thithiss pointpoint isis aann introduction.introduction. TheThe introduction iiss expliciexplicitt inin anan explanatioexplanationn ofof whawhatt hishis methodmethod willwill bebe andand probablyprobably moremore important,important, itit offerofferss somsomee ideaidea aass ttoo hohoww hehe wilwilll proceed.proceed. TheThe naturenature ooff hishis narrativnarrativee inin thithiss sectiosectionn deservedeservess closclosee attentionattention..
IncludedIncluded inin BookBook OnOnee isis aann explanatioexplanationn ooff hishis treatmentreatmentt ofof speechespeechess andand eventsevents..
ThiThiss tootoo wilwilll bebe examined.examined. AfteAfterr thesthesee considerationconsiderationss remarksremarks wilwilll bebe directeddirected at
ThucydidesThucydides'' over-allover-all stylestyle anandd ththee forformm ooff ththee narrative.narrative.
OneOne ooff thethe majormajor complaintscomplaints againsagainstt ThucydideThucydidess isis thatthat,, unlikeunlike Herodotus,Herodotus,
ThucydidesThucydides givesgives usus hishis versioversionn ooff eventsevents withouwithoutt explanatioexplanationn ooff hishis
conclusions. 105105 ThiThiss isis indeedindeed ththee case inin mostmost ooff hishis workwork.. TherTheree isis ononee majormajor
exceptionexception.. TheThe Archaeology,Archaeology,106106 so-calleso-calledd becausebecause itit isis a historicalhistorical treatmentreatmentt ooff
primitiveprimitive GreeceGreece toto ththee risrisee ooff thethe greatgreat city-states,107city-states,107 offersoffers a glimpseglimpse ooff hihiss
102102 Thuc.Thuc. 1.22.4.1.22.4.
103Thuc Thuc.. 1.23.5-6.1.23.5-6.
104 104 Thucydides'Thucydides' worworkk is,is, ofof coursecourse,, incomplete.incomplete. ItIt breaksbreaks ofofff iinn mid-sentencemid-sentence iinn ththee twenty-firsttwenty-first yeayearr ofof ththee wawarr inin 411411.. ThThee wawarr endsends inin 404,404, inin itsits twenty-eighttwenty-eighthh yearyear.. ThThee circumstancecircumstancess ofof ththee abruptabrupt enendd ooff ThucydideThucydidess narrativenarrative araree treatetreatedd inin ththee "Epilogue""Epilogue" ooff thithiss thesisthesis..
105105 Brown,Brown, Greek Historians (1973),49.(1973), 49.
106106 Thuc.Thuc. 1.2-20.1.2-20.
107 107 archaios, ancient or primitive; logos, a story or narrative; see Liddell and Scott, Lexicon archaios, ancient or primitive; logos, a story or narrative; see Lidded and Scott, Lexicon (1994),121,476-477. (1994), 121, 476-477. 3030 method.method. ItIt hashas itsits difficulties,difficulties, andand itit causescauses atat leastleast ththee numbernumber ofof problemsproblems thatthat iitt addressesaddresses,, butbut ifif thisthis portionportion ooff ThucydidesThucydides'' worworkk alonalonee survived,survived, thethe writingwriting woulwouldd bebe muchmuch valued.108108
ThThee firstfirst lineslines ofof thethe ArchaeologArchaeologyy areare a majormajor departuredeparture fromfrom thethe nostalgianostalgia foforr thethe GoldenGolden AgAgee ofof HomerHomer andand Hesiod.Hesiod. TheThe "ancient times"times" werweree ratherrather a timetime ofof primitiveprimitive lifelife witwithh frequentfrequent migrationsmigrations duedue toto thethe overcrowdingovercrowding ofof impoverishedimpoverished land.land. TherTheree waswas nono commerce,commerce, littlelittle cultivation,cultivation, destitutiondestitution ofof capital,capital, andand everever- presentpresent feafearr ofof invasioninvasion frofromm otherother peoples. 109109 InIn factfact,, ThucydidesThucydides statesstates,,
AccordinglyAccordingly,, AtticaAttica,, frofromm thethe povertypoverty ofof itsits soilsoil enjoyinenjoyingg fromfrom a veryvery remoteremote periodperiod freedomfreedom frofromm faction,faction, nevernever changedchanged itsits inhabitants.inhabitants. AnAndd herehere isis nono minorminor exampleexample ofof mymy assertionassertion thatthat thethe migrationsmigrations werweree thethe causecause ofof thertheree beingbeing nono correspondentcorrespondent growthgrowth inin otherother parts.parts. ThucThuc.. 1.2.5-1.2.5-66
ThisThis passagepassage isis notablenotable inin thathatt itit reportsreports ththee humblehumble beginningsbeginnings ofof AthensAthens andand thethe solidaritsolidarityy ofof itsits people.people. ItIt isis alsoalso notablenotable inin thatthat thithiss isis ththee firstfirst instance,instance, andand ononee ooff thethe fewfew,, wherwheree ThucydidesThucydides makesmakes a statedstated assertionassertion regardingregarding anyany elemenelementt inin history.history. HiHiss History isis fromfrom beginningbeginning ttoo endend hishis ownown assertionsassertions ofof whawhatt hashas happened,happened, butbut herehere hehe takestakes painspains ttoo explainexplain whawhatt hehe isis aboutabout andand howhow hehe isis goinggoing toto dodo it.it.
A majormajor reasonreason foforr thethe ArcheologArcheologyy isis a defensedefense ofof Thucydides'Thucydides' claimclaim thatthat ththee PeloponnesianPeloponnesian WarWar wawass "more"more worthy"worthy" inin ththee tellingtelling thathann any"any" thatthat precededpreceded it.,,110it."110 DionysiusDionysius ofof Halicarnassus,Halicarnassus, whowho hashas ververyy littlelittle goodgood toto saysay aboutabout
Thucydides,Thucydides, takestakes himhim ttoo tastaskk forfor belittlingbelittling thethe pastpast inin orderorder ttoo emphasizeemphasize thethe
108 lOB Bury, Greek Historians (1909), 102, describes the Archaeology as "equivalent to an Bury, Greek Historians (1909), 102, describes the Archaeology as "equivalent to an independent work ... amazing in its power and insight." independent work...amazing in its power and insight."
109109 Thuc.Thuc. 1.2.1-21.2.1-2..
110110 ThucThuc.. 1.1.1.1.1.1. 3131
present. 111111 FromFrom a modernmodern readerreader anandd historian,historian, ThucydidesThucydides'' statemenstatementt doedoess notnot elicielicitt totooo muchmuch ooff a response. 112112 TToo contemporariescontemporaries ofof ThucydidesThucydides,, however,however, thisthis
mustmust havehave requiredrequired somesome explanatioexplanationn anandd finessefinesse.. ForFor hundredshundreds ooff yearyearss thethe
GreekGreekss hadhad beenbeen steepesteepedd inin thethe magnificencemagnificence ooff theitheirr GreekGreek heroesheroes inin thethe TrojanTrojan
WaWarr anandd continuedcontinued ttoo hearhear storiestoriess frofromm anandd aboutabout theitheirr "greatest"greatest generationgeneration"" inin
thethe recentrecent PersianPersian WarsWars..
HisHis finessfinessee iiss evidentevident aass hehe firsfirstt addresseaddressess ththee TrojaTrojann WarWar.. HeHe acceptsaccepts
Homer'sHomer's epic,epic, aass dididd Herodotus andand thethe restrest ooff thethe Greeks,Greeks, alongalong witwithh thethe realityreality
ooff ththee heroes,heroes, thethe expedition,expedition, anandd ththee length ooff ththee war.war.113113 WitWithh ththee samesame
informationinformation availableavailable ttoo Herodotus,Herodotus, thisthis sectiosectionn iiss revealinrevealingg ofof Thucydides'Thucydides'
deductivdeductivee abilitiesabilities.. ThThee expeditioexpeditionn ttoo TroTroyy isis formeformedd notnot becausebecause ooff ththee personalpersonal
oathoathss taketakenn bbyy ththee suitorssuitors ooff Helen,Helen, butbut ratherrather ththee superiosuperiorr authoritauthorityy andand controlcontrol
ooff AgamemnoAgamemnonn oveoverr ththee resrestt ofof thethe Greeks.114Greeks.114 ThucydideThucydidess attributeattributess thethe
impulsesimpulses towardtoward wawarr lessless ttoo ththee arete ooff ththee monarchmonarch anandd moremore toto thethe
requirementsrequirements ofof ththee relativelyrelatively powerlesspowerless inin favofavorr ofof ththee strong,strong, anan abidinabidingg themetheme
inin ththee History. ThThee length ofof ththee warwar,, tetenn yearsyears,, isis another elementelement thathatt hehe hashas toto
address.address. ClearlClearlyy witwithh anan eyeyee oonn ththee ascendancascendancyy ofof AthenAthenss anandd SpartaSparta,,
ThucydideThucydidess hashas already explaineexplainedd ththee progressionprogression frofromm isolatedisolated nomadicnomadic tribestribes
111111 DionDion.. Hal.Hal. Thuc. 1919..
112 112 ThatThat isis,, ththee readereaderr maymay consideconsiderr readinreadingg ththee History anandd comingcoming ttoo hishis owownn conclusions,conclusions, whilewhile ththee modernmodern historiahistoriann wilwilll typicalltypicallyy makmakee anan unemotionalunemotional observationobservation,, aass doedoess A.WA.W.. Gomme,Gomme, A Historical Commentary of Thucydides, volsvols.. 1-31-3 (Oxford:(Oxford: 1945-1956),1945-1956), 1.119,1.119, "Not"Notee thatthisthat this iiss truer (i.e.,(i.e., 'breakdow'breakdownn ooff ththee fabrifabricc ooff GreekGreek society'society')) ifif itit refersrefers ttoo ththee wholwholee war,war, notnot ttoo ththee firstfirst tetenn yearyearss only.only.""
113 113 Gomme,Gomme, Commentary (1945),(1945), 1.112;1.112; Bury,Bury, Greek Historians (1909),(1909), 103-104103-104..
114114 HdtHdt.. 3.10.9;3.10.9; ThucThuc.. 1.9.1;1.9.1; GommeGomme,, Commentary (1945)(1945),, 1.1081.108.. 3322 ttoo a cooperativecooperative alliancalliancee underunder Agamemnon.115115 HisHis inferences araree insightful:insightful: hhee isis thethe firsfirstt writerwriter ttoo pointpoint ttoo ththee lacklack ofof anan ancienancientt monetarymonetary systemsystem,, whichwhich determinedeterminedd ththee relativerelative sizsizee ofof thethe expeditionexpedition,, ththee naturnaturee ooff thethe fightingfighting,, anandd thethe obviouobviouss lacklack ooff intensityintensity ooff ththee TrojanTrojan War.116116 ThThee economiceconomic situatiosituationn ooff thethe
GreeksGreeks diddid notnot allowallow foforr ththee supplsupplyy lineslines thathatt werweree neededneeded ttoo sustaisustainn thethe continuouscontinuous ten-yearten-year battlebattle soso itit mustmust havehave beenbeen cruciacruciall foforr ththee invadinginvading forcforcee ttoo cultivatecultivate nearbynearby landslands anandd turturnn ttoo piracypiracy inin ordeorderr ttoo survivsurvivee oonn ththee beachesbeaches ooff
Troy.Troy.117117
Thucydides'Thucydides' treatmentreatmentt ooff ththee sizsizee ooff Agamemnon'Agamemnon'ss expeditionexpedition ttoo TroyTroy unfortunatelyunfortunately fails at facfacee valuevalue ttoo convinceconvince.. MostMost modernmodern criticscritics wilwilll usuallyusually overlookoverlook ththee followinfollowingg passagpassagee aass aann apparenapparentt lapse,lapse, oorr thetheyy wilwilll makemake allowances. 118118 OfteOftenn theirtheir commentcommentss areare consignedconsigned ttoo a footnotefootnote,, butbut hishis treatmenttreatment ooff thethe expedition'sexpedition's sizesize relatesrelates directldirectlyy ttoo ThucydidesThucydides'' methodmethod andand givegivess lightlight aass ttoo howhow hehe arrivearrivess atat hihiss conclusions,conclusions, whawhatt hehe tells anandd whawhatt hhee determinedeterminess notnot ttoo telltell regardinregardingg hishis processprocess.. ForFor thithiss reasonreason,, ththee subjectsubject willwill bebe considereconsideredd herehere inin somesome lengthlength..
ThucydideThucydidess sayssays,,
115 115 Thuc.Thuc. 1.9;1.9; AustinAustin,, The Greek Historians (New(New YorkYork:: 1969),54.1969), 54.
116 116 Thuc.Thuc. 1.10-11;1.10-11; AustinAustin,, Greek Historians (1969)(1969),, 5454..
117 117 Thuc.Thuc. 1.11;1.11; Gomme,Gomme, Commentary (1945)(1945),, 1.114,1.114, pointpointss ououtt thathatt thethe AthenianAthenianss tootookk fefeww suppliessupplies oonn theitheirr expeditioexpeditionn ttoo Sicily,Sicily, expectinexpectingg ttoo sustainsustain themselvethemselvess througthroughh purchasepurchase oorr seizureseizure ooff goods,goods, Thuc.Thuc. 6.30.6.30.
118 118 E.g.,E.g., SimonSimon Hornblower,Homblower, A Commentary on Thucydides (Oxford(Oxford:: 1991),1991), 1.35,1.35, hashas onlonlyy ttoo sasayy thatthat ThucydidesThucydides'' useuse ooff ththee tertermm "poetic"poetic license"license" maymay bebe ththee firsfirstt iinn literature,literature, anandd thathatt hishis averagingaveraging isis aann "over-rational"over-rational argument"argument";; ThomaThomass WiedemannWiedemann,, Thucydides: The Peloponnesian War, Book 1-I - Book II, Ch. 65 (Bristol:(Bristol: 1985),1985), 16,16, simplsimplyy considerconsiderss thathatt ththee "tota"totall forcforcee wawass notnot asas greatgreat asas thethe wholwholee ofof GreecGreecee mightmight bbee expectedexpected ttoo mobilize"mobilize" inin ThucydidesThucydides'' timetime.. 3333
IfIf wewe cancan herehere alsoalso acceptaccept thethe testimonytestimony ofof Homer'sHomer's poemspoems inin whichwhich,, withouwithoutt allowingallowing forfor thethe exaggerationexaggeration whicwhichh a poetpoet wouldwould feefeell himselfhimself licensedlicensed toto employemploy,, wwee cancan seesee thatthat itit wawass farfar frofromm equalingequaling oursours...S ... Soo thatthat ifif wwee strikestrike thethe averageaverage ofof ththee largestlargest andand smallestsmallest ships,ships, thethe numbernumber ooff thosethose whowho sailedsailed wilwilll appearappear inconsiderable,inconsiderable, representingrepresenting asas theythey did,did, thethe wholewhole forceforce ofof Hellas.Hellas. Thuc.Thuc. 1.10.3,1.10.3, 55..
InIn ththee "Catalogue"Catalogue ofof Ships,"Ships," HomerHomer reportsreports thatthat thethe fleefleett totaledtotaled jusjustt shorshortt ofof 12001200 ships,ships, witwithh thethe BoeotianBoeotian levylevy ofof 120120 menmen perper shipship andand thethe PhiloctetesPhiloctetes contingentcontingent ofof 5050 menmen perper ship.119ship.119 UsingUsing Thucydides'Thucydides' averagingaveraging formula,formula, itit woulwouldd bebe a stretchstretch ttoo considerconsider 100,000100,000 menmen asas "inconsiderable.,,12o"inconsiderable."120 GivenGiven hishis commitmentcommitment toto
accuracy,accuracy, thisthis appearsappears toto bebe quitequite a slipslip,, whichwhich couldcould seriouslyseriously bringbring into questionquestion hishis method,method, andand all thisthis withinwithin 200200 lineliness ofof thethe history'shistory's openingopening words.words.
ItIt appearappearss toto bebe thethe typetype ofof uncriticaluncritical methodmethod thathatt hehe hashas ascribedascribed toto hishis
predecessors. 121121 IfIf DionysiusDionysius diddid notnot dodo thethe math,math, modernmodern historianshistorians havehave andand
somesome areare scathingscathing inin theirtheir assessments.assessments.122122
ItIt woulwouldd havehave beenbeen easyeasy enoughenough foforr ThucydideThucydidess toto attackattack thethe numbersnumbers ofof
Homer;Homer; hehe wawass certainlcertainlyy awareaware thatthat thethe numbersnumbers werewere exaggerated.exaggerated. HeHe hashas
accuratelyaccurately describeddescribed andand offeredoffered evidenceevidence ofof relativerelative thethe economiceconomic statesstates ofof thethe
GreeksGreeks duringduring thethe timetime ofof AgamemnonAgamemnon andand thethe significantsignificant growthgrowth andand prosperityprosperity
1iy 119 Hom.Horn. II.II. 2.584-862,2.584-862, cf.cf. II.II. 600,600, 817817..
120 120 DavidDavid Cartwright,Cartwright, A Historical Commentary on Thucydides (Ann(Ann Arbor:Arbor: 1997),1997), offersoffers thatthat thisthis sizsizee wawass greategreaterr thanthan anyany expeditioexpeditionn inin thethe wholewhole PeloponnesianPeloponnesian War.War.
121121 ThucThuc.. 1.20.3.1.20.3.
122 122 VirginiVirginiaa Hunter,Hunter, Past and Process in Herodotus and Thucydides (Princeton:(Princeton: 1982),1982), whowho willwill saysay onlyonly a littlelittle moremore positivepositive aboutabout ThucydidesThucydides thanthan Dionysius,Dionysius, charges,charges, "On"On ththee basisbasis ofof Homer'sHomer's figurefiguress ThucydideThucydidess comescomes toto ... a conclusionconclusion thathatt isis patentlypatently absurdabsurd andand generallygenerally recognizedrecognized toto bebe so.so."" InIn thethe nexnextt lineline sheshe saysayss thathatt hehe cannotcannot makemake anyany "systematic"systematic criticism"criticism" ooff Homer'sHomer's figures,figures, nornor doesdoes hehe havehave a "basis"basis onon whichwhich toto challengechallenge themthem,, certainlycertainly nono newnew data.data."" Hunter'sHunter's convictionconviction thatthat HomerHomer cacann bebe takentaken asas thethe final wordword onon thisthis inin itselfitself appearsappears absurdabsurd;; GommeGomme,, Commentary (1945),(1945), 1.114,1.114, oonn thithiss pointpoint states,states, "Thucydides"Thucydides cannotcannot inin facfactt bebe acquittedacquitted ooff a certaincertain inconsequence;inconsequence; thisthis excursus,excursus, likelike mostmost ofof thethe othersothers,, hashas notnot beenbeen fullfullyy thoughtthought out."out." 3434 thathatt ththee currentcurrent GreekGreek statestatess hadhad reachedreached oveoverr ththee ancientancient generations,generations, anandd hehe hashas already statedstated thatthat ththee AtheniansAthenians,, richericherr anandd stronger,stronger, werewere inin theitheirr optimumoptimum statstatee ooff readinessreadiness foforr warwar.. InIn thethe war'war'ss firsfirstt yeayearr PericlesPericles indicatesindicates thatthat thethe
AthenianAthenianss havehave 303000 triremetriremess fifitt foforr service; 123123 inin ththee fourtfourthh yeayearr AthenAthenss hashas 250 triremetriremess atat seasea,, whicwhichh ThucydideThucydidess statestatess isis ththee largestlargest deploymendeploymentt everever inin thethe war.war.124124 ThesThesee contrastscontrasts inin relativerelative powerpower,, alongalong witwithh hishis experienceexperience asas ononee ofof
AthensAthens'' tetenn generalsgenerals,, surelsurelyy alloweallowedd ThucydideThucydidess ththee abilityability toto assesassesss thethe financiallfinanciallyy impossiblimpossiblee demanddemandss necessarynecessary ttoo buildbuild a HomericHomeric expeditioexpeditionn ooff 12001200 vesselsvessels andand thethenn ththee logisticallogistical nightmarnightmaree ooff commandincommandingg andand supplyingsupplying 100,000100,000 men.men. HeHe couldcould havehave mademade a stronstrongg argumenargumentt dismissindismissingg Homer'sHomer's figuresfigures..
ModernModern historianshistorians havehave reduced ththee twtwoo millionmillion menmen thatthat HerodotusHerodotus numbersnumbers XerxesXerxes'' invasioninvasion armyarmy durinduringg ththee PersianPersian WarWarss toto anan acceptableacceptable
180,000.125125 AgamemnoAgamemnonn andand hishis regaregall fellowfellowss werweree neitherneither halfhalf asas richrich asas XerxesXerxes nornor couldcould theythey possiblypossibly havehave hadhad halfhalf thethe humanhuman resourcesresources availableavailable ttoo thethe kingking ooff Persia.Persia. ColColdd reasoningreasoning bbyy ThucydidesThucydides woulwouldd havhavee reduced Homer'sHomer's numbersnumbers toto ononee tenthtenth ofof theitheirr statestatedd size. 126126 A moremore logicallogical concernconcern isis whwhyy somsomee ooff hishis criticscritics araree quicquickk ttoo dismisdismisss thithiss portionportion ooff hishis narrativnarrativee asas "no"nott beingbeing fullfullyy thoughtthought
1231A3 ThucThuc.. 2.13.8.2.13.8.
124Thuc Thuc.. 3.17.1-2.3.17.1-2.
125 125 FF.. Maurice,Maurice, "The"The SizeSize ooff ththee ArmArmyy ooff XerxeXerxess inin ththee InvasionInvasion ooff GreecGreecee 484800 B.B. C."C." The Journal of Hellenic Studies, VolVol.. 50,50, PartPart 2 (1930),(1930), 210-235210-235,, inin hishis definitivdefinitivee paper,paper, reviewsreviews ththee logisticallogistical anandd economiceconomic restrictionrestrictionss anandd determinedeterminess thathatt XerxesXerxes'' armarmyy coulcouldd notnot havehave exceedeexceededd 180,000180,000 memenn (211)(211)..
126 126 LisLisaa Kallet-Marx,Kallet-Marx, Money, Expense, and Naval Power in Thucydides' History 1-5.24 (Berkeley: (Berkeley : 1993),1993), 28-2928-29,, translatetranslatess 1.111.11 "Fo"Forr duedue ttoo insufficientinsufficient suppliesuppliess thetheyy broughtbrought a smallersmaller army,army,"" ratherrather thathann (i(inn ththee LandmarkLandmark editionedition)) "And"And thithiss wawass duduee notnot ssoo muchmuch ttoo scarcitscarcityy ofof menmen aass ofof money."money." InIn ththee formerformer,, ThucydidesThucydides'' emphasiemphasiss iiss oonn ththee sizsizee ofof ththee armyarmy ratherrather thathann ththee limitedlimited resources.resources. 3535 out,"out,,,127127 ratherrather thathann investigatingInvestigating whywhy ThucydideThucydidess supportesupportedd hishis contentioncontentionss iinn sucsuchh a reservedreserved manner.manner.
ItIt hashas beenbeen suggested,suggested, persuasively,persuasively, thathatt thertheree iiss a universaluniversal neglectneglect iinn ththee recognitionrecognition ooff whowhomm ThucydideThucydidess isis addressinaddressingg and,and, at ththee samsamee time,time, losinglosing
128128 sighsightt ofof ononee ofof ththee mainmain intentionsintentions ooff ththee excursus. ThucydidesThucydides'' reasoningreasoning showsshows sensitivitsensitivityy toto thethe poeticpoetic knowledgeknowledge anandd foundatiofoundationn ooff hishis audience,audience, whilewhile atat ththee samesame timetime achievingachieving ththee goalgoal ofof emphasizingemphasizing ththee magnitudemagnitude ofof thethe wawarr hehe isis goingoingg toto narrate.129129 ItIt woulwouldd notnot ddoo himhim ananyy googoodd ttoo loselose ththee interestinterest ofof hishis audienceaudience byby denigratingdenigrating ththee memorymemory ofof HomerHomer jusjustt toto wiwinn a poinpointt iinn mathematics.mathematics.
HisHis approacapproachh isis a marriagemarriage ofof rhetoricrhetoric anandd argument.130130 ThThee "Catalogue"Catalogue ooff ShipsShips"" waswas a rollroll calcalll ooff ththee greagreatt citiescities ooff ancientancient GreeceGreece,, whicwhichh doubtlesdoubtlesss ththee citiecitiess inin hishis contemporarcontemporaryy ageage continuecontinuedd ttoo relisrelishh atat thethe recounting.131131 ThucydideThucydidess knewknew thethe truttruthh ofof ththee matter,matter, asas assuredlassuredlyy hishis audienceaudience did,132did,132 butbut hehe diddid notnot needneed ttoo statstatee ththee hardhard truttruthh anandd neitherneither dididd hishis audiencaudiencee needneed ttoo hearhear it.it. ThThee sworswordd ooff hishis methodmethod herehere,, ssoo ttoo speakspeak,, hashas twtwoo edgesedges:: inin ordeorderr ttoo emphasizeemphasize thethe scalscalee ooff thethe
127 Gomme,Gomme, Commentary (1945)(1945),1.114., 1.114.
128 128 NinoNino Luraghi.Luraghi. "Autho"Authorr anandd AudiencAudiencee inin ThucydideThucydidess 'Archaeology,'Archaeology,'' SomSomee Reflections,"Reflections," Harvard Studies in Classical Philloogy, VolVol.. 100100 (2000),227-39.(2000), 227-39.
129 RobertoRoberto Nicolai,Nicolai, "Thucydides"Thucydides'' ArchaeologyArchaeology:: BetweeBetweenn EpicEpic anandd OralOral Traditions,Traditions,"" The Historian's Craft in the Age of Herodotus, ed.ed. NinNinoo LuraghiLuraghi (Oxford(Oxford:: 2001)2001),, 271271,, espesp.. fntn.. 1818..
130 130 LuraghiLuraghi,, "Thucydides"Thucydides'' ArchaeologyArchaeology"" (2000),(2000), 230;230; Marincola,Marincola, Greek Historians (2001),74,(2001), 74, rightlyrightly describedescribess "The"The ArchaeologyArchaeology"" a "sophistic"sophistic demonstration."demonstration."
131 131 GregoryGregory CraneCrane,, Thucydides and the Ancient Simplicity: The Limits of Political Realism (Berkeley(Berkeley:: 1998),1998), 133,133, fntn.. 2525,, emphasizes,emphasizes, "th"thee AthenianAthenianss tootookk theitheirr appearancappearancee iinn ththee CatalogueCatalogue ververyy seriously."seriously."
132 132 AnAnyy argumentargument thathatt ThucydideThucydidess rushedrushed througthroughh thithiss anandd thathatt hishis audiencaudiencee wawass nonott ablablee ttoo dodo itsits sumssums isis weak.weak. 3636 wawarr hehe mustmust relaterelate itit toto otherother warswars inin legendlegend andand memory;memory; atat ththee samesame timetime hehe cannocannott bebe offensively explicitexplicit inin thethe dismissaldismissal ofof far-fetchedfar-fetched numbersnumbers becausebecause thithiss woulwouldd weakeweakenn hishis purpose. 133133 HeHe doesdoes thethe samesame thingthing whenwhen hehe dismissesdismisses ththee greatnessgreatness ofof thethe PersianPersian Wars,Wars, inin thatthat thetheyy consistedconsisted ofof onlyonly fourfour battles,battles, twotwo onon seasea,, twtwoo onon land.134134 HeHe doesdoes notnot bringbring upup thethe HerodoteanHerodotean figurefiguress ofof thethe sizesize ofof ththee PersianPersian forceforce,, notnot becausebecause hehe isis afraidafraid toto addressaddress them,them, butbut becausebecause theythey areare alsalsoo obviouslyobviously inflatedinflated andand thethe resultresult wouldwould bebe a needlessneedless distractiondistraction toto hishis audience.audience. BecauseBecause thisthis portionportion ofof thethe firsfirstt bookbook isis hishis argumentargument forfor consideringconsidering ththee overwhelmingoverwhelming significancesignificance ofof thethe currentcurrent war,war, ThucydidesThucydides plainlyplainly layslays outout hishis casecase andand ththee evidence.evidence. HavingHaving donedone soso once,once, hehe doesdoes notfeelnot feel thethe needneed toto explainexplain ththee processprocess ofof hishis methodmethod foforr eacheach subsequentsubsequent narrativenarrative eventevent oorr speech.speech.
ThucydidesThucydides concludesconcludes ththee ArchaeologyArchaeology sayingsaying thatthat asas difficultdifficult asas itit isis toto draw evidenceevidence regardingregarding antiquity,antiquity, hehe hashas drawndrawn proofsproofs thatthat areare reasonable andand thesthesee proofsproofs havehave beenbeen "drawn"drawn uponupon thethe clearestclearest data.,,135data."135 HeHe thenthen takestakes a momentmoment toto discussdiscuss thethe speechesspeeches inin hishis text,text, explainingexplaining hishis reasonable approachapproach ttoo these.these. TheThe speeches 136136 assuredlyassuredly elicitelicit moremore scholarshipscholarship thanthan anythinganything elseelse inin hishis History,™History,1377 andand thethe reasonreason foforr thisthis isis simplysimply thatthat ThucydidesThucydides hashas setset hishis
133 Luraghi,Luraghi, "Thucydides'"Thucydides" ArchaeologyArchaeology"" (2000),(2000), 233233..
134Thuc Thuc.. 1.23.1.1.23.1.
135Thuc Thuc.. 1.21.1.1.21.1.
136 136 VictorVictor DavisDavis Hanson,Hanson, "Introduction,""Introduction," The Landmark Thucydides, ed.ed. RobertRobert B.B. StrasslerStrassler (New(New York:York: 1996),1996), xv,xv, hashas evidentlyevidently countedcounted them;them; therethere areare 141141 speechesspeeches inin thethe History.
137 137 Marincola,Marincola, Greek Historians (2001)(2001) 77,77, tn.fn. 77,77, notes,notes, "some"some 350350 itemsitems areare covered"covered" inin thethe bibliographybibliography otof The Speeches in Thucydides: A Collection of Original Studies with a Bibliography, 3737 historicalhistorical methodmethod aparapartt frofromm thathatt ooff Herodotus oorr ooff anythinganything elseelse prior.prior. TheThe speechespeechess ooff HerodotusHerodotus araree aann extensioextensionn ofof ththee "artist's"artist's manner,,138manner"138 anandd thusthus areare notnot helheldd ttoo ththee historiographicalhistoriographical measurmeasuree oorr scrutinyscrutiny thathatt ThucydidesThucydides iiss under.under.
JusJustt asas ThucydidesThucydides'' treatmentreatmentt ooff ththee numbersnumbers inin Homer'sHomer's cataloguecatalogue submitssubmits ttoo examinationexamination ththee reliabilityreliability ooff hishis method,method, ssoo doedoess hishis explanatioexplanationn ooff thethe speechesspeeches inin hishis history.history. ThThee conclusionconclusionss hishis criticscritics havehave reached,reached, asas a rule,rule, areare moremore confusingconfusing thathann ThucydidesThucydides'' statemenstatementt itself.itself.139139 WhaWhatt followfollowss isis notnot anan attemptattempt toto rehashrehash ththee debate,debate, butbut ttoo isolateisolate whawhatt appearsappears toto bebe thethe mainmain pointspoints ofof ththee argumenargumentt anandd offeroffer a reasonereasonedd observationobservation..
ThThee possiblepossible interpretationsinterpretations ofof ththee speechesspeeches araree fourfour:: thetheyy areare nearlynearly verbatimverbatim,, reproductionsreproductions ooff whawhatt ThucydideThucydidess eitheeitherr heardheard,, read,read, oorr waswas toltoldd byby othersothers;; thetheyy areare entirelentirelyy creativcreativee workworkss witwithh nono historicalhistorical foundation;foundation; thetheyy areare greatlygreatly modifiemodifiedd versionversionss ooff whatwhat wawass probablyprobably saidsaid;; oror,, thertheree isis nono uniformityuniformity inin categorycategory,, anandd thathatt thertheree speechespeechess whicwhichh applapplyy ttoo eaceachh ooff thethe aboveabove
14o140 interpretations. ExacerbatingExacerbating ththee probleproblemm isis ththee absencabsencee ofof a levellevel playingplaying fieldfield,, ssoo ttoo speakspeak,, asas scholarscholarss translattranslatee ththee followinfollowingg passage:passage: translationstranslations willwill
eded.. PhiliPhilipp A . StadtleStadtlerr (Chape(Chapell Hill:Hill: 1975).1975). TToo bebe exactexact,, thertheree areare 351351;; ProfessorProfessor StadtlerStadtler numberednumbered ththee references.references. ThomaThomass F.F. Garrity,Garrity, "Thucydide"Thucydidess 1.22.1:1.22.1: ContentContent andand FormForm inin thethe Speeches,"Speeches," The American Journal of Philology, VolVol.. 119.119. NO.3No. 3 (Autumn,(Autumn, 1998),1998), 361,361, sayssays,, "the"the interpretiveinterpretive problemproblem posedposed byby ththee speechespeechess ooff ThucydidesThucydides isis ononee ofof ththee oldestoldest chestnutchestnutss iinn classicaclassicall scholarship."scholarship."
138 138 A.WAW.. Gomme,Gomme, The Greek Attitude to Poetry and History (Berkele(Berkeleyy anandd LoLoss Angeles:Angeles: 1954)1954) 100;100; inin factfact,, GommGommee saysayss oonn ththee samsamee pagepage thathatt Herodotus'Herodotus' "'poetic"'poetic'' mannermanner aass a creativecreative artist"artist" isis seenseen mostmost easileasilyy inin hishis speeches;speeches; seseee alsalsoo TaTadd WW.. Guzie,Guzie, "Poetic"Poetic ElementElement inin Herodotus'Herodotus' Speeches,"Speeches," The Classical Journal, VolVol.. 5050,, NO.7No. 7 (Apr.(Apr.,, 1955)1955) 326-328326-328..
139 JohJohnn WilsonWilson,, "What"What DoeDoess ThucydidesThucydides ClaiClaimm foforr HisHis Speeches?"Speeches?" Phoenix, VolVol.. 36,36, No.2No. 2 (Summer,(Summer, 1982),1982), 9595..
140140 Hanson,Hanson, "Introduction,""Introduction," Landmark Thucydides (1996)(1996),, xvxv.. 3838 generallgenerallyy aligalignn witwithh oneone ofof ththee possiblepossible solutionssolutions,, andand,, understandably,understandably, ththee biasbias
141 ooff ththee critic/scholar/translatorcritic/scholar/translator.. ThiThiss iiss ththee Landmark translation: 141
WitWithh referencereference ttoo ththee speechespeechess inin thithiss history,history, somsomee werewere delivereddelivered beforebefore ththee wawarr began,began, otherotherss whilwhilee itit wawass goingoingg on;on; somsomee I heardheard myself,myself, othersothers I gogott frofromm variouvariouss quartersquarters;; itit wawass inin alalll casescases difficuldifficultt ttoo carrycarry thethemm worwordd forfor worwordd inin one'one'ss memory,memory, ssoo mymy habithabit hahass beenbeen ttoo makemake ththee speakersspeakers saysay whawhatt wawass inin mymy opinionopinion demandedemandedd ooff thethemm byby thethe variouvariouss occasionsoccasions,, ofof coursecourse adheringadhering aass closelcloselyy asas possiblepossible toto ththee generalgeneral sensesense ofof whawhatt theythey reallyreally saidsaid.. Thuc.Thuc. 1.21.1.1.21.1.
ThucydidesThucydides'' nextnext lineliness describdescribee hishis treatmentreatmentt ofof ththee narrativenarrative ooff events.events. SeldomSeldom ddoo scholarscholarss useuse thesthesee lineslines inin regardregard ttoo hishis treatmentreatmentt ofof speeches. 142142 ItIt wouldwould seem,seem, howeverhowever,, thathatt whilwhilee memorymemory ooff wordwordss isis arguablarguablyy fafarr moremore difficuldifficultt thanthan memorymemory ofof a givengiven eveneventt oror traitrainn ooff eventsevents,, ththee lineslines woulwouldd alsalsoo revealreveal hishis requirementsrequirements foforr generagenerall historicalhistorical precisionprecision::
AnAndd witwithh referencreferencee toto ththee narrativenarrative ooff events,events, farfar fromfrom permittingpermitting myselfmyself toto derivederive itit frofromm ththee firsfirstt sourcsourcee thathatt camcamee ttoo hand,hand, I diddid notnot eveevenn trustrustt mmyy owownn impressions,impressions, butbut iitt restsrests partlpartlyy oonn whawhatt I sasaww myself,myself, partlypartly oonn whatwhat otherotherss sasaww foforr me,me, ththee accuracaccuracyy ooff ththee reportreport beingbeing alwaysalways trietriedd byby thethe mostmost severseveree anandd detailedetailedd testtestss possiblepossible.. Thuc.Thuc. 1.21.21.21.2..
BaseBasedd onon theitheirr interpretationinterpretation ofof thesthesee passages,passages, manymany scholarsscholars havehave concludedconcluded thatthat ThucydideThucydidess claimsclaims accuracyaccuracy foforr ththee deeddeedss oorr eventsevents hehe describesdescribes,, butbut foforr thethe
143 speechesspeeches,, hehe claimsclaims somethinsomethingg shorshortt ooff accuracy. 143 ThisThis simplysimply isis notnot whatwhat
ThucydideThucydidess claimsclaims foforr ththee speechesspeeches oror thethe narrativenarrative ooff eventsevents..
WitWithh regarregardd ttoo ththee speechesspeeches,, itit isis ThucydidesThucydides'' claim,claim, "to"to makemake thethe speakersspeakers sasayy whawhatt wawass inin mmyy opinionopinion demandedemandedd ofof thethemm byby thethe variousvarious
141 ThThee Landmark Thucydides isis a "Newly"Newly RevisedRevised EditionEdition ooff ththee RichardRichard CrawleyCrawley TranslationTranslation"" (from(from titltitlee page)page)..
142 142 GommeGomme isis significansignificantt inin hishis departurdeparturee frofromm thisthis,, aass indicatedindicated below.below.
143 143 CliffordClifford Orwin,Orwin, "Thucydides'"Thucydides' Contest:Contest: ThucydideaThucydideann 'Methodology'Methodology'' inin Context,Context,"" The Review of Politics, VolVol.. 5151,, NO.3No. 3 (Summer(Summer,, 1989),1989), 353353.. 3939 occasions,occasions,"" thathatt causescauses ththee mostmost disquiedisquiett anandd allowallowss scholarscholarss toto distinguishdistinguish betweenbetween ththee methodsmethods anandd accuracaccuracyy ooff relatinrelatingg eventsevents andand thethe methodsmethods andand accuracaccuracyy ooff relatinrelatingg speechesspeeches.. ItIt isis ththee "puttin"puttingg wordwordss inin ththee mouthmouth ooff thethe speakers"speakers" basedbased oonn hihiss subjectivitsubjectivityy andand thathatt whicwhichh wawass demandedemandedd (ta deonta) bbyy ththee occasiooccasionn thathatt smacksmackss ofof somethingsomething lessless thathann ththee writinwritingg ofof historyhistory andand describedescribess somethinsomethingg mormoree inin lineline witwithh ththee artisticartistic mannermanner ooff Herodotus.Herodotus. However,However,
AA.. WW.. GommeGomme stressestressess ththee essentiaessentiall needneed ttoo understandunderstand exactlyexactly whatwhat
ThucydideThucydidess isis claimingclaiming.. HeHe assertsasserts thathatt "ta deonta cannocannott meanmean 'th'thee idealideal
144 argument'argument'." .,,144 InIn otheotherr wordswords,, ThucydideThucydidess isis notnot assigninassigningg a speechspeech toto a givengiven speakespeakerr basedbased oonn hishis judgmenjudgmentt ooff whawhatt ththee besbestt argumenargumentt foforr ththee speakespeakerr toto
145 presentpresent inin a givegivenn circumstance. 145 TheThe speechespeechess areare notnot inventioninvention..
ThucydideThucydidess saysayss thathatt somsomee ooff ththee speechesspeeches hehe heard,heard, otherotherss hehe receivedreceived iinn reportsreports;; hehe alsalsoo telltellss usus thathatt hehe wawass presentpresent at somesome ooff ththee events,events, othersothers hehe receivedreceived frofromm differendifferentt sources.sources. WhilWhilee hishis methodsmethods foforr dealindealingg witwithh speechesspeeches andand eventeventss werweree ttoo a degreedegree different,different, thathatt doedoess notnot meanmean thathatt ththee accuracyaccuracy ofof thethe speechespeechess werweree differendifferentt iinn kind,kind, thathatt is,is, thathatt thetheyy werweree notnot ananyy moremore oror lessless accurataccuratee thathann hishis narrativenarrative ooff eventsevents.. TheThe samesame commitmentcommitment ttoo precisionprecision thatthat
ThucydidesThucydides bringsbrings ttoo hihiss narrativenarrative ofof eventeventss cacann bbee expecteexpectedd inin hishis treatmentreatmentt ofof thethe speechesspeeches.. AAss a finafinall observatioobservationn onon thithiss mattermatter,, whicwhichh ofof courscoursee wilwilll nevernever bebe exhaustedexhausted,, DonaldDonald KaganKagan mademade whawhatt seemseemss ttoo bbee a fittinfittingg commentcomment ttoo thethe
144 GommeGomme,, Commentaries (1948)(1948),, 1.1401.140..
145 145 ChristopheChristopherr Pelling,Pelling, Literary Texts and the Greek Historian (London(London anandd NewNew YorkYork:: 2000)2000),, 114-116,114-116, offerofferss a remarkablremarkablyy evenhandeevenhandedd andand interestininterestingg explanatioexplanationn ooff ththee positionspositions ooff whawhatt hehe termtermss "the"the extremextremee historicalhistorical accurisaccuristt anandd ththee extremextremee frefreee comcompositioner. positioner."" 4400 thousandthousandss ooff wordwordss writtewrittenn oonn ththee subjectsubject:: "Th"Thee facfactt isis thathatt nono oneone hashas shownshown thatthat thertheree isis a singlsinglee speechspeech thathatt coulcouldd nonott havhavee beenbeen givengiven inin somethinsomethingg likelike itsits
ThucydideaThucydideann form."form.,,146146
MostMost ooff ththee firsfirstt bookbook ooff ththee History isis takentaken upup byby threthreee excursesexcurses.. ThThee firstfirst iiss ththee ArchaeologArchaeologyy (1.1-23)(1.1-23),, whicwhichh challengechallengedd traditiontraditionss anandd presentedpresented
ThucydidesThucydides'' statementstatementss regardingregarding methodmethod;; ththee seconsecondd isis thethe PentecontaetiaPentecontaetia
(1.89-118),(1.89-118), iinn whicwhichh hehe makesmakes hihiss argumenargumentt forfor ththee realreal causescauses ofof ththee warwar;; andand ththee laslastt iiss anan excursusexcursus regardingregarding Cylon,Cylon, Pausanias,Pausanias, anandd ThemistocleThemistocless (1.126(1.126--
138),138), wherwheree againagain hhee correctcorrectss ththee accountaccountss ooff previousprevious writers. 147147 TheThe lastlast
portionportion ooff BookBook OneOne iiss Pericles'Pericles' firsfirstt speechspeech,, inin whicwhichh thethe AtheniaAtheniann leadersleaders rejectreject
SpartanSpartan demandsdemands andand addresaddresss ththee inevitabilityinevitability ofof ththee comingcoming war,war,148148 whereuponwhereupon,, thethe AthenianAthenianss votvotee anandd ththee warwar,, foforr allall intents,intents, begins.149149
HowHow ThucydidesThucydides treattreatss ththee causcausee ooff ththee warwar,, whicwhichh startedstarted inin 431431,, iiss
instructiveinstructive foforr ititss contrascontrastt ttoo Herodotus150 150 anandd ththee lessonlesson obviouslyobviously learnedlearned byby
Thucydides'Thucydides' continuatorscontinuators.. TherTheree areare allegedalleged causecausess oorr pretexts,pretexts, whichwhich areare
expressedexpressed byby ththee explanationsexplanations ooff ththee participants,participants, anandd thenthen thertheree areare thethe realreal
146146 DonaldDonald Kagan,Kagan, "The"The SpeechesSpeeches inin ThucydideThucydidess andand ththee MytileneMytilene Debate,"Debate," Yale Classical Studies 2244 (1975),(1975), 75-77;75-77; F.F. EE.. AdcockAdcock,, Thucydides and His History (Cambridge:(Cambridge: 1963),28,1963), 28, assertsasserts,, "i"itt isis naturalnatural ttoo assumassumee thathatt hehe doedoess notnot iinn facfactt insertinsert speechespeechess ooff whicwhichh hehe cannotcannot havehave hahadd aatt ananyy raterate somsomee information.information.""
147 147 HH.. D.D. WestlakeWestlake,, Essays on the Greek Historians and Greek History (Manchester(Manchester:: 1969),4-5.1969), 4-5. AccordinAccordingg ttoo WestlakWestlakee thertheree areare fivfivee majormajor excurseexcursess iinn ththee History,History, ththee otherother twtwoo areare 6.2-5,6.2-5, regardingregarding ththee GreekGreek settlemensettlementt ooff Sicily,Sicily, anandd 6.54-596.54-59,, regardingregarding ththee PisistratidPisistratid tyranny.tyranny.
148148 ThucT huc.. 1.141,1.141, 144144..
149149 ThucThuc.. 1.145-146.1.145-146.
150 150 Hdt.Hdt. 1.5.3,1.5.3, 1.87.3,1.87.3, wherwheree Croesus,Croesus, ththee kingking ooff Lydia,Lydia, begabegann unjusunjustt actactss againstagainst ththee GreeksGreeks bbyy blamingblaming hishis invasioninvasion ofof PersiaPersia oonn ththee gogodd ooff ththee Greeks,Greeks, ApolloApollo.. ButBut eveneven beforbeforee thithiss "real""real" cause,cause, HerodotusHerodotus givegivess emphasisemphasis ttoo ththee variouvariouss mythicalmythical oorr legendarylegendary abductionabductionss (10,(lo, EuropaEuropa,, Medea,Medea, anandd Helen,Helen, 1.1-4)1.1-4) aass ththee reasonsreasons foforr ththee PersianPersian WarsWars.. 4411
151151 causes,causes, whicwhichh maymay bebe unadmittedunadmitted anandd sometimessometimes scarcelscarcelyy perceived. InIn
addition,addition, whatevewhateverr thethe causes,causes, realreal oror perceivedperceived,, itit isis inin ththee temporatemporall oorr humanhuman experienceexperience thatthat understandingunderstanding willwill bebe forthcomingforthcoming,, notnot inin ththee actionactionss ofof ththee divinedivine oror inin ththee timetimess ooff legend.legend. TheThe divinedivine inin HerodotusHerodotus isis aatt timetimess mysterious,mysterious, bubutt itit isis
alwaysalways presentpresent inin ththee settlingsettling ofof accounts;accounts; ThucydideThucydidess wilwilll oonn occasiooccasionn referrefer ttoo
oraclesoracles,, actactss ofof nature,nature, oorr otheotherr seeminglseeminglyy divindivinee eventsevents,, butbut theitheirr solsolee purposepurpose iiss
ttoo illustrateillustrate ththee psychologicalpsychological effeceffectt oonn ththee actionsactions ooff humanhuman participants. 152152 InIn hihiss treatmenttreatment ooff cause,cause, itit isis centralcentral ttoo ancientancient politicapoliticall thoughthoughtt thathatt ThucydideThucydidess iiss notnot
makingmaking a pointpoint ttoo blameblame anyany ofof ththee participantsparticipants foforr ththee finafinall responsibilitresponsibilityy ofof thethe
wawarr itself.itself. TherTheree isis anan understandableunderstandable modermodernn inclinationinclination ttoo "blame""blame" AthenAthenss andand
itsits imperialimperial expansion,153expansion,153 butbut ThucydidesThucydides recognizesrecognizes thathatt thethe winninwinningg ooff wealthwealth
andand powerpower isis partpart ofof humanhuman naturenature.. Hermocrates,Hermocrates, thethe SyracusaSyracusann generagenerall praisedpraised
byby Thucydides,Thucydides, acknowledgesacknowledges thisthis qualityquality eleveneleven yearyearss beforebefore ththee 414133 AthenianAthenian
expeditionexpedition ttoo Sicily:Sicily:
ThaThatt thethe AthenianAthenianss shouldshould cherishcherish thithiss ambitioambitionn anandd practicepractice thithiss policypolicy iiss ververyy excusable;excusable; anandd I ddoo notnot blamblamee thosthosee whwhoo wiswishh ttoo rule,rule, butbut thosthosee whowho areare totooo readyready ttoo serveserve.. ItIt isis jusjustt asas muchmuch iinn men'smen's naturenature ttoo rulerule thosethose whwhoo submisubmitt toto them,them, asas itit isis ttoo resistresist thosthosee whwhoo molestmolest themthem.. ThucThuc.. 4.61.5.4.61.5.
ThisThis wilwilll bebe a leitmotifleitmotif throughoutthroughout thethe History.
15115,1 AustinAustin,, The Greek Historians (1969),57.(1969), 57.
152152 Bury,Bury, Greek Historians (1909)(1909),, 129.129. A notablenotable examplexamplee iiss ththee eclipseclipsee durinduringg ththee siegsiegee ooff SyracusSyracusee inin 414133 (Thuc.(Thuc. 7.50.4).7.50.4). NiciasNicias insistinsistss thathatt ththee AthenianAthenianss deladelayy theirtheir retreatretreat frofromm thethe disastedisasterr untiluntil thethe newnew moon,moon, nearlynearly a monthmonth later,later, whicwhichh sealesealedd ththee completcompletee destructiodestructionn ooff ththee GreeGreekk forcesforces.. ThucydideThucydidess remarksremarks thathatt NiciasNicias "wa"wass somewhasomewhatt overaddictedoveraddicted ttoo divination"divination";; anotheanotherr exampleexample isis ththee AtheniaAtheniann embracembracee ooff ththee oracloraclee rememberedremembered durinduringg ththee Plague:Plague: ""AA DorianDorian warwar shallshall comcomee andand witwithh itit pestilence"pestilence" (Thuc(Thuc.. 2.54.2-3).2.54.2-3).
153 153 ThThee obviousobvious modernmodern examplexamplee isis thethe inclusioinclusionn ofof ththee statementstatement iinn ththee VersailleVersailless treattreatyy placingplacing ththee solesole responsibilityresponsibility ooff WorlWorldd WaWarr I onon GermanyGermany.. SeeSee alsoalso,, AA.. AndrewesAndrewes,, "Thucydide"Thucydidess oonn thethe CausesCauses ofof ththee War,War,"" The Classical Quarterty,Quarterly, NewNew SeriesSeries,, VolVol.. 9,9, No.2No. 2 (Nov.(Nov.,, 1959),223-239,1959), 223-239, espesp.. 224-225.224-225. 4422
ExpressedExpressed immediateimmediate reasonsreasons foforr ththee wawarr araree variousvarious:: inin 433433 CorinthCorinth iiss angeredangered oveoverr ththee defensivdefensivee alliancealliance betweenbetween AthenAthenss anandd CorcyraCorcyra;; iinn 434333 MegaraMegara isis excludedexcluded byby decredecreee byby AthenAthenss frofromm thethe useuse ofof herher harborsharbors anandd markets,markets, whichwhich inin turturnn drawdrawss CorinthianCorinthian enmityenmity;; inin 432432 AthenAthenss taketakess measuresmeasures againstagainst
CorinthiaCorinthiann influenceinfluence inin Potidaea,Potidaea, leadingleading ttoo chargechargess anandd countercharges.154154
ComplaintsComplaints frofromm alliesallies,, witwithh CorinthCorinth ththee mosmostt vocal,vocal,155155 finallfinallyy persuadedpersuaded thethe
SpartanSpartanss thathatt ththee breachbreach witwithh AthenAthenss wawass beyondbeyond repair.repair. AfteAfterr SpartanSpartan ultimatumsultimatums werweree rejectedrejected byby AthensAthens,, diplomacydiplomacy failedfailed,, anandd hostilitieshostilities commenced.156156 A lesserlesser historian,historian, ancienancientt oorr modern,modern, woulwouldd thethenn proceed fromfrom thithiss pointpoint toto ththee narrativenarrative ooff events.events. WhaWhatt makesmakes ThucydidesThucydides remarkableremarkable,, and,and, ttoo modernmodern readers,readers, somewhatsomewhat removedremoved fromfrom hishis age,age, isis hishis startlinstartlingg analysis,analysis, whichwhich hehe delineatesdelineates atat thethe beginningbeginning ooff ththee work.work.157157
TToo ththee questionquestion whwhyy theythey brokebroke ththee treatytreaty,, I answeanswerr byby placingplacing firsfirstt aann accountaccount ooff ththee groundsgrounds ofof complaintcomplaint andand pointspoints ofof differencedifference,, thatthat nono oneone maymay everever havehave ttoo asaskk ththee immediatimmediatee causcausee whicwhichh plungedplunged ththee HellenesHellenes into a wawarr ofof suchsuch magnitude.magnitude. ThThee realreal causecause,, however,however, I considerconsider ttoo bbee ththee oneone whicwhichh wawass formallyformally mostmost keptkept outout ofof sightsight.. ThThee growtgrowthh ooff thethe powepowerr ofof AthensAthens,, anandd ththee alaralarmm whicwhichh thithiss inspiredinspired inin SpartaSparta,, mademade wawarr inevitable.inevitable. Thuc.Thuc. 1.23.5-6.1.23.5-6.
HisHis investigationinvestigation intointo realreal motivesmotives andand ththee connectionconnectionss hehe makesmakes areare simplysimply typestypes ooff inquiryinquiry notnot founfoundd inin Herodotus,Herodotus, wilwilll bebe feeblfeeblyy imitatedimitated byby mostmost ofof
Thucydides'Thucydides' GreekGreek anandd LatinLatin continuators,continuators, anandd takentaken foforr grantegrantedd byby modernmodern
154154 ThucThuc.. 1.45.1,1.45.1, 1.55.2;1.55.2; 1.66;1.66; 1.139.1-2.1.139.1-2.
155155 ThucThuc.. 1.120-124.1.120-124.
156156 ThucThuc.. 2.1.2.1 .
157 157 AustinAustin,, The Greek Historians (1969)(1969),, 6565,, considersconsiders ThucydidesThucydides'' "acute"acute politicalpolitical analysis,analysis,"" equallequallyy witwithh hishis pursuitpursuit ooff accuracy,accuracy, hishis "endurin"enduringg achievement."achievement." 4433 historians.historians. RatherRather thathann ththee apparentapparent concernconcern foforr ththee complaintscomplaints ofof thethe
Corinthians,Corinthians, ththee Megarians,Megarians, oror concerconcernn foforr ththee CorcyranCorcyran oligarchs,oligarchs, ThucydidesThucydides hahass distilleddistilled ththee causcausee ooff wawarr ttoo itsits basibasicc elementselements:: AtheniaAtheniann powerpower andand SpartanSpartan alarmalarm.. ThoughThough SpartaSparta isis assuredlassuredlyy awarawaree ofof thithiss basicbasic causecause,, iitt iiss leftleft unspokenunspoken;;
ThucydidesThucydides recognizerecognizess thathatt powerfupowerfull statesstates,, inin thithiss instanceinstance Sparta,Sparta, havehave somesome thingsthings thathatt areare betterbetter leftleft unsaidunsaid andand notnot admitted.admitted. ItIt isis thithiss capacitycapacity asas a historian,historian, hishis abilitabilityy ttoo makemake connectionsconnections,, thathatt thathatt inviteinvitess moremore penetratingpenetrating analysianalysiss ooff ThucydidesThucydides thathann ooff ananyy otherother ancienancientt historians.historians.
ThucydideThucydidess initiatedinitiated contemporarcontemporaryy history.history. HerodotusHerodotus was stilstilll a youtyouthh atat ththee enendd ooff ththee PersianPersian Wars,Wars,158158 andand toto a certaincertain extentextent hishis tellintellingg ooff thosethose warswars cancan bebe considereconsideredd contemporarycontemporary,, butbut whilwhilee hishis subjecsubjectt wawass inin thethe immediateimmediate pastpast itit wawass alsoalso foundefoundedd inin ththee timtimee ooff legenlegendd anandd myth.myth. ThucydidesThucydides tells usus inin hishis famoufamouss firsfirstt linlinee thathatt hehe beganbegan hishis historyhistory ofof ththee wawarr betweenbetween ththee PeloponnesiansPeloponnesians anandd ththee AthenianAthenianss "the"the momentmoment iitt brokebroke out."out." ThisThis isis a remarkableremarkable undertaking.undertaking.
TherTheree isis a comforcomfortt inin writinwritingg abouaboutt pastpast eventsevents;; witwithh ththee separationseparation ooff yearsyears,, decades,decades, oror centuriescenturies,, ththee pastpast hashas atat leastleast anan apparenapparentt ordeorderr toto itit thathatt isis usuallyusually absenabsentt frofromm presentpresent experiencesexperiences.. Granted,Granted, ththee abilityability ttoo comprehencomprehendd pastpast eventsevents isis connecteconnectedd witwithh ththee benefitbenefit anandd securitysecurity ooff puttinputtingg thingthingss intointo perspective.perspective.
ThucydideThucydidess movemovedd awaawayy frofromm storiestoriess founfoundd iinn ththee epicsepics ooff Homer,Homer, thethe historieshistories ofof HerodotusHerodotus anandd ththee subjectssubjects ooff tragitragicc dramadrama,, andand venturedventured,, ssoo ttoo speakspeak,, intointo foreigforeignn anandd formidablformidablee territory.territory.159159 HisHis restrictionrestriction ttoo contemporarcontemporaryy historyhistory
158 158 Dion.Dion. Hal.Hal. Thuc. 55,, statestatess thathatt HerodotusHerodotus wawass bornborn ""aa littllittlee beforbeforee thethe PersianPersian Wars.Wars.""
159 159 BernardBernard Knox,Knox, Word and Action: Essays on the Ancient Theater (Baltimore(Baltimore anandd LondonLondon:: 1979),1979), 8-9,8-9, notesnotes thathatt whilwhilee GreeGreekk tragedtragedyy diddid notnot deadeall exclusivelexclusivelyy witwithh ththee divinedivine andand waswas 4444 furthermorfurthermoree offereofferedd a newnew andand importantimportant ideaidea ttoo historiography,historiography, specificallyspecifically,, thethe recognitionrecognition ooff thethe presentpresent aass beingbeing somethinsomethingg distincdistinctt frofromm ththee pastpast andand inherentlyinherently importantimportant oonn itsits owownn merits.16o160 ThucydideThucydidess choschosee a singlsinglee moment,moment, albeitalbeit nearlynearly threthreee decadesdecades inin length,length, andand dididd notnot useuse it,it, aass HerodotusHerodotus diddid,, asas a vehiclvehiclee foforr widerwider investigations.investigations.161161
InIn startinstartingg hishis worworkk atat ththee beginninbeginningg ooff ththee warwar,, ThucydideThucydidess chosechose toto writewrite inin anan annalisticannalistic form,form, structurinstructuringg hishis worworkk inin a year-by-yeayear-by-yearr narrativenarrative,, dividindividingg thethe yearyear byby summesummerr anandd winterwinter,, thuthuss organizinorganizingg hishis narrativenarrative arounaroundd ththee rhythmrhythm ofof militarymilitary campaigns. 162162 DetailingDetailing eventeventss bbyy theatertheaterss ooff activitactivityy anandd givingivingg a specifispecificc yeayearr ttoo eventsevents imposedimposed somsomee restrictionrestrictionss onon hishis narrative,163narrative,163 butbut iitt alloweallowedd himhim toto establishestablish palpablepalpable causalcausal relationships.164relationships.164 TheThe challengechallenge inin specifyingspecifying 434311 asas ththee "first"first yearyear"" ooff ththee wawarr wawass inin itselfitself problematicproblematic thoughthough..
EachEach citycity ooff ancientancient GreecGreecee hadhad itsits ownown reckoninreckoningg asas ttoo thethe currencurrentt yeayearr andand mademade thithiss determinatiodeterminationn basedbased oonn individualsindividuals holdinholdingg specifispecificc religiousreligious oorr civilcivil positions. 165165 InIn addition,addition, ththee GreekGreek calendacalendarr startestartedd iinn ththee middlemiddle ofof ththee modernmodern
specificspecific inin itsits applicationapplication ttoo currentcurrent attitudeattitudess anandd presentpresent concernsconcerns,, ththee majormajor portionportion ooff ththee genregenre wawass concerneconcernedd withwith humanhuman andand heroicheroic mythmyth..
160160 AustinAustin,, The Greek Historians (1969),51.(1969), 51.
161161 Marincola,Marincola, Greek Historians (2001),(2001), 65-6665-66..
162 162 ThomasThomas R.R. Martin,Martin, "Appendix"Appendix K:K: CalendarsCalendars anandd DatingDating SystemsSystems inin Thucydides,Thucydides,"" Landmark Thucydides (1996),623-625.(1996), 623-625. ThucydidesThucydides'' "summer"summer"" includedincluded ththee modermodernn seasonsseasons ooff springspring,, summesummerr andand fallfall,, thosthosee seasonseasonss durinduringg whicwhichh timtimee armiearmiess anandd naviesnavies werweree activeactive..
163163 TheseThese restrictionrestrictionss wilwilll bebe addressedaddressed momentarily.momentarily.
164164 Marincola,Marincola, Greek Historians (2001),(2001), 6666..
165 165 Martin,Martin, "Calendars"Calendars anandd DatingDating Systems,Systems,"" Landmark Thucydides (1996)(1996),624,, 624, notesnotes thathatt itit waswas evidentlevidentlyy notnot untiluntil afteafterr ththee timetime ooff ThucydidesThucydides thathatt GreekGreek OlympicsOlympics werweree usedused ttoo designatdesignatee a specifispecificc yearyear,, i.e.,i.e., inin thethe thirthirdd yeayearr ooff a specificspecific OlympiadOlympiad.. 4545 yearyear.166. ThucydidesThucydides'' famousfamous,, andand labored,labored, lineslines iinn whicwhichh hehe specifiespecifiess ththee war'swar's firsfirstt yeayearr illustrateillustrate hishis desirdesiree foforr simplicitsimplicityy anandd exactnesexactnesss inin distinguishingdistinguishing subsequentsubsequent yearsyears..
ThThee ThirtThirtyy YearsYears'' PeacePeace whicwhichh wawass entereenteredd intintoo afterafter ththee conquesconquestt ofof EuboeaEuboea lastelastedd fourteefourteenn yearsyears.. InIn ththee fifteentfifteenthh yearyear,, ththee forty-eighthforty-eighth yearyear ooff thethe priestess-shipriestess-shipp ooff ChrysiChrysiss atat ArgosArgos,, durinduringg thethe ephorateephorate ooff AenesiasAenesias aatt SpartSpartaa anandd inin ththee lastlast montmonthh butbut twtwoo ooff ththee archonshiparchonship ofof PythodorusPythodorus atat AthensAthens,, sisixx monthmonthss afteafterr ththee battlebattle ooff PotidaeaPotidaea anandd jusjustt atat ththee beginningbeginning ooff springspring,, a ThebaThebann forcforcee a littllittlee oveoverr threthreee hundredhundred strongstrong,, undeunderr thethe commandcommand ooff theitheirr boeotarchs,boeotarchs, PythangelusPythangelus sonson ofof Phyleides,Phyleides, andand DiemporusDiemporus sonson ooff OntetoridesOntetorides,, aboutabout ththee firsfirstt watcwatchh ooff ththee nightnight,, mademade anan armedarmed entrentryy inin Plataea,Plataea, a citcityy ooff BoeotiaBoeotia inin alliancealliance withwith AthensAthens.. Thuc.Thuc. 2.2.2.2.11
TherTheree araree nono fewefewerr thathann sisixx datindatingg indicatorsindicators iinn thithiss sentence.sentence. UtilityUtility aside,aside, thisthis passagepassage demonstratedemonstratess ththee precisionprecision thathatt ThucydideThucydidess consideredconsidered necessarynecessary toto hihiss method.method. HisHis annalistiannalisticc forformm requiredrequired anan independenindependentt calendarcalendar,, freefree frofromm thethe sectionalsectional reckoningsreckonings ooff ththee variouvariouss GreeGreekk statesstates.. ForFor alalll hishis subsequentsubsequent influence,influence, inin thithiss areareaa alonealone hehe hahadd nono immediatimmediatee oorr lastinglasting impact. 167167 XenophonXenophon usedused Thucydides'Thucydides' annalistiannalisticc reckoningreckoning bubutt onlonlyy inin ththee firsfirstt sectiosectionn ooff thethe
Hellenic8.Hellenica.
BeforeBefore sayinsayingg a fefeww wordwordss abouaboutt ththee unifyingunifying techniquestechniques thatthat areare usedused inin
ThucydidesThucydides'' History, a fefeww moremore commentscomments araree requisiterequisite regardingregarding ththee purposepurpose ooff ththee workwork.. ThisThis willwill assisassistt inin evaluatinevaluatingg aspectsaspects ooff ththee formerformer.. AAss notednoted aboveabove,,
ThucydidesThucydides statestatess inin hishis openingopening thathatt hishis subjecsubjectt deservesdeserves attentionattention becausebecause itit
166 SoSo,, a givegivenn translatiotranslationn mamayy notenote anan eveneventt happeninghappening iinn 414/414/33 forfor exampleexample.. ItIt doedoess notnot indicateindicate confusioconfusionn aass ttoo ththee datedate,, bubutt simplysimply isis reconcilingreconciling ththee modermodernn calendacalendarr toto ththee ancientancient GreekGreek calendarcalendar,, whicwhichh typicalltypicallyy startestartedd arounaroundd JunJunee oorr July.July.
167 167 Marincola,Marincola, Greek Historians (2001),(2001), 6666;; ththee latelaterr RomanRoman historians,historians, duduee ttoo ththee extensiveextensive RomanRoman worldworld,, werweree ablablee ttoo useuse a universaluniversal calendarcalendar,, ab urbe condita, whichwhich,, interestingly,interestingly, wawass moremore connectedconnected witwithh RomeRome thanthan ananyy GreekGreek reckoninreckoningg wawass connecteconnectedd toto a particularparticular statestate.. 4646
"was"was ththee greatesgreatestt movementmovement yeyett knownknown inin history.,,168history."168 Kinesis isis usuallyusually translatedtranslated asas "movement.""movement." ThThee worwordd alsoalso denotedenotess ttoo upheaval,upheaval, revolution,revolution, punitivepunitive actions,actions, movementmovement ofof armiesarmies,, humahumann emotionemotion,, andand stirringstirring up.up. ThThee History isis nonott simplysimply abouaboutt a wawarr thathatt AthenAthenss shoulshouldd havehave wonwon,, neitherneither isis itit simplysimply a narrativenarrative ofof
"movements""movements" ooff armiearmiess anandd naviesnavies.. TheThe History isis aboutabout ththee disruptivdisruptivee andand destructivdestructivee forceforcess thathatt onconcee puputt intointo play,play, thetheyy broughtbrought aboutabout ththee breakdownbreakdown ooff
169169 ththee ethicethicss anandd moralemorale ooff ththee heretofore-civilizedheretofore-civilized GreeGreekk world. TheThe grigrimm lessonlesson,,
ThucydideThucydidess sayssays,, isis thatthat
inin peacepeace andand prosperity,prosperity, citiescities anandd individualindividualss havehave betterbetter sentiments,sentiments, becausebecause thetheyy ddoo nonott finfindd themselvethemselvess confronteconfrontedd witwithh imperiousimperious necessitiesnecessities;; butbut wawarr taketakess away ththee easeasyy supplsupplyy ofof daildailyy wantwantss anandd soso provesproves a roughrough mastermaster thathatt brings mostmost men'smen's characterscharacters ttoo a levellevel withwith theitheirr fortunesfortunes.. Thuc.Thuc. 3.82.2.3.82.2.
Crawley'sCrawley's translatiotranslationn isis tamtamee anandd missesmisses ththee point.point. TheThe usualusual translatiotranslationn ooff biaios didaskalos isis "violen"violentt teacher.teacher."" ThThee mastermaster oorr teacherteacher isis indeedindeed roughrough andand violentviolent,, butbut wawarr inin turturnn teachesteaches itsits studentstudentss ttoo bebe violentviolent.. OfOf thethe innumerableinnumerable themethemess inin thethe History, thethe overwhelminoverwhelmingg messagemessage isis thatthat inin ththee sufferingsufferingss ooff warwar individualsindividuals anandd citiescities areare movedmoved byby eventsevents beyondbeyond theirtheir controlcontrol andand araree besetbeset witwithh terriblterriblee anandd destructivdestructivee dislocation.17o170 ThucydidesThucydides iiss uncharacteristicallyuncharacteristically expliciexplicitt inin thesthesee lines,lines, aass wilwilll bebe illustrateillustratedd inin ththee balancebalance ofof thithiss chapter.chapter. ItIt isis hishis applicatioapplicationn ooff narrativenarrative techniqutechniquee thathatt enableenabless ththee readereaderr ttoo comecome ttoo thisthis conclusioconclusionn oonn hishis own;own; ThucydideThucydidess isis merelymerely statinstatingg ththee obviouobviouss lessonlesson thathatt thethe
168 ThucThuc.. 1.1.21.1.2..
169 Luce,Luce, Greek Historians (1997)(1997),70., 70.
170 WW.. RobertRobert Connor,Connor, Thucydides (Princeton(Princeton:: 1984),32.1984), 32. 4747 readerreader willwill certainlycertainly derivederive onon hishis own.own.
TheThe kindkind ofof structuralstructural analysisanalysis thatthat isis donedone ofof proseprose workwork isis notnot usuallyusually
171 donedone ofof a workwork ofof history. 171 HistoricalHistorical worksworks areare usuallyusually consideredconsidered toto bebe straightforward:straightforward: thethe historianhistorian gathersgathers factsfacts andand thenthen explains thesethese factsfacts alongalong withwith hishis conclusionsconclusions inin a narrative.narrative. ThereThere isis anotheranother techniquetechnique availableavailable toto thethe historian,historian, lessless explicit,explicit, inin whichwhich thethe historianhistorian selectsselects hishis materialmaterial andand thenthen arrangesarranges itit inin a mannermanner thatthat createscreates thethe essentialessential meaningmeaning oror conclusionsconclusions hehe desires.desires. TheThe readerreader acceptsaccepts thethe assumedassumed objectivityobjectivity ofof thethe historianhistorian andand isis thenthen allowedallowed toto formform hishis ownown impressionsimpressions regardingregarding thethe narrative.narrative. TheThe secondsecond techniquetechnique isis muchmuch moremore difficult,difficult, andand thethe historianhistorian whwhoo isis ableable toto mastermaster thisthis techniquetechnique isis moremore thanthan a bearerbearer ofof information.information. ThucydidesThucydides isis ableable toto dodo thisthis inin a restrictedrestricted annalistiannalisticc forformm andand,, ttoo a certaincertain extent,extent, hehe standsstands alonealone inin thisthis
172 achievement. 172 A closclosee inspectioninspection ooff thethe ThucydidesThucydides'' workwork willwill showshow howhow itsits structurstructuree promotespromotes conclusionconclusionss bbyy ththee reader.reader.173173
MarincolaMarincola hashas suggestesuggestedd witwithh meritmerit thathatt ThucydidesThucydides usesuses foufourr narrativenarrative techniquetechniquess thathatt unifyunify hishis History: juxtapositionjuxtaposition,, prefiguratioprefigurationn anandd repetitionrepetition,,
174 contrascontrastt anandd reversalreversal,, anandd ththee integratiointegrationn ooff speecspeechh anandd narrative. 174 MarincolaMarincola alsalsoo notenotess thathatt ththee categoriecategoriess araree nonott harhardd divisionsdivisions,, thathatt isis,, elementelementss ooff eaceachh ooff
171 171 MucMuchh ooff thithiss paragrapparagraphh iiss derivederivedd frofromm HunteHunterr RR.. RawlingRawlingss III,III, The Structure of Thucydides' History (Princeton(Princeton:: 1981)1981),, 3-53-5..
171722 StructuraStructurall analysianalysiss iiss ooff courscoursee inhereninherentt iinn ththee studstudyy ooff ththee ancienancientt historianshistorians.. MMyy poinpointt iiss thathatt thertheree areare,, witwithh ththee possiblpossiblee exceptioexceptionn ooff PolybiusPolybius,, nonnonee whwhoo teltelll ththee storstoryy witwithh ththee subtletsubtletyy anandd artistryartistry,, aass doedoess ThucydidesThucydides..
173 173 FoForr modermodernn historians, subtletsubtletyy iiss a doubtfudoubtfull concerconcernn whewhenn presentinpresentingg conclusionsconclusions.. IIff thertheree iiss ananyy structurastructurall considerationconsideration,, iitt iiss likellikelyy hohoww ththee argumenargumentt iinn presentepresentedd anandd statedstated.. SeldoSeldomm araree ththee modermodernn historian'historian'ss argumentargumentss anandd conclusionconclusionss implicitimplicit..
174 174 MarincolaMarincola,, Greek Historians (2001)(2001),, 6969.. 4488 thesthesee techniquetechniquess areare employedemployed inin ththee majomajorr narrativesnarratives.. EachEach ofof thesthesee wilwilll bebe coveredcovered brieflbrieflyy andand examplesexamples wilwilll bbee givegivenn ttoo illustrateillustrate thethe commandcommand thatthat
ThucydideThucydidess hashas ofof hishis materialmaterial inin additioadditionn ttoo ththee defdeftt anandd sophisticatedsophisticated mannermanner iinn whicwhichh hehe isis ablablee ttoo elicielicitt frofromm ththee closclosee readerreader hishis "own""own" conclusions.conclusions.
PrefigurationPrefiguration andand repetitionsrepetitions iinn ThucydideThucydidess cancan bebe straightforwardstraightforward explanations,explanations, whicwhichh araree eitheeitherr obviouobviouss inin theitheirr recountingrecounting oorr lessless soso,, requiringrequiring thethe readerreader ttoo worworkk at ththee connectionsconnections.. ThThee accountsaccounts ooff ththee plagueplague ofof AthenAthenss iinn
430175175 anandd civilcivil strifestrife ooff CorcyrCorcyraa iinn 427176176 cacann bebe justljustlyy readread aass isolatedisolated eventsevents withouwithoutt concerconcernn aboutabout ththee narrativenarrative contextcontext.. StillStill,, bothboth eventeventss araree analogouanalogouss toto similarsimilar instancesinstances throughouthroughoutt ththee History, whicwhichh ThucydideThucydidess havinghaving relatedrelated oneone,, doedoess nonott ggoo intointo detaildetail whewhenn instancesinstances ooff plaguplaguee anandd civicivill wawarr occuoccurr inin otheotherr partsparts ooff hishis narrative.narrative. AthenAthenss hadhad moremore thathann ononee bouboutt withwith ththee plagueplague anandd thethe stasis ofof
CorcyraCorcyra wawass repeaterepeatedd inin differendifferentt citiescities..
A mormoree complexcomplex examplexamplee isis ththee relativerelative powerpower thatthat a statestate hashas witwithh thethe growtgrowthh ooff itsits navynavy.. InIn ththee ArchaeologArchaeologyy ThucydidesThucydides explainedexplained ththee growthgrowth ofof
AthenAthenss andand ththee supremacsupremacyy itit attainedattained inin itsits maritimemaritime activities.activities. Pericles,Pericles, inin hishis firstfirst speechspeech,, claimeclaimedd AthenAthenss coulcouldd notnot bbee defeatedefeatedd becausbecausee AthenAthenss wawass supremsupremee onon thethe seasea,, whilwhilee SpartaSparta wawass supremsupremee onlyonly oonn ththee landland.. SpartaSparta simplysimply does notnot
havehave ththee capitacapitall ttoo investinvest inin a maritimmaritimee expansion; 177177 anandd "eve"evenn ifif thetheyy werweree toto touctouchh ththee moneysmoneys atat OlympiOlympiaa oorr Delphi,"Delphi," anandd coulcouldd afforaffordd ththee shipsships,, hehe sayssays,,
175 ThucThuc.. 2.47-54.2.47-54.
176 ThucThuc.. 3.81.2-3.84.3.81.2-3.84.
177 ThucThuc.. 1.141.2-7.1.141.2-7. 4949 thetheyy woulwouldd stilstilll notnot bebe successfulsuccessful duduee ttoo theitheirr laclackk ooff citizen-sailors.citizen-sailors.178178 ItIt waswas,, ooff
course,course, througthroughh maritimemaritime expansion,expansion, witwithh ththee aiaidd ooff PersianPersian goldgold,, thatthat SpartaSparta was
ableable finallfinallyy ttoo defeadefeatt Athens.179179 TheThe ArchaeologyArchaeology,, inin thithiss regard,regard, alsoalso prefiguresprefigures ththee defeatdefeat ooff ththee AtheniaAtheniann expeditioexpeditionn ttoo Sicily.Sicily. ThThee narrativenarrative ooff ththee laterlater eventevent taketakess ththee readerreader stepstep byby stepstep througthroughh ththee process:process: takintakingg thethe advicadvicee ofof thethe
SpartanSpartan Gylippus;Gylippus; improvingimproving shipshipss anandd strategiesstrategies;; practicingpracticing skillsskills at seasea;; andand
finallyfinally defeatingdefeating thethe invadinginvading force.18o180 ThThee storstoryy ooff AtheniaAtheniann acquisitionacquisition ooff
maritimemaritime powerpower isis mirroredmirrored inin itsits basicbasic elementelementss iinn ththee laterlater SyracusanSyracusan
experience.experience. ThucydidesThucydides observesobserves thatthat ththee SyracusansSyracusans "were"were mostmost likelike thethe
AthenianAthenianss inin charactercharacter,, anandd alsalsoo mosmostt successfusuccessfull iinn combatincombatingg them."them.,,181181
JustJust asas ThucydidesThucydides'' renditionrendition ooff ththee PlaguePlague isis effectiveffectivee inin prefiguration,prefiguration, iitt
serveservess aass a violenviolentt breakbreak betweenbetween thethe juxtapositiojuxtapositionn ofof bothboth Pericles'Pericles' FuneralFuneral
SpeechSpeech inin ththee wintewinterr ooff ththee war'war'ss firstfirst yeayearr anandd hishis lastlast speecspeechh iinn ththee summersummer ooff
ththee second. 182182 Rather thanthan a standardstandard eulogeulogyy ooff ththee fallen,fallen,183183 ththee FuneralFuneral OrationOration
isis a glorificatioglorificationn ooff AthenAthenss andand itsits accomplishments:accomplishments: thethe acquisitioacquisitionn ooff ththee empireempire;;
1781,0 Thuc.Thuc. 1.1431.143..
179 179 Thuc.Thuc. 8.39.8.39.11
180 180 GylippusGylippus:: ThucThuc.. 7.21.4-5;7.21.4-5; improvements:improvements: 7.36.1-67.36.1-6;; practice:practice: 7.51.27.51.2;; defeadefeatt ooff AtheniaAtheniann fleet: 7.527.52..
181181 Thuc.Thuc. 8.96.5.8.96.5.
182 182 FuneralFuneral Speech:Speech: Thuc.Thuc. 2.35-462.35-46;; lastlast speech:speech: 2.60-42.60-4.. MarincolaMarincola,, Greek Historians (2001),(2001), 7070,, refersrefers ttoo thethe PlaguePlague descriptiodescriptionn asas "th"thee centracentrall elemenelementt ooff a triptyctriptychh frameframedd byby twtwoo speeches.speeches."" ThThee PlaguePlague occursoccurs betweenbetween ththee twotwo inin ththee earlearlyy summesummerr ofof ththee seconsecondd yearyear,, ThucThuc.. 2.47-542.47-54..
183 163 Cartwright,Cartwright, Commentary (1997),(1997), 107,107, saysayss "Fourth-century"Fourth-century equivalentequivalentss suggestsuggest a standardstandard patternpattern forfor ththee genre,genre, comprisingcomprising aann introduction;introduction; a commentcomment oonn thethe speecspeechh asas aann institutioninstitution;; wide-rangingwide-ranging praisepraise ooff thethe dead,dead, glorifyingglorifying theitheirr deeddeedss anandd sacrificesacrifice;; consolatioconsolationn ooff ththee mourners;mourners; anandd a dismissal.dismissal."" 5050 itsits forformm ooff government;government; ththee rightrightss ofof ththee AtheniaAtheniann citizencitizen;; itsits opennessopenness toto foreignersforeigners;; a "school"school ofof Hellas";Hellas"; anandd finallfinallyy ththee AtheniaAtheniann commitmentcommitment inin thethe currentcurrent struggle.184184 ExperiencingExperiencing ththee ravagesravages ofof ththee PlaguePlague anandd anotheranother seasonseason ofof theitheirr landlandss beingbeing devastatedevastatedd byby SpartanSpartan forcesforces,, ththee AtheniansAthenians assembledassembled toto hearhear PericlesPericles again.again. ThThee strainstrain ooff ththee conflictconflict anandd pestilencepestilence hashas reducedreduced thethe
AthenianAthenianss ttoo despaidespairr andand theythey venventt theitheirr emotionsemotions uponupon Pericles. 185185 AfteAfterr anan initialinitial rebuke,rebuke, PericlesPericles defenddefendss himselfhimself asas a policpolicyy maker;maker; remindsreminds thethemm ofof theirtheir votvotee ttoo ggoo ttoo warwar;; assertsasserts thatthat theitheirr onlonlyy choicechoice nownow isis wawarr oorr submission;submission; pointspoints ououtt thathatt AtheniaAtheniann empirempiree isis a tyranntyrannyy anandd thertheree isis dangedangerr inin layinglaying itit asideaside;; andand finallfinallyy thathatt ththee AthenianAthenianss neeneedd ttoo ceasceasee parleyingparleying witwithh SpartaSparta anandd increaseincrease theirtheir efforteffortss ttoo wiwinn ththee war.186186 ThThee mostmost significantsignificant contrascontrastt inin ththee twtwoo speechespeechess isis thethe chasmchasm betweebetweenn thethe idealideal andand thethe real,187real,187 betweenbetween ththee aspirationsaspirations whewhenn thingsthings araree goingoingg ttoo planplan andand thethe anxietiesanxieties iinn ththee midstmidst ofof setbacsetbackk anandd catastrophe.catastrophe.
AAss a unit,unit, ththee combinationcombination ooff speechesspeeches anandd eventsevents inin thethe abovabovee paragraphparagraph alsalsoo prefiguresprefigures ththee eventsevents surroundinsurroundingg ththee SicilianSicilian expeditionexpedition:: ththee splendidsplendid excitemenexcitementt beforbeforee ththee expedition,expedition,188188 ththee catastrophiccatastrophic reversal,reversal, anandd finallfinallyy thethe despaidespairr ofof ththee AthenianAthenianss whewhenn thetheyy receivreceivee ththee report.189189 ThereThere isis another
184 184 AcquisitionAcquisition:: ThucThuc.. 2.362.36;; governmentgovernment:: 2.37.12.37.1;; rights:rights: 2.37.2-3;2.37.2-3; foreignersforeigners:: 2.39.22.39.2;; schoolschool:: 2.41.1-42.41.1-4;; commitmentcommitment:: 2.43.2.43.
185185 Thuc.Thuc. 2.59.22.59.2..
186 186 RebukeRebuke:: Thuc.Thuc. 2.60.12.60.1;; policypolicy maker:maker: 2.60.52.60.5;; votevote:: 2.60.72.60.7;; wawarr oorr submission:submission: 2.61.1;2.61.1; tyranny:tyranny: 2.63.12.63.1;; ceasceasee parleyingparleying andand increasincreasee efforts:efforts: 2.64.5.2.64.5.
187187 Marincola,Marincola, Greek Historians (2001),(2001), 7070..
188188 ThucThuc.. 6.31.6-6.32.6.31.6-6.32.
189189 ThucThuc.. 8.1.1-2.8.1.1-2. 5151 connection,connection, namely,namely, a resolutionresolution ofof conflictconflict oror denouement,denouement, soso toto speak.speak. AfterAfter
Pericles'Pericles' lastlast speechspeech thethe AtheniansAthenians recognizerecognize thatthat theythey dodo havehave thethe resources,resources, bothboth materialmaterial andand emotional,emotional, toto carrycarry on;on; afterafter thethe initialinitial shockshock ofof thethe SicilianSicilian failurefailure thethe AtheniansAthenians recognizerecognize thatthat therethere areare resources,resources, "such"such meansmeans asas theythey had,"had," toto continue.19o190
ContrastContrast andand reversalreversal inin thethe History isis epitomizedepitomized inin thethe famousfamous MelianMelian
DialogueDialogue and,and, onceonce again,again, inin thethe SicilianSicilian expedition.expedition. TheThe MelianMelian DialogueDialogue isis oneone ofof thethe culminationculmination pointspoints inin thethe entireentire narrative. 191191 FourFour yearsyears intointo thethe uneasyuneasy
PeacePeace ofof Nicias,Nicias, thethe AtheniansAthenians sentsent a fleetfleet toto thethe islandisland ofof MelosMelos inin 416.192192 TheThe inhabitantsinhabitants ofof MelosMelos werewere Dorians,Dorians, asas werewere thethe Spartans.Spartans. MelosMelos waswas thethe lonelone holdoutholdout ofof thethe CycladesCyclades thatthat wouldwould notnot joijoinn thethe DelianDelian League, 193193 whichwhich isis saysay thethe
AtheniaAtheniann empireempire.. ThiThiss waswas ththee sourcesource ooff a longsufferinlongsufferingg grievancgrievancee witwithh thethe
AtheniansAthenians,, anandd ThucydidesThucydides does notnot givegive ananyy immediatimmediatee causecause foforr ththee AthenianAthenian actionaction.. AfteAfterr ththee MeliansMelians pleadplead foforr justicjusticee atat ththee outragoutragee ooff beingbeing forceforcedd intointo thethe
League,League, ththee AthenianAthenianss respond simplysimply,, "yo"youu knowknow aass welwelll aass wwee ddoo thathatt right,right, aass ththee worlworldd goesgoes,, iiss onlonlyy iinn questionquestionss betweebetweenn equalequalss iinn powerpower,, whilwhilee ththee stronstrongg ddoo whawhatt thetheyy cacann anandd weaweakk suffesufferr whawhatt thetheyy must."must.,,194194 IInn ththee endend,, ththee MeliansMelians
190 190 ThucThuc.. 8.1.3-48.1.3-4;; WW.. RoberRobertt ConnorConnor,, "Narrativ"Narrativee DiscoursDiscoursee iinn Thucydides,Thucydides,"" The Greek Historians: Literature and History: Papers presented to A. E. Raubitschek, eded.. MichaeMichaell JamesoJamesonn (Pal(Paloo AltoAlto:: 1985)1985),, 1515,, pointpointss ououtt thathatt afteafterr SicilySicily,, fundfundss werweree availablavailablee alsalsoo iinn ththee forformm ooff ththee 10001000 talentalentt emergencemergencyy reservreservee establisheestablishedd iinn 431431.. ThesThesee fundfundss werweree employeemployedd ththee yeayearr afteafterr ththee SiciliaSiciliann defeatdefeat,, 8.15.1.8.15.1.
191 191 ConnorConnor,, Thucydides (1984), 157157..
191922 ThucThuc.. 5.84.15.84.1..
193 193 Donald Kagan, The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition (Ithaca and London: 1981), Donald Kagan, The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition (Ithaca and London. 1981), 148-150148-150..
191944 ThucThuc.. 5.895.89.. 5252 surrender,surrender, ththee menmen araree executedexecuted,, anandd ththee womewomenn anandd childrenchildren araree enslaved. 195195
ItIt isis inin ththee nexnextt lineline thathatt ThucydideThucydidess declaresdeclares,, "Th"Thee samesame wintewinterr thethe
AthenianAthenianss resolvedresolved ttoo saisaill againagain ttoo SicilySicily,, witwithh a greatergreater armament...and,armament...and, iiff possiblepossible toto conquerconquer ththee island."island." ItIt isis inin ththee wakwakee ooff ththee SiciliaSiciliann disasterdisaster thatthat
ThucydidesThucydides portraysportrays ththee essencessencee ooff ththee contrastcontrast anandd reversalreversal ttoo thethe MelianMelian experienceexperience;; NiciasNicias pleadspleads foforr ththee livelivess ooff hishis menmen inin exchangeexchange forfor surrender,surrender,
SayingSaying thathatt hehe wawass readyready ttoo agreeagree witwithh thethemm onon behalfbehalf ooff thethe AtheniansAthenians toto repayrepay whatevewhateverr moneymoney ththee SyracusansSyracusans hadhad spentspent uponupon thethe wawarr ifif theythey woulwouldd letlet hihiss armarmyy gogo;; anandd offeredoffered untiuntill ththee moneymoney was paidpaid ttoo givegive AthenianAthenianss aass hostageshostages,, ononee foforr evereveryy talenttalent.. ThucThuc.. 7.83.2.7.83.2.
AfteAfterr ththee AtheniaAtheniann defeatdefeat,, NiciasNicias anandd Demosthenes,Demosthenes, whwhoo hadhad beenbeen sensentt ttoo reinforcreinforcee NiciasNicias anandd ththee expeditionexpedition,, werweree "butchered"; 196196 thethe survivingsurviving AthenianAthenian hopliteshoplites andand sailors,sailors, whowhomm ThucydideThucydidess estimatesestimates ttoo bbee nono fewefewerr thanthan sevenseven thousand,197thousand,197 werweree sensentt ttoo spenspendd theitheirr remaininremainingg yearyearss laboringlaboring inin ththee quarries.quarries.
TherTheree isis withouwithoutt doubdoubtt nnoo moremore thathann a handfulhandful ofof scholarscholarss ooff ThucydidesThucydides oorr historianshistorians ooff ththee PeloponnesianPeloponnesian WaWarr whwhoo ddoo nonott mentiomentionn thethe contrastcontrast betweenbetween ththee AtheniaAtheniann treatmentreatmentt ooff ththee MeliansMelians andand thethe subsequensubsequentt treatmenttreatment theythey receivedreceived frofromm thethe Syracusans.Syracusans. AtheniaAtheniann hubris coulcouldd notnot havehave beenbeen moremore starkstark oorr unfoldedunfolded moremore tragicallytragically,, inin a flaweflawedd sense,sense, thathann ifif thethe twotwo narrativesnarratives hadhad beenbeen writtewrittenn byby AeschyluAeschyluss oorr Euripides.Euripides. Cartwright,Cartwright, inin hishis Commentary, notesnotes a speecspeechh givegivenn byby NiciasNicias ttoo hishis beleagueredbeleaguered men:men: "remembe"rememberr ththee surprisessurprises ooff war,war,
195 ThucThuc.. 5.116.4.5.116.4. ThucydideThucydidess telltellss usus thathatt ththee AthenianAthenianss repopulaterepopulatedd ththee islandisland witwithh AthenianAthenian colonists.colonists.
196196 ThucThuc.. 7.86.2.7.86.2.
197197 ThucThuc.. 7.87.1,4.7.87.1,4. 5353 andand witwithh thethe hopehope thatthat fortunefortune willwill notnot bebe alwaysalways againstagainst yoU.,,198you."198 ThThee MeliansMelians hadhad mademade ththee identicalidentical argumentargument regardingregarding ththee fortunefortuness ofof warwar:: "action"action stillstill preservespreserves forfor usus a hopehope thatthat wwee maymay standstand erect.,,199erect."199 ThThee AtheniansAthenians repliedreplied simply,simply, "Hope"Hope,, danger'sdanger's comforter,comforter, maymay bebe indulgedindulged inin byby thosethose whwhoo havehave abundanabundantt resources.,,200resources."200 TheThe AthenianAthenianss at SyracuseSyracuse hadhad spentspent theirtheir resources.resources.
TherTheree isis anotheanotherr MelianMelian argument,argument, whichwhich prefiguresprefigures thethe conclusionconclusion ofof thethe expeditioexpeditionn anandd wouldwould havehave certainlycertainly prefigured,prefigured, inin highhigh relief,relief, thethe finalfinal defeatdefeat ofof
AthenAthenss ifif ththee History hadhad notnot beenbeen leftleft incomplete:incomplete:
YouYou shouldshould notnot destroydestroy whatwhat isis ourour common protection,protection, namely,namely, thethe privilegeprivilege ofof beingbeing allowedallowed inin dangerdanger toto invokeinvoke whawhatt isis faifairr andand right,right, andand eveneven ttoo profitprofit byby argumentsarguments notnot strictlystrictly valivalidd ifif theythey cancan bebe persuasive.persuasive. AndAnd youyou areare asas muchmuch interestedinterested inin thisthis asas any,any, asas youyourr falfalll woulwouldd bebe a signalsignal forfor thethe heaviestheaviest vengeancevengeance andand anan exampleexample forfor thethe worldworld toto meditatemeditate upon.upon. Thuc.Thuc. 5.90.5.90.
TheThe AthenianAthenianss loosedloosed theirtheir vengeancevengeance uponupon thethe Melians,Melians, asas inin turturnn diddid thethe
SyracusanSyracusanss uponupon thethe AtheniansAthenians.. XenophonXenophon,, however,however, reportsreports thatthat ththee Spartans,Spartans, atat thethe war'swar's end,end, rejectedrejected ThebanTheban andand CorinthianCorinthian demanddemandss toto destroydestroy AthensAthens anandd enslaveenslave herher population,population, havinghaving pitypity onon a peoplepeople whwhoo hadhad donedone googoodd serviceservice toto thethe HellenesHellenes inin thethe past.past. 201201
A fefeww moremore commentscomments areare requiredrequired beforebefore leavingleaving ThucydidesThucydides andand consideringconsidering hishis influenceinfluence onon XenophonXenophon,, hishis otherother immediateimmediate continuators,continuators, andand ththee significansignificantt GreekGreek andand LatinLatin historians.historians.
198198 Thuc.Thuc. 7.61.3.7.61.3.
199199 Thuc.Thuc. 5.102.5.102.
200200 Thuc.Thuc. 5.102.5.102.
201201 Xen.Xen. 2.2.202.2.20.. 5454
HerodotusHerodotus hashas ththee earnedearned reputationreputation ooff beingbeing a historianhistorian ooff characterscharacters anandd personalities;personalities; hishis Histories iiss mademade uupp ofof personalpersonal relationshipsrelationships thatthat intertwinintertwinee anandd connecconnectt oveoverr ththee centuriescenturies,, repayingrepaying googoodd foforr goodgood,, andand revengerevenge foforr hurt.202202 ThucydidesThucydides'' primaryprimary concernconcern isis witwithh ththee processprocess ooff nationsnations moremore ssoo thanthan ththee inspectioninspection ooff personalities.203203 ButBut thertheree isis mormoree characterizatiocharacterizationn iinn
ThucydidesThucydides thanthan isis typicallytypically acknowledged.204204 TherTheree araree thethe obviouobviouss storiesstories thatthat araree unquestionablyunquestionably dominateddominated byby leadingleading individualsindividuals whwhoo areare memorablememorable longlong afteafterr ththee History hashas beenbeen laidlaid asideaside:: Pericles, ArchidamusArchidamus,, Cleon,Cleon, NiciasNicias,,
Demosthenes,Demosthenes, AlcibiadesAlcibiades,, anandd Lysander,Lysander, toto namename thosthosee whwhoo immediately comecome ttoo mindmind.. TheseThese storiestoriess havehave beebeenn termetermedd "commande"commanderr narratives"narratives" andand theirtheir functionfunction,, thougthoughh drivedrivenn byby individualsindividuals,, isis ttoo personalizpersonalizee a processprocess thatthat arguablyarguably doedoess notnot havhavee a lifelife ooff ititss ownown bubutt isis drivedrivenn byby ththee personalitiepersonalitiess ooff individualsindividuals andand personalitiespersonalities ooff statesstates.. ItIt isis ttoo ththee statesstates anandd theitheirr inhabitantinhabitantss thathatt ThucydidesThucydides assuredlassuredlyy givegivess hishis attentioattentionn iinn studstudyy ooff character.character. ThereThere isis ththee observableobservable presencepresence ooff city-statescity-states aass characters.characters. CorcyraCorcyra,, ArgosArgos,, ThebesThebes,, Corinth,Corinth, Melos,Melos,
Megara,Megara, anandd Plataea,Plataea, allall creatcreatee ththee impressionimpression ooff personality.personality. OfOf course,course, SpartaSparta andand AthenAthenss araree preeminent.preeminent. ThThee wawarr isis a clasclashh notnot simplsimplyy betweenbetween ththee so-calledso-called
"elephant""elephant" andand ththee "whale"whale"" oorr eveevenn betweenbetween oligarchyoligarchy andand democracy,democracy, butbut
202 JohJohnn GouldGould,, Herodotus (New(New YorkYork:: 1989),42.1989), 42.
202033 MarincolaMarincola,, Greek Historians (2001),(2001), 91.91 .
204 204 SimoSimonn Hornblower,Hornblower, Thucydides (Baltimore:(Baltimore: 1987),57;1987), 57; contra, CornfordCornford,, Mythhistoricus (1907)(1907),, 129,129, 146-147,146-147, thougthoughh iinn linlinee witwithh Hornblower'Hornblower'ss criticiscriticismm thathatt ththee History isis overwhelminglyoverwhelmingly influencedinfluenced byby dramadrama,, dismissedismissess ththee portraiportraitt ooff CleonCleon foforr examplexamplee aass admittedladmittedlyy lean,lean, aass nothingnothing moremore thathann aann actoractor "o"onn a play-bill.play-bill."" 5555
205 betweenbetween thethe ploddingplodding andand thethe meticulousmeticulous,, andand thethe energetienergeticc andand ththee impulsive.impulsive.
HerodotusHerodotus inventeinventedd historyhistory whewhenn hehe determinedeterminedd toto narratenarrate andand explainexplain eventeventss inin sequencsequencee anandd nonott simplsimplyy reportreport them,them, asas hadhad thethe annalistsannalists beforebefore him.206him.206 HisHis constantconstant inclinationinclination ttoo excurseexcursess promptepromptedd ThucydidesThucydides ttoo forsakforsakee a narrativnarrativee strewstrewnn witwithh storiesstories ofof romance,romance, andand hehe committedcommitted toto focusfocus onon thethe
207207 processprocess ooff hishis subjectsubject matter. AAss indicatedindicated above,above, ThucydideThucydidess initiatedinitiated contemporarycontemporary history.history. TToo facilitatfacilitatee understandingunderstanding,, hhee chosechose ttoo writewrite inin annalisticannalistic formatformat;; hehe wawass ththee firsfirstt historianhistorian ttoo developdevelop purposelypurposely a secularsecular approacapproachh toto causatiocausationn andand inin ththee processprocess progresseprogressedd frofromm ththee apparentapparent ttoo thethe realreal causescauses..
HeHe addressedaddressed thethe significantsignificant difficultdifficultyy inin obtainingobtaining correctcorrect informationinformation butbut waswas
208208 evidentlevidentlyy successfusuccessfull inin solvinsolvingg thesethese problems. LikeLike Herodotus,Herodotus, hehe diddid notnot simplsimplyy reportreport factsfacts butbut utilizedutilized highlyhighly sophisticatesophisticatedd unifyingunifying techniquestechniques ttoo insureinsure
205 Sparta:Sparta: ThucThuc.. 1.70;1.70; 1.84.2-3;1.84.2-3; 1.95.7;1.95.7; 5.105.4;5.105.4; 6.11.66.11.6;; 8.24.48.24.4;; 8.96.58.96.5.. AthensAthens:: 1.70.1-9;1.70.1-9; 2.35.462.35.46;; 3.37-8;3.37-8; 6.9.36.9.3;; 6.53.26.53.2;; 7.14.127.14.12;; 7.21.3-4.7.21.3-4.
202066 FornaraFornara.. Nature of History (Berkeley:{Berkeley. 1983),1983), 1515..
207 207 ThucThuc.. 1.22.4.1.22.4. HornblowerHornblower,, Thucydides (1987),(1987), 197,197, offerofferss a wonderfuwonderfull contrast,contrast, andand likelylikely unintentionallunintentionallyy comiccomic,, betweenbetween ththee twtwoo historians.historians. ThThee followinfollowingg excerpexcerptt frofromm HornblowerHornblower isis lengthlengthyy bubutt ssoo araree a numbernumber ooff Herodotus'Herodotus' excursesexcurses.. HornblowerHornblower notesnotes howhow ThucydidesThucydides narratesnarrates ththee SpartaSpartann attacattackk oonn AcarnaniAcarnaniaa inin 429429,, anandd ththee AthenianAthenianss determinationdetermination ttoo respond.respond. "Besides"Besides whicwhichh thertheree wawass a hopehope ofof takintakingg NaupactusNaupactus"" (2.80).(2.80). HornblowerHornblower observes:observes: "Herodotus"Herodotus mightmight havhavee handledhandled thithiss ratheratherr differentlydifferently.. InsteadInstead ooff ththee six-worsix-wordd sentencsentencee abouaboutt NaupaktosNaupaktos whichwhich ThucydideThucydidess givesgives,, wwee mighmightt havhavee hadhad a retrospectiveretrospective digressiodigressionn regardingregarding ththee originaoriginall capturecapture ooff ththee placeplace byby AthenAthenss inin ththee 460460ss (a(ann eveneventt obscureobscure ttoo us);us); somethinsomethingg abouaboutt ththee helothelot revolt;revolt; a mentionmention ooff ththee dedicatiodedicationn ooff ththee statustatuee ooff NikNikee witwithh perhapsperhaps aann anecdoteanecdote attached;attached; aann apologeticapologetic formulformulaa announcinannouncingg ththee enendd ooff ththee digressiondigression;; a shorshortt speecspeechh byby somebodsomebodyy stressinstressingg thethe attractionsattractions,, anandd exaggeratinexaggeratingg ththee sizesize,, ooff ZakynthosZakynthos,, KephalleniaKephallenia anandd Naupaktos;Naupaktos; anandd finallyfinally somesome resumptivresumptivee wordwordss abouaboutt ththee PeloponnesianPeloponnesian planplan againsagainstt AkamaniAkarnaniaa inin 424299 BC,BC, thithiss timetime witwithh a notnotee sayingsaying,, 'But'But eventeventss werweree toto shoshoww thathatt thethe AkarnanianAkarnanianss werweree notnot destineddestined ttoo comcomee toto griegrieff asas a resulresultt ooff thithiss expedition'.expedition'.n" VerVeryy funnfunnyy inin hishis taktakee oonn a differencdifferencee betweenbetween ththee twotwo historians.historians.
208 EmilEmilyy Greenwood,Greenwood, Thucydides and the Shaping of History (London(london:: 2006)2006),, 8181.. GreenwoodGreenwood devotedevotess a chaptechapterr inin herher bookbook,, "New"New TheatreTheatress ofof WarWar:: BookBook 8 andand SophoclesSophocles'' Philoctetes," 8383-- 110808. . SheShe arguesargues thathatt episodeepisodess thathatt lielie behindbehind Sophocles'Sophocles' Philoctetes accuratelaccuratelyy supporsupportt ththee eventeventss founfoundd inin ThucydidesThucydides'' BooBookk 8.8. 56 notnot onlyonly ththee reader'sreader's attentionattention butbut alsalsoo ttoo sustaisustainn hishis explanatioexplanationn ofof ththee wawarr timetime eventevent,, andand aann evaluationevaluation ooff ththee samesame thathatt isis nonott alwayalwayss explicit.explicit.
SignificantSignificant objectivityobjectivity inin a historianhistorian isis impossible,impossible, anandd ThucydideThucydidess hashas revealedrevealed enoughenough evidenceevidence ofof hishis attitudeattitudess regardingregarding ththee wawarr anandd ththee processprocess ooff itsits consequencesconsequences.. ThucydideThucydidess iiss notablenotable inin hishis detachmendetachmentt andand thithiss contributescontributes ttoo a reputationreputation ofof objectivity. 209209 ThucydidesThucydides contributes,contributes, foforr example,example, greatlgreatlyy toto thithiss sensesense byby lacklack ooff comment,comment, explanation,explanation, oror defensdefensee regardinregardingg hihiss dismissaldismissal asas strategos andand hishis subsequentsubsequent exile;exile; hehe simplsimplyy sayssays,, "I"Itt wawass alsalsoo mymy fatfatee ttoo bebe aann exileexile frofromm mymy countrcountryy foforr twenttwentyy yearyearss afterafter mymy commancommandd aatt Amphipolis.,,210Amphipolis."210
HisHis understatementunderstatement isis overwhelmingoverwhelming andand causescauses wonderwonder;; anandd hehe bringsbrings upup thethe facfactt onlyonly toto stresstresss thatthat duduee ttoo thisthis enforceenforcedd "leisure"leisure"" hehe wawass ablablee "t"too observeobserve affairaffairss moremore closely.,,211closely."211
ThThee "scientific"scientific methodology"methodology" ooff ththee nineteenthnineteenth centurcenturyy andand itsits impactimpact onon
ThucydideaThucydideann criticismscriticisms resultedresulted inin a backlashbacklash promptingprompting thethe famoufamouss publicationpublication
212212 ofof Cornford'sCornford's Thucydides Mythistoricus iinn 1907. InIn shortshort,, CornfordCornford ascribeascribess toto
ThucydidesThucydides allall thethe elementselements thatthat a historianhistorian musmustt overcomeovercome:: lacklack ofof causalitycausality,, nono
senssensee ooff economiceconomic affairs,affairs, andand a historicalhistorical structurestructure borrowedborrowed wholesalwholesalee fromfrom
209 Dian.Dion. HalHal.. Thuc. 5050;; ColinColin Macleod,Macleod, "Thucydides"Thucydides andand Tragedy,Tragedy,"" Collected Essays (Oxford(Oxford:: 1983),1983), 141-158.141-158.
212100 ThucThuc.. 5.26.5.5.26.5.
211 211 ThucThuc.. 5.26.55.26.5.. Gomme,Gomme, etetai, a/., Commentary, 4.154.15,, translatetranslatess kath' esuchian, "no"nott distractedistractedd bbyy troubletroubless oorr otherother activities,"activities," ratherrather thathann "at"at leisure.leisure.""
212 212 H.-P.H.-P. Stahl,Stahl, Thucydides: Man's Place in History (Oakville,(Oakville, ConnecticutConnecticut:: 2003)2003),, 14,14, refersrefers ttoo Thucydides Mythistoricus asas aann "od"oddd work."work." 5757
Aeschylus.213213 RatherRather thathann deliverdeliver a deathblodeathbloww ttoo ththee ThucydideaThucydideann methodmethod,, itit onlyonly serveservedd ttoo illustrateillustrate Thucydides'Thucydides' accomplishment.accomplishment. RestrictedRestricted aass hehe wawass ttoo thethe annalisticannalistic approach,approach, ThucydideThucydidess isis ableable ttoo attaiattainn ththee illusiveillusive dramatic turturnn witwithh hishis narrativenarrative techniquetechnique anandd stilstilll holdhold fastfast ttoo ththee factsfacts.. TragedyTragedy emergeemergess frofromm thethe actionsactions ofof ththee war,war, bubutt itit isis absurdabsurd ttoo holdhold thathatt hishis plot,plot, ssoo toto speakspeak,, wawass createdcreated..
213 213 Cornford,Cornford, Mythistoricus (1907)(1907),242,, 242, assertsasserts,, "Thi"Thiss unhistoricunhistoric principlprinciplee ooff design camecame inin oonn ththee totopp ofof hishis firstfirst,, chronologicachronologicall plan,plan, andand hhee alloweallowedd botbothh ttoo shapshapee hishis work.work."" SeeSee also,also, StahlStahl,, Thucydides (2003),(2003), 1414.. CHAPTECHAPTERR IIIIII
THETHE GREEKGREEK CONTINUATORSCONTINUATORS
Thucydides'Thucydides' placeplace inin historiographyhistoriography isis leslesss evidentevident inin hishis immediateimmediate influenceinfluence onon GreekGreek historians.historians. ThiThiss chaptechapterr wilwilll notnot bebe a fulfulll analysisanalysis ofof thosethose historianshistorians whwhoo followefollowedd him,him, bubutt ratherrather a discussiodiscussionn ofof wherwheree theitheirr methodsmethods andand narrativenarrative techniquestechniques araree seeseenn asas a continuationcontinuation ooff oorr a departuredeparture fromfrom
Thucydides'Thucydides' workwork;; thithiss chapterchapter,, asas a mattermatter ooff recourserecourse,, wilwilll offeofferr a generalgeneral viewview ooff ththee tendencietendenciess ooff ththee succeedingsucceeding agagee inin historicalhistorical writingwriting.. SomSomee ooff thethe historianshistorians wilwilll illustrateillustrate elementelementss ofof hishis methodsmethods anandd stylestyle;; othersothers,, influencedinfluenced bbyy ththee sensibilitiessensibilities ooff ththee timestimes,, wilwilll ignoreignore hihimm almostalmost completelycompletely;; a fewfew willwill endeavoendeavorr strictlstrictlyy ttoo continuecontinue hihiss practicespractices,, butbut witwithh limitedlimited success.success. ThisThis chapterchapter onon GreeGreekk historianshistorians wilwilll notnot conclude,conclude, asas mightmight bebe expecteexpectedd chronologically,chronologically, withwith a discussiondiscussion ofof PolybiusPolybius (c.(c. 200-c.200-c. 118).118). ConsiderationConsideration ofof hishis workwork willwill bebe delayedelayedd inin thithiss thesithesiss untiluntil ththee finafinall assessmenassessmentt ooff Thucydides'Thucydides' placeplace inin ancientancient historiographyhistoriography.. ThThee extanextantt body ofof worworkk frofromm ThucydideThucydidess ttoo PolybiusPolybius isis leanlean andand manmanyy ooff ththee historianshistorians araree representedrepresented onlonlyy iinn fragmentfragmentss ooff theitheirr histories.214214
TheThe mindsminds ofof ththee timtimee immediatelyimmediately followinfollowingg ThucydidesThucydides werewere moremore interestedinterested inin otherother topictopicss thathann witwithh ththee newnew genrgenree ooff history.history. PlatoPlato andand Aristotle,Aristotle,
214 214 Bury,Bury, Greek Historians (1909)(1909),, 150-190,150-190, describesdescribes ththee agagee inin hishis lecturelecture,, "The"The DevelopmentDevelopment ooff GreeGreekk HistoriographyHistoriography afteafterr Thucydides.Thucydides."" ThougThoughh a googoodd deadeall hahass beenbeen writtewrittenn anandd discovereddiscovered sincsincee hihiss writingwriting,, iitt isis a well-considerewell-consideredd accounaccountt anandd mucmuchh ooff whawhatt followsfollows isis derivedderived frofromm thisthis lecture.lecture. 5959 foforr exampleexample,, werweree moremore involvedinvolved withwith,, amongamong otheotherr concerns,concerns, politicalpolitical science.science.
TheyThey bothboth wrotwrotee greatgreat workworkss repletereplete witwithh actuaactuall anandd theoreticatheoreticall exampleexampless ooff thethe
215 conductconduct ofof governance. 215 Plato,Plato, itit seems,seems, wawass headedheaded towardtoward a careecareerr inin politicspolitics
216 butbut abruptlabruptlyy movedmoved ttoo a moremore contemplativecontemplative life. 216 GivenGiven thathatt a publicpublic careercareer proveprovedd ttoo bebe a fertilfertilee groundground foforr laterlater historians,historians, ThucydideThucydidess himselfhimself beingbeing thethe exemplar,exemplar, ththee consequenceconsequence ooff Plato'sPlato's shiftshift maymay havehave beenbeen thathatt thethe historyhistory lostlost toto
217 philosophyphilosophy a greagreatt advocate.217
ThucydidesThucydides'' immediateimmediate continuator,continuator, XenophoXenophonn ofof AthenAthenss (c.(c. 430-after430-after
354), 218218 hadhad a numbernumber ofof characteristiccharacteristicss thathatt qualifiedqualified himhim ttoo writewrite a fulfulll andand well-well- informedinformed history.history. HeHe wawass anan AthenianAthenian,, a soldiersoldier,, likelike PlatoPlato a studentstudent ooff SocratesSocrates,, andand likelike ThucydideThucydidess aann exileexile.. HeHe hadhad firsthanfirsthandd knowledgeknowledge ofof AsiAsiaa andand thethe
PersianPersian Empire,Empire, livelivedd inin SpartaSparta,, Elis,Elis, andand Corinth,Corinth, andand wawass a close frienfriendd ttoo thethe
SpartanSpartan kingking AgesilausAgesilaus.. HisHis isis ththee onlonlyy completecomplete historyhistory inin ththee centurycentury afterafter
215 215 AlAlll thathatt survivessurvives ofof Aristotle'Aristotle'ss collectioncollection ofof ththee constitutionsconstitutions ooff oveoverr 150150 GreeGreekk statesstates iiss The Constitution of the Athenians. HisHis theortheoryy ooff thethe naturenature andand functiofunctionn ofof governmentgovernment,, derivedderived fromfrom thathatt collection,collection, however,however, iiss specificallspecificallyy addressedaddressed inin The Politics; Plato'sPlato's isis inin hihiss Republic.
216 216 DavidDavid Bostock,Bostock, "Plato,"Plato,"" The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, ed.ed. TeTedd HonderichHonderich (Oxford(Oxford:: 1955),1955), 683,683, states,states, "When"When SocrateSocratess wawass condemnedcondemned toto deatdeathh anandd executeexecutedd iinn 399399,, PlatoPlato gavgavee upup allall thoughthoughtt ofof a politicalpolitical careercareer,, anandd leftleft AthenAthenss iinn disgust."disgust." ThiThiss assumptionassumption isis basebasedd oonn thethe famousfamous Seventh Letter (II.(II. 324324 B-32B-3255 AA)) ooff questionablquestionablee andand muchmuch debateddebated provenanceprovenance (e.g.,(e.g., LudwigLudwig Edelstein,Edelstein, Plato's Seventh Letter [Leiden[Leiden:: 1966]).1966]). ItIt isis,, despitedespite ititss provenance,provenance, a greatgreat storystory,, anandd isis similarsimilar toto thathatt ofof ththee youthyouth ThucydideThucydidess weepinweepingg upouponn hearinghearing HerodotusHerodotus reciterecite fromfrom hishis Histories (Marcellin(Marcellin.. Vit. Thuc. 54)54)..
217 217 Bury,Bury, Greek Historians (1909)(1909),151,, 151, states,states , "The"The menmen whowho mightmight otherwiseotherwise havehave shoneshone asas historianhistorianss werweree engageengagedd inin speculationsspeculations onon ththee naturnaturee ofof ththee state."state." ItIt mightmight havehave beenbeen wishfulwishful thinkinthinkingg onon Bury'sBury's part.part. The Constitution of the Athenians containscontains,, inin additionaddition ttoo thethe descriptiondescription ofof thethe constitutionconstitution,, a politicalpolitical historhistoryy ooff AthensAthens.. P.P. JJ.. Rhodes,Rhodes, A Commentary on the Aristotelian 'Athenaion Politeia' (Oxford(Oxford:: 1981)1981) 6060,, observeobservess thathatt aass a historianhistorian,, AristotlAristotlee "is"is mediocremediocre (though(though bbyy nnoo meansmeans uselessuseless toto us),us), butbut aass a describerdescriber ooff constitutionaconstitutionall practicepractice hehe iiss firsfirstt inin ththee field.field."" IItt mightmight alsalsoo havhavee beenbeen thathatt AristotlAristotlee wawass moremore focusefocusedd onon ththee featurefeaturess ofof governmengovernmentt ttoo thethe detrimendetrimentt ofof hishis historicahistoricall methodmethod..
218 3 218 OC0OCD doedoess notnot offeofferr mormoree thathann generagenerall datedatess foforr Xenophon;Xenophon; seseee WW.. EE.. Higgins,Higgins, Xenophon the Athenian (Albany:(Albany: 1977),1977), 128,128, 149149.. 6060
HerodotusHerodotus andand ThucydidesThucydides.. XenophoXenophonn isis alsalsoo interestinginteresting inin respectrespect ttoo
ThucydideaThucydideann influenceinfluence becausebecause ooff ththee markedmarked stylististylisticc differencesdifferences inin hishis work.work.
ForFor thithiss reasonreason hishis worworkk wilwilll bebe examinedexamined moremore closelyclosely thathann ththee workworkss ooff thethe otherother historianshistorians includedincluded hereinherein.. 219 Xenophon'Xenophon'ss Hellenic8Hellenica cancan bebe dividedividedd intointo fourfour topicatopicall sections: 219
1.1. Sparta'sSparta's triumptriumphh overover AthenAthenss inin ththee PeloponnesianPeloponnesian WaWarr (Xen(Xen.. Hell. 1.11.1--
2.242.24;; inin 411-404)411-404);;
22.. InstallationInstallation ofof ththee AtheniaAtheniann ThirtyThirty TyrantsTyrants (Xen(Xen.. Hell. 3.1;3.1; iinn 404404)) toto thethe
reinstitutionreinstitution ooff democracdemocracyy (Xen.(Xen. Hell. 2.432.43;; inin 401)401);;
3.3. SpartanSpartan increaseincrease inin powerpower inin ththee AegeaAegeann ttoo ththee PeacePeace ofof AntalcidaAntalcidass (Xen(Xen..
Hell. 5.1.32-355.1.32-35 inin 387/6),387/6), whicwhichh abandoneabandonedd ththee AsiaAsiann GreeGreekk citiescities ttoo thethe
PersianPersian EmpireEmpire iinn exchangexchangee foforr a SpartaSpartann hegemonihegemonicc positionposition oonn thethe
mainlandmainland andand thethe AegeaAegeann islandsislands;;
4.4. SpartanSpartan effortsefforts toto checkcheck thethe riserise ooff ththee ThebaThebann hegemonyhegemony culminatinculminatingg iinn
Sparta'sSparta's finafinall defeadefeatt inin thethe battlebattle ooff MantineaMantinea (Xen.(Xen. Hell. 7.5.18-27.5.18-255 inin 362)362)..
XenophoXenophonn makesmakes clearclear inin thethe finalfinal lineline ooff hishis historhistoryy thatthat hehe dididd notnot intendintend toto carrycarry ththee workwork further:further: "Thus"Thus fafarr bebe itit writtewrittenn byby me;me; ththee eventeventss afterafter thesethese willwill perhapsperhaps bebe thethe concernconcern ofof another.,,22oanother."220
ForFor ththee modernmodern historian,historian, XenophoXenophonn posesposes a numbernumber ooff problems,problems, nonott thethe leastleast ofof whicwhichh isis ththee openinopeningg lineline ooff hishis Hellenica.Hellenic8. ThucydidesThucydides'' History endendss notnot onlonlyy inin midnarrative,midnarrative, bubutt incrediblyincredibly inin midsentencemidsentence:: "Accordingl"Accordinglyy (Tissaphernes)(Tissaphernes)
219 3 219 EwenEwen LyallLyall Bowie,Bowie, "Xenophon,""Xenophon," OC0OCD ,, 1629.1629.
222200 XenXen.. Hell. 7.5.27.7.5.27. 6161 wenwentt firstfirst toto EphesusEphesus andand offeredoffered sacrificesacrifice ttoo ArtemisArtemis...... ,,221 XenophonXenophon pickspicks upup ththee narrative:narrative:
AfterAfter this,this, notnot manymany daysdays later,later, ThymocharesThymochares camecame frofromm AthenAthenss withwith a fewfew shipsships;; andand thereuponthereupon ththee LacedaemoniansLacedaemonians andand thethe AthenianAthenianss foughtfought anotheanotherr navalnaval battle,battle, andand ththee LacedaemoniansLacedaemonians werweree victorious,victorious, underunder thethe leadershipleadership ofof AgesadridasAgesadridas.. Xen.Xen. Hell. 1.1.1.1.1.1.
ThereThere isis nono connectionconnection witwithh Thucydides'Thucydides' lastlast lines,lines, andand inin factfact itit isis onlyonly laterlater thatthat
XenophoXenophonn mentionsmentions TissaphernesTissaphernes arrivingarriving atat thethe HellespontHellespont (after,(after, ThucydidesThucydides indicates,indicates, "he"he wenwentt firsfirstt toto Ephesus"),Ephesus"), fullyfully threthreee battlesbattles afterafter thethe oneone inin whichwhich
XenophoXenophonn opensopens hishis history.222history.222 ThThee confusionconfusion isis pointed outout herehere notnot soso muchmuch toto investigateinvestigate thethe possibilities,possibilities, e.g.,e.g., thethe absenceabsence ofof a moremore coherentcoherent openingopening toto thethe
Hellenica,223Hellenica,223 butbut toto illustrateillustrate simplysimply ththee absenceabsence ofof anyany prefatoryprefatory statementstatement ofof purpose.purpose. DespiteDespite positionspositions toto thethe contrary,contrary, thethe openingopening ofof thethe Hellenica isis asas
XenophoXenophonn intended;intended; thertheree isis nothingnothing missing.224224 WithoutWithout a statementstatement ofof purposepurpose oror a methodmethod ofof continuation,continuation, thethe assumptionassumption mustmust bebe mademade thatthat hehe intendedintended notnot onlonlyy ttoo continucontinuee Thucydides'Thucydides' narrativenarrative toto ththee conclusionconclusion ofof thethe PeloponnesianPeloponnesian
War,War, butbut alsalsoo toto staystay truetrue ttoo hishis methodmethod toto ththee endend ofof thethe Hellenica. InIn thethe latterlatter
221 Thuc.Thuc. 8.109.18.109.1;; Gomme,Gomme, etetal., al., Commentary, 5.358,5.358, notesnotes thathatt thethe phrasephrase isis formattedformatted,, whichwhich necessarilynecessarily hahass requiredrequired completion,completion, e.g.,e.g., 1.61.2,1.61.2, 4.77.24.77.2.. Gomme,Gomme, etetal., al., Commentary, 5.3875.387 fn1fn1,, adviseadvisess thatthat ththee additionaladditional sentencesentence (Thuc.(Thuc. 8.109.2)8.109.2) inin mostmost modernmodern texts,texts, "When"When thethe wintewinterr afterafter thithiss summesummerr isis oveoverr thethe twenty-firsttwenty-first yearyear ofof thisthis warwar wilwilll bebe completed,"completed," isis universallyuniversally acceptedaccepted asas aann ancient,ancient, Byzantine,Byzantine, oorr medievalmedieval interpolation.interpolation.
222222 XenXen.. Hell. 1.1.9;1.1.9; Gomme,Gomme, et al.,a/., Commentary, 5.439,5.439, notesnotes thatthat thisthis "is"is a veryvery curiouscurious pointpoint ofof referencereference forfor ththee dating."dating." NoneNone ofof thethe battlesbattles XenophoXenophonn mentionsmentions beforebefore thithiss areare mentionedmentioned inin ThucydidesThucydides..
223 223 Gomme,Gomme, etetal., aI., Commentary, 5.439.5.439.
224 224 MalcolmMalcolm Maclaren,MacLaren, Jr.,Jr., "On"On ththee CompositionComposition ofof Xenophon'Xenophon'ss Hellenica,"Hellenica" AJPh, vol.vol. 55,55, No.2No. 2 (1934),(1934), 122,122, correctlycorrectly declares,declares, "We"We areare notnot warrantedwarranted inin supposing,supposing, witwithh somesome scholars,scholars, thatthat anythinganything hashas beenbeen lostlost frofromm thethe enendd ooff thethe eightheighth bookbook ofof ThucydideThucydidess oror fromfrom thethe beginningbeginning ofof thethe Hellenica." 6262 case,case, thithiss woulwouldd bebe anan erroneouerroneouss assumptionassumption,, aass wilwilll bebe illustratedillustrated below.below.
XenophoXenophonn incorporateincorporatess ththee ThucydideanThucydidean systesystemm byby indicatingindicating thethe summersummer andand wintewinterr ofof eaceachh yeayearr foforr ththee nexnextt sevesevenn yearsyears.. TheThe sectiosectionn ooff ththee Hellenica thathatt completescompletes thethe ThucydideaThucydideann partpart ooff hishis narrativenarrative culminatesculminates withwith ththee tearingtearing 225 downdown ofof ththee defensivdefensivee wallwallss ooff AthenAthenss anandd thethe installationinstallation ooff ththee ThirtyThirty Tyrants. 225
AAtt ththee endend ofof wintewinterr foforr eaceachh yeayearr hhee wilwilll notenote ththee enendd ofof oneone yeayearr andand thethe beginningbeginning ofof ththee succeedingsucceeding yearyear inin thethe ververyy nextnext line,226line,226 similasimilarr ttoo thethe repeatingrepeating
227227 formulformulaa thathatt ThucydideThucydidess invariablyinvariably used. ThatThat XenophoXenophonn waswas notnot comfortablecomfortable witwithh thithiss datindatingg methodmethod isis mademade apparenapparentt inin thathatt hehe sometimesometimess includesincludes inin hishis datingdating formulaformulaee ooff ththee SpartaSpartann EphoEphorr andand ththee AtheniaAtheniann Archon.Archon.228228 ExceptExcept foforr thethe demarcationdemarcation ooff ththee beginningbeginning ooff ththee warwar,, ThucydideThucydidess nevernever mentionsmentions ephorsephors,, archonsarchons,, oorr religioureligiouss leadersleaders iinn fixinfixingg datesdates.. XenophoXenophonn dropsdrops ththee methodmethod completelcompletelyy at ththee closeclose ooff ththee PeloponnesianPeloponnesian WaWarr anandd doedoess nonott resumresumee itit againagain oveoverr ththee remaininremainingg forty-twforty-twoo yearyearss ooff hishis narrativenarrative.. Xenophon'Xenophon'ss stylstylee inin relatingrelating ththee lastlast yearyearss ooff ththee wawarr isis terseterse,, straightfOlwardstraightforward anandd hashas ververyy fefeww excurses;excurses;
229229 whawhatt followfollowss isis different. ItIt appearappearss thathatt ththee stylestyle ofof thisthis firsfirstt section,section, thethe
222255 XenXen.. Hell. 2.3.1-22.3.1-2..
226 226 E.g.E.g.,, XenXen.. Hell. 1.5.21,1.5.21, 1.6.1,1.6.1, "So"So ththee yeayearr ended...ended ... " followefollowedd immediatelyimmediately witwithh "in"in ththee ensuingensuing year...year. .. ""
227 227 E.g.E.g.,, ThucThuc.. 6.8.46.8.4,, "An"Andd wintewinterr endedended,, anandd witwithh itit endeendedd ththee sixteenthsixteenth yeayearr ofof thisthis wawarr ooff whichwhich ThucydideThucydidess isis ththee historian.historian.""
222288 XenXen.. Hell. 1.3.1.1.3.1.
229 229 P. Henry, Greek Historical Writing (Chicago: 1966), 14, includes the entire Book 1 and Ww.. P. Henry, Greek Historical Writing (Chicago: 1966), 14, includes the entire Book 1 and BooBookk 2 aass ththee firsfirstt sectionsection.. ItIt isis generallygenerally thoughthoughtt thathatt ththee installationinstallation ofof ththee ThirtyThirty TyrantTyrantss (Xen(Xen.. Hell. 2.3.1-2)2.3.1-2) ttoo ththee subsequensubsequentt reassertioreassertionn ofof democracdemocracyy inin AthenAthenss isis a separatseparatee sectionsection,, or,or, atat ththee least,least, a linklink betweebetweenn ththee falfalll ooff ththee AtheniaAtheniann EmpireEmpire anandd ththee subsequensubsequentt ascendancy ofof SpartSpartaa throughouthroughoutt ththee AegeanAegean.. 6363 continuationcontinuation ooff ThucydidesThucydides'' worworkk oonn ththee warwar,, wawass aann efforeffortt ttoo ddoo justicjusticee toto
Thucydides,Thucydides, andand wawass also,also, likelike thethe dating,dating, unnaturaunnaturall ttoo XenophonXenophon.. ThThee restrest ooff thethe
narrative,narrative, thathatt sectiosectionn afterafter ththee warwar,, hashas a conversationalconversational tonetone ttoo it,it, evidenevidentt iinn 23o Xenophon'Xenophon'ss useuse ooff ththee firsfirstt personperson singularsingular throughout.throughout.230
BeforeBefore examiningexamining ththee latterlatter sectionsectionss ooff Xenophon'Xenophon'ss narrativenarrative,, itit isis
necessarynecessary toto looklook aatt ononee partpart inin ththee firsfirstt sectiosectionn thathatt indicatesindicates Xenophon'Xenophon'ss abilityability
ttoo continuecontinue ththee tenotenorr ooff ThucydidesThucydides anandd thusthus illustrateillustratess thathatt ththee subsequentsubsequent
departuredeparture waswas purposeful.purposeful. ThereThere isis oneone majormajor speecspeechh iinn thithiss section,section, givegivenn bbyy 231 Euryptolemus,Euryptolemus, inin defensedefense ooff ththee admiralsadmirals afterafter ththee BattleBattle ooff ArginusaArginusaee iinn 406. 231
BreakingBreaking thethe SpartanSpartan blockadeblockade ofof Mytilene,Mytilene, ththee AtheniaAtheniann fleefleett wowonn a greatgreat
victoryvictory atat Arginusae,Arginusae,232232 losinglosing onlyonly twenty-fivetwenty-five shipshipss toto ththee SpartanSpartan losseslosses ooff
seventy-sevenseventy-seven ships.ships. TheThe questioquestionn aatt handhand isis eithereither ttoo rescuerescue ththee fallefallenn oorr
pursuepursue ththee LacedaemoniansLacedaemonians inin orderorder toto cripplecripple furthefurtherr theitheirr maritimmaritimee force.force. TheThe
decisiondecision wawass mademade ttoo dodo bothboth byby splittinsplittingg thethe fleetfleet.. InIn ththee enendd ththee AthenianAthenianss werewere
unableunable ttoo engageengage LacedaemonianLacedaemonian fleefleett andand ththee rescuerescue failefailedd duduee ttoo ththee violenceviolence
ofof a stormstorm.. TheThe outragedoutraged AtheniaAtheniann assemblassemblyy movedmoved ttoo putput ththee victoriouvictoriouss admiralsadmirals
230 ViviennViviennee Gray,Gray, The Character of Xenophon's Hellenica (Baltimore(Baltimore:: 1989),1989), addressesaddresses thethe difficultiesdifficulties witwithh ththee texttext byby assertinassertingg a unityunity throughouthroughoutt ththee entireentire workwork,, including,including, remarkably,remarkably, thethe methodmethod ooff datingdating (2).(2). SheShe organizesorganizes Xenophon'Xenophon'ss narrativnarrativee modesmodes aass "conversationalised,""conversationalised," "speech,""speech," andand "plain.""plain." However,However, alalll ooff herher exampleexampless (pgs(pgs.. 11-64)11-64) ooff conversationaliseconversationalisedd narrativenarrative araree after ththee conclusionconclusion ofof ththee warwar.. SheShe doesdoes pointpoint ttoo HippocratesHippocrates'' letterletter afterafter ththee SpartanSpartan defeatdefeat off Cyzicus:Cyzicus: "Ropes"Ropes gonegone.. MindarusMindarus dead.dead. MenMen starvingstarving.. At a loss"loss" (Xen(Xen.. Hell. 1.1.23).1.1.23). CommentinCommentingg onon ththee LaconicLaconic brevitybrevity andand dialectdialect,, shshee sayssays,, "Xenopho"Xenophonn offerofferss aann earlyearly examplexamplee ofof thithiss conversationaliseconversationalisedd manner"manner" (13).(13). AAnn interestinginteresting argumentargument.. However,However, itit maymay simplsimplyy bebe thatthat SpartanSpartanss werweree famouslyfamously briefbrief andand theythey spokespoke inin a LaconicLaconic dialectdialect.. ThiThiss iiss nnoo moremore oorr lessless "conversationalised""conversationalised" inin itsits mannermanner thathann whatwhat isis founfoundd inin ThucydidesThucydides'' speechesspeeches bbyy Spartans.Spartans.
231 231 XenXen.. Hell. 1.6.15-7.351.6.15-7.35 isis Xenophon'Xenophon'ss narrativenarrative ooff ththee battlbattlee anandd ththee surroundingsurrounding circumstancescircumstances.. ForFor a modemodemm interpretation,interpretation, seseee DonalDonaldd Kagan,Kagan, The Fall of the Athenian Empire (Ithaca(Ithaca anandd London: 1987),1987), 325-53325-53..
232 232 Kagan,Kagan, The Fall (1987)(1987),, 353,353, notesnotes thathatt ththee battlebattle wawass soso criticacriticall thatthat,, ifif ththee AthenianAthenianss hahadd lost,lost, thetheyy woulwouldd havehave lostlost ththee war.war. 6464 oonn capitalcapital triatriall foforr ththee lossloss ooff memenn andand shipsships.. RecognizingRecognizing thisthis asas aann unconstitutionalunconstitutional actionaction,, SocrateSocratess votevotess againsagainstt ththee motionmotion,, sayingsaying,, "i"inn nono casecase woulwouldd hehe acactt excepexceptt inin accordancaccordancee witwithh ththee law.,,233law."233 Euryptolemus,Euryptolemus, atat ththee enendd ooff a lengthylengthy defense,defense, addresseaddressess ththee Assembly:Assembly:
DoDo not,not, thenthen,, menmen ofof AthensAthens,, iinn thethe facfacee ooff youyourr victorvictoryy andand youyourr goodgood fortunefortune,, actact likelike menmen whwhoo araree beatebeatenn andand unfortunate,unfortunate, nor,nor, inin ththee facfacee ooff heaven'sheaven's visitationvisitation,, shoshoww yourselveyourselvess unreasonableunreasonable byby givingivingg a verdicverdictt ooff treachertreacheryy insteadinstead ofof helplessnesshelplessness,, sincsincee theythey founfoundd themselvesthemselves unableunable onon accountaccount ooff ththee storstormm ttoo ddoo whawhatt thetheyy hadhad beenbeen orderedordered toto dodo;; nay,nay, itit wouldwould bebe fafarr moremore jusjustt foforr yoyouu ttoo honouhonourr ththee victorvictorss witwithh garlandsgarlands thanthan,, yieldingyielding ttoo ththee persuasionspersuasions ofof wickewickedd men,men, ttoo punishpunish thethemm witwithh deathdeath.. Xen.Xen. Hell. 1.7.331.7.33
TheThe eighteight admiralsadmirals werweree condemned,condemned, anandd ththee sisixx iinn AthenAthenss at thethe timtimee werewere executed.executed. XenophoXenophonn notes,notes, "no"nott longlong afterwardafterwardss ththee AthenianAthenianss repented.,,234repented."234
TheThe similaritsimilarityy ttoo ththee MytileneMytilene debatdebatee inin ThucydidesThucydides iiss obvious.235235 InIn bothboth,, ththee emotionaemotionall AthenianAthenianss araree swayeswayedd byby partisapartisann politicpoliticss anandd callscalls foforr harshharsh measures:measures: inin ThucydidesThucydides ttoo firfirmm uupp controlcontrol ooff ththee empire,empire, inin XenophoXenophonn outout ofof fearfear ooff defeatdefeat,, whicwhichh EuryptolemusEuryptolemus insistinsistss isis a specterspecter ofof theirtheir imagination.imagination. InIn bothboth instancesinstances thetheyy "repent""repent" theitheirr actionsactions.. ThatThat ththee actionaction isis irrevocableirrevocable inin ththee latterlatter emphasizesemphasizes Euryptolemus'Euryptolemus' argumenargumentt anandd underscoresunderscores AtheniaAtheniann characteristicscharacteristics
233 XenXen.. Hell.Helf. 1.7.15-16.1.7.15-16. ThThee prytaneis consistedconsisted ooff fiftyfifty memenn whwhoo handledhandled ththee day-to-dayday-to-day affairsaffairs ooff ththee AtheniaAtheniann statestate,, includingincluding ththee arrangementarrangementss foforr meetingsmeetings ofof ththee ekklesia, ththee assembly.assembly. ThThee epistates, oorr presidingpresiding member,member, wawass rotatedrotated dailydaily;; XenophoXenophonn saysayss inin thethe Memoborilia thatthat SocratesSocrates wawass oonn thithiss occasiooccasionn ththee epistates; PlatoPlato sayssays inin ththee Axiochus thatthat afterafter Socrates'Socrates' votevote,, ththee assemblyassembly wawass forceforcedd ttoo adjournadjourn,, anandd ththee triatriall continuecontinuedd ththee followinfollowingg dadayy witwithh a newnew epistates. ThThee HellenicaHelfenica doedoess notnot includeinclude thithiss delaydelay.. ForFor Socrates'Socrates' conducconductt inin ththee proceedings,proceedings, seseee PIPI.. Ap. 32b32b,, [Ax] 368d-e368d-e,, anandd XenXen.. Mem. 1.1.18,4.4.2.1.1.18, 4.4.2.
232344 XenXen.. Hell. 1.7.35.1.7.35.
235 ThucThuc.. 3.36-49.3.36-49. 6565 throughoutthroughout ththee entireentire war,236war,236 illustratedillustrated inin bothboth ThucydidesThucydides andand XenophonXenophon..
OfOf thethe ThucydideaThucydideann narrativenarrative forms,237forms,237 thertheree isis evidenceevidence throughoutthroughout
Xenophon'Xenophon'ss workwork ofof thethe integrationintegration ofof speechesspeeches andand narrative.narrative. ThiThiss isis toto bebe expectedexpected anytimeanytime a historianhistorian introducesintroduces speechespeechess inin hishis work.work. TherTheree areare,, however,however, somesome instancesinstances ofof juxtapositionjuxtaposition,, prefigurationprefiguration andand repetition,repetition, oror contrastcontrast anandd reversal.reversal. TheThe ArginusaArginusaee trialtrial waswas ofof coursecourse a repetitionrepetition ofof thethe MytileneMytilene debatedebate,, butbut itit waswas alsoalso a historicalhistorical eventevent ofof somesome importanceimportance andand certainlycertainly couldcould notnot havehave beenbeen neglected.neglected. Xenophon'sXenophon's treatmenttreatment,, nevertheless,nevertheless, doesdoes pointpoint toto a consciousconscious parallelparallel witwithh Thucydides.Thucydides. ItIt cancan bebe evidenceevidence ofof subtletysubtlety thatthat XenophonXenophon diddid notnot stressstress thethe parallel,parallel, butbut thenthen again,again, asas witwithh otherother narrativenarrative techniques,techniques, itit isis hardhard ttoo imagineimagine Thucydides'Thucydides' treatmenttreatment ofof Socrates'Socrates' votevote inin thethe ArginusaArginusaee trialtrial withouwithoutt prefiguringprefiguring ththee latter'slatter's ownown trialtrial beforebefore anan emotionalemotional AssemblyAssembly.. WhichWhich prefigurationprefiguration XenophonXenophon chooseschooses notnot toto show.show.
SoSo thethe questionquestion atat handhand isis whethewhetherr XenophonXenophon,, initiallyinitially embracingembracing thethe
ThucydideanThucydidean method,method, atat leastleast inin part,part, foundfound itit tootoo rigorous,rigorous, oror simplsimplyy determineddetermined thatthat itit dididd notnot fitfit hishis purpose.purpose. ThereThere areare fourfour passages,passages, allall subsequentsubsequent ttoo thethe
PeloponnesianPeloponnesian WarWar narrativenarrative inin ththee Hellenica, whichwhich illustrateillustrate Xenophon'sXenophon's method,method, oorr at leastleast hishis criteriacriteria inin hishis choicchoicee ofof historicalhistorical material.238238 TakenTaken inin thethe orderorder theythey appearappear inin thethe text,text, thetheyy showshow a developmentdevelopment ofof hishis ownown particularparticular
236 236 PeterPeter JJ.. Rahn,Rahn, "Xenophon'"Xenophon'ss DevelopingDeveloping Historiography,"Historiography," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol.Vol. 102,102, (1971),(1971), 504504..
237 237 I.e.,I.e., juxtapositionjuxtaposition,, prefigurationprefiguration andand repetition,repetition, contrastcontrast andand reversal,reversal, andand thethe integrationintegration ofof speecspeechh andand narrative.narrative.
238 238 Rahn,Rahn, "Xenophon'"Xenophon'ss Historiography"Historiography" (1971),(1971), 498-502,498-502, effectivelyeffectively arguesargues a shiftshift inin Xenophon'sXenophon's historicalhistorical approach.approach. TheThe followingfollowing reliesrelies heavilyheavily oonn hishis review.review. 6666 historicalhistorical approach.239239 TheTheyy alsoalso shoshoww thatthat XenophoXenophonn recognizedrecognized establishedestablished critericriteriaa ofof historicalhistorical considerationsconsiderations arguablyarguably setset byby HerodotusHerodotus andand Thucydides.Thucydides.
ThThee firstfirst passagepassage commentscomments onon Theramenes'Theramenes' demeanordemeanor asas hehe isis ledled toto hishis executionexecution afterafter hishis fall,fall, causedcaused byby hishis quarrelquarrel witwithh thethe extremistextremist membersmembers ofof thethe
ThirtyThirty Tyrants:Tyrants: NowNow I amam notnot unawareunaware ofof this,this, thathatt thesethese areare notnot sayingssayings worthyworthy ofof record;record; still,still, I deemdeem itit admirabladmirablee inin thethe manman thatthat whewhenn deathdeath waswas close atat handhand,, neitherneither self-possessionself-possession nornor ththee spiritspirit ofof playfulnessplayfulness departeddeparted fromfrom hishis soul.240240 ItIt isis implicitimplicit inin ththee narrativenarrative thathatt hehe recognizesrecognizes therethere isis materialmaterial "worthy"worthy ofof record,record,"" anandd thatthat thethe wordwordss spokenspoken byby TherameneTherameness areare perhapsperhaps notnot historicallyhistorically important.important.
Still,Still, thetheyy areare "admirable,""admirable," andand onon thithiss considerationconsideration alonealone theythey standstand worthyworthy toto bebe recordedrecorded..
InIn thethe secondsecond passagepassage XenophoXenophonn sayssays,,
I willwill nownow recountrecount whatwhat happenedhappened byby seasea andand inin thethe citiescities onon thethe coastcoast whilwhilee allall thesethese thingsthings werweree goinggoing on,on, andand wilwilll describedescribe suchsuch ofof thethe eventsevents asas areare worthyworthy ofof record,record, whilwhilee thosethose whicwhichh dodo notnot deservedeserve mentionmention I willwill passpass over.over. XenXen.. Hell. 4.8.1.4.8.1.
OnceOnce agaiagainn XenophoXenophonn isis concernedconcerned withwith whawhatt eventsevents areare "worthy"worthy ofof record."record." TheThe directdirect statementstatement thatthat hehe willwill passpass overover otherother mattersmatters seemsseems toto indicateindicate thatthat hehe isis exceptionalexceptional inin thisthis portionportion ofof thethe narrative,narrative, thatthat is,is, hehe recognizesrecognizes therethere areare eventsevents thatthat underunder establishedestablished criteriacriteria "do"do notnot deservdeservee mention,"mention," andand hehe wilwilll refrain,refrain, atat
leastleast here,here, fromfrom goinggoing intointo themthem..
TheThe thirthirdd passagepassage isis eveneven moremore revealingrevealing::
NowNow I amam awareaware thatthat I amam notnot describingdescribing inin thesethese incidentsincidents anyany enterpriseenterprise
239 239 The historical background to each passage will be brief since it is Xenophon's comments that The historical background to each passage will be brief since it is Xenophon's comments that araree germane.germane.
240 240 Xen.Xen. Hell. 2.3.56.2.3.56. 6767
involvinginvolving moneymoney expendeexpendedd oorr dangedangerr incurredincurred oorr ananyy memorablememorable stratagemstratagem;; anandd yetyet,, byby ZeusZeus,, iitt seemseemss ttoo meme thathatt itit isis welwelll wortworthh a man'sman's whilwhilee ttoo consideconsiderr whawhatt sorsortt ooff conductconduct itit wawass thathatt enableenabledd TeleutaiTeleutaiss toto inspireinspire ththee menmen hhee commandedcommanded witwithh sucsuchh a feelinfeelingg towardtoward himself.himself. ForFor toto attaiattainn toto thithiss isis indeedindeed thethe achievemenachievementt ofof a trutruee man,man, moremore noteworthynoteworthy thanthan ththee expenditurexpendituree ooff muchmuch moneymoney anandd thethe encounterinencounteringg ooff manymany dangers.dangers. XenXen.. Hell. 5.1.4.5.1.4.
XenophonXenophon,, foforr ththee firsfirstt timetime inin ththee Hellenica, namesnames whawhatt hehe understandsunderstands thethe
"established"established criteriacriteria"" toto be:be: greagreatt expenditureexpenditure,, dangerdanger,, andand strategy.strategy. TheseThese areare ththee mattersmatters ooff consideredconsidered importanceimportance ttoo HerodotusHerodotus andand emphasizedemphasized withwith constantconstant focufocuss byby ThucydidesThucydides.. AAtt thethe beginningbeginning ooff hishis historyhistory ThucydideThucydidess notesnotes thathatt ththee expensiveexpensive preparationspreparations werweree completecompletedd byby ththee twotwo mostmost powerfulpowerful statesstates;; ththee wawarr itselfitself wawass repletereplete witwithh greagreatt strategistrategicc movements,movements, anandd ththee ensuingensuing disasterdisasterss couldcould notnot bebe matchematchedd inin timtimee oror inin number.241241 InIn Xenophon'Xenophon'ss history,history, however,however, thesthesee elementselements areare notnot asas noteworthynoteworthy asas ththee achievementsachievements ooff thethe individualindividual whwhoo embodyieembodyiess ththee measuresmeasures ooff whawhatt ththee RomansRomans laterlater esteemeesteemedd asas gravitas andand auctoritas. TheThe wortworthh ofof virtuvirtuee isis ththee lessolessonn XenophonXenophon teachesteaches inin ththee sectionsectionss ooff ththee Hellenica afteafterr ththee ThucydideaThucydideann continuationcontinuation..
ThiThiss iiss ththee subjecsubjectt ooff ththee finafinall passage,passage, inin whicwhichh hehe isis nownow emboldenedemboldened
notnot onlonlyy ttoo depardepartt frofromm ththee disembodieddisembodied theorietheoriess oorr principlesprinciples,, butbut alsoalso placesplaces
himselhimselff countecounterr ttoo otheotherr historianshistorians anandd theirtheir historicalhistorical traditions:traditions:
ButBut I wilwilll speaspeakk furthefurtherr ooff themthem;; foforr whilwhilee alalll thethe historianshistorians makemake mentionmention ofof ththee largelarge statestatess ifif theythey havehave performedperformed ananyy noblnoblee achievement,achievement, itit seemsseems ttoo meme thatthat,, ifif a statstatee whicwhichh isis smallsmall hashas accomplisheaccomplishedd manmanyy noblenoble deedsdeeds,, itit iiss eveneven mormoree fittinfittingg ttoo sesett thethemm forthforth.. XenXen.. Hell. 7.2.17.2.1
HereHere hehe addaddss "th"thee larglargee statesstates"" ttoo ththee lislistt ofof greatgreat expenditureexpenditure,, dangerdanger,, andand
strategystrategy;; allall elementelementss hehe sayssays thatthat areare lessless "fitting"fitting ttoo setset themthem forthforth"" whenwhen
242411 ThucThuc.. 1.1.1-2,1.1.1-2, 1.23.11.23.1.. 6868 comparedcompared toto ththee achievementsachievements ofof smallsmall andand otherwiseotherwise insignificantinsignificant playersplayers..
XenophoXenophonn isis concernedconcerned witwithh ththee modelmodelss andand examplesexamples ooff thethe greatgreat anandd thethe smallsmall,, butbut hehe emphaticallemphaticallyy statesstates thathatt nobilitynobility anandd virtuevirtue araree inin anan inverseinverse proportionproportion ttoo ththee powerpower anandd strengtstrengthh ofof ththee statestate oror ththee individual.individual. ThaThatt is,is, fromfrom thethe greagreatt araree greatgreat deeddeedss expectedexpected;; whewhenn thetheyy araree performedperformed byby ththee lessless thanthan great,great, thenthen perhapsperhaps thethe performancesperformances araree ttoo bebe considereconsideredd eveevenn nobler,nobler, eveneven greatergreater..
Xenophon'Xenophon'ss departuredeparture frofromm ThucydidesThucydides'' criteriacriteria maymay havehave beenbeen ththee resultresult ooff ththee discomfordiscomfortt oorr anxietyanxiety hehe felfeltt inin holdingholding fastfast ttoo thethe apparenapparentt objectivitobjectivityy ofof hishis predecessor.predecessor. XenophoXenophonn isis moremore comfortablcomfortablee inin voicinvoicingg hishis assessmentassessment ofof virtuevirtue andand itsits expressionexpression inin leadership.242leadership.242 ItIt cacann alsalsoo bebe arguearguedd thatthat thisthis departuredeparture happenedhappened graduallgraduallyy aass XenophoXenophonn developeddeveloped a confidencconfidencee inin hishis ownown narrativenarrative 243 stylestyle anandd manner. 243 WhateverWhatever ththee case,case, taketakenn inin itsits entirety,entirety, ththee Hellenica underscoresunderscores Xenophon'Xenophon'ss commitmentcommitment ttoo continucontinuee Thucydides'Thucydides' worworkk anandd hehe keptkept ththee firsfirstt partpart ooff hihiss narrativnarrativee aass closeclose toto ththee ThucydideaThucydideann stylstylee aass hehe wawass able;able; iinn ththee latterlatter sectionssections;; XenophoXenophonn departedepartedd frofromm recordingrecording onlonlyy historicallhistoricallyy importantimportant eventeventss andand easileasilyy alloweallowedd himselhimselff ttoo makemake subjectivsubjectivee judgmentjudgmentss oonn ththee meritsmerits 244 anandd qualitiequalitiess ooff individuals. 244
242 Rahn,Rahn, "Xenophon's"Xenophon's Historiography"Historiography" (1971)(1971),507., 507.
242433 Maclaren,MacLaren, Jr.Jr.,, "Hellenica," 126126..
244 244 Maclaren,MacLaren, Jr.Jr.,, "Hellenica," 125.125. ThucydidesThucydides'' History wawass certainlcertainlyy notnot withouwithoutt individualindividual characterizationcharacterization,, asas wilwilll bebe shownshown inin thethe Epilogue,Epilogue, bubutt witwithh nono moremore thanthan a lineline oorr twtwoo (e.g.,(e.g., ThemistoclesThemistocles,, Thuc.Thuc. 1.138.3;1.138.3; Nicias,Nicias, 7.86.57.86.5;; AntiphonAntiphon,, 8.68.1)8.68.1) anandd nevernever inin ththee substantialsubstantial encomiencomiaa thathatt XenophoXenophonn wawass aptapt ttoo undertakundertakee (e.g.,(e.g., JasoJasonn ofof Pherae,Pherae, XenXen.. Hell. 6.1.5-66.1.5-6,, 15-1615-16,, 6.4.22-256.4.22-25,31;, 31; TeleutiasTeleutias,, 5.1.3-4,5.1.3-4, 13-18;13-18; anandd ooff courscoursee AgesilausAgesilaus,, foforr whowhomm ananyy praispraisee iinn thethe Hellenica wawass expandeexpandedd inin Xenophon'Xenophon'ss Agesilaus, whicwhichh setssets ththee tenotenorr inin itsits firsfirstt line:line: "I"I knowknow howhow difficuldifficultt itit isis ttoo writwritee aann appreciationappreciation ooff AgesilauAgesilauss thathatt shalshalll bbee worthworthyy ooff hishis virtuvirtuee andand glory.glory. 6699
ItIt hashas beenbeen notednoted thatthat XenophoXenophonn writewritess hishis historyhistory asas ifif hehe werweree writinwritingg a
245245 memoir,memoir, gettinggetting hishis materialmaterial byby chance. LikeLike ThucydidesThucydides,, XenophoXenophonn wawass anan exileexile.. UnlikeUnlike Thucydides,Thucydides, hehe doesdoes notnot givegive ananyy evidencevidencee thatthat hehe usedused thithiss timetime foforr historicalhistorical discoverydiscovery,, crosscheckingcrosschecking reports,reports, oorr broadeningbroadening hishis searcsearchh forfor information.information. InIn factfact,, thertheree isis onlonlyy oneone instanceinstance wherwheree XenophoXenophonn indicatesindicates anan alternativealternative account.246246 InIn addition,addition, thethe Hellenica hashas rightlyrightly earnedearned XenophoXenophonn a reputationreputation ooff beingbeing biased,biased, carelesscareless,, anandd obscureobscure inin factualfactual detail.detail. ThThee historyhistory iiss
247247 repletereplete witwithh internalinternal contradiction andand a fefeww exampleexampless wilwilll bebe sufficientsufficient toto illustrateillustrate thethe basibasiss ofof thesthesee chargescharges..
InIn hishis descriptiondescription ofof ththee installationinstallation ofof ththee ThirtThirtyy TyrantsTyrants aatt thethe endend ofof thethe warwar,, XenophoXenophonn omitsomits Sparta'Sparta'ss role,role, anandd particularlyparticularly Lysander'sLysander's rolerole inin thethe replacementreplacement ooff thethe AtheniaAtheniann democracydemocracy witwithh ththee short-livedshort-lived oligarchy.0ligarchy.248248 HeHe doesdoes notnot useuse ththee worwordd "tyrant,""tyrant," butbut simplysimply states,states,
AnAndd thisthis oligarchyoligarchy camecame intointo beingbeing inin thethe wawayy hereafterhereafter describedescribedd - itit waswas votevotedd byby thethe peoplepeople toto choosechoose thirtthirtyy menmen ttoo framframee ththee ancientancient lawslaws intointo a constitutionconstitution underunder whicwhichh ttoo conductconduct thethe governmentgovernment.. AnAndd ththee followingfollowing memenn werweree chosenchosen.. XenXen.. Hell. 2.3.12.3.1
ItIt isis certaincertain thathatt hehe doedoess nonott speakspeak abouaboutt Lysander'sLysander's partpart inin ththee revolutionrevolution duduee toto
NeverthelessNevertheless ththee attemptattempt mustmust bebe made.made. ForFor itit woulwouldd notnot bebe seemlseemlyy thathatt soso goodgood a man,man, justjust becausebecause ofof hishis perfectionperfection,, shoulshouldd receivereceive nono tributetributess ooff praisepraise,, howeverhowever inadequate.").inadequate.").
245 245 Luce.Luce. Greek Historians (1997)(1997),, 103103..
242466 XenXen.. Hell. 5.4.75.4.7
247 247 Finley,Finley, Greek Historians (1959),14,(1959), 14, constantconstant iinn hihiss criticisms,criticisms, offerofferss a harshharsh verdictverdict:: "i"itt isis veryvery unreliable,unreliable, tendentious,tendentious, dishonest,dishonest, dreardrearyy toto read,read, andand rarelyrarely illuminatinilluminatingg onon broadebroaderr issues.issues.""
248 248 ThThee regimregimee ooff ththee ThirtyThirty TyrantTyrantss wawass overthrownoverthrown inin MayMay 404033 andand replacereplacedd byby a moremore moderatemoderate boarboardd ooff TenTen.. 7070 hishis favorablfavorablee attitudeattitude towardtowardss SpartaSparta and,and, iinn thithiss case,case, Lysander.249249 GG.. EE..
Underhill,Underhill, inin hishis Commentary,250Commentary,250 notesnotes ththee numbernumber ofof eventeventss XenophoXenophonn passespasses overover:: thethe arresarrestt ooff ththee democraticdemocratic leadersleaders byby oligarchicoligarchic clubs anandd ththee associate greatgreat internalinternal dissensions;dissensions; ththee callcall ttoo LysanderLysander ttoo interruptinterrupt hihiss siegsiegee ooff SamosSamos anandd travetravell toto AthenAthenss inin supportsupport ooff ththee oligarchyoligarchy;; ththee meanmeanss ooff passingpassing ooff thethe decredecreee ttoo establishestablish ThThee Thirty;Thirty; andand ththee appointmentappointmentss ttoo TheThe ThirtThirtyy byby CritiasCritias andand
EratosthenesEratosthenes (the(the mostmost reactionaryreactionary ooff ththee oligarchs),oligarchs), aass welwelll aass ththee tenten appointmentappointmentss byby Theramenes,Theramenes, andand ththee balancbalancee bbyy ththee SpartaSpartann coercedcoerced assembly.assembly. ThThee "hereafter""hereafter" inin Xenophon'Xenophon'ss textextt doedoess notnot explainexplain anythinganything asas wouldwould bebe expected;expected; thethe "hereafter""hereafter" isis simplysimply ththee votvotee anandd thethe listlist ooff ththee chosenchosen.. InIn addition,addition, XenophoXenophonn isis silensilentt onon thethe subsequensubsequentt extortionextortion ooff citizenscitizens bbyy membersmembers ofof ThThee ThirtThirtyy inin exchangeexchange foforr theitheirr lives;lives; ththee unjustunjust executionsexecutions;; ththee forceforcedd exilesexiles;; andand ththee outrighoutrightt purgingpurging ooff ththee citizenrycitizenry rolls. 251251 InIn contrastcontrast ttoo thithiss lacklack ofof narrativenarrative explanationexplanation,, XenophoXenophonn showsshows nono reservereserve inin hishis depictiodepictionn ofof thethe atrocitiesatrocities carriecarriedd ououtt byby CorinthiaCorinthiann democratdemocratss againstagainst ththee pro-Spartanpro-Spartan oligarchsoligarchs inin thethe earlyearly stagestagess ooff ththee CorinthianCorinthian WaWarr (395-386).252(395-386).252 TheseThese twtwoo eventeventss areare obviouslyobviously remarkableremarkable inin illustratingillustrating hishis obviouobviouss bias.bias. Xenophon'Xenophon'ss treatmentreatmentt ooff thethe eventeventss illustratesillustrates a severesevere contrastcontrast ofof howhow ThucydideThucydidess woulwouldd hav~avee handledhandled thethe tellintellingg ooff thesthesee twotwo parallelparallel events:events: hehe lackslacks ththee detachmentdetachment ofof ThucydidesThucydides andand
249 249 PeterPeter Krentz,Krentz, Xenophon: Hellenika 1-11.3.10/-11.3.10 (Warminster: (Warminster 1989),: 1989) 190;, 190 it; shouldit shoul alsod als beo b ae a considerationconsideration inin ththee assessmenassessmentt ooff TheThe ThirtyThirty thathatt thesthesee werweree membersmembers ooff hishis owownn party.party.
250 250 G.G. E.E. Underhill,Underhill, A Commentary on the Hellenica ofofXenophon Xenophon (Oxford:(Oxford: 1900),52.1900), 52. AlAlll ooff hihiss pointspoints araree rehearsedrehearsed inin LysiasLysias anandd Plutarch:Plutarch: Lys.Lys. 12.44,12.44, 12.72,12.72, 12.77,12.77, 13.28,13.28, PlutPlut.. Lys. 1515..
252511 Lys.Lys. 12.8-11,21.12.8-11, 21.
252522 XenXen.. Hell. 4.1-34.1-3.. 7171 revealsreveals ththee relativerelative immaturityimmaturity ofof hishis stylestyle..
RegardingRegarding Xenophon'sXenophon's concernconcern forfor historicalhistorical accuracy,accuracy, oftenoften inin thethe
Hellenica anan embassyembassy oror anah ambassadorambassador isis sentsent onon anan erranderrand ofof statestate andand thenthen
253 nothingnothing agaiagainn willwill bebe saidsaid ofof subsequentsubsequent activityactivity oror negotiations. 253 InIn otherother instances XenophoXenophonn wilwilll reportreport thanthan anan individualindividual isis "again""again" activeactive inin a specificspecific areareaa withouwithoutt havinghaving indicatedindicated anyany previousprevious visit;visit; hehe willwill teltelll usus thatthat mercenariesmercenaries areare gatheredgathered inin greatgreat hastehaste andand costcost onlyonly toto disappeardisappear fromfrom thethe historyhistory altogether;altogether; hehe willwill completelycompletely ignoreignore famousfamous historicalhistorical battles,battles, suchsuch asas PelopidasPelopidas andand ththee SacredSacred BandBand inin Thebes'Thebes' psychologicallypsychologically criticalcritical victorvictoryy overover ththee greatergreater
LacedaemonianLacedaemonian forceforce at thethe BattleBattle ofof TegyraTegyra (375).254(375).254 AllAll ofof thesethese departuresdepartures fromfrom historicalhistorical accuracyaccuracy havehave justifiabljustifiablyy causedcaused hesitationhesitation inin usingusing thethe Hellenica
255 aass a reliablereliable sourcesource foforr thethe historicalhistorical eventsevents ofof ththee time. 255
AsAs illustratedillustrated here,here, Xenophon'sXenophon's abidingabiding interest inin ththee Hellenica isis notnot inin ththee themethemess ofof wawarr oror thethe necessarilynecessarily attendantattendant rigorrigor ttoo detail;detail; thethe warwarss andand strugglesstruggles inin thethe Hellenica becomebecome vehiclevehicless throughthrough whicwhichh hehe expressesexpresses hishis commitmentcommitment ttoo moralmoral virtuevirtue.. NotNot onlyonly dodo individualsindividuals butbut alsoalso thethe statesstates possesspossess thesethese virtues.virtues. HisHis biasbias towartowardd SpartaSparta blindsblinds himhim toto muchmuch ofof thethe obviousobvious andand asas suchsuch hashas anan unfortunateunfortunate impactimpact onon thethe historicityhistoricity ofof ththee work.work. TherTheree isis muchmuch thatthat recommendsrecommends thethe Hellenica though.though. TheThe Hellenica isis a pleasurepleasure toto read,read, contrarycontrary
253 253 XenXen.. Hell. 2.20.21.2.20.21. EvenEven ifif thertheree hadhad beenbeen nono succeedingsucceeding activities,activities, thisthis shouldshould havehave beggedbegged somesome kind ofof commentcomment byby XenophonXenophon..
254Xen.254Xen. Hell. 5.1.1;5.1.1; 7.1.27;7.1.27; 5.4.63-64.5.4.63-64.
255255 InIn addressingaddressing Xenophon'Xenophon'ss confusingconfusing narrativenarrative regardingregarding thethe siegsiegee ofof CorinthCorinth (Xen.(Xen. Hell. 4.9-4.9- 11),11), forfor example,example, Underhill,Underhill, Commentary (1900),(1900), 136,136, observes,observes, "The"The solutionsolution ofof allall thesethese difficultiesdifficulties isis hardlyhardly possible,possible, andand inin anyany casecase mustmust involveinvolve severalseveral assumptions."assumptions." 7272 toto thethe opinioopinionn ofof somsomee critics,256critics,256 provided thathatt ononee approachesapproaches itit witwithh fewerfewer expectationsexpectations thathatt oneone mightmight havehave inin pickingpicking upup HerodotusHerodotus oorr ThucydidesThucydides.. TheThe
257 258258 Hellenica hashas momentsmoments ooff witwit257 anandd aann appreciationappreciation foforr thethe ridiculous. OneOne criticriticc hashas arguearguedd thathatt XenophoXenophonn startedstarted ththee Hellenica ttoo describdescribee ththee riserise anandd fallfall ooff a greagreatt statestate,, asas ThucydideThucydidess did.259259 ThisThis isis certainlcertainlyy reflected inin ththee topicaltopical sectionssections ooff thethe history.history. ThThee falfalll ofof Sparta,Sparta, inin Xenophon'Xenophon'ss explanationexplanation,, isis partpart ooff ththee exemplaryexemplary materialmaterial thathatt increasesincreases inin frequencyfrequency afteafterr thethe "Thucydidean"Thucydidean"" firstfirst section.section.
TherTheree isis aann interestinginteresting commentcomment byby XenophoXenophonn thathatt isis a rarerare instanceinstance ofof ththee prefigurationprefiguration soso apparenapparentt inin ThucydidesThucydides,, thougthoughh inin a contexcontextt differendifferentt fromfrom anythinanythingg inin ThucydidesThucydides.. AbouAboutt midwaymidway througthroughh ththee workwork,, XenophoXenophonn sayssays,, "The"The godsgods ddoo notnot faifaill toto taktakee heedheed ofof ththee wickewickedd oror ooff thosethose whwhoo ddoo unrighteousunrighteous things.,,26othings."260 TheThe LacedaemoniansLacedaemonians hahadd swornsworn inin 387/6387/6,, inin ththee PeacePeace ofof Antalcidas,Antalcidas, thathatt thetheyy woulwouldd enforcenforcee ththee independenceindependence ooff ththee GreeGreekk statesstates.. LessLess thathann tenten yearyearss later,later, inin 379,379, thetheyy violateviolatedd ththee sovereigntysovereignty ooff ThebesThebes byby takintakingg possessionpossession ofof ththee ThebanTheban AcropolisAcropolis.. XenophoXenophonn assertsasserts thathatt thithiss actioactionn ooff impietyimpiety ledled directlydirectly ttoo Sparta'Sparta'ss fatefate.. ThThee SpartansSpartans,, hehe sayssays,,
252566 FinleyFinley,, Greek Historians (1959),(1959), 1414..
257 257 XenXen.. Hell. 6.3.3,6.3.3, describesdescribes CalliaCalliass aass "th"thee sorsortt ooff manman ttoo enjoenjoyy nono lessless beingbeing praisedpraised bbyy himselfhimself thanthan byby others."others." RegardingRegarding ththee famousfamous PersianPersian goldegoldenn plane-tree,plane-tree, XenXen.. Hell. 7.1.387.1.38,, hhee saysayss iitt "was"was notnot largelarge enoughenough ttoo afforaffordd shadeshade foforr a grasshopper."grasshopper."
258 258 XenXen.. Hell. 7.2.47.2.4,, relatesrelates aann occasionoccasion whewhenn afterafter ravagingravaging ththee smalsmalll statstatee ofof Phlius,Phlius, ththee columncolumn ooff ArgiveArgivess wawass calmlycalmly marchinmarchingg homehome.. A sixty-masixty-mann forcforcee ooff PhiliasiansPhiliasians attackedattacked thethe ArgiveArgive rearguardrearguard anandd "kille"killedd butbut a fefeww ooff them,them, yeyett thetheyy setset upup a trophytrophy,, witwithh ththee ArgiveArgivess lookinglooking onon,, preciselpreciselyy asas ifif thetheyy hadhad killedkilled thethemm all.all.""
259 259 Rahn,Rahn, "Xenophon's"Xenophon's Historiography"Historiography" (1971),508.(1971), 508.
262600 XenXen.. Hell. 5.4.1.5.4.1. 7373
werweree punishedpunished byby thethe ververyy men,men, unaided,unaided, whwhoo hadhad beenbeen thuthuss wrongedwronged,, althougalthoughh beforbeforee thathatt timtimee thetheyy hadhad notnot beenbeen conquereconqueredd bbyy anyany singlesingle oneone ooff alalll ththee peoplepeopless thathatt eveeverr existedexisted;; whilwhilee aass foforr thosethose amongamong ththee ThebanTheban citizencitizenss whwhoo hahadd ledled thethemm intointo ththee AcropoliAcropoliss andand hadhad wantewantedd thethe statstatee toto bebe inin subjectionsubjection ttoo ththee LacedaemoniansLacedaemonians iinn ordeorderr thathatt thetheyy mightmight rulerule despoticalldespoticallyy themselvesthemselves,, jusjustt sevenseven ooff ththee exilesexiles werweree enoughenough ttoo destroydestroy ththee governmengovernmentt ofof thesthesee men.men. XenXen.. Hell. 5.4.15.4.1
ExceptExcept foforr ththee reliancereliance oonn ththee vengeancvengeancee ooff ththee gods,gods, Xenophon'Xenophon'ss approacapproachh herehere iiss reminiscenreminiscentt ooff ThucydidesThucydides'' manner.manner. ThThee prefigurationprefiguration isis explicitexplicit.. TheThe fatfatee ooff
Sparta'Sparta'ss governmentgovernment isis sealedsealed byby sevesevenn exiles,exiles, muchmuch aass ththee fatfatee ofof AthenAthenss iiss sealesealedd byby thethe destructiondestruction ofof ththee hermai priorprior ttoo ththee SicilianSicilian expeditionexpedition,, resultingresulting inin
AlcibiadesAlcibiades'' disaffection.261261 ThThee similaritysimilarity iiss notnot simplsimplyy inin thethe religiousreligious arenaarena,, thougthoughh thathatt isis interesting,interesting, bubutt inin eventeventss thathatt ddoo nonott appeaappearr ttoo bebe significantsignificant.. ItIt waswas ththee consequencconsequencee ooff thesthesee eventsevents thathatt turneturnedd outout toto bebe significansignificantt foforr bothboth AthensAthens anandd Sparta.262262 InIn addtionaddtion,, iitt iiss importantimportant ttoo notenote thathatt Xenophon'Xenophon'ss beliefbelief inin thethe powerpower ofof deitdeityy ttoo influencinfluencee ththee courscoursee ooff historyhistory standsstands inin contrastcontrast ttoo ThucydidesThucydides andand eveneven Herodotus.Herodotus.
AnAnyy historiologicalhistoriological comparisonscomparisons betweenbetween ThucydidesThucydides andand historianshistorians whowho wrotwrotee inin ththee timtimee ooff XenophoXenophonn untiluntil ththee adventadvent ofof ththee HellenisticHellenistic AgAgee inin 323323 BBCC areare a problem,problem, duedue ttoo ththee unfortunatelunfortunatelyy smallsmall numbernumber ooff historieshistories thathatt havehave survived.263263 BesidesBesides Xenophon,Xenophon, thertheree araree foufourr otheotherr immediateimmediate continuatorcontinuatorss ooff
Thucydides,Thucydides, eitheeitherr inin subjecsubjectt mattermatter oorr methodmethod:: CratippusCratippus ofof AthenAthenss (early(early fourthfourth
262611 ThucThuc.. 6.27-28.6.27-28.
262 262 ThThee resulresultt foforr ththee AthenianAthenianss wawass ththee defectiodefectionn ooff AlcibiadeAlcibiadess ttoo ththee SpartansSpartans.. TheThe resultresult foforr thethe SpartansSpartans wawass theitheirr finafinall defeadefeatt atat ththee handhandss ooff ThebesThebes..
263 263 ThThee firsfirstt historianshistorians ofof AlexandeAlexander, r ththee GreatGreat (356-323),(356-323), CassisthenesCassisthenes,, Nearchus,Nearchus, PtolemyPtolemy II,, AristobulusAristobulus,, anandd CleitarchusCleitarchus,, araree alalll knowknownn frofromm mucmuchh laterlater derivativderivativee traditiontraditionss (A. B.B. BosworthBosworth,, 33 "Alexande"Alexanderr III,"III," OC0OCD ,, 59)59) anandd foforr thathatt reasonreason thetheyy wilwilll notnot bebe considereconsideredd herehere.. 7744 a)c.),, ththee OxyrhynchusOxyrhynchus historianhistorian (first(first halfhalf ooff ththee fourtfourthh c.),C.),264264 PhilistusPhilistus ooff SyracuseSyracuse
(c.(c. 430-356)430-356),, anandd TheopompuTheopompuss (378f17-c.(378/77-c. 320)320).. TheThe foufourr araree relativelyrelatively nearnear
ThucydidesThucydides'' timtimee and,and, witwithh ththee exceptionexception ofof Philistus,Philistus, continucontinuee hishis historyhistory fromfrom
411411,, ththee yeayearr hehe breakbreakss off.off.
AbouAboutt CratippusCratippus anandd hishis methodmethod ververyy littllittlee cacann bbee determined.265265 FromFrom a referencreferencee inin Plutarch,266Plutarch,266 itit cacann bebe gatheredgathered thathatt CratippusCratippus continuecontinuedd ththee historyhistory ttoo ththee latelate 390s,390s, ttoo at leasleastt ththee battlbattlee ooff CniduCniduss (394)(394),, ththee enendd ooff SpartanSpartan hegemony.hegemony. WhaWhatt cacann alsalsoo bebe gatheredgathered frofromm PlutarchPlutarch isis thathatt CratippuCratippuss waswas acutelacutelyy interestedinterested inin ththee politicapoliticall anandd militarymilitary eventeventss ofof ththee times,times, ththee importanceimportance ooff sea-power,sea-power, ththee politicalpolitical manipulationsmanipulations ooff AlcibiadesAlcibiades,, thethe postwarpostwar upheavalsupheavals ooff
AthensAthens,, asas welwelll aass ththee reemergencreemergencee ooff AtheniaAtheniann powerpower andand SpartanSpartan difficultiesdifficulties resultingresulting frofromm ththee diplomatidiplomaticc andand militarymilitary successessuccesses ofof Persia.Persia. Plutarch's commentcommentss suggestsuggest a parallelparallel betweenbetween ththee historieshistories ooff ThucydidesThucydides andand Cratippus,Cratippus, anandd indicateindicate perhapsperhaps thatthat hehe considereconsideredd CratippusCratippus a continuatorcontinuator ooff ThucydideThucydidess inin moremore thanthan jusjustt ththee spaspann ofof hishis history.history. AgaiAgainn regardingregarding hishis method,method, DionysiusDionysius ofof
HalicarnassusHalicarnassus simplysimply relatesrelates thathatt CratippusCratippus tootookk exceptionexception ttoo Thucydides'Thucydides' useuse ofof speechesspeeches inin hihiss narrative,267narrative,267 whicwhichh inin itselfitself impliesimplies thathatt otheotherr elementselements ofof
Thucydides'Thucydides' methomethodd maymay havhavee sasatt welwelll witwithh Cratippus.Cratippus.
264 264 ThThee debatedebate surroundinsurroundingg ththee identityidentity ofof ththee OxyrhynchusOxyrhynchus historianhistorian isis brieflybriefly reviewedreviewed inin thethe Epilogue.Epilogue. ForFor ththee purposepurposess ooff thithiss chapterchapter,, itit hashas littlelittle impactimpact oonn whetherwhether thithiss individualindividual isis CratippusCratippus,, TheopompusTheopompus,, oorr anyoneany one ooff ththee half-dozenhalf-dozen candidatecandidatess putput forth.forth. WhatWhat mattersmatters herehere isis ththee influenceinfluence ooff Thucydides.Thucydides.
265 265 GordoGordonn SS.. Shrimpton,Shrimpton, Theopompus the Historian (Montreal:(Montreal: 1991),1991), xviiixviii,, refersrefers ttoo CratippusCratippus asas "th"thee shadowshadowyy historian."historian." MosMostt ooff ththee glowinglowingg commentcommentss byby Bury,Bury, Greek Historians (1909),(1909), 155155-- 158,158, araree ththee resulresultt ooff hishis identificationidentification ofof CratippuCratippuss aass thethe OxyrhynchuOxyrhynchuss historianhistorian!!
262666 Plut.Plut. De g/or.glor. Ath.Ath. 345C-E.345C-E .
262677 Dion.Dion. Hal.Hal. Thuc. 1616.. 7575
WithWith ththee discoverydiscovery ofof whawhatt hashas beenbeen calledcalled thethe Hellenica Oxyrhynchia inin
1906, 268268 parallelparallel ttoo XenophoXenophonn andand a ThucydideanThucydidean continuatorcontinuator wawass addedadded toto thethe shorshortt list.list. TheThe historianhistorian beganbegan hishis worworkk atat almostalmost preciselyprecisely ththee pointpoint wherewhere
ThucydidesThucydides'' historyhistory comescomes ttoo anan endend inin 411411 andand likelylikely intendedintended toto closeclose withwith eitheeitherr ththee battlebattle ofof CnidusCnidus (394)(394) oror thethe PeacePeace ofof AntalidaAntalidass (386).269(386).269 WhatWhat survivessurvives,, fewefewerr thathann threethree hundredhundred fragments,270fragments,270 indicatesindicates a historyhistory writtenwritten inin scalescale,, stylestyle andand methodmethod moremore inin mindmind ofof ThucydidesThucydides thanthan ofof Xenophon. 271271
TheThe historianhistorian isis similarsimilar toto ThucydidesThucydides inin manymany aspects:272272
1.1. AnnualAnnual eventsevents chronicledchronicled witwithh respectrespect toto summersummer andand winter;winter;
2.2. HisHis accountsaccounts byby personalpersonal observationobservation andand reportsreports byby otheotherr eyewitnesses;eyewitnesses;
33.. UseUse ofof wordswords thatthat werweree reportedreported byby thosethose whwhoo actuallyactually heardheard themthem;;
4.4. NoNo suggestionsuggestion thatthat otherother literaryliterary sourcessources werewere usedused ttoo fleshflesh outout thethe
narrative;narrative;
55.. DigressionsDigressions areare moremore thanthan a stylisticstylistic peculiaritypeculiarity inin thathatt theirtheir mainmain purposepurpose
isis ttoo elucidateelucidate backgroundbackground toto eventsevents andand provideprovide causationcausation goinggoing beyondbeyond
thethe immediate;immediate;
66.. HistoricalHistorical factsfacts areare rarelyrarely presentedpresented withwith additionaladditional personalpersonal comment.comment.273273
268 268 Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, editededited witwithh translationtranslation andand commentarycommentary byby P.P. R. McKechnieMcKechnie andand S.S. JJ.. KernKern (Warminster:(Warminster: 1988),1988), 3-6,3-6, notesnotes thatthat thethe 19061906 fragment,fragment, oror LondonLondon Fragment,Fragment, waswas supplementedsupplemented byby twtwoo otherother finds:finds: thethe FlorenceFlorence FragmentFragment inin 1934,1934, andand ththee CairoCairo FragmentFragment inin 1976.1976.
269 269 I.I. AA.. F.F. Bruce,Bruce, An Historical Commentary on the Hellenica Oxyrhynchia (Cambridge:(Cambridge: 1967),1967), 33-- 44..
270 270 McKechnieMcKechnie andand Kern,Kern, Hellenica Oxyrhynchia (1988),(1988), 3-5.3-5.
272711 Bruce,Bruce, Commentary (1967),4.(1967), 4.
272 272 TheThe observationsobservations herehere areare derivederivedd fromfrom Bruce,Bruce, Commentary (1967),3-20.(1967), 3-20. 7676
InIn addition,addition, ththee Oxyrhynchus historianhistorian wawass nonott influenced byby thethe rhetoricalrhetorical stylstylee ofof thethe times,times, andand hishis narrativenarrative isis eveevenn lessless emotionaemotionall thanthan thathatt ooff
Thucydides.274274 SpeechesSpeeches araree notnot founfoundd iinn eitheeitherr ooff ththee fragmentsfragments.. WhereasWhereas
ThucydidesThucydides useusedd speechesspeeches ttoo givegive backgrounbackgroundd ttoo ththee circumstancecircumstancess ofof eventeventss oorr givegive fullefullerr understanding ttoo causation,causation, ththee Oxyrhynchus historian,historian, itit seemsseems,, iiss contencontentt ttoo achievachievee thithiss byby narrative.275275 HisHis efforteffortss ttoo acquiracquiree accurataccuratee materialmaterial fromfrom eyewitnesses,eyewitnesses, personalpersonal accounts,accounts, andand informantsinformants isis inin starstarkk contrascontrastt toto
XenophonXenophon;; additionally,additionally, wherewhere XenophoXenophonn gavgavee littlelittle attentioattentionn oror significancsignificancee toto politicalpolitical history,history, navalnaval operationsoperations,, oorr ththee domesticdomestic politicspolitics ooff thethe EuropeanEuropean GreekGreek cities,cities, ththee Oxyrhynchus historianhistorian isis mindfulmindful thathatt a comprehensivecomprehensive understanding ofof ththee causescauses ooff thethe turmoilturmoil ofof ththee timestimes cannotcannot simplsimplyy bebe realizerealizedd frofromm a solelysolely
SpartanSpartan perspective.perspective. OneOne examplexamplee ooff thisthis,, amonamongg many,many, isis hishis treatmentreatmentt ooff thethe
BattleBattle ofof NotiumNotium (406).(406). ThereThere areare fivfivee ancienancientt sourcesourcess foforr thithiss event,event,276276 bubutt mostmost modernmodern historians,historians, rejectingrejecting Xenophon'Xenophon'ss SpartanSpartan biasbias,, relyrely chieflchieflyy oonn ththee accountaccount narratednarrated inin ththee Hellenica Oxyrhynchia.277 ThThee Oxyrhynchus historianhistorian isis onlonlyy oneone ooff thethe historianshistorians discusseddiscussed herehere whoswhosee subsequensubsequentt obscurityobscurity anandd lacklack ooff popularpopular
273 273 TheThe historianhistorian willwill,, oonn occasion,occasion, givgivee whawhatt amountamountss ttoo a ThucydideaThucydideann comment:comment: "An"Andd soso ththee armarmyy ooff ththee King,King, havinghaving comcomee intointo greagreatt danger,danger, ceaseceasedd frofromm disorderdisorder oonn accountaccount ooff ConoCononn anandd hishis energy."energy." TranslatioTranslationn frofromm McKechnieMcKechnie anandd Kern,Kern, Hellenica Oxyrhynchia (1988),105.(1988), 105.
272744 Bruce,Bruce, Commentary (1967),20.(1967), 20.
275275 Bruce,Bruce, Commentary (1967),6.(1967), 6.
276 276 XenXen.. Hell. 1.5.12-15;1.5.12-15; Diod.Diod. Sic.Sic. 13.71;13.71; Plut.Plut. Vit. Ale.Alc. 35.5-6,35.5-6, Vit. Lys. 5.1-25.1-2;; anandd Hell. Oxy. 44..
277 277 Kagan,Kagan, The Fall (1987),(1987), 31 3155 fntn.. 9292,, alsalsoo indicatesindicates thathatt hishis (Kagan'sJ(Kagan's) explanationexplanation ootf ththee eventsevents restsrests oonn thethe versioversionn inin Diodorus.Diodorus. KennethKenneth SS.. SacksSacks,, "Diodorus,"Diodorus,"" OCOOCD , 472472,, sayssays thathatt Diodorus'Diodorus' 3 mainmain sourcsourcee wawass Ephorus.Ephorus. SacksSacks,, "Ephorus,""Ephorus," OC0OCD ,, 529529,, saysayss thathatt inin Ephorus'Ephorus' commitmentcommitment ttoo historicalhistorical judgmentjudgment,, EphorusEphorus preferredpreferred ththee Oxyrhynchus Historian ttoo XenophonXenophon.. BruceBruce,, Commentary (1967),(1967), 4 fn.fn. 1,1, agreeagreess thathatt EphorusEphorus useusedd him aass hihiss mainmain sourcsourcee foforr ththee periodperiod 411-411- 386.386. 7777 appeaappeall givegivess evidencevidencee ttoo ththee changechangess inin ththee methodsmethods anandd aimaimss ooff historicalhistorical writinwritingg thathatt persistedpersisted toto ththee timestimes ooff PolybiusPolybius andand ththee laterlater RomanRoman writerswriters.. AlongAlong witwithh PhilistusPhilistus ooff SyracuseSyracuse,, thoughthough,, hehe embraceembracedd muchmuch ofof thethe ThucydideanThucydidean method.method.
PhilistusPhilistus ooff Syracuse,Syracuse, likelike Thucydides,Thucydides, wawass a militarymilitary leader,leader, experiencedexperienced inin publicpublic affairsaffairs,, andand a recallerecalledd exile.278278 HeHe isis anotheanotherr earlyearly fourtfourthh centurycentury historiahistoriann whwhoo survivesurvivess onlonlyy iinn fragmentsfragments.. OOff ththee seventy-siseventy-sixx extanextantt fragmentfragmentss ooff
Philistus,Philistus, a fulfulll forty-twforty-twoo areare containedcontained inin a sixtsixthh centurcenturyy AADD ByzantineByzantine geographicallexicon.geographical lexicon.279279 NotNot muchmuch cacann bebe saisaidd directldirectlyy abouaboutt hishis workwork.. ItItss importanceimportance foforr thithiss studstudyy restsrests solelysolely oonn ancientancient testimoniestestimonies,, whicwhichh indicateindicate thatthat
PhilistusPhilistus was aann admireadmiredd historianhistorian whowho wrotwrotee muchmuch inin thethe charactecharacterr ooff
ThucydidesThucydides'' stylestyle andand method.method. DionysiusDionysius ooff Halicarnassus,Halicarnassus, Cicero,Cicero, andand QuintilianQuintilian alalll regarderegardedd PhilistusPhilistus aass a continuatocontinuatorr ooff ThucydidesThucydides'' method.28o280 ThiThiss iiss significantsignificant givegivenn thathatt ththee subjecsubjectt ooff Philistus'Philistus' historicalhistorical writinwritingg dididd notnot commencecommence witwithh ththee 414111 endinendingg ooff ThucydidesThucydides;; hishis Sicelica, The History of Sicily, extendsextends frofromm ththee mythologicalmythological timtimee toto 363363.. ThThee obviouobviouss invitationinvitation toto comparecompare withwith
ThucydideThucydidess was nonott presentpresent,, i.e.,i.e., startinstartingg hishis historhistoryy inin 411411,, butbut thathatt was notnot necessarnecessaryy ttoo dradraww comparisoncomparisonss betweebetweenn ththee two.two. Unfortunately,Unfortunately, admirersadmirers ofof hishis
278 LionelLionel Pearson,Pearson, The Greek Historians of the West: Timaeus and His Predecessors (Atlanta(Atlanta:: 1987),19-21;1987), 19-21; Bury,Bury, Greek Historians (1909),160.(1909), 160.
279 3 279KlausKlaus MeisterMeister,, "Philistus,""Philistus," OC0OCD ,, 1164.1164. IInn thithiss entryentry,, MeisteMeisterr quotesquotes EdwardEdward MeyerMeyer notingnoting thethe lossloss ooff PhilistusPhilistus'' worworkk aass "on"onee ooff ththee mostmost seriouseriouss losselossess foforr ancienancientt historiography."historiography."
280 3 280 Meister,Meister, "Philistus,""Philistus," OC0OCD ,, 1164.1164. Dionysius,Dionysius, ooff course,course, considerconsiderss anyany comparisocomparisonn ttoo ThucydideThucydidess opprobrium.opprobrium. Pearson,Pearson, Greek Historians (1987)(1987),24,, 24, thinkthinkss thathatt DionysiusDionysius waswas prejudicedprejudiced againstagainst PhilistusPhilistus becausbecausee ooff hihiss politicalpolitical attitudeattitude.. ThaThatt maymay alsoalso bebe a consideration ... . 7878 stylestyle offeofferr nono textuatextuall examples.examples. 281 CicerCiceroo isis highlyhighly complimentarycomplimentary andand consideredconsidered
PhilistusPhilistus ""aa capitacapitall writerwriter,, pithy,pithy, penetrating,penetrating, conciseconcise - almostalmost a ThucydideThucydidess iinn miniature."miniature. ,,282282
TheopompusTheopompus wawass arguablarguablyy ononee ofof ththee mostmost interestinginteresting historianshistorians ooff thethe fourtfourthh century.century.283283 LikeLike ThucydidesThucydides,, hhee wawass ooff aann oligarchioligarchicc familfamilyy butbut evidentlyevidently witwithh democratidemocraticc leanings.leanings. HeHe wawass twictwicee exileexiledd frofromm ththee islandisland ChiosChios,, ththee firsfirstt timetime foforr SpartaSpartann leanings,leanings, andand ththee secondsecond duringduring ththee timetime ooff thethe successor kingskings iinn ththee wakwakee ooff Alexander'Alexander'ss death.284death.284 HeHe wawass a rhetoricianrhetorician andand perhapsperhaps a studentstudent ofof ththee PanhellenistPanhellenist IsocratesIsocrates (436-338);(436-338); hehe wawass activactivee inin ththee MacedonianMacedonian courtcourt ooff
PhilipPhilip II,II, a politicalpolitical supportesupporterr ooff AlexanderAlexander,, andand,, inin ththee end,end, a disagreeable,disagreeable, somewhasomewhatt troublesometroublesome individual. 285285
TheopompusTheopompus'' Hellenica isis a continuationcontinuation ooff ThucydideThucydidess frofromm 414111 ttoo thethe
BattleBattle ooff CnidusCnidus (394).(394). AgainAgain,, whawhatt isis extanextantt consistconsistss ofof onlonlyy nineteennineteen fragments,fragments, andand itit isis impossiblimpossiblee ttoo makmakee anyany determinationsdeterminations regardinregardingg thethe contents,contents, chronologicalchronological arrangementsarrangements,, bias,bias, oror ththee stylstylee andand qualityquality ooff hishis method.286286 HisHis
282811 Pearson,Pearson, Greek Historians (1987),29.(1987), 29.
282822 CicCic.. QFr.Q Fr. 2.13.2.13.
283 Bury,Bury, Historians (1909)(1909),, 165,165, commentcommentss thathatt somsomee havhavee labelelabeledd him a greagreatt historian,historian, bubutt hhee saysayss thathatt ththee "evidence"evidence isis sufficiensufficientt ttoo disprovdisprovee suchsuch a claim.claim.""
282844 MichaelMichael AttyaAttyahh Flower,Flower, Theopompus of Chios: History and Rhetoric in the Fourth Century BC (Oxford:(Oxford. 1994),1994), 12-13.12-13. FlowerFlower alsalsoo quotequotess Photius,Photius, a scholascholarr ooff historyhistory anandd ththee PatriarchPatriarch ofof ConstantinopleConstantinople iinn ththee 9thth centurcenturyy ADAD.. PhotiuPhotiuss saysayss thathatt iinn ththee seconsecondd ofof TheopompusTheopompus'' exile,exile, "h"hee wawass shutshut outout frofromm evereveryy landland anandd reachereachedd Egypt,Egypt, wherwheree PtolemyPtolemy,, thethe kingking ofof thathatt country,country, dididd notnot wiswishh ttoo receivereceive himhim butbut wantewantedd ttoo putput him ttoo deathdeath aass a busybody;busybody; PtolemyPtolemy wouldwould havehave dondonee soso iiff hhee (Theopompus)(Theopompus) hahadd notnot beenbeen savesavedd byby ththee intercessionintercession ooff certaicertainn ooff hishis friendsfriends"" (12-13).(12-13).
282855 FlowerFlower,, Theopompus (1994)(1994),, 17-25.17-25. FlowerFlower saysayss itit isis unlikelyunlikely thathatt hehe wawass a studenstudentt ofof IsocratesIsocrates (25);(25); Luce,Luce, Greek Historians (1997(1997)) 109,109, saysayss hehe waswas..
286 33 286 KlauKlauss Meister,Meister, "Theopompus,"Theopompus,"" OC0OCD ,, 1505.1505. 7979
Philippica, ththee historhistoryy ooff PhilipPhilip IIII ooff Macedon,Macedon, survivesurvivess inin 373766 fragmentsfragments,, andand
somesome 505000 lineslines werweree quotequotedd inin ancientancient authorauthorss whoswhosee workworkss areare stilstilll extant.extant. 287287
ThisThis relativerelative wealtwealthh ooff texturatexturall materialmaterial certainlcertainlyy offerofferss enougenoughh foforr a reasonablereasonable
assessmenassessmentt ooff ththee characteristicscharacteristics ooff TheopompusTheopompus'' method.method. LikeLike Herodotus,Herodotus, hehe
hadhad a broadbroad conceptioconceptionn ooff historhistoryy anandd showeshowedd aann acuteacute interestinterest iinn ethnography,ethnography,
288288 geographygeography,, culturalcultural anandd religiousreligious history,history, asas welwelll aass myth. HeHe wawass inclinedinclined toto
digressiondigressionss anandd muchmuch moralizing?89moralizing.289 HeHe was similasimilarr ttoo ThucydideThucydidess inin oneone
importantimportant respect:respect: hehe indicatesindicates thathatt hishis accountsaccounts areare foundefoundedd oonn rigorousrigorous
personalpersonal observationobservation,, personalpersonal researchresearch anandd experience.29o290 OneOne modernmodern scholarscholar
hahass suggestesuggestedd thatthat,, givegivenn Theopompus'Theopompus' nature,nature, hishis Hellenica mamayy havehave beenbeen
meantmeant aass a retortretort ttoo Xenophon's.Xenophon's.291291 TruTruee ttoo hihiss apparenapparentt estimationestimation ooff selfself,,
TheopompusTheopompus isis quicquickk toto statstatee hihiss owownn superioritsuperiorityy overover Herodotus,Herodotus, Thucydides,Thucydides,
anandd perhapsperhaps thethe Oxyrhynchus historianhistorian also.292292 BeyondBeyond all ofof thisthis,, TheopompusTheopompus
wawass ononee ooff ththee mosmostt readread anandd highlyhighly influentiainfluentiall GreekGreek historianshistorians ofof ththee ancientancient
GreekGreek anandd RomanRoman worldworld.. ItIt eveneven seemseemss thathatt therethere wawass anan abidingabiding interest inin hishis
287 33 287 MeisterMeister,, "Theopompus,""Theopompus," OC0OCD ,, 1505.1505.
288 286 ShrimptonShrimpton,, Theopompus (1991)(1991) isis a comprehensivcomprehensivee monographmonograph onon Theopompus:Theopompus: besidesbesides beinbeingg welwelll writtenwritten,, ShrimptonShrimpton includesincludes inin hishis appendiceappendicess (Appendi(Appendixx BS,, pp.pp. 196-274)196-274) ththee extremelyextremely helpfulhelpful testimonia (T(T)) anandd fragmentfragmentss (F)(F) ofof TheopompusTheopompus.. ShrimptonShrimpton is usedused exclusivelyexclusively foforr thethe referencereferencess foforr thithiss notenote anandd ththee followinfollowingg twtwoo (fn.(fn. 283283 anandd 284)284),, whicwhichh includeinclude ththee pagepage numbers ooff hishis monographmonograph and/oand/orr ththee numbersnumbers ooff ththee testimonia and/orand/or fragmentsfragments;; universaluniversal historyhistory:: 6767,, tabltablee 2;2; ethnographyethnography:: 101-9,101-9, F260,F260, F274(aF274(a andand b)b);; geographygeography:: 94-10194-101,, F129;F129; culturculturee anandd religionreligion:: 132-5,132-5, F64(aF64(a anandd b)b},, F285(a-b),F285(a-b), F331;F331; myth:myth: F71,F71, F75(a-e)F75(a-e)..
289 269 ShrimptonShrimpton,, Theopompus (1991)(1991),, digressions:digressions: xviixvii,, 15-28,15-28, F67(aF67(a anandd b);b); moralizing:moralizing: 2121,, 3333,, 140-41,140-41, F114,F114, F124F124..
290 290 Shrimpton,Shrimpton, Theopompus (1991)(1991),, T20(a)T20(a),, F181F181..
292911 LuceLuce,, Greek Historians (1997(1997)) 109109..
292922 ShrimptonShrimpton,, Theopompus (1991)(1991) 285,285, n.n. 44.. 8080 workworkss intointo ththee latelate antiquantiquee period?93period. GivenGiven ththee HellenizingHellenizing influencesinfluences onon thethe writinwritingg ooff historyhistory andand ththee attendantattendant publicpublic appreciationappreciation,, thithiss isis notnot surprisingsurprising..
NoNo lessless aann experexpertt thanthan DionysiusDionysius ofof HalicarnassusHalicarnassus (fl.(fl. latelate firsfirstt cc.. Be)BC) pointspoints toto TheopompusTheopompus asas ththee embodimenembodimentt ofof whawhatt a historianhistorian shoulshouldd be.294294 InIn a lengthylengthy letterletter toto GnaeusGnaeus Pompeius,Pompeius, DionysiusDionysius considerconsiderss thethe necessarynecessary attributesattributes ofof a goodgood historianhistorian anandd thethe meritsmerits ofof a number,number, includingincluding Herodotus,Herodotus, Thucydides,Thucydides, andand Theopompus.Theopompus. FindingFinding faulfaultt witwithh nearlynearly allall ooff themthem,, hehe reservesreserves mostmost ofof hihiss objectionsobjections foforr ThucydidesThucydides andand unabashedunabashed praisepraise foforr Theopompus.295295 ThomasThomas
Hobbes,Hobbes, inin hihiss 16341634 translationtranslation ooff Thucydides,Thucydides, reactsreacts toto Dionysius' appraisals:296296
I thinkthink therethere waswas nevernever writtenwritten soso muchmuch absurdityabsurdity inin soso fewfew lines.lines. HeHe isis contrarycontrary ttoo ththee opinionopinion ooff alalll menmen thathatt everever spakspakee ofof thithiss subjectsubject besidesbesides himself,himself, andand ttoo commoncommon sense.sense. ForFor hhee makesmakes thethe scopscopee ooff history,history, notnot profitprofit byby writinwritingg truth,truth, butbut delighdelightt ooff ththee hearer,hearer, aass ifif itit werweree a song.song. AndAnd ththee argumenargumentt ooff history,history, hehe woulwouldd notnot byby ananyy meansmeans havehave toto containcontain thethe calamitiescalamities andand miserymisery ofof hishis country;country; thesthesee hehe coulcouldd havehave buriedburied iinn silencesilence:: butbut onlonlyy theitheirr gloriousglorious anandd splendidsplendid actions.actions. AmongsAmongstt thethe virtuesvirtues ofof anan historiographer,historiographer, hehe reckonsreckons affectioaffectionn ttoo hishis countrycountry;; studstudyy toto pleaseplease ththee hearer;hearer; toto writwritee ooff moremore thathann hishis argumentargument leadsleads hihimm to;to; anandd toto conceaconceall all actionsactions thathatt werweree notnot ttoo ththee honourhonour ofof hishis countrycountry.. MostMost manifestmanifest vicesvices.. HeHe wawass a rhetorician;rhetorician; andand seemetseemethh hehe woulwouldd havehave nothingnothing writtenwritten,, butbut thathatt whicwhichh wawass mostmost capablecapable ofof rhetoricalrhetorical ornament.ornament.
WhilWhilee itit isis easeasyy ttoo finfindd agreemenagreementt witwithh thesthesee observationsobservations,, HobbesHobbes givegivess nono allowanceallowancess ttoo facfactt thathatt Dionysius'Dionysius' literarliteraryy criticismscriticisms reflectreflect ththee HellenizingHellenizing influencesinfluences onon historicalhistorical writingwriting.. InIn factfact,, ththee complaintscomplaints thathatt HobbesHobbes listlistss areare exactlyexactly ththee elementelementss embraceembracedd byby ththee historianshistorians influencedinfluenced byby thethe rhetoricalrhetorical
293 "3 293 Meister, "Theopompus ," OC0 , 1506; regarding the later period, Photius claims to have read Meister, "Theopompus ," OCD , 1506; regarding the later period, Photius claims to have read all fifty-three extant books of Philippica; cf. Flower, Theopompus (1994), 12. all fifty-three extant books of Philippics; cf. Flower, Theopompus (1994), 12.
294294 Dion.Dion. Hal.Hal. Pomp. 66..
295295 Dion.Dion. Hal.Hal. Pomp. 3-5.3-5.
296 296 ThomasThomas Hobbes,Hobbes, Hobbes's Thucydides, eded.. RichardRichard SchlatteSchlatterr (Ne(Neww Brunswick:Brunswick: 1975),22.1975), 22. 8181 skillsskills ofof teacherteacherss sucsuchh asas IsocratesIsocrates anandd theitheirr reactionsreactions ttoo ththee disintegratiodisintegrationn ofof ththee classicalclassical worldworld intointo ththee variousvarious kingdomskingdoms ooff ththee successorsuccessorss ooff Alexander.Alexander.
InIn ththee HellenisticHellenistic AgeAge,, thethe historicalhistorical focufocuss hadhad littllittlee ttoo ddoo witwithh thethe historicalhistorical approachapproach ofof Herodotus,Herodotus, certainlycertainly notnot ThucydidesThucydides,, nornor ththee likelikess ooff PhilistusPhilistus andand thethe Oxyrhynchus historian.historian. HellenisticHellenistic concernconcern wawass withwith ththee fabulousfabulous,, readingreading forfor pleasure,pleasure, andand ooff courscoursee ththee aggrandizementaggrandizement ooff HellenisticHellenistic princes.297297 A briefbrief illustrationillustration wilwilll bebe sufficientsufficient ttoo illustrateillustrate ththee historicalhistorical literatureliterature ooff ththee age.age. ItIt isis a passagepassage frofromm HegesiasHegesias ofof CyreneCyrene (third(third c.c. BC)BC) whwhoo wrotwrotee a historhistoryy ofof
Alexander.29B298 HeHe wrotwrotee iinn a proseprose dithyrambdithyramb,, a popularpopular stylstylee ofof ththee timestimes.. TheThe passagepassage commentscomments onon Alexander'Alexander'ss destructiondestruction ooff ThebeThebess inin 336:299299
InIn raisingraising ttoo eartearthh Thebes,Thebes, 0O Alexander,Alexander, ThinThinee handhand a deeddeed hashas donedone,, SucSuchh asas ZeuZeuss woulwouldd dodo WerWeree hehe toto castcast ththee moonmoon utterlyutterly OuOutt frofromm yonyon heaven'sheaven's sectionsection;; ForFor ththee susunn asas a fittinfittingg symbosymboll I keepkeep foforr Athens.Athens. VerilVerilyy thesthesee citiescities twaitwainn werweree visuavisuall orbsorbs ooff HellasHellas;; SoSo thathatt nownow foforr ththee oneone ooff ththee pairpair inin painpain I travailtravail.. FoForr HellasHellas hathhath lostlost halfhalf herher visionvision,, ononee eyeyee knockedknocked out,out, EvenEven thethe ThebaThebann towntown..
ItIt isis notnot surprisinsurprisingg thathatt manymany ooff ththee workworkss ooff thesthesee latelaterr historianshistorians ddoo nonott survivesurvive..
ThereThere areare,, ooff course,course, otheotherr obviouobviouss reasonsreasons:: HellenisticHellenistic historieshistories ofteoftenn rarann thirtythirty
oorr moremore books,books, oror scrollsscrolls,, whicwhichh reducedreduced theitheirr chancchancee ooff survivasurvivall becausebecause iitt
simplsimplyy wawass tootoo expensiveexpensive ttoo duplicatduplicatee them.them.30o300 ThThee objecobjectt ooff a historian'shistorian's flatteryflattery
297 297 Luce,Luce, Greek Historians (1997)(1997),, 108108..
292988 Bury,Bury, Greek Historians (1909),(1909), 171171..
292999 QuoteQuotedd inin Bury,Bury, Greek Historians (1909)(1909),, 171171..
300 300 Luce,Luce, Greek Historians (1997),108.(1997), 108. 8282 maymay livelive onlyonly a littlelittle shortershorter thanthan hishis historicalhistorical portrait.portrait. TheThe readingreading tastestastes ofof thethe publicpublic werweree asas capriciouscapricious asas theythey areare inin anyany age.age. Finally,Finally, thethe absenceabsence ofof truthtruth inin favorfavor ofof exaggerationexaggeration certainlycertainly affectedaffected thethe lastinglasting valuevalue ofof anyany history.history.
ItIt seemsseems appropriate,appropriate, however,however, toto givegive somesome creditcredit toto ththee laborslabors ofof
Dionysius. TheThe firsfirstt centurycentury BeBC markedmarked a timetime whenwhen interestinterest inin thethe classicsclassics andand classicalclassical historyhistory wawass inin itsits ascendancy.301ascendancy.301 DionysiusDionysius diddid muchmuch toto advanceadvance increasedincreased interestinterest inin thethe greatgreat historianshistorians ofof ancientancient Greece.Greece. A centurycentury later,later,
LucianLucian (b.(b. c.c. 120120 ADAD)) wrotewrote hishis Quomodo historia conscribendaconschbenda sit, a "how-to"how-to worworkk forfor would-bewould-be historians,"historians," makingmaking directdirect referencereference toto thethe worksworks ofof HerodotusHerodotus anandd Thucydides.302302 WithoutWithout thethe effortsefforts ofof writerwriterss likelike DionysiusDionysius andand thethe attendantattendant
GreekGreek yearningyearning forfor thethe gloryglory daysdays ofof thethe ancientancient times,303times,303 itit isis possiblepossible thatthat
Herodotus,Herodotus, ThucydidesThucydides,, andand XenophonXenophon woulwouldd havehave survivedsurvived onlyonly inin fragmentsfragments asas havehave thethe otherother historianshistorians consideredconsidered inin thithiss chapter.chapter. AAss itit provedproved toto be,be, interestinterest inin theitheirr worksworks,, especiallyespecially thatthat ofof Thucydides,Thucydides, wawass importantimportant inin thethe RomanRoman exerciseexercise ofof writinwritingg history.history. ItIt isis nownow appropriateappropriate toto considerconsider Thucydides'Thucydides' placeplace inin RomanRoman historiography.historiography.
M1 301 Luce,Luce, Greek Historians (1997),(1997), 106,106, 121121..
303022 Lucian,Lucian, Hist.Hist, conscr.conser.
303 303 MostMost ooff thethe GreekGreek statesstates atat thethe timetime ofof DionysiusDionysius were,were, ofof course,course, partpart ofof thethe expandingexpanding RomanRoman empireempire.. CHAPTERCHAPTER IVIV
THTHEE ROMANROMAN CONTINUATORSCONTINUATORS
BeforeBefore discussingdiscussing ththee greagreatt LatinLatin historians,historians, SallusSallustt (85-35(85-35 Be),BC), LivyLivy (59(59
BC-BC- AADD 17),17), andand TacituTacituss (c.(c. 56-afte56-afterr 118118 AD)AD),, itit isis welwelll ttoo makemake somsomee generalgeneral remarksremarks oonn ththee developmentdevelopment,, nature,nature, andand charactercharacter ofof RomanRoman historiography.historiography.
Importantly,Importantly, thethe RomansRomans lackedlacked ththee epicepic poetspoets whwhoo impactedimpacted soso greatlygreatly thethe developmentdevelopment ofof GreekGreek historiography.historiography. Rome'sRome's firsfirstt epicepic poets,poets, GnaeuGnaeuss NaeviusNaevius anandd QuintuQuintuss Ennius,Ennius, arrivedarrived comparativelcomparativelyy latelate inin ththee latterlatter thirthirdd anandd earlyearly seconsecondd centuriescenturies BC. 304304 InIn contrastcontrast,, ththee GreeksGreeks werweree ableable ttoo pointpoint ttoo HomerHomer andand
HesiodHesiod foforr specifispecificc storiestoriess abouaboutt ththee foundinfoundingg ooff AthensAthens,, SpartaSparta,, Corinth,Corinth, andand
ThebesThebes,, foforr exampleexample.. TheThe traditionatraditionall legendslegends ooff RomeRome areare lessless precise.305305 IItt mattersmatters littlelittle herehere thathatt CiceroCicero andand PolybiusPolybius assertassert thatthat ththee foundinfoundingg wawass a gradualgradual processprocess frofromm RomulusRomulus througthroughh ththee contributionscontributions ofof eacheach ofof ththee kings,306kings,306 oror thathatt DionysiusDionysius ooff HalicarnassusHalicarnassus maintainsmaintains thatthat RomeRome wawass bornborn fullfullyy maturedmatured
30307 withwith a constitutionconstitution andand a largelarge urbanurban population. ? Indeed,Indeed, modernmodern scholarsscholars havehave knowledgeknowledge ooff at leastleast twenty-fivtwenty-fivee foundatiofoundationn storiestoriess compiledcompiled byby thethe
304 33 3 304 H.H. D.D. Jocelyn,Jocelyn, "Naevius,"Naevius, Gnaeus,Gnaeus,"" OC0OCD ,, 1021-1022,1021-1022, andand "Ennius,"Ennius, Quintus,Quintus,"" OC0OCD ,, 525-526525-526..
305 305 TT.. JJ.. CornellCornell,, The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC) (Londo(Londonn andand NewNew YorkYork:: 1995),1995), 5959..
306 306 Cic.Cic. Rep. 2.37;2.37; PolybPolyb.. 6.10.14.6.10.14.
303077 Dion.Dion. Hal.Hal. Ant. Rom. 2.7-29.2.7-29. 8484 antiquariansantiquarians ofof thethe latlatee Republic;Republic; manymany ooff thethemm makemake nnoo referencereference at all toto
RomulusRomulus oorr Aeneas. 308308 WhatWhat isis importantimportant ttoo thithiss thesithesiss isis thathatt ththee historianhistorianss ooff ancienancientt RomeRome hadhad a significantlsignificantlyy lessless strongstrong foundatiofoundationn foforr theitheirr materialmaterial andand nono nationalnational storiestoriess uponupon whicwhichh toto buildbuild theirtheir histories.histories.
QuintuQuintuss FabiusFabius Pictor,Pictor, considereconsideredd Rome'sRome's firsfirstt historian,historian, wrotwrotee betweenbetween
30g309 212155 andand 200 Be.BC. RegardedRegarded asas ththee "Fathe"Fatherr ofof RomanRoman History,"History," hehe wawass ththee firstfirst toto writwritee a RomanRoman historicalhistorical workwork inin prose?10prose.310 ThaThatt hhee wrotwrotee inin Greek311311 shoulshouldd notnot suggestsuggest thathatt hehe wrotwrotee foforr a GreekGreek audienceaudience,, thougthoughh iitt isis temptintemptingg ttoo suppossupposee thatthat hehe wawass a precursorprecursor ttoo PolybiusPolybius inin explaininexplainingg RomeRome anandd ititss institutionsinstitutions ttoo thethe
Greeks.Greeks. TheThe educatededucated ooff ththee RomanRoman elite,elite, thethe rulinrulingg class,class, werweree ablablee ttoo readread
GreekGreek andand hishis didacticdidactic messagmessagee supportssupports ththee vievieww thathatt ththee SenateSenate wawass hishis intendedintended aUdience.audience.312312 HisHis historyhistory isis aann accounaccountt ooff RomeRome frofromm itsits foundationfoundationss toto thethe beginningbeginning ooff thethe SeconSecondd PunicPunic WaWarr andand wawass nationalisticnationalistic andand moralizingmoralizing inin itsits anecdotes. 313313 ThougThoughh subsequensubsequentt LatinLatin historianshistorians woulwouldd loolookk ttoo ththee GreekGreekss aass modelsmodels foforr writinwritingg history,history, FabiusFabius PictorPictor setset ththee charactercharacter ofof RomanRoman historiographyhistoriography forfor centuriecenturiess toto come.314314
ThiThiss distinctivedistinctive RomanRoman charactercharacter provesproves criticacriticall inin understandingunderstanding thethe
308 30B Cornell, Beginnings of Rome (1995). Cornell, Beginnings of Rome (1995). 309 Momigliano, Classical Foundations (1990), 88. 309 Momigliano, Classical Foundations (1990), 88. 310 E. Badian, "The Early Historians," Latin Historians, ed. T. A. Dorey (New York: 1966),3. 310 E. Badian, "The Early Historians," Latin Historians, ed. T. A. Dorey (New York: 1966), 3. 311 Cic. Div. 1.6; Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 1.6.2. 311 Cic. Div. 1.6; Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 1.6.2. 312 Badian, "Early Historians," Latin Historians (1966), 6. 312 Badian, "Early Historians," Latin Historians (1966), 6. 313 Mellor, Roman Historians (1999), 11, 14. 313 Mellor, Roman Historians (1999), 11, 14. 314 Mellor, Roman Historians (1999), 17. 314 Mellor, Roman Historians (1999), 17. 8585 influence ooff ththee GreeksGreeks,, inin thithiss cascasee ThucydidesThucydides,, iinn anyany appraisalappraisal ooff ththee LatinLatin historicahistoricall methodmethod anandd purpose.purpose. WhereaWhereass itit cacann bbee arguedargued thathatt ThucydidesThucydides refrainsrefrains frofromm overtlyovertly teachinteachingg moralmoral lessons,lessons, ththee historieshistories ooff ththee Romans,Romans, thoughthough obsessivelobsessivelyy politicalpolitical,, areare deepldeeplyy anandd explicitlyexplicitly moral.moral. ThThee reasonreason foforr thisthis significantsignificant RomanRoman departuredeparture frofromm ththee GreekGreek modelmodel maymay bebe obvious:obvious: forfor thethe
Greeks,Greeks, importantimportant moralmoral issuesissues anandd sociasociall oorr politicalpolitical theortheoryy werweree leftleft ttoo thethe philosopherphilosopher oror ththee individual;individual; foforr ththee Romans,Romans, duduee ttoo a laclackk ofof significantsignificant philosophicalphilosophical figures,figures,315315 itit wawass theitheirr historiehistoriess thathatt providedprovided ththee forforaa ttoo investigateinvestigate ththee questionquestionss ofof morals,morals, ethicsethics,, andand politicalpolitical theory.theory.316316 IndividualIndividual andand nationalnational ethicalethical themethemess araree importantimportant elementelementss inin ththee narrativesnarratives ooff all ooff ththee LatinLatin historianshistorians discussediscussedd inin thithiss chapterchapter.. TheTheyy continuallcontinuallyy illustrateillustrate moral lessonslessons thatthat werweree learnedlearned,, nonott learnedlearned oorr shoulshouldd havhavee beebeenn learnedlearned anandd thethe consequencesconsequences foforr ththee individualindividual oror ththee res publica. SallusSal/ustt wrotwrotee witwithh a vievieww ofof RomanRoman societysociety inin rapidrapid moralmoral decaydecay;; LivyLivy livedlived inin aann ascendanascendantt Rome butbut wawass pessimisticpessimistic ofof heherr retainingretaining herher greatness;greatness; TacituTacituss witnessewitnessedd Rome'sRome's descentdescent intointo corruptioncorruption andand crime.317317 TheTheyy aI/all wrotwrotee theitheirr historieshistories witwithh thesthesee thoughtthoughtss inin mind,mind, anandd notnot absenabsentt frofromm theitheirr workworkss werweree theitheirr sometimesometimess painfulpainful personalpersonal relationsrelations withwith
Rome.Rome.
315 315 AlaAlann WardmanWardman,, Rome's Debt to Greece (London(London:: 1976),1976), 88,, offersoffers a reasonablereasonable suggestiosuggestionn foforr thisthis:: "Greeks"Greeks coulcouldd bebe seeseenn aass memenn whwhoo wenwentt inin foforr interminableinterminable discussiondiscussionss butbut hadhad nono partpart toto playplay inin importantimportant publicpublic affairsaffairs.. HenceHence therethere wawass somesome dislikdislikee ooff philosophy,philosophy, whicwhichh waswas considereconsideredd a forformm ooff activitactivityy remoteremote frofromm ththee seriouseriouss businessbusiness ooff life;life; CiceroCicero indicatesindicates thathatt hishis ownown affectioaffectionn foforr philosophyphilosophy coulcouldd exposexposee him ttoo ththee chargchargee thathatt hehe wawass busybusy witwithh irrelevancies."
316 316 CatoCato ththee EldeElderr (234-149(234-149 BC),BC), aann importanimportantt figurfiguree inin determinindeterminingg ththee rolerole ofof LatinLatin history,history, wrotewrote ththee firsfirstt RomanRoman historyhistory iinn LatinLatin.. HisHis worksworks,, foforr ththee educatioeducationn ooff hishis sonson,, explaineexplainedd ththee moral publicpublic anandd privateprivate responsibilitiesresponsibilities ofof a RomaRomann citizencitizen.. TheThe message,message, ofof course,course, wawass addressedaddressed toto allall Romans.Romans. SeSeee alsoalso Badian,Badian, "Early"Early Historians,"Historians," Latin Historians (1966)(1966),7-11., 7-11.
317 317 TT.. A. Dorey,Dorey, Latin Historians (New(New YorkYork:: 1966),1966), ixix.. 8686
C.C. SallustiusSallustius CrispusCrispus (85-35 Be),BC), ofof thethe threethree LatinLatin historians,historians, isis probablyprobably ththee historianhistorian onon whowhomm thethe worworkk ofof ThucydidesThucydides hadhad thethe greatestgreatest impact.impact.
QuintilianQuintilian (c.(c. 35-90s35-90s ADAD)) woulwouldd "not"not hesitatehesitate toto matchmatch SallustSallust againstagainst
Thucydides,"Thucydides," andand VelleiusVelleius (20/19(20/19 BC-afterBC-after 3030 ADAD)) considersconsiders himhim "the"the rivalrival ofof
318 Thucydides." 318 TheThe elderelder SenecaSeneca (c.(c. 5050 BC-c.BC-c. 4040 AD)AD) suggestssuggests thathatt SallustSallust hadhad
ThucydidesThucydides'' workwork inin frontfront ofof himhim asas hehe wrotwrotee hishis ownown histories.histories. InIn hishis
Controversiae, SenecaSeneca relatesrelates oneone imaginaryimaginary discussiondiscussion::
TheThenn hehe quotedquoted anan epigramepigram ofof Thucydides:Thucydides: "Success"Success isis wonderfullwonderfullyy goodgood aatt hidinghiding andand shadinshadingg overover everybody'severybody's faults,faults,"" followedfollowed byby Sallust'sSallust's versionversion:: "Success"Success isis a wonderfulwonderful screenscreen forfor vice.vice."" Thucydides'Thucydides' primaryprimary virtuvirtuee isis brevity,brevity, butbut SallustSallust hashas beatenbeaten himhim atat itit andand defeateddefeated himhim onon hishis ownown ground.ground. TheThe GreekGreek epigramepigram isis certainlycertainly short,short, butbut therethere areare wordswords oneone cancan removeremove withoutwithout harmharm toto ththee sense;sense; taketake outout "hiding""hiding" oror "shading,"shading,"" taktakee outout "everybody's""everybody's" - andand thethe senssensee willwill remain,remain, notnot perhapsperhaps soso pretty,pretty, butbut equallyequally complete.complete. ButBut fromfrom Sallust'sSallust's epigramepigram nothingnothing cancan bebe removedremoved withouwithoutt spoilingspoiling thethe sense.sense. Sen.Sen. Controv. 9.1.139.1.13
Seneca'sSeneca's deconstructiondeconstruction ofof thethe lineslines isis perceptiveperceptive ofof theitheirr styles.styles. ItIt isis ofof littlelittle consequenceconsequence thatthat neitherneither ofof thesethese quotedquoted lineslines isis ttoo bebe founfoundd inin theirtheir respective works.works. WhatWhat isis significansignificantt isis thatthat uponupon publicationpublication ofof Sallust'sSallust's monographs,monographs, itit wawass immediatelyimmediately apparentapparent hehe wawass influencedinfluenced greatlygreatly byby
ThucydidesThucydides..
InIn hishis seminalseminal biographybiography ofof Sallust,Sallust, RonaldRonald SymeSyme notesnotes thatthat ththee HellenisticHellenistic historians,historians, withwith theitheirr pathos,pathos, horrors,horrors, eroticismeroticism andand supernaturalsupernatural themes,themes, diddid notnot havehave anyany influenceinfluence onon Sallust,Sallust, andand despitedespite Cicero'sCicero's praisespraises foforr Cato'sCato's oldold-- fashionefashionedd mannermanner inin ththee Origines, SallustSallust discovereddiscovered inin ThucydidesThucydides ,twotwo areasareas ofof
318 Quint.Quint. Inst.Inst 10.1.101,10.1.101, inin a pejorativepejorative sensesense givengiven thatthat hehe earlierearlier warnedwarned studentsstudents againstagainst adoptingadopting hishis style,style, butbut inin thethe samesame lineline (Inst. 2.5.192.5.19)) saysayss thathatt SallustSallust isis a greatergreater historianhistorian thanthan Livy;Livy; VeilVeil.. Pat.Pat. 2.36.2.2.36.2. 8787 exploitationexploitation:: anan innovativeinnovative stylstylee anandd anan equivalencyequivalency ofof subject. 319319 TheThe personal parallelsparallels SallusSallustt sharesharedd witwithh ThucydidesThucydides maymay alsoalso havehave contributecontributedd ttoo a personalpersonal connectionconnection witwithh thethe AthenianAthenian:: ThucydideThucydidess knewknew politicpoliticss andand warwar,, wawass consideredconsidered a failedfailed general,general, andand wrotewrote hishis workwork inin exile.exile. SallustSallust tootoo hadhad thisthis knowledge,knowledge, andand retireretiredd ttoo hishis estateestatess undeunderr a cloud.cloud. FollowingFollowing ththee proscriptionsproscriptions ooff ththee SecondSecond
Triumvirate,Triumvirate,320320 hehe beganbegan hishis firsfirstt workwork,, thethe Bellum Catilinae (c.(c. 42/142/1 BC)BC) inin thethe midstmidst ooff thethe declinedecline andand falfalll ofof ththee Republic.Republic.
HisHis monographmonograph onon thethe conspiracyconspiracy ooff SergiusSergius CatilinCatilinaa (d.(d. 6262 BC)BC) opensopens witwithh thethe famoufamouss longlong andand self-revealingself-revealing preface.preface. ItIt isis aatt leastleast one-sixtone-sixthh ofof ththee totaltotal worworkk andand thisthis,, amongamong otheotherr elementselements,, isis a justificatiojustificationn ooff thethe worworkk thatthat SallustSallust undertakes.undertakes. ThucydidesThucydides diddid thethe samsamee inin ththee introductoryintroductory lineslines ooff hishis history.history.
JustificationJustification,, however,however, isis alwaysalways closeclose ttoo ththee surfacsurfacee iinn Sallust'sSallust's longlong introduction.introduction. ThThee influenceinfluence ooff ThucydideThucydidess oonn ththee firsfirstt thirteethirteenn chapterschapters ooff thethe
Bellum Catilinae isis evidentevident inin ththee similaritiesimilaritiess butbut alsoalso evidenevidentt inin ononee strikingstriking departure.departure. A closclosee readingreading ooff ththee prefacprefacee revealsreveals ththee rolerole thatthat sophistisophisticc rhetoricrhetoric andand argumentargument playedplayed inin ththee politicspolitics ofof ththee day.day.321321 SallustSallust beginsbegins hishis worworkk asas followsfollows::
EverymanEveryman whwhoo wishewishess toto riserise superiorsuperior toto ththee lowerlower animalanimalss shouldshould strivestrive hishis hardesthardest ttoo avoiavoidd livingliving alalll hishis daydayss inin silentsilent obscurity,obscurity, likelike ththee beastbeast ooff
319 319 RonaldRonald Syme,Syme, Sallust (Berkeley(Berkeley anandd LoLoss AngelesAngeles:: 1964),1964), 5151,, 56;56; SymSymee says,says, To"Forr SallustSallust,, itit cacann bebe claimedclaimed,, ThucydideThucydidess wawass a recentrecent discovery,discovery, congeniacongeniall anandd exciting"exciting" (245).(245).
320 320 Cicero was himself a victim on December 6, 43 BC Cicero was himself a victim on December 6, 43 BC
321 321 AAnn analysianalysiss ofof Sallust'sSallust's prefacepreface isis notnot simple.simple. WhilWhilee itit isis generallgenerallyy accepteacceptedd thathatt SallustSallust presentspresents hihiss argumentsarguments wellwell,, andand thathatt mostmost commentarcommentaryy onon hihiss worworkk isis positive,positive, agreementagreement betweenbetween scholarscholarss isis rare.rare. ThThee followinfollowingg observationsobservations deadeall witwithh onlonlyy partpart ofof ththee prefacepreface anandd onlyonly inin aann obviouobviouss connectionconnection witwithh ThucydidesThucydides.. ForFor ththee definitivdefinitivee treatmentreatmentt seseee P.P. McGushin,McGushin, CC.. Sallustius Crispus, Bellum Catilainae: A Commentary (Leiden:(Leiden: 1977),1977), 30-10530-105.. 8888
ththee fieldfield,, creaturecreaturess whicwhichh gogo witwithh theitheirr facefacess ttoo ththee groundground andand areare thethe slaveslavess ooff theitheirr belliesbellies.. WWee humanhuman beingsbeings havehave mentalmental aass welwelll asas physicalphysical powers;powers; ththee mind,mind, whicwhichh wwee sharsharee witwithh ththee godsgods,, isis ththee rulingruling elemenelementt inin us,us, whilwhilee thethe chiechieff functiofunctionn ooff thethe body,body, whicwhichh wwee havehave inin commoncommon witwithh thethe beastsbeasts,, isis ttoo obey.obey. SurelySurely,, thereforetherefore,, iitt isis ouourr intellectualintellectual ratherrather thathann ourour physicalphysical powerspowers thathatt wwee shouldshould ususee iinn ththee pursuitpursuit ofof famefame.. SailSail.. Cat. 1.1-41.1-4
TherTheree iiss a letterletter ttoo JuliusJulius CaesaCaesarr attributeattributedd ttoo Sallust.Sallust. AfteAfterr hehe hashas declaredeclaredd hishis totatotall subordinatiosubordinationn ttoo Caesar,322Caesar,322 SallustSallust underlinesunderlines hishis preoccupationpreoccupation witwithh famefame:: "For"For mymy ownown partpart,, I desiredesire mymy plansplans ttoo bebe wiswisee andand aboveabove all practicable;practicable; foforr wherevewhereverr yoyouu carrcarryy themthem ououtt successfully,successfully, I shallshall gaingain fame."fame.,,323323 ItIt hashas beebeenn notenotedd thathatt hhee completelcompletelyy maskmaskss ththee facfactt thathatt chargechargess ofof extortioextortionn duringduring hihiss governorshigovernorshipp ooff AfricAfricaa NovaNova inin 45/4645/46 forceforcedd hishis departuredeparture frofromm publicpublic Iife?24life.324
ParallelingParalleling hihiss thoughtthoughtss inin ththee firsfirstt lineslines ofof ththee preface,preface, hhee sayssays later,later,
AccordinglyAccordingly,, whewhenn mmyy minmindd founfoundd peacepeace afteafterr manymany troublestroubles andand perilsperils anandd I hadhad determinedeterminedd thathatt I mustmust passpass whawhatt wawass leftleft ofof mymy lifelife aloofaloof fromfrom publipublicc affairsaffairs,, iitt wawass notnot mymy intentionintention ttoo wastwastee mymy preciousprecious leisureleisure inin indolenceindolence anandd slothsloth,, nornor yeyett bbyy turninturningg ttoo farminfarmingg oorr thethe chase,chase, ttoo leadlead a lifelife devotedevotedd ttoo slavishslavish employmentemployment.. OnOn ththee contrarycontrary,, I resolvedresolved ttoo returnreturn ttoo a cherishecherishedd purposepurpose frofromm whicwhichh ill-starredill-starred ambitioambitionn hahadd divertedivertedd meme,, anandd writwritee a historyhistory ooff ththee RomanRoman people,people, selectinselectingg sucsuchh portionsportions aass seemeseemedd toto meme worthworthyy ooff recordrecord;; anandd I wawass confirmedconfirmed inin thithiss resolutionresolution bbyy ththee facfactt thathatt mmyy mindmind wawass frefreee frofromm hope,hope, anandd fearfear,, anandd partisanship.partisanship. I shalshalll thereforthereforee writwritee brieflbrieflyy andand asas truthfulltruthfullyy aass possiblepossible ofof ththee conspiracyconspiracy ooff Catiline;Catiline; foforr I regardregard thathatt eveneventt aass worthworthyy ooff speciaspeciall noticenotice becausebecause ofof ththee extraordinaryextraordinary naturenature ooff ththee crimcrimee anandd ththee dangedangerr arisingarising frofromm it.it. Sail.Sail. Cat. 4.1-44.1-4..
ThThee laslastt partpart ooff thithiss textextt isis identicalidentical inin motivationmotivationss anandd approachapproach ttoo thathatt ofof
ThucydidesThucydides.. BothBoth seesee theitheirr subjectsubjectss aass beingbeing manifestmanifest inin ththee historyhistory ooff theirtheir
J 322^ SailSail.. [Ad, Caes, sen.] 1.4;1.4; M.M. Cary,Cary, ""AA letterLetter ooff SallusSallustt toto Caesar,Caesar,"" CR, Vol.Vol. 51,51, NO.5No. 5 (Nov.,(Nov., 1937),1937), 184,184, observesobserves thathatt ththee datedatess offereofferedd foforr thithiss letterletter araree betweenbetween 51-451-499 BCBC..
323 323 Sail.Sail. [Ad, Caes, sen.] 12.312.3..
324 324 C.C. SS.. KrausKraus anandd AA.. JJ.. WoodmanWoodman,, Latin Historians (Oxford(Oxford:: 1997),1997), 1515.. 8989 timestimes;; SallustSallust,, liklikee hishis predecessorpredecessor,, isis committecommittedd ttoo relatingrelating ththee truttruthh ofof thethe matter;matter; anandd ththee prefacepreface chartchartss ththee earlieearlierr historyhistory ofof Rome,325Rome,325 jusjustt likelike Thucydides'Thucydides' prefacepreface oonn thethe earlieearlierr historyhistory ooff Greece.326326 TheThe pointpoint ooff departure,departure, however,however, iiss thethe treatmentreatmentt ooff theitheirr situationsituationss thathatt havehave alloweallowedd thethemm ththee timtimee ttoo compose.compose.
ThucydideThucydidess givesgives nono indicationindication ooff acrimonyacrimony abouaboutt hishis dismissadismissall anandd exilexilee afterafter
AmphipolisAmphipolis;; hishis textextt givegivess nono senssensee thathatt hehe feelfeelss requiredrequired ttoo offeofferr defensedefensess forfor writinwritingg ratherrather thathann acting.327327 SallustSallust,, onon ththee otheotherr hand,hand, mustmust notnot simplysimply defenddefend ththee deeddeedss ofof ththee writewriterr (scriptor) asas opposeopposedd ttoo ththee actoractor (auctor), butbut thethe distinctivdistinctivee wortworthh ofof eaceachh musmustt bebe alsoalso blurredblurred::
ItIt isis gloriougloriouss ttoo serveserve one'one'ss country bbyy deedsdeeds;; eveevenn ttoo serveserve herher byby wordswords isis a thinthingg notnot ttoo bebe despised;despised; oneone mamayy becomebecome famoufamouss inin peacepeace asas welwelll aass inin warwar.. NotNot onlonlyy thosthosee whwhoo havhavee actedacted,, butbut thosthosee alsalsoo whwhoo havehave recordedrecorded ththee actactss ooff othersothers oftentimeoftentimess receivereceive ouourr approbation.approbation. SailSail.. Cat. 3.1.3.1 .
ThucydideThucydidess isis strikinstrikingg bbyy comparisocomparisonn inin thathatt hhee doedoess notnot attempattemptt ttoo validatevalidate thethe substitutiosubstitutionn ooff wordwordss foforr hishis participationparticipation inin politicpoliticss oorr war.war.
Sallust'sSallust's treatmentreatmentt ooff ththee conspiracyconspiracy ofof CatilineCatiline isis revealing ofof Sallust'sSallust's perceiveperceivedd loslosss ofof ththee publicpublic lifelife,, butbut itit alsalsoo showshowss Sallust'Sallust'ss historicalhistorical geniusgenius inin thethe wawayy hehe dealdealss witwithh ththee affair.affair. HeHe likenlikenss goodgood actionactionss inin politicspolitics anandd warwar withwith speakinspeakingg welwelll ooff a statestate:: "t"too serveserve one'one'ss countrcountryy iiss glorious,glorious, butbut eveneven ttoo praisepraise iitt isis notnot unacceptable.,,328unacceptable."328 InterestinglyInterestingly enoughenough,, thoughthough,, SallustSallust nevernever praisespraises hishis
325 Sail.Sail. Cat. 6-13.6-13.
323266 ThucThuc.. 1.2.1-211.2.1-21..
327327 ThucThuc.. 5.26.55.26.5;; seesee abovabovee pppp.. 55-5655-56..
328 ThiThiss isis anotheanotherr translatiotranslationn ooff a partpart ofof Sail.Sail. Cat. 3.13.1.. ThThee LatinLatin readsreads "Pulchru"Pulchrumm esestt benebene facerfaceree reirei publicae,publicae, etiaetiamm benebene dicerdiceree haudhaud absurdumabsurdum est.est."" McGushin,McGushin, Commentary (1977),(1977), 4444,, notesnotes thathatt "th"thee meaninmeaningg ofof ththee sentencsentencee isis clear,"clear," butbut hhee alsalsoo notesnotes ththee varietvarietyy ofof assumptionsassumptions basedbased oonn differendifferentt translationstranslations.. ForFor ththee purposepurpose here,here, eitheeitherr translatiotranslationn wilwilll workwork,, thougthoughh thethe 9090 countrcountryy inin anyany ofof hishis worksworks..
OtherOther thathann Catiline,Catiline, ththee centralcentral figurfiguree inin ththee affairaffair was Cicero.Cicero. ForFor hishis actionactionss inin uncoveringuncovering ththee conspiracy,conspiracy, CiceroCicero wawass hailed aass ththee saviosaviorr ooff RomeRome andand givengiven ththee titltitlee pater patriae, oror "Father"Father ooff hishis Country.,,329Country."329 IfIf Sallust'Sallust'ss purposepurpose hadhad beenbeen ttoo speakspeak wellwell of,of, oorr praisepraise hishis country,country, CiceroCicero woulwouldd likelylikely havehave beenbeen a majormajor figurfiguree inin hishis accountaccount.. HeHe isis not.not.
DionysiusDionysius ooff HalicarnassusHalicarnassus founfoundd faulfaultt witwithh ThucydidesThucydides,, sayingsaying thathatt hhee
"writes"writes ofof a singlesingle war,war, andand oneone whicwhichh wawass neitherneither gloriousglorious nornor fortunatefortunate,, butbut whichwhich hadhad bestbest nevernever happenedhappened at all oror,, failinfailingg that,that, shoulshouldd havehave beenbeen consignedconsigned toto silencesilence andand oblivionoblivion anandd ignoredignored bbyy laterlater generations.,,33ogenerations."330 DionysiusDionysius givegivess hishis reasonreason foforr Thucydides'Thucydides' motivationsmotivations a fefeww lineslines later:later:
ThisThis shouldshould notnot havehave beenbeen dondonee byby a GreeGreekk andand aann AthenianAthenian,, especiallyespecially aann AtheniaAtheniann whwhoo wawass notnot ononee ooff ththee outcasts,outcasts, butbut oneone whowhomm hishis fellowfellow citizenscitizens countedcounted amongamong theitheirr foremosforemostt menmen iinn appointingappointing ttoo commandscommands andand otheotherr officeofficess ofof statestate.. AnAndd sucsuchh isis hishis malice,malice, thathatt hehe actuallyactually attributesattributes ththee overtovert causescauses ofof ththee wawarr ttoo hihiss owownn city,city, thougthoughh hhee couldcould havehave attributedattributed thethemm ttoo manymany otheotherr sources.sources. Dion.Dion. Hal.Hal. Pomp. 6
ItIt isis doubtfuldoubtful thatthat anyany modernmodern scholarscholar woulwouldd agreagreee witwithh Dionysius;Dionysius; somesome,, thoughthough,, maymay seseee thatthat hishis commentcommentss couldcould applyapply ttoo Sallust.331331 ExpandingExpanding Cicero'sCicero's rolerole inin thethe storstoryy wouldwould havehave shifteshiftedd Sallust'sSallust's emphasisemphasis frofromm whawhatt hehe consideredconsidered,,
seconsecondd isis somewhatsomewhat clearer.clearer. ThThee seconsecondd phrasephrase ooff ththee LatiLatinn statemenstatementt isis understated,understated, thathatt isis,, iitt isis typicatypicall ofof SallustSallust inin thithiss discussiodiscussionn ofof ththee equalitequalityy ooff actingacting anandd writinwritingg ttoo bebe modestmodest.. ItIt mamayy bebe thathatt hehe isis beingbeing falselfalselyy modest,modest, oorr itit cacann bebe arguearguedd thathatt hehe himselfhimself isis notnot quitequite convinceconvincedd ooff hishis owownn argument.argument. Nonetheless,Nonetheless, ththee phrasephrase easileasilyy meanmeanss iitt isis gloriougloriouss oror noblenoble oorr honorablehonorable ttoo servservee one'one'ss countrycountry,, iitt isis alsoalso thethe samsamee ttoo speaspeakk welwelll ooff itit..
329 3 329 NicholaNicholass Purcell,Purcell, "Pater"Pater Patriae,"Patriae," OC0OCD ,, 11211121..
333300 Dion.Dion. Hal.Hal. Pomp. 66..
333311 KrausKraus anandd WoodmanWoodman,, Latin Historians (1997)(1997),, 1717.. 9191 rightly,rightly, ththee significansignificantt messagemessage ooff ththee eventsevents anandd foforr thatthat matter,matter, itsits significancesignificance inin RomanRoman history.history. ByBy ththee timetime hehe wrotwrotee ththee Bellum Catilinae, SallustSallust hadhad witnessedwitnessed ththee civilcivil warwarss betweenbetween MariusMarius andand Sulla,Sulla, thethe civilcivil warswars betweenbetween thethe
Caesarians,Caesarians, anandd ththee ascendancyascendancy ooff ththee SecondSecond TriumvirateTriumvirate (this(this timtimee dutifullydutifully legitimizedlegitimized byby ththee Senate)Senate),, followefollowedd byby eveevenn moremore proscriptions.proscriptions. ThThee corruptioncorruption ooff Rome gavegave causecause foforr ththee riserise ooff CatilinCatilinee anandd reasonreason enoughenough foforr SallusSallustt toto telltell ititss storystory:: corruptiocorruptionn andand intrigueintrigue provedproved ttoo bebe ththee Republic'sRepublic's continuingcontinuing story.332story.332
ThougThoughh SallusSallustt doedoess notnot mentionmention ThucydideThucydidess byby name,name, hehe remarksremarks onon thethe talenttalentss ooff greatgreat AtheniaAtheniann writerswriters,, scriptorum magna ingenia:ingenia:333333
ThThee actactss ofof ththee AtheniansAthenians,, inin mmyy judgmentjudgment,, werweree indeeindeedd greagreatt andand gloriousglorious enoughenough,, butbut neverthelessnevertheless somewhasomewhatt lessless importantimportant thathann famfamee representsrepresents themthem.. ButBut becausebecause AthenAthenss producedproduced writerwriterss ooff exceptionalexceptional talenttalent,, thethe exploitexploitss ooff ththee menmen ofof AthenAthenss areare heraldedheralded throughouthroughoutt ththee worlworldd asas unsurpassedunsurpassed.. SailSail.. Cat. 8.2-3.8.2-3.
ThThee consequentiaconsequentiall advantageadvantagess ttoo ththee famfamee ooff AthensAthens'' leaders,leaders, duduee inin largelarge partpart ttoo ththee AtheniaAtheniann writerswriters,, coulcouldd notnot havehave beenbeen lostlost onon CiceroCicero either.either?34334 AsAs hashas beenbeen indicated,indicated, SallusSallustt tootookk a differendifferentt turnturn.. HeHe certainlycertainly hadhad ThucydideThucydidess inin mindmind whewhenn hehe wrotwrotee thethe abovabovee anandd hehe appliedapplied ththee samesame historicalhistorical observationobservationss toto thethe
Bellum Catilinae, ththee Bellum Jugurthinum, andand ththee Historiae, ththee latterlatter survivingsurviving onlyonly inin fragmentsfragments.. HeHe clearlclearlyy considersconsiders Thucydides'Thucydides' treatmentreatmentt ofof factionafactionall strifestrife anandd thethe afflictionaffliction ooff civilcivil warwar,, oorr stasisstasis. 335335 StylistiStylisticc reminiscencereminiscencess cacann bbee seeseenn iinn
333322 Sail.Sail. Cat. 14.1.14.1 .
333 333 G.G. M.M. Paul,Paul, "Sallust,"Sallust,"" Latin Historians, eded.. TT.. AA.. DoreyDorey (New(New YorkYork:: 1966),1966), 107;107; ThomasThomas FrancisFrancis ScanlonScanlon,, The Influence of Thucydides on Sallust (Heidelberg:(Heidelberg: 1980),1980), 1111..
334 334 Gic.Cic. Fam. 5.12.35.12.3;; seseee aboveabove p.p. 88..
333355 PaulPaul,, "Sallust,""Sallust," Latin Historians (1966)(1966),, 107107.. 9292 majormajor piecespieces ofof Sallust'sSallust's workworkss anandd eveevenn iinn inconsequentialinconsequential images.images. AAtt momentsmoments ooff crisiscrisis foforr NiciasNicias anandd CatilinCatilinee thertheree isis a strikinstrikingg similarity:similarity:
MeanwhileMeanwhile Nicias,Nicias, appalledappalled bbyy ththee statstatee ooff affairs,affairs, realizingrealizing ththee greatnessgreatness anandd ththee nearnessnearness ooff danger.danger.. ... ThucThuc.7.69.2. 7.69.2
Now,Now, whewhenn CatilineCatiline perceivedperceived thathatt hehe wawass shutshut inin betweenbetween thethe mountainsmountains anandd ththee forceforcess ooff hishis enemiesenemies,, thatthat hishis plansplans inin ththee citycity hadhad failedfailed...... Sail.Sail. Cat. 57.557.5
ThThee parallelsparallels extendextend a fefeww lineslines latelaterr witwithh NiciasNicias andand Petreius,Petreius, a lieutenantlieutenant inin thethe
SenatorialSenatorial forceforcess againsagainstt Catiline:Catiline:
(Nicias)(Nicias) calledcalled onon ththee captaincaptainss oneone byby one,one, addressinaddressingg eacheach byby hishis father'sfather's namename anandd byby hishis ownown,, andand byby thathatt ofof hishis tribetribe,, andand beseechedbeseeched thethemm notnot toto bebe falsfalsee ttoo theitheirr owownn personalpersonal renown,renown, oorr ttoo obscureobscure ththee hereditaryhereditary virtuesvirtues foforr whicwhichh theitheirr ancestorsancestors werweree illustrious;illustrious; hhee reminded thethemm ofof theirtheir countrycountry...wives ... wives,, children,children, anandd nationanationall godsgods...... ThucThuc.. 7.69.27.69.2
(Petreius)(Petreius) addresseaddressedd eaceachh ofof hishis menmen byby name,name, exhortedexhorted him,him, andand beggedbegged himhim ttoo rememberremember thathatt hehe wawass fightinfightingg againstagainst unarmedunarmed highwaymenhighwaymen iinn defencdefencee ooff hishis country,country, hishis children,children, hishis altarsaltars,, andand hishis hearth.hearth. Sail.Sail. Cat. 59.59.55
TheThe similaritysimilarity herehere cacann bebe explaineexplainedd simplsimplyy bbyy ththee similaritsimilarityy ooff thethe events:events:
ThucydideThucydidess observeobservess thatthat exhortationsexhortations anandd argumentargumentss inin timetimess ooff crisiscrisis areare mademade
"wit"withh littlelittle alteration...talteration ... too servservee onon alalll occasionsoccasions alike."alike.,,336336 SallustianSallustian descriptiondescriptionss ofof
ththee evilsevils ooff revolutionrevolution areare paralleledparalleled inin Thucydides,337Thucydides,337 ssoo are,are, amongamong otherother
336 ThucThuc.. 7.69.27.69.2.. Ironically,Ironically, ThucydidesThucydides'' observatioobservationn shoulshouldd provprovee ttoo bebe a warningwarning ttoo modernmodern academicsacademics whwhoo finfindd parallelsparallels thathatt exisexistt simplsimplyy becausebecause ofof ththee similaritsimilarityy ofof events.events. ItIt isis quitequite amusingamusing.. ThatThat maymay bebe whwhyy M.M. L.L. WW.. Laistner,Laistner, The Greater Roman Historian (Berkele(Berkeleyy anandd LosLos AngelesAngeles:: 1947),1947), 170n6,170n6, consignsconsigns thithiss likenesslikeness ttoo aann endnote.endnote.
337 337 SailSail.. Cat. 10,10, 12,38.3-4,52.1,12, 38.3-4, 52.1, lug. 41-4241-42,, Hist. 1.7,1.7, 1.12,1.12, 1.55.24,1.55.24, 1.77.7,1.77.7, 13,13, 17,17, andand 4.69.54.69.5;; Thuc.Thuc. 3.823.82.. DebDebtt herheree anandd iinn followinfollowingg parallelparallelss isis duduee ttoo ththee outstandinoutstandingg worworkk byby ProfessorProfessor Scanlon,Scanlon, Thucydides on Sallust (1980).(1980). HHee hahass includedincluded inin hihiss worworkk aann indexindex ofof welwelll oveoverr twotwo hundrehundredd passagespassages inin SallusSallustt thathatt illustrateillustrate comparisonscomparisons ttoo ThucydideThucydidess inin themetheme,, stylestyle,, wordinwordingg oorr contentcontent.. ManManyy araree obviousobvious,, manymany araree not,not, bubutt nonenone appearappear questionable.questionable. 9393 themesthemes,, charactercharacter summationssummations,338, characterizatiocharacterizationn ooff peoples,339peoples, theirtheir sharedshared disdaidisdainn foforr ththee multitude,multitude,34o340 andand ththee processprocess ooff decline, 341341 ttoo notenote jusjustt a fewfew similaritiessimilarities..
AAss indicated,indicated, ThucydideThucydidess useusedd speechespeechess ttoo sumsum upup oorr underscoreunderscore criticalcritical historicahistoricall issues.issues. TheTheyy maymay bebe isolateisolatedd speeches,speeches, standinstandingg alonealone oorr prefiguringprefiguring otheotherr wordwordss oorr events,events, oror thetheyy maymay bebe presentepresentedd inin pairs,pairs, beggingbegging contrast.contrast.
TherTheree araree foufourr speechespeechess inin Bellum Cati/inae.Catilinae. Catiline,Catiline, appropriatelyappropriately,, speakspeakss thethe firsfirstt andand ththee last.last. ThThee otherother twtwoo speechesspeeches areare ththee famoufamouss pairedpaired speechespeechess ofof
CaesaCaesarr anandd CatoCato.. InIn Sallust'sSallust's worksworks,, ththee foufourr speechespeechess bestbest illustratillustratee thethe influenceinfluence ooff ThucydideThucydidess inin hishis useuse ofof prefigurationprefiguration anandd ththee conflictconflict ofof positions.positions.
ThThee firsfirstt ooff Catiline'sCatiline's speechespeechess isis quitquitee lengthy:lengthy:
IfIf I hadhad nonott already testetestedd youyourr couragcouragee andand loyalty,loyalty, inin vaivainn woulwouldd a greatgreat opportunityopportunity havehave presentedpresented itself;itself; highhigh hopeshopes andand powerpower woulwouldd havehave beenbeen placedplaced iinn mymy handhand toto nnoo purposepurpose,, nornor woulwouldd I witwithh thethe aiaidd ooff cowardscowards oorr inconstantinconstant heartheartss grasgraspp at uncertaintyuncertainty inin placplacee ooff certainty.certainty. Sail.Sail. Cat. 20.1-3.20.1-3.
HowHow long,long, pray,pray, wilwilll yoyouu endureendure this,this, bravebrave hearts?hearts? IsIs itit notnot betterbetter ttoo diedie valiantlyvaliantly,, thathann ignominiouslyignominiously ttoo loselose ourour wretchewretchedd andand dishonoureddishonoured liveslives afterafter beingbeing ththee sporsportt ofof othersothers'' insolence?insolence? AssuredlAssuredlyy (I(I sweaswearr itit byby thethe faitfaithh ofof godgodss anandd men!) victorvictoryy isis withiwithinn ouourr graspgrasp.. WWee araree inin ththee primeprime ooff lifelife,, wwee araree stoutstout ooff heart;heart; ttoo themthem,, oonn ththee contrary,contrary, yearyearss andand richesriches havehave broughtbrought utteutterr dotagedotage.. WWee neeneedd onlonlyy ttoo strikestrike;; ththee restrest wilwilll taktakee carcaree ofof itselfitself.. SailSail.. Cat. 20.9-1020.9-10..
338 Sail.Sail. Cat. 5544 (o(off CaesaCaesarr anandd Cato);Cato); Thuc.Thuc. 2.62.655 (of(of Pericles).Pericles).
339 339 TrusTrustt betweenbetween alliesallies:: SailSail.. lug. 14.5,14.5, 95.2f95.2f,, 110.1,4;110.1, 4; ThucThuc.. 1.32,2.40.1.32, 2.40. ContrastingContrasting characterizationscharacterizations:: Sail.Sail. lug. 81.181.1 (Numidians(Numidians andand Romans);Romans); ThucThuc.. 1.68-721.68-72 (Athenian(Athenianss andand Spartans).Spartans).
340 340 Inconstancy.Inconstancy, immoralimmoral actionsactions:: Sail.Sail. lug. 66.266.2,, 64.264.2,, ThucThuc.. 3.70ft;3.70ff; Sail.Sail. lug. 67.167.1,, ThucThuc.. 3.74.1;3.74.1; SailSail.. lug. 67.267.2,, ThucThuc.. 3.81.4-53.81.4-5.. ShockShock anandd reactionreaction inin crisiscrisis oorr defeatdefeat:: Sail.Sail. lug. 39.139.1,, Thuc.Thuc. 8.1.1-8.1.1- 22..
341 SSail all.. Cat. 10-12,36.4-39.5,10-12, 36.4-39.5, SailSail.. lug. 41-4241-42;; ThucThuc.. 3.82-83.3.82-83. 9494
AwakAwakee thenthen!! Lo,Lo, here,here, herehere beforebefore youyourr eyeseyes,, isis ththee freedofreedomm foforr whicwhichh youyou havehave oftenoften longed,longed, andand witwithh itit riches,riches, honour,honour, andand glory;glory; FortuneFortune offersoffers all thesthesee thingthingss asas prizesprizes toto thethe victorsvictors.. TheThe undertakingundertaking itself,itself, thethe opportunity,opportunity, ththee dangers,dangers, youyou need,need, ththee splendisplendidd spoilsspoils ofof warwar,, speakspeak louderlouder thathann anyany wordwordss ooff mine.mine. UseUse meme eitheeitherr asas youyourr leaderleader oror aass a soldiersoldier inin ththee ranks;ranks; mymy soulsoul andand mymy bodybody shallshall bebe at yoyouu serviceservice.. Sail.Sail. Cat. 20.14-16.20.14-16.
Catiline'sCatiline's lastlast speecspeechh isis muchmuch shortershorter.. TheThe firsfirstt lineline readsreads,, ""II amam welwelll awareaware soldiers,soldiers, thathatt wordwordss ddoo notnot supplsupplyy valourvalour,, andand thathatt a spiritlessspiritless armyarmy isis notnot mademade vigourousvigourous,, oorr a timitimidd oneone stout-heartedstout-hearted,, byby a speecspeechh frofromm itsits commander.,,342commander."342 IItt hashas beebeenn notednoted thathatt ththee firsfirstt speecspeechh soundssounds mucmuchh likelike a general'sgeneral's harangueharangue givegivenn ttoo ththee trooptroopss beforebefore battle.343343 ItIt isis inin facfactt anan addresaddresss toto supporterssupporters priorprior toto hishis failedfailed attempattemptt inin ththee consularconsular electionselections.. SallustSallust notnot onlonlyy prefiguresprefigures ththee finalfinal addressaddress andand subsequensubsequentt defeadefeatt ooff Catiline,Catiline, butbut hehe alsalsoo setssets ththee moodmood ofof thethe entireentire worworkk aass a strugglestruggle betweenbetween optimates andand populares. SallustSallust isis notnot withouwithoutt a dramaticdramatic senssensee ooff ironyirony whewhenn hehe hashas CatilineCatiline acknowledgeacknowledge thathatt meremere wordswords wilwilll notnot invigorateinvigorate anan army.army. ItIt isis a marvelousmarvelous piecepiece ofof literaryliterary techniquetechnique..
TheThe secondsecond setset ooff speeches,speeches, touchetouchedd uponupon brieflybriefly here,here, isis ththee pairingpairing ofof
CaesaCaesarr andand Cato'sCato's addressesaddresses ttoo thethe SenateSenate regardingregarding ththee fatfatee ooff thethe conspirators.344344 ThThee conspiratorconspiratorss werweree revealerevealedd througthroughh ththee efforteffortss ooff Cicero,Cicero, althoughalthough Cicero,Cicero, significantlysignificantly,, doesdoes notnot speakspeak.. HeHe hashas beenbeen instrumentalinstrumental inin thethe passagpassagee ooff thethe senatus consultum ultimum, anan extremextremee measuremeasure ttoo justifjustifyy actionaction
342*" Sail.Sail. Cat. 58.1.58.1 .
343 343 ElizabethElizabeth Keitel,Keitel, "Th"Thee InfluenceInfluence ooff ThucydideThucydidess 7.61-717.61-71 oonn SallusSallustt CatCat.. 20-21,"20-21," The Classical Journal, VolVol.. 82,82, No.4No. 4 (Apr(Apr.. - May,May, 1987),1987), 293293..
344 344 Sail.Sail. Cat. 51-5251-52.. 9595 inin ththee statstatee ooff emergencemergencyy iinn orderorder ttoo defendefendd ththee res publica.345345 ThThee subjectsubject ooff thethe exchangexchangee wawass hohoww severelseverelyy ththee SenatSenatee shoulshouldd ususee thithiss authorityauthority,, whichwhich inin thisthis casecase wawass ththee questionquestion ooff summarilsummarilyy puttinputtingg ththee conspiratorconspiratorss ttoo deathdeath..
ItIt iiss withiwithinn ththee frameworframeworkk ooff virtus thatthat SallustSallust comparescompares thethe twotwo menmen andand obviouslyobviously prefiguresprefigures ththee eventeventss ooff ththee civilcivil wawarr betweenbetween CaesarCaesar andand Pompey,Pompey, undeunderr ththee politicapoliticall swaswayy ofof ththee SenatSenatee andand ththee idealistidealist interestsinterests ofof Cato.346346 SallustSallust statestatess iinn hishis prefacepreface thathatt virtuvirtuee isis notnot fafarr removeremovedd frofromm ambition.347ambition.347 InIn thethe samesame lineliness hehe sayssays,, "The"The noblenoble anandd thethe basbasee alikalikee longlong foforr glory,glory, honour,honour, andand power,power, bubutt ththee formeformerr mountmount byby ththee trutruee path,path, whereawhereass ththee latterlatter,, beingbeing destitutdestitutee ofof noblenoble qualitiesqualities,, relrelyy uponupon crafcraftt anandd deception.deception."" InIn thithiss exchangexchangee areare twtwoo nobiles:mobiles:
CaesarCaesar,, ththee patricianpatrician andand popularis, anandd CatoCato,, ththee plebeianplebeian andand optimate.optimate. TheThe dilemmdilemmaa SallusSallustt addresseaddressess inin ththee pairingpairing isis thathatt whilwhilee bothboth menmen possesspossess virtus, thetheyy areare at variancvariancee iinn theitheirr speech,speech, andand wilwilll bebe eveevenn moremore ssoo inin theitheirr actionsactions fifteefifteenn yearyearss hence.hence. McGushinMcGushin allowallowss thathatt thithiss divergencdivergencee inin virtuevirtue,, relativerelative toto speech,speech, conduct,conduct, principlesprinciples anandd allegiance,allegiance, couldcould possiblypossibly havehave beenbeen synthesizedsynthesized,, anandd thathatt iinn theitheirr totalitytotality,, ththee RepublicRepublic coulcouldd havehave beenbeen saved.348348
TheThe problem,problem, hehe claims,claims, wawass thathatt CaesarCaesar definedefinedd virtus witwithh itsits emphasisemphasis oonn res privatae, andand CatoCato "b"byy remotenessremoteness frofromm participationparticipation"" inin ththee res publica.
McGushinMcGushin does nonott makemake cleaclearr whwhoo isis beingbeing remoteremote inin thithiss participation.participation. IfIf hhee
345 3 345 ArnaldArnaldoo MomiglianMomiglianoo anandd AndreAndreww WilliaWilliamm LintottLintott,, "senatus consu/tumconsultum u/timum,"ultimum" OC0OCD ,, 1388-1388- 8989..
346 346 McGushin,McGushin, Commentary (1977),(1977), 311.311 .
343477 SailSail.. Cat. 11.1-211.1-2..
348 348 McGushin,McGushin, "Caesa"Caesarr anandd Cato,"Cato," Commentary (1977)(1977),, 309-311.309-311. 9696
meansmeans byby thithiss thathatt Cato,Cato, thougthoughh alwaysalways influential,influential, wawass isolatedisolated duduee toto hishis
intransigentintransigent nature,nature, itit isis aann accurataccuratee observation.observation. TherTheree isis nono evidence,evidence, however,however, thathatt SallusSallustt heldheld synthesissynthesis asas a possibility.possibility. CatoCato anandd CaesarCaesar facefacedd eaceachh otherother
fromfrom twtwoo extremeextreme anandd morallymorally opposeopposedd personalpersonal philosophies,philosophies, philosophiesphilosophies thatthat
SallusSallustt recognizesrecognizes inin thethe endend wilwilll bringbring downdown ththee Republic.Republic. Thus,Thus, uponupon
completiocompletionn ofof ththee Bellum Catilinae, hehe startestartedd hishis worworkk ththee Bellum Jugurthinum,Jugurthinum,
turninturningg toto whawhatt hehe consideredconsidered werweree ththee initialinitial instancesinstances ooff craftcraft andand deception.349349
ThThee conflictconflict ofof positionspositions thathatt SallustSallust regardsregards asas obviouobviouss inin CaesarCaesar anandd CatoCato,,
werweree recurrentrecurrent inin Thucydides.Thucydides. ItIt isis a conspicuousconspicuous similaritsimilarityy toto ththee pairingpairing ofof CleonCleon
andand DiodotusDiodotus arguinarguingg ththee fatefate ofof ththee Mytilenes,35oMytilenes,350 thethe differencdifferencee beingbeing thathatt iinn
ThucydideThucydidess pragmatism,pragmatism, influencedinfluenced byby benevolence,benevolence, wowonn ththee day.day.
TituTituss LiviusLivius (59(59 BC-ADBC-AD 17)17) nevernever servedserved inin ththee SenatSenatee anandd nevernever
commandedcommanded anan armyarmy.. ThereThere is,is, inin factfact,, nono evidenceevidence thathatt hehe eveeverr servedserved ththee res
publica inin publicpublic officofficee oorr inin ththee military.351military.351 OneOne hundredhundred andand fiftfiftyy yearyearss earlier,earlier,
PolybiusPolybius hadhad arguedargued thatthat
ItIt isis inin facfactt asas impossibleimpossible ttoo writwritee welwelll oonn ththee operationsoperations inin warwar,, ifif a manman hashas hadhad nono experiencexperiencee ofof actualactual serviceservice,, aass itit isis ttoo writwritee welwelll oonn politicspolitics withouwithoutt havinghaving beenbeen engagedengaged inin politicalpolitical transactiontransactionss andand vicissitudes.vicissitudes. AnAndd whewhenn thethe historyhistory isis writtewrittenn byby thethe book-learned,book-learned, withouwithoutt technicaltechnical knowledgeknowledge,, anandd withouwithoutt clearnessclearness ofof detail,detail, ththee worworkk losesloses allall itsits valuevalue.. Polyb.Polyb. 12.25.1.12.25.1.
AdditionallyAdditionally,, PolybiusPolybius notesnotes thethe historianhistorian requirementrequirement foforr personal observation,352observation,352
343499 Momigliano.Momigliano. Essays (1977),(1977), 163163..
353500 ThucThuc.. 3.37-3.48.3.37-3.48.
351 351 Mellor,Mellor, Roman Historians (1999),48.(1999), 48.
353522 Polyb.Polyb. 3.4.13.3.4.13. 9797 visuavisuall evidence,353evidence,353 andand importantly,importantly, a geographicageographicall knowledge:knowledge: "Bu"Butt lestlest owingowing toto ignoranceignorance ooff localitieslocalities mymy narrativenarrative tentendd ttoo becombecomee vaguvaguee anandd meaningless,meaningless, I mustmust describedescribe theirtheir naturalnatural featurefeaturess anandd relativerelative positions,positions, aass indeedindeed I attempattemptt toto ddoo throughoutthroughout mymy wholwholee work.,,354work."354
Polybius,Polybius, itit isis imagined,imagined, mightmight havehave consideredconsidered LivyLivy leslesss thathann exemplaryexemplary inin all ooff thesethese regards.regards. ModernModern scholars,scholars, whwhoo araree usuallyusually neitherneither publicpublic servantsservants nornor militarymilitary leaders,leaders, ddoo notnot paypay totooo muchmuch attentioattentionn ttoo thesthesee ancientancient requirements.requirements.
InIn ancientancient timestimes,, however,however, accessaccess ttoo publicpublic recordsrecords anandd aann understandingunderstanding ofof militarymilitary actionactionss provedproved vitavitall ttoo ththee wortworthh ooff a historian.historian. ModernModern scholarsscholars,, thoughthough,, havehave recognizedrecognized Livy'sLivy's shortcomingshortcomingss asas a historianhistorian lessless meticulousmeticulous inin hishis approachapproach thathann ThucydideThucydidess oorr Sallust.Sallust. Syme,Syme, inin yeyett anotheranother definitivedefinitive biography,biography, thisthis ononee oonn TacitusTacitus,, observes,observes,
AdmirablAdmirablee asas LivyLivy isis inin thethe eloquenceeloquence ofof a speechspeech,, inin descriptivedescriptive colouringcolouring,, anandd inin narrativenarrative movement,movement, hehe showsshows nono comparablecomparable skillskill whewhenn eventsevents havehave ttoo bebe groupedgrouped anandd interrelatedinterrelated - andand nono instinctinstinct foforr historicalhistorical structure.structure. ForFor dispositiodispositionn asas foforr materialmaterial hehe isis contencontentt oonn ththee wholwholee ttoo followfollow hishis sources. 355355
ItIt isis Livy'sLivy's coloringcoloring ooff eventsevents,, eloquence,eloquence, anandd narrativnarrativee movemenmovementt thatthat makemake himhim a pleasurepleasure toto read.read. Quintilian,Quintilian, writinwritingg inin ththee latelate firsfirstt century ADAD,, consideredconsidered LivyLivy ththee RomanRoman Herodotus;356Herodotus;356 CicerCiceroo lookedlooked foforr a historianhistorian whowho
353 Polyb.Polyb. 20.12.820.12.8.. TheThe referencereference herehere isis ttoo a fragmentfragment:: "On ththee valuvaluee ooff evidencevidencee basedbased oonn thethe eyes.eyes."" SeeSee Walbank,Walbank, Commentary (Oxford(Oxford:: 1979),1979), 3.87.3.87.
354 354 Polyb.Polyb. 5.21.4-5.5.21.4-5.
355 355 RonaldRonald Syme,Syme, Tacitus (Oxford(Oxford:: 1958),1958), 1.1481.148..
353566 QuintQuint.. Inst. 10.1.101.10.1.101. 9898 wouldwould speaspeakk ooff Rome'sRome's greatnesgreatnesss inin a lastinglasting andand comprehensivecomprehensive work. 357357 HHee dididd notnot particularlyparticularly carecare foforr ThucydideThucydidess anandd probablyprobably woulwouldd havehave hadhad a similarsimilar taketake oonn Sallust.Sallust. ItIt isis possiblepossible thatthat hehe woulwouldd havehave beenbeen satisfiesatisfiedd witwithh Livy.358Livy.358
Syme'Syme'ss observationobservationss oonn LivyLivy delineatedelineate ththee twtwoo schoolschoolss ofof scholarshipscholarship regardingregarding hishis work,work,359359 neitherneither ooff whicwhichh wilwilll bebe addresseaddressedd atat ananyy lengthlength herehere..
Both,Both, however,however, shoulshouldd bebe mentionedmentioned sincesince thetheyy cacann helphelp determindeterminee howhow
ThucydidesThucydides maymay havehave hadhad anyany impactimpact oonn Livy. 360360 TheThe firstfirst,, Que/lenforschung,Quellenforschung, wawass anan efforteffort byby GermanGerman fifteentfifteenthh andand earlearlyy twentiettwentiethh centurcenturyy scholarscholarss ttoo identifyidentify
Livy'sLivy's differentdifferent literaryliterary sourcessources,, howhow thetheyy werweree used,used, anandd ttoo gegett somsomee sensesense ooff thethe historian'shistorian's methodology.methodology. TheThe findinfindingg ofof thithiss worworkk wawass thathatt LivyLivy borrowedborrowed heavilyheavily anandd thatthat hihiss methomethodd inin historicalhistorical researcresearchh wawass limitelimitedd ttoo writtewrittenn historicalhistorical sources.361361 ThThee seconsecondd schoolschool generallygenerally arguearguedd foforr Livy'sLivy's reworkingreworking ofof sourcessources anandd investigateinvestigatedd hishis attentioattentionn ttoo rhetoricalrhetorical andand stylististylisticc elements.elements. LivyLivy isis notnot bbyy
357 Cic.Cic. De or. 2.33.62-64,2.33.62-64, andand Leg. 1.1.5-6,1.1.5-6, areare ththee typicatypicall referencereferencess ttoo supporsupportt Cicero'Cicero'ss desiredesire foforr a "Roman"Roman Herodotus"Herodotus" (e.g.,(e.g., Mellor,Mellor, Roman Historians (1999)(1999),51:, 51: "Cicero"Cicero hopedhoped abovabovee alalll forfor a RomanRoman Herodotus,"Herodotus," andand T.T. J.J. Luce,Luce, Uvy:Livy: The Composition of His History (Princeton:(Princeton: 1977),1977), xviixvii n5).n5). CiceroCicero doedoess notnot explicitlexplicitlyy statstatee thithiss quesquestt foforr a "Roma"Romann Herodotus";Herodotus"; hehe assertsasserts thathatt a historianhistorian shouldshould exhibiexhibitt omatioornatio anandd omamentaornamenta (adornment(adornment andand embellishment).embellishment).
358 358 Mellor,Mellor, Roman Historians (1999),51,(1999), 51, believesbelieves thathatt LivLivyy broughbroughtt "Cicero'"Cicero'ss prescrptionsprescrptions forfor RomanRoman historiographyhistoriography intointo reality."reality." Luce,Luce, UvyLivy (1977),(1977), xvixviii n5,n5, onon ththee otherother handhand,, sayssays,, "Tha"Thatt LivyLivy waswas notnot ththee manman CiceroCicero wawass seekingseeking maymay bebe truetrue,, althougalthoughh I doubdoubtt thathatt CicerCiceroo woulwouldd havehave found TacituTacituss moremore congenial.congenial.""
359 359 SymeSyme,, Tacitus (1958)(1958),1.148., 1.148.
360 360 AAnn excellenexcellentt summarysummary ooff ththee twtwoo schoolschoolss hashas beebeenn recountedrecounted inin GaryGary BB.. Miles,Miles, Livy:Livy: Reconstructing Early Rome (Ithaca(Ithaca anandd London:London: 1995),1995), 1-7.1-7. MuchMuch ooff thithiss paragrapparagraphh isis oweowedd ttoo hishis introductoryintroductory remarksremarks.. SeeSee alsalsoo Luce,Luce, Uvy(1977),L/Vy (1977), xv-xxviixv-xxvii,, 185185..
361 361 P.P. G.G. WalshWalsh,, Uvy:Livy: His Historical Aims and Methods (Cambridge(Cambridge:: 1961),1961), 110-111,110-111, givesgives exampleexample ooff instancesinstances wherwheree LivyLivy doedoess notnot makmakee ththee efforeffortt ttoo gathegatherr informatioinformationn frofromm easilyeasily accessiblaccessiblee documents,documents, inscriptions,inscriptions, oorr locations.locations. 9999 ananyy meansmeans toto bebe consideredconsidered a "scissors"scissors andand paste"paste" historian,362historian, bubutt ratherrather oneone whowho,, toto thethe bestbest ooff hishis ability,ability, offeredoffered a reasonablereasonable historicalhistorical explanatioexplanationn whilwhilee atat thethe samesame timetime presentingpresenting a narrativenarrative inin a worthworthyy literaryliterary setting. 363363
EvenEven so,so, thethe influenceinfluence ofof ThucydidesThucydides oonn hishis worworkk isis great. ThisThis influenceinfluence cannotcannot bebe dismisseddismissed simplysimply becausebecause LivyLivy pillagedpillaged ththee workworkss ooff hishis predecessorspredecessors andand byby arguingarguing thathatt ThucydideThucydidess wawass simplsimplyy another source.364364 ItIt isis apparentapparent thatthat ththee literaryliterary relationshiprelationship isis deeperdeeper thanthan thatthat.. OOnn ththee surfacesurface,, ThucydidesThucydides'' influenceinfluence isis obviousobvious inin a numbernumber ooff borrowings:borrowings: ththee accountaccount ooff thethe plaguplaguee inin SyracusSyracusee andand
AthensAthens,, characterizationscharacterizations ooff personalities,personalities, ththee escapesescapes frofromm AceraAceraee anandd PlataeaPlataea,, militarymilitary tacticstactics ooff MarcellusMarcellus aatt NolaNola anandd BrasidasBrasidas at AmphipolisAmphipolis,, moralmoral decaydecay iinn
Rome andand civicivill afflictionaffliction inin SyracuseSyracuse,, aass welwelll asas RomeRome afterafter CannaCannaee anandd AthensAthens afterafter Syracuse.365365 A moremore complicatedcomplicated parallelparallel cancan bebe seeseenn iinn twtwoo debatesdebates:: betweenbetween FabiusFabius andand ScipioScipio durinduringg ththee SecondSecond PunicPunic WaWarr (218-201(218-201 BC),BC), andand thethe otheotherr betweenbetween NiciasNicias anandd Alcibiades?66Alcibiades.366
362 CollingwoodCollingwood,, Idea of History (1993),(1993), 37,37, thuthuss describesdescribes LivyLivy..
363 363 Walsh,Walsh, Uvy(1961),Livy (1961), 287287..
364 364 E.g.,E.g., inin hishis narrativenarrative oonn ththee SecondSecond PunicPunic WaWarr (Bks.(Bks. 21-2521-25)) hehe famouslfamouslyy citecitess hishis sources:sources: ConciuConciuss AlimentuAlimentuss (21.38.3),(21.38.3), FabiusFabius PictoPictorr (22.7.4)(22.7.4),, PisoPiso (25.39.12-13),(25.39.12-13), anandd ClodiusClodius LicinusLicinus (29.22.10);(29.22.10); inin anotheanotherr partpart ooff ththee historyhistory (33.10),(33.10), questioninquestioningg casualtycasualty figurefiguress givegivenn byby Claudius QuadrigariusQuadrigarius anandd ValeriasValerias AntiasAntias,, LivyLivy pickspicks a lesserlesser number:number: ""II ddoo ssoo nonott becausebecause itit isis thethe smallestsmallest numbernumber,, bubutt becausebecause PolybiusPolybius isis herheree mmyy chosenchosen authoritauthorityy - hehe iiss reliablreliablee oonn allall mattersmatters ttoo dodo witwithh RomanRoman history.history, especiallyespecially eventsevents inin Greece.Greece.""
365 365 Plague:Plague: LivyLivy 25.26.7-1525.26.7-15.. anandd Thuc.Thuc. 2.47-54.1;2.47-54.1; CharacterizationsCharacterizations:: LivyLivy 22.25.3-622.25.3-6.. anandd Thuc.Thuc. 4.27.4-4.27.4-55 (Metiliu(Metiliuss anandd Cleon),Cleon), LivyLivy 22.27.1-422.27.1-4 anandd Thuc.Thuc. 5.7.5.7.33 (Varr(Varroo anandd Cleon)Cleon);; LivyLivy 22.23.22.23.44 andand Thuc.Thuc. 1.13.11.13.1 (Fabius(Fabius anandd Pericles);Pericles); Escapes:Escapes: LivyLivy 23.17.5-23.17.5-66 anandd ThucThuc.. 3.22-243.22-24;; TacticsTactics:: 23.16.10-14.23.16.10-14. anandd ThucThuc.. 5.7-8,5.7-8, 10;10; RomeRome anandd SyracuseSyracuse:: LivyLivy 24.18.24.18.22 anandd ThucThuc.. 24.29.324.29.3;; andand RomeRome anandd AthensAthens:: LivyLivy 22.54.722.54.7 anandd ThucThuc.. 8.1.1-3.8.1.1-3.
366 366 FabiusFabius anandd ScipioScipio:: LivyLivy 2828:: 40-4440-44,, andand NiciasNicias andand AlcibiadesAlcibiades:: ThucThuc.. 66:: 9-189-18,, 2020,23., 23. ThiThiss isis a ratherrather famoufamouss parallelparallel citecitedd byby a numbernumber ofof scholars,scholars, mostmost ooff whicwhichh araree ooff ththee Quellenforschung traditiotraditionn andand citecitedd byby BarbaraBarbara SaylorSaylor Rodgers,Rodgers, "Grea"Greatt Expeditions:Expeditions: LivyLivy oonn Thucydides,"Thucydides," Transactions of the American Philological Association 116116 (1986)(1986),, 338n1338n133 andand 339n18339n18.. RodgersRodgers 100100
InfluenceInfluence iiss evidenevidentt inin Livy'sLivy's treatmentreatmentt ooff speechesspeeches.. HisHis BookBook 2828 dealsdeals witwithh ththee debatedebatess betweenbetween FabiusFabius andand ScipiScipioo oveoverr Scipio'sScipio's positionposition thathatt RomeRome shouldshould taktakee ththee wawarr directldirectlyy ttoo CarthageCarthage;; ThucydidesThucydides'' BookBook 6 relatesrelates thethe debatesdebates inin AthenAthenss abouaboutt ththee reasonablenessreasonableness ofof AlcibiadesAlcibiades'' desiredesire ttoo extenextendd AthenianAthenian powerpower ttoo ththee islandisland ooff SicilSicilyy at a timtimee whewhenn AthenAthenss isis at peacepeace witwithh SpartaSparta..
Historically,Historically, thertheree isis aann interestinginteresting parallelparallel eveevenn beforebefore ththee debates.debates. FabiusFabius earneearnedd ththee namnamee "Cunctator"Cunctator"" foforr hishis delayindelayingg tacticstactics,, whichwhich gavegave RomeRome respiterespite afterafter ththee disastroudisastrouss RomanRoman defeadefeatt atat CannaeCannae inin 212166 BC;BC;367367 ththee peacepeace thatthat
AthenAthenss waswas experiencinexperiencingg wawass aann intermission (421-413(421-413 BC)BC) inin thethe thirty-fourthirty-four yearyear longlong PeloponnesianPeloponnesian WarWar,, anandd was constructeconstructedd bbyy Nicias.368368 ItIt isis notnot surprisingsurprising thathatt LivyLivy woulwouldd expandexpand oonn thithiss coincidencecoincidence.. TheThe debatedebatess taktakee placeplace beforebefore thethe
RomanRoman SenatSenatee anandd ththee AtheniaAtheniann Assembly:Assembly:
Fabius:Fabius: I amam quitquitee aware,aware, senatorssenators,, thathatt manymany ofof yoyouu regardregard thethe questionquestion beforbeforee uuss todaytoday asas alreadalreadyy decided..decided .... expressinexpressingg mmyy dissendissentt fromfrom thosethose whwhoo thinthinkk thathatt wwee oughoughtt atat onconcee ttoo invadeinvade AfricaAfrica.. LivyLivy 28.40.3-28.40.3-55
Nicias:Nicias: AlthougAlthoughh thithiss assemblassemblyy wawass convenedconvened ttoo consideconsiderr ththee preparationspreparations ttoo bbee mademade foforr ththee sailinsailingg ttoo SicilySicily,, I thinkthink,, notwithstanding,notwithstanding, thatthat wewe shoulshouldd stillstill examinexaminee whethewhetherr itit bebe betterbetter ttoo sendsend outout ththee shipsships atat allall.. ThucThuc.6.9.1. 6.9.1
Fabius:Fabius: YounYoungg menmen maymay calcalll iitt timidittimidityy anandd indolenceindolence ifif thetheyy please,please, aass longlong aass wwee havehave nono causcausee ttoo regretregret thathatt thougthoughh thethe counselcounselss ooff othersothers havehave seemeseemedd at firsfirstt sighsightt moremore attractiveattractive,, experienceexperience showshowss thatthat minemine areare better.better. LivyLivy 28.40.528.40.5
Nicias:Nicias: AnAndd yetyet,, individually,individually, I gaigainn honorhonor byby suchsuch a coursecourse,, andand feafearr asas offerofferss a well-considerewell-consideredd deconstructiondeconstruction ooff ththee debatedebatess betweebetweenn thethe principalsprincipals anandd a nearnear line-byline-by lineline comparisocomparisonn ooff ththee twtwoo histories.histories.
367 3 367 J.J. Briscoe,Briscoe, "Fabius"Fabius MaximusMaximus VerucosusVerucosus,, Wuintus,Wuintus,"" OC0OCD ,, 583583..
368 3 368 HenryHenry DickinsoDickinsonn WestlakWestlakee andand SimoSimonn Hornblower,Hornblower, "Nicias"Nicias (1(1), ),"" OC0OCD ,, 10411041.. 101101
littlelittle aass otherother menmen foforr mymy personperson...... I1 willwill, , therefore,therefore, contentcontent myselfmyself witwithh showinshowingg thathatt youryour ardoardorr isis untimely,untimely, andand youyourr ambitionambition notnot easilyeasily accomplished.accomplished. ThucThuc.. 6.9.26.9.2
Fabius:Fabius: I havehave nevernever preferredpreferred mymy ownown reputationreputation ttoo ththee interestsinterests ofof thethe State.State. LivyLivy 28.41.128.41.1
Nicias:Nicias: I havehave nevernever spokenspoken againstagainst mymy honorhonor ttoo gaigainn acclaimacclaim.. ThucThuc.6.9.2. 6.9.2
Fabius:Fabius: YouYourr naturalnatural coursecourse wilwilll bebe ttoo defendefendd youyourr ownown country beforebefore yoyouu ggoo toto attacattackk ththee enemy'senemy's.. LetLet thertheree bebe peacepeace inin ItalyItaly beforebefore thertheree iiss wawarr inin AfricaAfrica;; letlet ouourr owownn fearfearss bebe banishebanishedd beforebefore wwee makemake othersothers trembletremble.. LivyLivy 28.41.2-928.41.2-9
Nicias:Nicias: I affirmaffirm,, thethenn thathatt youyou leaveleave manymany enemieenemiess behindbehind yoyouu herehere ttoo gogo thertheree fafarr awaawayy anandd bringbring moremore backback witwithh youyou...no ... nott ttoo thinthinkk ooff runningrunning risksrisks witwithh a countrycountry placeplace soso critically,critically, oror ooff graspinggrasping atat anotheranother empireempire beforebefore wwee havehave securesecuredd ththee ononee wwee havehave already.already. ThucThuc.. 6.10.1.6.10.1. 5
Fabius:Fabius: AAss mattersmatters nownow are,are, ththee publicpublic exchequerexchequer isis unableunable toto supporsupportt twotwo armiesarmies inin ItalyItaly andand alsoalso inin AfricaAfrica,, wwee havehave nothingnothing leftleft frofromm whicwhichh toto equipequip a fleefleett anandd furnisfurnishh itit witwithh suppliessupplies,, anandd overover anandd abovabovee all thisthis whwhoo cancan faifaill ttoo seesee whawhatt greatgreat dangersdangers woulwouldd bebe incurred?incurred? LivyLivy 28.41.11-1228.41.11-12
ComparisonComparison ttoo ththee lastlast remarksremarks byby FabiusFabius cancan bebe mademade toto a secondsecond speecspeechh bbyy
NiciasNicias describindescribingg thethe greagreatt expensexpensee neededneeded toto carrycarry ththee expeditioexpeditionn forthforth,, hopinghoping thatthat ththee extravagancextravagancee ooff thethe undertakingundertaking wilwilll persuadepersuade thethe AthenianAthenianss toto reconsiderreconsider andand changechange theitheirr minds.369369 NotwithstandingNotwithstanding thathatt inin eacheach historicalhistorical instanceinstance ththee decisiodecisionn toto sesett outout hashas beenbeen determineddetermined,, botbothh NiciasNicias anandd FabiusFabius speaspeakk theitheirr trutruee opinioopinionn withouwithoutt concernsconcerns foforr theirtheir ownown reputatioreputationn oror honor;honor; theythey
bothboth statstatee ththee dangerdanger ofof dividindividingg ththee strengthstrength ofof theirtheir forcesforces,, andand arguarguee thatthat oneone fronfrontt shouldshould bebe securesecuredd beforebefore openinopeningg anotheranother;; thetheyy bothboth maintainmaintain ththee costscosts ofof ththee intendedintended expeditionsexpeditions araree prohibitive.prohibitive.
369 Thuc.Thuc. 6.19.2,6.19.2, 21.1-23.1.21.1-23.1. 102102
InIn anan inventiveinventive turturnn byby Livy,Livy, thougthoughh ththee ThucydideaThucydideann textextt isis notnot inin fronfrontt ooff hishis readers,readers, hehe hashas FabiusFabius bringbring itit ttoo theitheirr attentionattention::
TheThe daylightdaylight woulwouldd failfail meme ifif I attemptedattempted toto enumeratenumeratee ththee kingskings andand captaincaptainss whwhoo byby theitheirr rashrash invasioinvasionn ooff theitheirr enemy'enemy'ss territorterritoryy havehave broughtbrought ththee mostmost crushingcrushing defeadefeatt onon themselvethemselvess anandd theitheirr armiesarmies.. AthensAthens,, a citcityy mostmost sensiblesensible anandd wisewise,, listenedlistened ttoo ththee advicadvicee ofof a younyoungg manman ooff highhigh birthbirth andand equallyequally highhigh ability,ability, andand sensentt a greagreatt fleefleett toto SicilSicilyy beforebefore itit hadhad disposeddisposed ofof ththee wawarr atat home,home, anandd iinn ononee navalnaval battlebattle ththee flourishingflourishing republicrepublic wawass foreveforeverr ruined.ruined. LivyLivy 28.41.17370370
TheyThey bothboth includeinclude inin theitheirr speechesspeeches aann attackattack oonn ththee ambitioambitionn ofof theirtheir adversaries:adversaries:
Fabius:Fabius: I holdhold ththee viewview thathatt P.P. CorneliusCornelius ScipiScipioo wawass electeelectedd consuconsull notnot forfor hihiss ownown privateprivate endsends,, bubutt foforr usus anandd ththee commonwealthcommonwealth,, anandd thatthat armiearmiess areare raisedraised ttoo guarguardd thithiss citycity anandd ththee soisoill ofof Italy,Italy, anandd nonott forfor consulsconsuls ttoo transporttransport ttoo ananyy partpart ooff thethe worlworldd thetheyy pleaseplease iinn thethe arroganarrogantt stylestyle ooff kingskings anandd despotsdespots.. LivyLivy 28.41.11-1228.41.11-12
Nicias:Nicias: AnAndd ifif thertheree bebe anyany manman here,here, overjoyeoverjoyedd at beingbeing chosechosenn toto command,command, whwhoo urgesurges yoyouu ttoo makemake ththee expedition,expedition, merelymerely foforr ends ofof hishis ownown - especiallespeciallyy ifif hehe isis stillstill totooo younyoungg ttoo commancommandd -- ...... remembe rememberr thatthat suchsuch personspersons injureinjure ththee publicpublic fortunfortunee whilwhilee theythey squandesquanderr theitheirr own,own, andand thathatt thithiss isis a mattermatter ooff importance,importance, anandd notnot foforr a youngyoung manman toto deciddecidee oorr hastilhastilyy ttoo taktakee iinn hand.hand. Thuc.Thuc. 6.12.26.12.2
Similarly,Similarly, FabiusFabius hahadd earlierearlier notednoted Scipio'Scipio'ss youthyouth,, sayingsaying,, "What"What rivalryrivalry cancan existexist betweenbetween myselfmyself andand a manman whwhoo isis notnot eveevenn aass ololdd aass mymy son?,,371son?"371
ThThee ThucydideaThucydideann modelmodel continuescontinues ttoo worworkk foforr LivyLivy iinn ththee comparisocomparisonn ooff responsesresponses ttoo FabiusFabius andand NiciasNicias byby ScipiScipioo andand Alcibiades,Alcibiades, respectively.respectively. FabiusFabius hashas notnot convincedconvinced anyoneanyone thathatt hhee isis notnot motivatedmotivated byby jealousjealousyy ooff Scipio;Scipio;
370 370 Fabius is mistaken that the Sicilian defeat signaled the final Athenian defeat in the Fabius is mistaken that the Sicilian defeat signaled the final Athenian defeat in the Peloponnesian War. While that is significant to historians, it is not important to orators. Peloponnesian War. While that is significant to historians, it is not important to orators. 371 371 LivyLivy 28.40.928.40.9.. 103103
AlcibiadeAlcibiadess mustmust speaspeakk sincesince NiciasNicias hashas attackeattackedd him.372him.372 ScipioScipio andand AlcibiadesAlcibiades bothboth declardeclaree thathatt theythey areare drivendriven byby honorhonor anandd famefame,, foforr themselvethemselvess anandd foforr theirtheir state.373373 TheTheyy bothboth proclaimproclaim theitheirr youtyouthh anandd declardeclaree thatthat theitheirr fellow-citizensfellow-citizens shouldshould embracembracee theitheirr energy.374energy.374 TheTheyy stresstresss ththee easeease ooff ththee anticipateanticipatedd conflictconflict andand ththee ficklenesficklenesss ofof theitheirr opponents.375375 TheTheyy bothboth citecite evidenceevidencess frofromm antiquity:antiquity:
ScipiScipioo recallsrecalls AgathoclesAgathocles,, kingking ofof Syracuse,Syracuse, whowho,, afteafterr SicilSicilyy hadhad beenbeen wastewastedd bbyy
CarthaginiansCarthaginians,, sailedsailed acrosacrosss thethe seseaa anandd turnedturned ththee tidtidee ooff warwar;; AlcibiadesAlcibiades reckonedreckoned thathatt itit wawass ththee AthenianAthenian fleefleett thathatt proveprovedd superiosuperiorr ttoo ththee MedeMede andand wonwon anan empire.376376 Finally,Finally, a successfulsuccessful RomanRoman expeditioexpeditionn willwill causecause HannibalHannibal toto depardepartt fromfrom Italy,Italy, andand a successfulsuccessful AtheniaAtheniann expeditioexpeditionn wilwilll shoshoww ththee SpartansSpartans howhow unimportantunimportant thethe peacepeace isis ttoo them.377them.377
ThereThere areare differencesdifferences inin theirtheir situationssituations,, butbut thesthesee onlyonly stresstresss ththee creativitycreativity ooff Livlivyy inin ththee parallelparallel speechesspeeches:: RomeRome iiss fightinfightingg foforr survivasurvivall againsagainstt Carthage,Carthage,
AthenAthenss isis atat thithiss timtimee victoriouvictoriouss inin herher recentrecent strugglestruggless witwithh Sparta;Sparta; ththee RomanRoman
SenateSenate hashas notnot yeyett approvedapproved ththee expeditionexpedition,, ththee AtheniaAtheniann AssemblAssemblyy has;has; thethe
RomansRomans wishewishedd ttoo securesecure theitheirr homeland,homeland, ththee AthenianAthenianss wishewishedd ttoo expanexpandd theirtheir influence;influence; anandd ththee mostmost significansignificantt differencdifferencee was thathatt RomansRomans areare notnot
*372,z LivyLivy 28.43.2-3;28.43.2-3; ThUG.Thuc. 6.16.1.6.16.1.
373733 LivyLivy 28.43.4-828.43.4-8;; ThucThUG.. 6.16.6.16.
373744 LivyLivy 28.43.9.1628.43.9.16;; ThucThUG.. 6.16.6-17.16.16.6-17.1
373755 LivyLivy 28.44.4-528.44.4-5;; ThucThUG.. 6.17.2-6.6.17.2-6.
373766 LivyLivy 28.43.2028.43.20;; ThUG.Thuc. 6.18.7.6.18.7.
377 377 LivyLivy 28.44.9-1128.44.9-11;; ThucThUG.. 6.18.46.18.4.. ThesThesee lineslines alsalsoo mentionmention ththee strengtstrengthh ooff ththee RomanRoman armarmyy anandd ththee AtheniaAtheniann fleet.fleet. 104
Greeks.378Greeks. ItIt isis foforr thisthis reasonreason thatthat LivyLivy purposefullypurposefully hashas FabiusFabius brinbringg upup thethe memorymemory ooff ththee disastroudisastrouss SicilianSicilian expedition.expedition. Livy'sLivy's readersreaders areare remindedreminded ooff thisthis mostmost importantimportant difference:difference: wherwheree GreeksGreeks failedfailed,, RomansRomans succeededsucceeded..
TheThe exceptionalexceptional RomanRoman naturenature isis ththee historyhistory thathatt LivyLivy wantwantss ttoo tell:tell:
Unless,Unless, however,however, I amam misledmisled bbyy mymy affectionaffection foforr mymy undertaking,undertaking, therethere hashas nevernever existeexistedd anyany commonwealthcommonwealth greagreatt inin power,power, witwithh a purerpurer morality,morality, moremore fertilefertile inin googoodd examples;examples; oorr ananyy statstatee iinn whicwhichh avaricavaricee andand lUxuryluxury havehave beenbeen ssoo latelate inin makingmaking theitheirr inroads,inroads, oorr povertypoverty anandd frugalityfrugality soso highlyhighly andand continuouslycontinuously honored,honored, showinshowingg ssoo clearly thathatt ththee lessless wealtwealthh menmen possessedpossessed thethe lessless thetheyy coveted.coveted. LivyLivy Praef. 1111
ItIt isis a history,history, however,however, ooff a greatgreat empireempire iinn declinedecline::
ThThee subjectsubjectss ttoo whicwhichh I woulwouldd askask eacheach ooff mymy readersreaders ttoo devotdevotee hishis earnestearnest attentionattention araree thesthesee - ththee lifelife andand moralsmorals ofof ththee community;community; thethe menmen anandd ththee qualitiequalitiess byby whicwhichh througthroughh domesticdomestic policpolicyy andand foreigforeignn warwar dominiondominion wawass wowonn anandd extendedextended.. TheThenn asas ththee standarstandardd ooff moralitymorality graduallgraduallyy lowers,lowers, letlet himhim follofolloww ththee decaydecay ooff thethe nationalnational character,character, observinobservingg howhow at firsfirstt itit slowlyslowly sinkssinks,, thethenn slipslipss downwardownwardd mormoree anandd moremore rapidly,rapidly, anandd finallfinallyy beginsbegins ttoo plungplungee intointo headlongheadlong ruin,ruin, untiluntil hhee reachesreaches thesethese days,days, inin whichwhich wewe cacann beabearr neitherneither ourour diseasediseasess nornor theitheirr remedies.remedies. LivyLivy Praef. 9
ThoughThough hehe notesnotes thathatt Rome wawass laterlater thathann anyany otheotherr statestate ttoo declindeclinee inin ititss virtuesvirtues andand morals,morals, itit isis evidentevident ttoo LivyLivy thathatt declindeclinee isis inevitable.inevitable. PublishingPublishing ththee firsfirstt tenten booksbooks ofof hihiss historyhistory nono laterlater thathann 2525 BC,379BC,379 hehe witnessewitnessedd ththee consolidatioconsolidationn ooff
Octavian'sOctavian's powerpower andand hishis ascendancyascendancy ttoo AugustusAugustus.. LivyLivy followefollowedd thethe ancientancient traditiotraditionn ooff openingopening hishis worworkk witwithh a preface,preface, butbut neitheneitherr ThucydideThucydidess nornor eveneven
SallusSallustt displayeddisplayed ththee samsamee levellevel ofof pessimispessimismm abouaboutt futurfuturee possibilitiepossibilitiess thatthat iiss
378 378 Rodgers,Rodgers, "Grea"Greatt Expeditions"Expeditions" (1986),339.(1986), 339.
379 379 TT.. J.J. Luce,Luce, "The"The DatingDating ofof Livy'sLivy's FirstFirst Decade,"Decade," Transactions of the American Philological Association 9966 (1965),209-240.(1965), 209-240. 105105 evidentevident inin LiVy.380Livy.380
ItIt cacann bebe plausiblyplausibly arguedargued thathatt scholarscholarss havehave judgejudgedd Livy'Livy'ss researchresearch methodmethod tootoo harshly.381harshly.381 LivyLivy saysayss aatt thethe openingopening ofof hishis PrefacePreface thathatt twtwoo wellwell- establishedestablished principles wilwilll guidguidee himhim inin hishis writingwriting:: accuracyaccuracy anandd style. 382382 TheThe complaintcomplaintss regardingregarding hishis worworkk havehave moremore ttoo dodo witwithh ththee formeformerr thanthan ththee latter.latter. InIn hishis defense,defense, thertheree areare fefeww casescases wherwheree LivyLivy taketakess ththee testimontestimonyy ooff a pastpast historianhistorian aass accurateaccurate withouwithoutt makingmaking a commencommentt ooff reservation,reservation,383383 anandd hehe notesnotes thethe difficultydifficulty hehe hashas sortinsortingg ououtt ththee variousvarious andand contradictorycontradictory sources.384384 Livy'sLivy's worworkk coverecoveredd RomanRoman historyhistory frofromm itsits originsorigins toto ththee firsfirstt decaddecadee BC.BC. ItIt totaledtotaled 142142 books,books, ooff whicwhichh onlyonly booksbooks 1-101-10 anandd 21-421-455 survive.survive. BookBook 4545 concludeconcludess inin thethe mid-secondmid-second centurycentury BC,BC, ononee hundredhundred yearyearss beforbeforee Livy'sLivy's birth.birth. WhaWhatt survivesurvivess ofof
LivyLivy isis notnot a contemporarycontemporary historyhistory likelike thosethose ooff ThucydideThucydidess oror Sallust.Sallust. HisHis heavyheavy reliancereliance oonn extanextantt historieshistories isis understandableunderstandable consideringconsidering ththee seven-hundred-seven-hundred- yeayearr scopescope ofof ththee entirentiree workwork.. PerhapsPerhaps academicacademicss woulwouldd finfindd inin ththee lostlost portionsportions ooff Livy'sLivy's historyhistory talentstalents historicalhistorical researchresearch andand compositiocompositionn equalingequaling thosthosee ooff
SallustSallust,, Polybius,Polybius, anandd Thucydides.Thucydides. PerhapsPerhaps not.not. LivyLivy sayssays inin hishis preface,preface,
I havehave veryvery littlelittle doubt,doubt, too,too, thatthat forfor thethe majoritymajority ofof mymy readersreaders thethe earliestearliest timetimess anandd thosthosee immediately succeedinsucceedingg wilwilll possesspossess littlelittle attractionattraction;; theythey wilwilll hurryhurry oonn ttoo thesthesee modernmodern daydayss inin whicwhichh ththee mightmight ooff a longlong paramountparamount nation isis wastinwastingg byby internalinternal decaydecay.. I,I, oonn ththee otheotherr hand,hand, shalshalll looklook foforr a
380380 LuceLuce,, "Livy'"Livy'ss FirstFirst Decade"Decade" (1965),234-238,(1965), 234-238, discussesdiscusses whethewhetherr ththee originaoriginall PrefacePreface waswas differentdifferent frofromm ththee oneone iinn subsequensubsequentt publications.publications. Luce'sLuce's concernconcernss araree ofof courscoursee relativerelative ttoo thethe datingdating ooff ththee beginning,beginning, notnot ththee tonetone..
381381 Luce,Luce, Livy (1977),(1977), 156156..
383822 LivLivyy Praef.Praef 2.2.
383833 MilesMiles,, LivyLivy(1995), (1995), 6600 n72n72,, notesnotes LivyLivy 9.18.5.9.18.5.
384384 LivyLivy 38.56.1.38.56.1. 106106
furthefurtherr rewardreward ooff mymy labourslabours inin beingbeing ablablee ttoo closclosee mymy eyeeyess ttoo thethe evilsevils whichwhich ouourr generatiogenerationn hashas witnessewitnessedd foforr ssoo manymany yearsyears;; soso long,long, aatt least,least, asas I amam devotingdevoting all mymy thoughtthoughtss ttoo retracingretracing thosthosee pristinepristine records,records, freefree fromfrom all thethe anxietyanxiety whicwhichh cacann disturdisturbb ththee historianhistorian ofof hishis ownown timetimess eveneven iiff itit cannocannott warwarpp himhim fromfrom ththee truth.truth. LivyLivy Praef. 4-54-5
ItIt isis clearclear thethenn thathatt Livy'sLivy's closclosee inspectioninspection ofof contemporarcontemporaryy eventeventss maymay havehave provedproved painfulpainful toto him,him, anandd mamayy havehave inhibitedinhibited a dispassionatedispassionate narrative.narrative. IInn part,part, itit isis ththee naturenature ofof ththee RomanRoman historiographicalhistoriographical approachapproach thathatt is,is, atat leastleast iinn thethe modernmodern sensesense,, Livy'sLivy's ownown undoing.undoing. TToo Romans,Romans, ThucydidesThucydides'' pragmaticpragmatic analysisanalysis anandd ththee emotionallyemotionally removedremoved investigationinvestigation woulwouldd havehave seemeseemedd amoralamoral;; foforr ththee Romans,Romans, accuracyaccuracy wawass subornesubornedd toto ththee appearancappearancee ofof truthtruth anandd thethe importantimportant issuesissues werewere politicspolitics anandd moralsmorals.. ThaThatt LivyLivy wawass partiapartiall ttoo hishis homelandhomeland woulwouldd havehave beenbeen understandable,understandable, anandd expected.385385
CorneliuCorneliuss TacitusTacitus (c.(c. AADD 56-after56-after 118)118) wawass bornborn durinduringg ththee reignreign ooff NeroNero,, ththee lastlast ofof thethe Julio-Claudians.Julio-Claudians. AAss a younyoungg boyboy hhee witnessewitnessedd ththee warwarss betweenbetween thethe foufourr claimantclaimantss uponupon ththee deathdeath ooff NeroNero iinn 6868.. FromFrom thisthis "year"year ooff ththee fourfour emperors"emperors" hehe watchewatchedd ththee FlavianFlavian dynastdynastyy (AD(AD 69-9669-96)) solidifsolidifyy itsits positionposition ooff imperialimperial controlcontrol.. HeHe conductedconducted aann orderlyorderly publicpublic careecareerr underunder VespasianVespasian,, TitusTitus,, andand Domitian.Domitian. ThenThen asas a Senator,Senator, TacituTacituss rosrosee ttoo suffecsuffectt consuconsull inin ththee shorshortt reignreign ooff NervaNerva inin 97. 386386 ItIt waswas inin ththee followinfollowingg yeayearr thathatt hehe wrotwrotee anandd publishepublishedd hishis firstfirst twotwo worksworks,, ththee AghcolaAgricola andand ththee Germania. HeHe servedserved asas thethe proconsulproconsul ofof AsiaAsia foforr ththee yearsyears 112-114112-114 underunder ththee reignreign ofof TrajaTrajann (AD(AD 98-117)98-117).. ItIt was afterafter thisthis
383855 Mellor,Mellor, Roman Historians (1999)(1999),191,192,199., 191, 192, 199.
386 386 UnderUnder thethe EmpireEmpire,, consulsconsuls ceaseceasedd ttoo holholdd ththee remnantremnant ooff ththee Republic'Republic'ss higheshighestt magisterialmagisterial officofficee foforr thethe entireentire yearyear.. ThoseThose consuls,consuls, appointedappointed afteafterr ththee originaoriginall pairpair ofof consulsconsuls,, werewere suffecti, positionspositions thathatt werweree moremore gesturegesturess ofof honorhonor thathann theitheirr formeformerr positionpositionss ooff authority.authority. PieroPiero 3 TreveTrevess andand BarbaraBarbara M.M. Levick,Levick, "suffect,"suffect, suffectio"suffectio," OC0OCD ,, 14531453.. 107107 servicservicee inin AsiAsiaa thathatt hehe startestartedd oonn ththee Histories anandd ththee AnnatesAnnales. 387
DuringDuring hishis liflifee ooff deepldeeplyy engageengagedd activeactive serviceservice hehe notednoted ththee riserise ooff absolutisabsolutismm anandd itsits effecteffectss oonn nationsnations anandd individuals.individuals. HeHe recordedrecorded Rome'sRome's transitiotransitionn frofromm ththee AugustaAugustann principateprincipate ttoo thethe tyranntyrannyy ooff Domitian,Domitian, aass welwelll asas thethe
RomanRoman shiftshift frofromm complianccompliancee ttoo acquiescence.388388 LikeLike Sallust,Sallust, hehe vieweviewedd hishis worworkk asas a continuationcontinuation ooff hishis publicpublic life,life, andand believedbelieved thatthat historyhistory shouldshould bbee
usefuluseful andand moral.389389
LikeLike mosmostt ancienancientt historianshistorians,, TacitusTacitus beginsbegins hihiss workworkss witwithh a prefacepreface statinstatingg hishis purposepurpose andand hishis commitmentcommitment ttoo impartiality.39oimpartiality.390 OnOnee departuredeparture thatthat
hashas nnoo precedentprecedent iiss thathatt hehe beginbeginss botbothh ththee AnnalAnnalss anandd ththee HistorHistoryy withoutwithout
mentioningmentioning hishis owownn name;name; insteadinstead hehe givegivess ththee namesnames ofof ththee consulconsulss whwhoo werewere
inin officeoffice aatt ththee timtimee eacheach historyhistory begins:begins:
RomeRome aatt thethe beginningbeginning wawass ruledruled byby kings.kings. FreedomFreedom andand ththee consulshipconsulship werweree establishedestablished bbyy LuciusLucius Brutus.Brutus. Tac.Tac. Ann. 1.1.11.1.1
I beginbegin mymy workwork withwith thethe timetime whenwhen ServiusServius GalbaGalba waswas consulconsul forfor thethe seconsecondd timtimee witwithh TituTituss ViniuViniuss foforr hishis colleaguecolleague.. TacTac.. Hist. 1.1.11.1.1
ThesThesee openingopeningss shoshoww that,that, whilwhilee SallustSallust seekseekss gloria andand fama inin ththee writinwritingg ofof
hishis worksworks,, foforr TacituTacituss ththee emphasisemphasis inin ththee AnnatesAnnales andand ththee Historiae isis oonn Rome.Rome.
Indeed,Indeed, "urbem Romam" araree ththee firsfirstt wordwordss ooff thethe Annales.Annates.
387 33 387 RonaldRonald HaithwaiteHaithwaite Martin,Martin, "Tacitus,""Tacitus," OC0OCD ,, 1469;1469; JohnJohn BrianBrian Campbell,Campbell, "Traja"Trajann (Marcus(Marcus 33 UlpiusUlpius Trainus),Trainus),"" OC0OCD ,, 1543.1543.
388 388 LidiaLidia StoroniStoroni MazzolaniMazzolani,, Empire Without End: Three Historians of Rome (New(New YorYorkk andand London:London: 1976)1976) 146146..
389 389 RonalRonaldd Mellor,Mellor, Tacitus (New(New York anandd London:London: 1993)1993) 11..
390 390 ThThee Germania isis anan exceptionexception.. HereHere,, interestinglyinterestingly enough,enough, hishis firsfirstt lineline,, "Undivided"Undivided GermanyGermany isis separateseparatedd frofromm ththee GaulsGauls,, Rhaetians,Rhaetians, anandd PannonianPannonianss byby ththee riversrivers RhineRhine anandd Danube,"Danube," (Tac.(Tac. Germ 1.1)1.1) imitatesimitates ththee openingopening wordwordss ooff Caesar'Caesar'ss inin ththee Bello Gal/ico,Gallico, "Gau"Gaull iiss a wholwholee divideddivided intointo threthreee parts,parts, oneone ooff whicwhichh isis inhabitedinhabited bbyy ththee BelgaeBelgae,, anotheranother byby ththee AquitaniAquitani,, andand a thirdthird byby a peoplepeople calledcalled inin theitheirr ownown tongutonguee CeltaeCeltae,, inin ththee LatinLatin Galli"Galli" (Caes.(Caes. B. Gall. 1.1).1.1). 108108
ThereThere isis inin TacituTacituss anotheanotherr departuredeparture frofromm SallusSallustt andand Sallust'sSallust's modelmodel
ThucydidesThucydides.. ItIt isis a subtlesubtle differencedifference,, anandd oneone thathatt mightmight notnot bebe expecteexpectedd frofromm a personperson whowho hadhad witnessewitnessedd ththee eventeventss anandd timetimess TacituTacituss hadhad seenseen.. InIn bothboth ooff hihiss predecessorspredecessors thertheree isis a pessimismpessimism whicwhichh suitsuitss welwelll theitheirr themethemess ooff declinedecline andand fallfall,, thatthat ofof ththee AtheniaAtheniann EmpireEmpire foforr ThucydideThucydidess anandd ooff ththee RomanRoman RepubliRepublicc forfor ththee Sallust.Sallust. ThThee Historiae, ththee firsfirstt worworkk ooff ththee twotwo,, coverecoveredd ththee yearyearss AADD 69-9669-96..
OfOf thesthesee yearyearss ofof ththee Flavians,Flavians, TacitusTacitus sayssays,, ""II amam enteringentering oonn ththee historhistoryy ofof a periodperiod richrich inin disastersdisasters,, frightfufrightfull inin itsits warswars,, tortornn byby civicivill strifestrife,, andand eveneven iinn peacepeace fulfulll ofof horrors.,,391horrors."391 ButBut afterafter threthreee decadedecadess ofof thithiss period,period, hehe cancan saysay,,
I havehave reservedreserved asas anan employmentemployment forfor myoidmy old age,age, shouldshould mymy lifelife bebe longlong enough,enough, a subjecsubjectt aatt onceonce moremore fruitfufruitfull anandd lessless anxiouanxiouss inin ththee reignreign ooff thethe DivineDivine NervaNerva andand ththee empirempiree ooff TrajanTrajan,, enjoyingenjoying thethe rarerare happinesshappiness ooff times,times, whewhenn wwee maymay thinthinkk whawhatt wwee please,please, andand expresexpresss whawhatt wwee think.think. TacT ac.. Hist.Hist 1.1.11.1.1
ItIt isis a ververyy optimistioptimisticc statement.statement. HisHis histories,histories, oonn ththee otherother hand,hand, areare,, oonn thethe whole,whole, sharsharpp condemnationcondemnationss ofof ththee Empire.Empire. A lineline inin ththee Annales iiss instructiveinstructive asas toto howhow TacitusTacitus mightmight bebe read:read:
MyMy purposepurpose isis notnot ttoo relaterelate atat lengthlength everyevery motion,motion, butbut onlonlyy sucsuchh aass werewere conspicuouconspicuouss foforr excellenceexcellence oorr notoriousnotorious foforr infamyinfamy.. ThiThiss I regardregard aass history'shistory's highesthighest function,function, ttoo letlet nono worthworthyy actioactionn bebe uncommemorated,uncommemorated, andand ttoo holdhold ououtt ththee reprobationreprobation ooff posterityposterity aass a terroterrorr ttoo evilevil wordwordss andand deeds.deeds. Tac.Tac. Ann. 3.65.13923.65.1392
AA.. J.J. WoodmanWoodman,, iinn hishis editionedition ooff ththee Annales, hahass notenotedd thathatt mostmost
interpretersinterpreters ofof thithiss lineline taktakee TacitusTacitus ttoo bebe sayinsayingg inin partpart,, "I"I deedeemm ththee greatestgreatest
JM3911 TacTac.. HistHisl. 1.2.1.1.2.1.
392 392A.A. J.J. WoodmaWoodmann andand R.R. H.H. Martin,Martin, eds.eds.,, The Annals of Tacitus, Book 3 (Ne(Neww YorkYork:: 1996),451,1996), 451, observe,observe, "Thi"Thiss sentence,sentence, ononee ooff thethe mostmost famoufamouss iinn T.T.,, hashas beenbeen widelwidelyy thoughthoughtt ttoo susumm uupp hihiss historicalhistorical writingwriting,, anandd thethe latterlatter partpart ofof itit hashas sometimesometimess beenbeen usedused asas ththee mottomotto foforr hishis work."work." 109109 functiofunctionn ofof historyhistory ttoo bebe thatthat virtuevirtuess shoulshouldd notnot bebe silencesilencedd anandd thathatt crookedcrooked wordwordss andand deedsdeeds shoulshouldd bebe attendeattendedd bbyy dreadreadd frofromm posterityposterity andand infamy.,,393infamy."393 IInn additionaddition ttoo holdingholding historyhistory aass anan exemplaexemplarr foforr ththee presentpresent,, aass hadhad beebeenn a purposepurpose
ofof SallustSallust andand Thucydides,Thucydides, TacitusTacitus iiss usinusingg ththee threathreatt ooff futurfuturee historieshistories aass a
meansmeans ttoo affecaffectt ththee present.present. PerhapsPerhaps ththee feafearr ooff futurfuturee judgmenjudgmentt wilwilll bebe a
motivationmotivation foforr presentpresent dadayy googoodd andand virtuouvirtuouss actions;actions; perhapsperhaps futurfuturee emperorsemperors
wilwilll rulerule betterbetter thanthan thethe Julio-ClaudianJulio-Claudianss oorr ththee Flavians.394394
TacituTacituss doesdoes sharsharee historiographicalhistoriographical elementelementss witwithh ThucydidesThucydides.. OnOn rarerare
occasions,occasions, thertheree areare partsparts ofof TacitusTacitus thathatt appeaappearr toto makemake direcdirectt allusionsallusions toto
Thucydides:Thucydides:
TheThe tietiess ofof loyaltyloyalty oonn ththee oneone hand,hand, anandd ththee necessitiesnecessities ooff faminfaminee onon ththee other,other, keptkept thethe besiegedbesieged waverinwaveringg betweenbetween ththee alternativealternativess ooff glorgloryy andand infamy.infamy. WhileWhile theythey thuthuss hesitated,hesitated, alalll usualusual anandd eveevenn unusualunusual kindkindss ooff foodfood failefailedd themthem,, foforr theythey hadhad consumeconsumedd theitheirr horsehorsess anandd beastsbeasts ofof burdenburden anandd all thethe otheotherr animalsanimals,, whichwhich,, thougthoughh uncleanunclean anandd disgustingdisgusting,, necessitynecessity compellecompelledd themthem toto useuse.. AAtt lastlast thetheyy toretore upup shrubsshrubs andand rootsroots anandd ththee grasgrasss thatthat gregreww betweenbetween ththee stonesstones,, anandd thuthuss showeshowedd anan exampleexample ooff patiencepatience underunder privationsprivations,, tiltilll atat lastlast theythey shamefullshamefullyy tarnishetarnishedd ththee lustrelustre ooff theirtheir famfamee byby sendinsendingg envoyenvoyss toto CiviliCiviliss ttoo bebegg foforr theitheirr liveslives.. TacTac.. Hist.Hist 4.60.4.60.11
LaterLater on,on, ononee maymay saysay,, ththee wholwholee HelleniHellenicc worlworldd wawass convulsedconvulsed;; strugglesstruggles beingbeing everywhereeverywhere mademade byby ththee popularpopular leadersleaders ttoo bringbring inin ththee Athenians,Athenians, andand byby thethe oligarcholigarchss ttoo introduceintroduce ththee Spartans.Spartans. InIn peacepeace thertheree woulwouldd havehave beenbeen neitherneither ththee pretextpretext notnot ththee wiswishh ttoo makmakee sucsuchh invitation;invitation; butbut inin war.war.. ... opportunitiesopportunities forfor bringingbringing inin ththee foreigneforeignerr werweree nevernever wantinwantingg ttoo thethe revolutionaryrevolutionary parties.parties. TheThe sufferingssufferings whicwhichh revolutionrevolution entailedentailed uponupon thethe citiescities werewere manmanyy andand terribleterrible,, sucsuchh aass havehave occurreoccurredd andand alwayalwayss willwill
393 TacitusTacitus,, The Annals, translated,translated, witwithh introductionintroduction anandd notesnotes,, AA.. JJ.. WoodmaWoodmann (Indianapolis:(Indianapolis: 2004)2004),, 115115 ffnn 136.136. ForFor a fullefullerr treatmenttreatment,, seesee AA.. JJ.. WoodmanWoodman,, "Praecipuum Munus Annalium: ThThee Construction,Construction, Convention,Convention, anandd ContextContext ooff AnnalAnnalss 3.65.1,3.65.1,"" Tacitus Reviewed (Oxford:(Oxford: 1998)1998),, 86-10386-103;; T.T. J.J. Luce,Luce, "Tacitus"Tacitus onon 'History's'History's HighestHighest Function':Function': Praecipuum Munus Annalium (Ann(Ann.. 3.65),"3.65)," Aufstieg und Niedergang derderrOmischen r6mischen Welt (Berlin(Berlin)) IIII 33.433.4 2904-2927.2904-2927.
394 394 It is without doubt only a coincidence that after Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian (AD 96-138) was It is without doubt only a coincidence that after Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian (AD 96-138) was ththee successionsuccession oofthef the AntonineAntoniness (AD(AD 138-180),138-180), knownknown asas "th"thee GoodGood Emperors."Emperors." 110
occuoccurr asas longlong aass ththee naturenature ooff mankindmankind remainsremains ththee same;same; thougthoughh inin a severerseverer oorr mildermilder formform,, andand varyinvaryingg inin theirtheir symptomssymptoms,, accordingaccording ttoo thethe varietyvariety ofof ththee particularparticular cases.cases. ThucThucyy 3.82.1-23.82.1 -2
SymeSyme observeobservedd thathatt ththee verdictverdict ooff DionysiusDionysius ofof HalicarnassusHalicarnassus regardingregarding
ThucydideThucydidess couldcould easilyeasily havehave beenbeen applieappliedd ttoo Tacitus.395395 HisHis qualitiesqualities conformedconformed ttoo ththee critic'critic'ss estimationestimation ooff Thucydides.Thucydides. However,However, SymSymee assertsasserts,, thethe qualities ddoo notnot derivderivee frofromm Thucydides.Thucydides. ItIt seemsseems thatthat ththee greatestgreatest ofof alalll RomanRoman historianshistorians wawass uniqueunique notnot onlyonly forfor LatinLatin historianshistorians butbut foforr alalll ancientancient historianshistorians asas wellwell..
395 SymeSyme,, Tacitus (1958),1.358(1958), 1.358 fn.4fn.4;; Dion.Dion. Hal.Hal. Thuc. 2424.. CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION
ThucydideThucydidess provedproved ttoo bbee a definingdefining figurfiguree inin thethe writinwritingg ooff history,history, innovativinnovativee regardinregardingg whawhatt wenwentt beforebefore,, anandd influentiainfluentiall onon whawhatt camcamee after.after.396396
HerodotusHerodotus inheritedinherited thethe notionnotion ooff inquiryinquiry frofromm thethe IonianIonian philosopherphilosopherss anandd usedused iitt toto inventinvent a newnew forformm ooff narrativenarrative ofof pastpast eventsevents.. TheThe epiepicc poetspoets anandd ththee writerwriterss ooff
GreekGreek tragedtragedyy shapeshapedd hishis narrativenarrative style.style. HisHis worworkk onon thethe PersianPersian WarsWars,, a combinatiocombinationn ofof fantastifantasticc storiesstories,, ethnographyethnography,, anandd ththee sciencessciences ooff thethe age,age, waswas aann inquiryinquiry intointo ththee causescauses ooff ththee conflicconflictt andand ththee tellintellingg ooff ththee greagreatt HellenicHellenic victoriesvictories..
ThucydideThucydidess departeddeparted frofromm Herodotus iinn manymany waysways,, butbut hishis mostmost
significansignificantt departurdeparturee mustmust bebe hishis choicchoicee ttoo writwritee onon contemporarycontemporary events.events.
BecauseBecause hhee immediatelyimmediately recognizedrecognized ththee significancsignificancee ofof thethe wawarr betweenbetween thethe
AthenianAthenianss anandd thethe Spartans,Spartans, hehe startestartedd writinwritingg atat once.once. ThaThatt undertakingundertaking iiss
strewstrewnn witwithh difficulties,difficulties, notnot ththee leastleast ofof whicwhichh isis ththee lacklack ooff perspective.perspective. ForFor thisthis
reason,reason, ThucydidesThucydides determinedeterminedd a moremore rigorousrigorous method,method, whicwhichh necessarilynecessarily tooktook
himhim beyondbeyond Herodotus.Herodotus. GrantedGranted thertheree isis reasonreason ttoo assumassumee editing,397editing,397 butbut takentaken
aass a worworkk inin progressprogress,, ThucydidesThucydides'' survivingsurviving texttext includesincludes remarkableremarkable
innovationsinnovations:: choicchoicee ooff a startinstartingg datedate,, ththee useuse ofof ththee annalistiannalisticc chronology,chronology,
396 396 Bury,Bury, Greek Historians (1909)(1909),, 147,147, statestatess thathatt ThucydidesThucydides'' worworkk "mark"markss ththee longeslongestt anandd mostmost decisivdecisivee stestepp thathatt hashas eveeverr beenbeen taketakenn bbyy a singlsinglee mamann towardtowardss makinmakingg historyhistory whawhatt itit isis today."today."
397 397 E.g.,E.g., hehe statestatess thathatt AthenAthenss hahass lostlost ththee wawarr aatt 2.65.12.2.65.12. 112112 borrowedborrowed frofromm ththee annalsannals;; aann expliciexplicitt explanationexplanation ofof ththee criteriacriteria ttoo includeinclude eventsevents anandd speeches;speeches; applicatioapplicationn ooff unifyingunifying techniquetechniquess Uuxtaposition,(juxtaposition, prefigurationprefiguration andand repetition,repetition, contrastcontrast anandd reversal,reversal, andand integrationintegration ofof speechspeech andand narrative);narrative); andand mostmost importantlyimportantly aann objectivobjectivee detachmendetachmentt frofromm ththee narrative.narrative. AlAlll ofof thesethese techniquestechniques inin a narrativenarrative ofof contemporarycontemporary eventsevents areare extraordinary.extraordinary. InIn limitinglimiting hihiss inquiryinquiry ttoo warwar,, politics,politics, andand ththee contemporary,contemporary, ThucydideThucydidess defineddefined ththee subjectsubject mattermatter foforr ththee historianshistorians consideredconsidered inin thithiss thesisthesis,, butbut itit wawass nearlynearly impossibleimpossible forfor themthem toto reproducereproduce ththee structurstructuree ofof Thucydides'Thucydides' work.work.
HisHis influenceinfluence onon historianshistorians mustmust havehave hadhad beenbeen substantiasubstantiall givegivenn thatthat therethere werweree nono fewefewerr thanthan foufourr continuatorscontinuators whwhoo pickedpicked upup ththee unfinished historyhistory atat thethe preciseprecise pointpoint wherewhere ThucydideThucydidess brokebroke off.off. XenophoXenophonn mademade anan obviousobvious efforeffortt toto continuecontinue Thucydides'Thucydides' historicalhistorical methodmethod andand narrativenarrative treatmenttreatment,, andand
CratippusCratippus apparentlyapparently followedfollowed certaincertain specificspecificss ofof ththee ThucydideaThucydideann method. 398398
ThThee OxyrhynchusOxyrhynchus historianhistorian embracedembraced ThucydidesThucydides'' method,method, includingincluding ththee annualannual
chroniclingchronicling ofof eventsevents,, accountsaccounts byby personalpersonal observatioobservationn anandd eyewitnesseseyewitnesses,, andand a
commitmentcommitment toto authorialauthorial detachment.detachment. SubsequentSubsequent historianshistorians ofof ththee HellenisticHellenistic
AgeAge,, influencedinfluenced byby ththee rhetoricarhetoricall leaningsleanings anandd ththee obsequiouobsequiouss tenotenorr ooff ththee ageage,,
dididd not,not, however,however, finfindd inin ThucydideThucydidess a suitablsuitablee model. 399399 ThThee HellenisticHellenistic AgAgee waswas
a periodperiod ofof greatgreat varietyvariety andand notnot a fewfew contradictions:contradictions: sciencescience andand reasonreason existedexisted
inin thethe samesame spacespace aass thethe illogicalillogical anandd aann irresistibleirresistible attractioattractionn foforr thethe
39B At leastleast inin ththee firsfirstt portion ofof ththee workwork,, whicwhichh concludeconcludess witwithh ththee installatioinstallationn ofof ththee ThirtyThirty TyrantsTyrants..
399 399 SimonSimon Hornblower,Hornblower, "Th"Thee Fourth-CenturyFourth-Century andand HellenisticHellenistic ReceptionReception ooff Thucydides,Thucydides,"" JHS, VolVol.. 115115(1995) (1995),, 6363.. 113113 incredible.4oo400
ItIt seemsseems thatthat therethere is,is, asas A.A. W.W. GommeGomme noted,noted, "a"a completecomplete silencesilence aboutabout
ThucydideThucydidess inin whatwhat remainsremains toto usus ofof ancientancient writerswriters beforebefore thethe ageage ofof CiceroCicero andand
DionysiusDionysius ofof Halicarnassus.,,401Halicarnassus."401 ThiThiss commentcomment promptedprompted a responseresponse byby SimonSimon
Hornblower,402Hornblower,402 whowho arguesargues that,that, thougthoughh therethere isis nono specificspecific referencereference toto
ThucydidesThucydides exceptexcept inin hishis immediateimmediate continuators,continuators, PolybiusPolybius beingbeing thethe onlyonly exception,exception, thertheree isis plentifulplentiful evidence thathatt otherother GreeksGreeks (e.g.,(e.g., Demosthenes,Demosthenes,
AeschinesAeschines,, Lysias,Lysias, AeneasAeneas,, TacitusTacitus,, Callisthenes,Callisthenes, Plato,Plato, Aristotle,Aristotle, Philistus,Philistus,
Ephorus,Ephorus, Hellanicus,Hellanicus, andand AndrotionAndrotion)) studiedstudied Thucydides,Thucydides, asas shownshown inin theirtheir treatmenttreatment ofof specificspecific historicalhistorical eventsevents (e.g.,(e.g., plagueplague andand ostracism),ostracism), foreignforeign affairs,affairs, thethe relationshiprelationship ofof poetrypoetry toto historyhistory andand argumentsarguments onon moralsmorals andand ethics.ethics. LackLack ofof interestinterest inin Thucydides'Thucydides' historyhistory maymay havehave beenbeen duedue ttoo hishis rigorousrigorous stylestyle andand thethe facfactt thathatt hehe "kept"kept thethe godsgods out"out" ofof hishis workwork.. ThThee formerformer mademade ThucydidesThucydides difficultdifficult toto readread andand toughertougher ttoo emulate,emulate, ththee latterlatter unpalatableunpalatable toto thethe tastestastes ofof thethe time.time 403403
HornblowerHornblower raisesraises anotheranother considerationconsideration worthworth notingnoting here:here: ifif thethe greatnessgreatness ofof ththee GreeksGreeks wawass conceivedconceived inin theirtheir strugglesstruggles againstagainst thethe PersiansPersians (by(by Athens,Athens,
Sparta,Sparta, thethe HellenicHellenic League,League, andand finallyfinally byby Alexander)Alexander),, thenthen ththee dealingsdealings withwith thethe
GreatGreat King,King, specificallyspecifically byby ththee AthenianAthenian AlcibiadeAlcibiadess andand thethe out-of-textout-of-text SpartanSpartan
400 400 EmilioEmilio Gabba,Gabba, "True"True HistoryHistory andand FalseFalse HistoryHistory inin ClassicalClassical Antiquity,Antiquity,"" JRS, Vol.Vol. 7171 (1981),55.(1981), 55.
401 401 Gomme,Gomme, Commentary (1962),111.523.(1962), III.523.
402 402 SimoSimonn Hornblower,Hornblower, "Hellenistic"Hellenistic ReceptionReception ofof Thucydides,Thucydides,"" (1995),47-68.(1995), 47-68. ThisThis isis a masterfulmasterful historiographicalhistoriographical reviewreview ofof thethe age;age; HornblowerHornblower cites,cites, inin nearlynearly 100100 footnotes,footnotes, anan equal numbernumber ofof modernmodern historians, andand three-dozenthree-dozen ancientancient writers.writers.
403 403 Hornblower,Hornblower, "Hellenistic"Hellenistic Reception"Reception" (1995),(1995), 63-64.63-64. HornblowerHornblower notesnotes thathatt PolybiusPolybius waswas notnot completely immuneimmune toto ththee requirementsrequirements ofof thethe age.age. InIn thethe Greek'sGreek's history,history, forfor example,example, PhilipPhilip V ofof MacedonMacedon isis pursuedpursued byby ththee FuriesFuries (Polyb.(Polyb. Hist. 23.10.2.)23.10.2.).. 114
Lysander,Lysander, maymay havehave beenbeen totooo muchmuch ooff aann embarrassmentembarrassment foforr HellenisticHellenistic sensibilities.404404 Moreover,Moreover, ththee HellenisticHellenistic AgAgee was a timtimee ooff kingskings andand ooff historieshistories writtenwritten abouaboutt kingskings anandd kingdoms.kingdoms. ThereThere mustmust havehave beenbeen a certaincertain irrelevancyirrelevancy andand insignificanceinsignificance inin a wawarr betweenbetween twtwoo city-states.405405
ItIt isis appropriatappropriatee herehere toto examineexamine brieflybriefly ththee singlsinglee greatgreat HellenisticHellenistic historianhistorian.. PolybiusPolybius (c.(c. 200-c.200-c. 118118 Be)BC) livedlived inin thethe AchaeaAchaeann citcityy ooff MegalopolisMegalopolis untiluntil sometimsometimee afteafterr 168168 Be.BC. AAss a resultresult ooff ththee RomanRoman expansioexpansionn intointo GreeceGreece anandd victorievictoriess overover Perseus ooff MacedoniaMacedonia anandd ththee AchaeaAchaeann League,League, hehe waswas numberednumbered amongamong ththee hostageshostages takentaken ttoo Rome,Rome, livingliving in,in, anandd atat timetimess serving,serving, thethe growinggrowing empireempire untiluntil ththee enendd ofof hishis life.406406 PolybiusPolybius isis a pivotal figurfiguree inin anyany consideratioconsiderationn ooff ancientancient historiography,historiography, andand hehe embodiesembodies muchmuch ooff Thucydides'Thucydides' approach.approach. ThougThoughh inin PolybiusPolybius thertheree areare departures,departures, hehe sharedshared a numbernumber ofof parallelsparallels witwithh ThucydidesThucydides:: PolybiusPolybius hadhad hishis militarymilitary andand politicalpolitical careerscareers cucutt shortshort byby exile,exile,407407 hehe wrotwrotee contemporarycontemporary history,408history,408 hehe wrotwrotee toto instructinstruct inin ththee arartt ooff government,government, anandd hehe camcamee ttoo writinwritingg historyhistory asas anan extensionextension ofof hishis publicpublic lifelife..
Polybius'Polybius' History isis fivfivee timestimes thethe lengthlength ofof ThucydidesThucydides'' worworkk andand tooktook oveoverr fiftfiftyy yearsyears ttoo complete.409409 HisHis originaloriginal intentionintention wawass toto relaterelate ththee historyhistory ofof
404 404 Hornblower,Hornblower, "Hellenisti"Hellenisticc ReceptionReception ooff Thucydides"Thucydides" (1995),(1995), 61.61 .
405 405 Hornblower,Hornblower, "Hellenisti"Hellenisticc ReceptionReception ooff ThucydidesThucydides"" (1995)(1995),, 6666..
406 406 A briebrieff summarsummaryy ooff hihiss liflifee cacann bebe founfoundd inin F.F. WW.. WalbankWalbank,, A Historical Commentary on Polybius (Oxford:(Oxford: 1957),1957), 1-6.1-6.
407 407 F.F. WW.. WalbankWalbank,, Polybius (Berkeley:(Berkeley: 1972),41.1972), 41.
408 408 WalbankWalbank,, Polybius (1972),42.(1972), 42.
409 409 HisHis totatotall worworkk waswas toto consisconsistt ooff 4400 books,books, witwithh thethe lastlast bookbook comprisincomprisingg a chronologicalchronological indexindex (Polyb.(Polyb. 39.8.8).39.8.8). ThThee firsfirstt fivfivee booksbooks survivsurvivee inin fullfull.. SeSeee TimothyTimothy EE.. Duff,Duff, The Greek and Roman Historians (London:(London: 2003)2003),, 5757;; anandd WalbankWalbank,, Polybius (1972)(1972) 2525.. 115115
RomeRome frofromm ththee beginningbeginning ooff thethe SecondSecond PunicPunic WarWar,, inin 220220 BC,BC, ttoo ththee RomanRoman conquesconquestt ooff Macedonia,Macedonia, inin 168168 BC.41o410 LikeLike ThucydidesThucydides,, hehe prefacesprefaces thethe beginninbeginningg ooff hishis worworkk witwithh a briefbrief historicalhistorical background,background, offeringoffering aann accounaccountt ooff ththee relationsrelations betweenbetween RomeRome anandd Carthage,Carthage, includingincluding ththee FirstFirst PunicPunic WaWarr (264(264--
241241 Be),BC), andand a historyhistory ooff hishis owownn AchaeaAchaeann League.League. AfteAfterr completioncompletion ofof hishis originaloriginal objective,objective, hhee simplysimply notenotess thathatt hhee wilwilll continucontinuee hihiss workwork,, bringingbringing "the"the wholwholee narrativenarrative ooff eventeventss ttoo a conclusionconclusion,, narratingnarrating finallfinallyy thethe expeditioexpeditionn ooff
AntiochuAntiochuss EpiphanesEpiphanes againstagainst Egypt,Egypt, thethe wawarr witwithh Perseus,Perseus, anandd thethe abolitionabolition ooff ththee MacedonianMacedonian monarchy.,,411monarchy."411 ThisThis doedoess nonott indicateindicate a changechange inin hishis purpose,purpose, bubutt a ratherrather a declarationdeclaration thathatt hehe wilwilll carrcarryy hishis historyhistory ttoo RomanRoman annexatioannexationn ooff thethe
MacedonianMacedonian monarchymonarchy inin 146146 BCBC..
AcutelAcutelyy awarawaree ooff ththee prevailingprevailing frivoloufrivolouss writingwritingss ooff thethe ageage,, hehe hadhad sesett thethe purpospurposee ooff hishis worworkk inin ththee History'sHistory's openinopeningg lineslines::
ForFor whwhoo iiss ssoo worthlesworthlesss oror indolentindolent aass notnot ttoo wiswishh ttoo knowknow byby whawhatt meansmeans anandd underunder whawhatt systemsystem ofof polity ththee RomansRomans inin lessless thathann fifty-threfifty-threee yearsyears havhavee succeedesucceededd inin subjectinsubjectingg nearlynearly ththee wholwholee inhabitedinhabited worlworldd ttoo theirtheir solsolee governmengovernmentt - a thinthingg uniqueunique iinn historyhistory?? OrOr whwhoo againagain isis thertheree soso passionatelpassionatelyy devotedevotedd ttoo otherother spectaclespectacless oorr studiestudiess aass toto regardregard anythinganything aass ofof greategreaterr momenmomentt thathatt ththee acquisitionacquisition ofof thithiss knowledge?knowledge? Polyb.Polyb. 1.1.51.1.5-- 66..
ThiThiss basic purpospurposee remainedremained unchangedunchanged throughoutthroughout ththee entireentire workwork.. TheThe worldworld thathatt RomeRome inhabitedinhabited wawass universal,universal, and,and, becausebecause ooff this,this, PolybiusPolybius setset ououtt ttoo writewrite a universaluniversal history,history, coordinatingcoordinating eventsevents ofof RomeRome withwith thosethose ofof Carthage,Carthage, thethe
399 Bury,Bury, Greek Historians (1909),(1909), 192192..
4111 Polyb.Polyb. 3.3.7-8.3.3.7-8. 116116
Greeks,Greeks, anandd thethe HellenisticHellenistic monarchies.monarchies. 412 AAss ThucydideThucydidess hahadd donedone,, hhee pointspoints toto ththee uniquenessuniqueness ooff ththee moment.moment. HeHe goegoess oonn ttoo statstatee thathatt hishis worworkk isis distincdistinctt iinn showinshowingg howhow
FortuneFortune hashas guideguidedd almosalmostt alalll ththee affairaffairss ofof ththee worlworldd inin ononee directiondirection anandd hashas forceforcedd thethemm ttoo inclineincline towardstowards oneone anandd ththee samsamee endend;; a historianhistorian shoulshouldd likewislikewisee bringbring beforebefore hishis readersreaders undeunderr ononee synopticasynopticall vievieww thethe operationoperationss byby whicwhichh shshee hashas accomplishedaccomplished heherr generagenerall purpose.purpose. PolybPolyb.. 1.4.1-2.1.4.1-2.
PolybiusPolybius arguablarguablyy makesmakes moremore ooff aann efforeffortt ttoo explaiexplainn hihiss purposepurposess thanthan ananyy otherother ancienancientt historianhistorian..
HisHis statementstatement ooff methodmethod isis nono lessless complete;complete; BookBook 12,12, foforr exampleexample,, iiss almostalmost entirelyentirely devoteddevoted toto methodmethod..
ThThee meremere statemenstatementt ooff a facfactt maymay excitexcitee ouourr interest,interest, butbut isis ooff nono benefibenefitt toto us.us. ButBut whewhenn wwee addadd thethe causcausee ooff it,it, ththee studystudy ooff historhistoryy becomesbecomes fruitfulfruitful.. ForFor byby transferrintransferringg similarsimilar eventsevents ttoo ouourr owownn timetimess wwee gaigainn ththee meansmeans ooff forminformingg presentimentspresentiments aboutabout whawhatt iiss goingoingg ttoo happen.happen. ThiThiss allowallowss us,us, onon ththee basisbasis ooff previoupreviouss eventsevents - sometimesometimess byby takintakingg precautionsprecautions ssoo thatthat thetheyy wilwilll notnot bebe repeatedrepeated anandd sometimesometimess byby imitatingimitating whawhatt wawass donedone thenthen - toto faceface withwith moremore confidenceconfidence thethe difficultiesdifficulties thatthat confrontconfront us.us. Polyb.Polyb. 12.25.2-3.12.25.2-3.
413 ThiThiss statemenstatementt hahass twtwoo parallelsparallels inin Thucydides. 413 TheThe firsfirstt iiss ThucydidesThucydides'' desiredesire thatthat hishis worworkk "b"bee judgejudgedd usefuluseful byby thosthosee inquirersinquirers whwhoo desirdesiree anan exacexactt knowledgeknowledge ooff ththee pastpast aass anan aiaidd ttoo understandingunderstanding ooff ththee future."future ...414 414 Secondly,Secondly, PolybiusPolybius
412 412 Duff,Duff, Historians (2003)(2003),, 5757..
413 413 Duff,Duff, Historians (2003)(2003),, 59-6059-60..
414 414 Thuc.Thuc. 1.22.4.1.22.4. ThiThiss connectioconnectionn seemseemss ttoo bebe mademade iinn ththee facfacee ooff overwhelminoverwhelmingg contrarycontrary interpretations:interpretations: F.F. WW.. WalbankWalbank,, A Historical Commentary on Polybius (Oxford:(Oxford: 1967),1967), 1.3861.386,, agreesagrees witwithh Gomme,Gomme, Commentary (1959),^959), 1.149-50,1.149-50, thathatt (pe(perr Walbank)Walbank),, "Thucydide"Thucydidess isis referringreferring toto eventeventss inin hishis futurefuture,, notnot thethe reader's,reader's, andand nowhernowheree claimsclaims thathatt hishis historyhistory isis ttoo actact aass a practicalpractical statesman'sstatesman's vade-mecum.vade-mecum."" I agreagreee thatthat ThucydidesThucydides dididd notnot writwritee ththee historyhistory asas a "carry-around"carry-around"" guidebookguidebook foforr futurfuturee politicians,politicians, butbut hishis worworkk narratesnarrates obviousobvious lessonslessons foforr ththee politicapoliticall scientistscientist andand politicalpolitical historianhistorian ttoo consider.consider. 117117 emphasizesemphasizes ththee importanceimportance ooff determinindeterminingg ththee causecausess ofof eventsevents.. Furthermore,Furthermore, hehe makesmakes ththee distinctiondistinction,, aass doedoess ThucydidesThucydides,, betweenbetween actualactual causecausess andand thethe supposesupposedd pretextspretexts oorr excuseexcusess mademade byby warrinwarringg parties. 415415 F.F. WW.. WalbanWalbankk statesstates justlyjustly,, "Polybius"Polybius standstandss foforr a returnreturn ttoo ththee aimaimss andand methodsmethods ofof Thucydides."416416
ProbablyProbably nowhernowheree moremore does PolybiusPolybius betterbetter illustrateillustrate hishis rejectionrejection ooff thethe sensationalismsensationalism ofof ththee HellenisticHellenistic historiographyhistoriography thathann inin hishis explanatioexplanationn ooff ththee typetype ooff historhistoryy hehe isis writingwriting,, pragmatike istoriaistoria.4U417 SimplSimplyy put,put, itit cancan bebe definedefinedd asas
"contemporary"contemporary politicalpolitical andand militarymilitary history."history."418418 PolybiusPolybius identifiesidentifies threthreee areaareass ooff ththee historian'historian'ss labor:labor:
ThThee firsfirstt beinbeingg ththee industriousindustrious studstudyy ofof memoirsmemoirs andand otheotherr documentsdocuments andand a comparisoncomparison ofof theirtheir contents,contents, thethe secondsecond thethe surveysurvey ofof cities,cities, places,places, rivers,rivers, lakeslakes,, anandd inin generagenerall all ththee peculiarpeculiar featurefeaturess ofof landland anandd seasea andand ththee distancesdistances ooff ononee placeplace frofromm another,another, anandd thethe thirthirdd beingbeing thethe reviewreview ofof politicalpolitical eventsevents.. Polyb.Polyb. 12.25.1.12.25.1.
A fefeww lineslines beforebefore,, hehe remarksremarks oonn ththee necessitynecessity ooff eyewitneseyewitnesss anandd ththee guidelinesguidelines foforr usingusing themthem::
ForFor sincsincee manmanyy eventeventss occuoccurr atat ththee samsamee timtimee inin differentdifferent places,places, andand oneone manman cannotcannot bbee inin severalseveral placeplacess at ononee time,time, nornor isis iitt possiblepossible foforr a singlesingle manman ttoo havehave seeseenn witwithh hihiss owownn eyeeyess everyevery placeplace inin thethe worlworldd anandd alalll thethe peculiarpeculiar featurefeaturess ofof differendifferentt placesplaces,, ththee onlonlyy thinthingg leftleft foforr anan historianhistorian isis toto inquirinquiree frofromm aass manymany peoplepeople aass possiblepossible,, ttoo believebelieve thosthosee worthworthyy ofof beliefbelief andand ttoo bebe aann adequatadequatee criticriticc ooff ththee reportreportss thathatt reacreachh him.him. PolybPolyb.. 12.4.312.4.3..
415 415 ThucThuc.. 1.23.5-6;1.23.5-6; Polyb.Polyb. 22.18.622.18.6.. DonaldDonald WalterWalter BaronowskiBaronowski,, "Polybius"Polybius oonn thethe CausesCauses ofof thethe ThirThirdd PunicPunic War,War,"" CP,CP, VolVol.. 9090,, No.1No.1 (Jan.,(Jan., 1995),1995), 16-17;16-17; WalbankWalbank,, Commentary (1979),3.208.(1979), 3.208. Duff,Duff, Historians (2003),(2003), 5959,, saysayss thathatt ththee Polybius'Polybius' useuse ooff ththee termtermss "beginnings""beginnings" (arche), "actual"actual 'causes'"'causes'" (aitia), andand "pretexts"pretexts"" (prophasfs)(prophasfs),, anandd hihiss explanatioexplanationn ooff thethemm "i"iss reminiscentreminiscent ofof ThucydidesThucydides,, probablyprobably deliberately."deliberately."
416 416 WalbankWalbank,, Polybius (1972),40.(1972), 40.
414177 Polyb.Polyb. 9.14-5,9.14-5, 2.42.4..
418 418 WalbankWalbank,, Polybius (1972)(1972),, 5656.. 118118
AlAlll ooff ththee foregoinforegoingg discussiodiscussionn ooff PolybiusPolybius arguablyarguably placeplacess himhim inin a positionposition ofof beingbeing a direcdirectt heirheir anandd continuatocontinuatorr ofof ththee ThucydideaThucydideann method.method. AdditionaAdditionall sharedshared elementelementss araree theirtheir chronologicalchronological formatformat,, theirtheir useuse ofof speechesspeeches,, theitheirr attitudeattitude abouaboutt thethe distantdistant pastpast,, theitheirr commitmencommitmentt ttoo truthtruth,, theitheirr attitudesattitudes regardingregarding thethe relativerelative unimportanceunimportance ooff style,style, and,and, foforr ththee mosmostt part,part, theitheirr useuse ooff thethe thirdthird personperson voicevoice inin narrationsnarrations ooff theitheirr owownn activitieactivitiess inin theitheirr histories.419419 TheThe adoptionadoption ooff thesthesee principlesprinciples hashas beenbeen considereconsideredd "a"ass markinmarkingg ththee triumptriumphh ooff thethe
420 ThucydideanThucydidean school aatt Rome." 420
ThThee RomanRoman laclackk ooff solisolidd foundatiofoundationn storiestoriess wawass duduee inin largelarge parpartt ttoo thethe comparativelycomparatively latelate arrivaarrivall ooff epiepicc poetrpoetryy inin RomanRoman cultureculture.. WherWheree HerodotusHerodotus hadhad ththee workworkss ooff HomerHomer andand HesiodHesiod uponupon whicwhichh ttoo buildbuild,, ththee firsfirstt RomanRoman historianshistorians
hadhad nnoo LatinLatin counterpartscounterparts.. ThThee RomanRoman historicahistoricall genregenre,, therefore,therefore, developeddeveloped inin a
substantiallsubstantiallyy differendifferentt mannemannerr thanthan dididd ththee Greek.Greek.
TheThe greagreatt LatinLatin historians,historians, SallustSallust,, Livy,Livy, anandd TacitusTacitus,, all borrowedborrowed ttoo a
greategreaterr oror lesselesserr extentextent frofromm theitheirr GreeGreekk counterparts.counterparts. OnOn ththee wholewhole,, HellenisticHellenistic
414199 Chronology:Chronology: PolybiuPolybiuss adopteadoptedd ththee "Olympiad"Olympiad yearsyears"" toto framframee hishis chronology,chronology, Walbank,Walbank, Polybius (1957),(1957), 1.35;1.35; Speeches:Speeches: considereconsideredd aann integraintegrall partpart ooff ththee narrative,narrative, Polyb.Polyb. 12.25b.112.25b.1 anandd 14.114.1a.3 a.3;; DistantDistant PastPast:: considereconsideredd notnot onlyonly obscureobscure,, bubutt inconsequential,inconsequential, WalbankWalbank,, PolybiusPo/ybius (1972)(1972),42;, 42; TruthTruth:: "For"For jusjustt asas a livinlivingg creaturecreature whicwhichh hashas loslostt ititss eyesigheyesightt isis whollwhollyy incapacitatedincapacitated,, ssoo ifif HistoryHistory isis strippedstripped ofof herher truttruthh allall thathatt isis lefleftt iiss butbut anan idlidlee tale.tale."" Polyb.Polyb. 1.14.61.14.6 anandd 3.20.5;3.20.5; StyleStyle:: "We"We shoulshouldd indeedindeed bestowbestow carcaree anandd concerconcernn oonn ththee properproper mannemannerr ofof reportingreporting events..events .... ButBut wewe shouldshould notnot regardregard thisthis asas thethe firstfirst andand leadingleading objectobject toto bebe aimedaimed atat byby sobersober- mindedminded men.men."" Polyb.Polyb. 16.17.10;16.17.10; ThirdThird PersonPerson VoiceVoice:: InIn referringreferring ttoo himself,himself, PolybiusPolybius usedused ththee thirdthird persopersonn whewhenn hhee wawass aann actoactorr inin hishis history,history, andand ththee firsfirstt person whewhenn hehe wrotwrotee asas a historianhistorian.. FromFrom 36.11-12,36.11-12, however,however, hehe makesmakes nono distinctiodistinctionn whethewhetherr aass anan actoractor oror a writer,writer, aatt whicwhichh pointpoint hhee saysayss thathatt becausebecause ooff hihiss increaseincreasedd involvementinvolvement inin ththee eventsevents,, hehe wishewishess ttoo avoiavoidd "frequent"frequent repetitiorepetitionn ooff mmyy name."name." Marincola,Marincola, Ancient Historiography (1997)(1997),, 192,192, observesobserves thatthat becausebecause ofof thithiss change,change, ththee worworkk lostlost ththee "perspective"perspective ofof history"history" anandd becamebecame ttoo looklook "suspiciously"suspiciously likelike memoirs.memoirs."" SeSeee also,also, F.F. WW.. WalbankWalbank,, Polybius, Rome and the Hellenistic World (Cambridg(Cambridgee andand NewNew YorkYork:: 2002),2002), 12-1312-13..
424200 WalbankWalbank,, Polybius (1972)(1972),42,, 42, refersrefers herheree ttoo aann assessmenassessmentt mademade byby ArnoldArnoldoo Momigliano,Momigliano, Terzo Contributo Alia Storia OegliDegli Studi Classici e del Mondo Antico (Rome:(Rome: 1966),1966), 1.18.1.18. 119119 historiographyhistoriography dididd notnot makemake inroadsinroads intointo ththee RomanRoman genregenre,, andand certainlycertainly notnot withwith
SallustSallust.. HisHis attachmentattachment toto thethe stylstylee (especially(especially inin ththee treatmentreatmentt ooff ththee speechesspeeches iinn thethe Bellum Catilinae) anandd methodmethod ofof ThucydideThucydidess justljustlyy recallrecall a studentstudent beforebefore hishis master.master. ButBut hishis handlinghandling ofof causationcausation sufferedsuffered duedue ttoo hishis obsessionobsession witwithh selfself-- justificationjustification.. WhileWhile LivyLivy chartedcharted hishis effortsefforts witwithh Herodotus inin mind,mind, hehe tootoo constructeconstructedd hishis historyhistory underunder thethe influence ooff ThucydidesThucydides andand hishis ThucydideanThucydidean achievemenachievementt inin ththee juxtapositionjuxtapositionss anandd parallelparallelss ooff thethe FabiusFabius anandd NiciasNicias speeches,speeches, forfor exampleexample,, isis noteworthy.noteworthy. HisHis aversionaversion toto contemporarycontemporary eventsevents,, onon thethe otherother hand,hand, isis unfortunate.unfortunate. TheThe worworkk ofof TacituTacituss isis a twisttwist oonn ththee useuse ofof historyhistory thathatt was apparenapparentt inin ThucydidesThucydides,, Sallust,Sallust, anandd Polybius.Polybius. HeHe hopeshopes thathatt thethe historicalhistorical exerciseexercise wilwilll bebe sufficientsufficient toto coercecoerce self-interesteself-interestedd rulersrulers toto rulerule wellwell,, outout ofof concernconcern forfor futurfuturee judgmentjudgment.. AAss SymeSyme assertsasserts,, ththee verdicverdictt ooff DionysiusDionysius ofof
HalicarnassusHalicarnassus onon ThucydideThucydidess befitsbefits TacituTacituss alsoalso::
TacituTacituss tooktook possessionpossession ofof ththee LatinLatin language,language, bentbent itit ttoo hishis willwill,, andand pushedpushed ttoo thethe utterutter limitlimitss allall thathatt itit knewknew oorr promisedpromised ooff energyenergy,, gravity,gravity, andand magnificence.magnificence. IfIf ththee qualitiequalitiess ofof TacituTacituss needneed commendatiocommendationn fromfrom antiquity,antiquity, itit maymay bebe discovereddiscovered inin a GreekGreek writer'writer'ss verdicverdictt uponupon Thucydides.421421
ThThee principalprincipal domestidomesticc influencesinfluences onon thesethese threthreee RomanRoman historianshistorians werweree FabiusFabius
PictorPictor anandd CatCatoo thethe Elder,Elder, nationalisticnationalistic anandd moralizingmoralizing inin theitheirr storiesstories.. ThThee effecteffect ooff bothboth ofof thesthesee menmen isis evidenevidentt inin allall threthreee ooff ththee historians.historians. AAss indicateindicatedd aboveabove,, thethe didactididacticc messagesmessages ofof ththee laterlater historianshistorians likelylikely compensatecompensatedd forfor Rome'sRome's scarcitscarcityy ooff moralmoral philosophers.philosophers. ItIt isis thithiss ideaidea ofof philosophyphilosophy inin ththee ancientancient historiographyhistoriography ooff Rome andand GreeceGreece thathatt needsneeds ttoo bebe addressedaddressed now.now.
WritinWritingg nearlynearly a century afterafter ThucydidesThucydides,, AristotleAristotle famouslfamouslyy consideredconsidered
424211 Syme,Syme, Tacitus (1958),(1958), 1.358;1.358; Dion.Dion. Hal.Hal. Thuc. 2424.. 120120 thethe differencedifferencess betweenbetween poetrypoetry andand history:history:
PoetryPoetry isis bothboth moremore philosophicalphilosophical andand moremore seriousserious thanthan history,history, sincesince poetrypoetry speaksspeaks moremore ofof universals,universals, historyhistory ofof particulars.particulars. A "universal"universal"" comprisescomprises thethe kindkind ofof speechspeech oror actionaction whicwhichh belongsbelongs byby probabilityprobability oror necessitynecessity toto a certaincertain kindkind ofof charactercharacter - somethinsomethingg whicwhichh poetrypoetry aimsaims atat despitedespite itsits additionaddition ofof particularparticular names.names. A "particular,""particular," byby contrast,contrast, isis (for(for example)example) whatwhat AlcibiadeAlcibiadess diddid oror diddid notnot experience.experience. AristArist.. Poet. 9.9.
ThThee "universals""universals" thatthat AristotlAristotlee speaksspeaks ofof herehere areare thosethose broadbroad categoriescategories andand conceptsconcepts thatthat individualsindividuals useuse toto comprehencomprehendd andand explainexplain ththee worlworldd inin whicwhichh theythey live. 422422 ItIt is,is, AristotlAristotlee insists,insists, thethe embodimentembodiment ofof thesethese universalsuniversals ttoo whicwhichh poetry,poetry, likelike philosophy,philosophy, aims.aims. History,History, hehe says,says, doesdoes not.not. ThisThis statementstatement hashas understandablyunderstandably raisedraised ththee ireire ofof modernmodern historianshistorians whowho havehave donedone theirtheir bestbest toto dismissdismiss it. 423423 G.G. E.E. M.M. dede Ste.Ste. CroixCroix declaresdeclares thatthat "this"this passagepassage isis perfectlyperfectly
424 explicitexplicit anandd unqualified,unqualified, andand itit isis wrongwrong ttoo seekseek ttoo explainexplain itit away." 424 However,However, eveneven ttoo ththee ancients,ancients, thertheree werweree differencesdifferences inin historicalhistorical qualityquality between,between, say,say, earlyearly RomanRoman oror GreekGreek annalsannals andand Polybius,Polybius, oror historyhistory writtewrittenn inin HellenisticHellenistic doggereldoggerel andand thethe writinwritingg ofof Tacitus.Tacitus.
A goodgood historyhistory wilwilll notnot simplysimply bebe a statementstatement ofof facts,facts, thathatt is,is, whowho servedserved whewhenn andand where,where, oror whwhoo wonwon a specificspecific wawarr oror battle.battle. ItIt isis notnot even,even, asas AristotleAristotle contends,contends, thethe actionsactions oror sufferingssufferings ofof aann individual.individual. AAss interestinginteresting asas thethe factsfacts mightmight be,be, theythey areare nono moremore interestinginteresting thanthan thethe questionsquestions askedasked aboutabout themthem.. TheThe hallmarkhallmark ofof a goodgood historianhistorian isis that,that, inin considerationconsideration ofof particulars,particulars, hehe wilwilll alsoalso
422 422 StepheStephenn Halliwell,Halliwell, The Poetics of Aristotle: Translation and Commentary (Chapel(Chapel Hill:Hill: 1987),1987), 106.106.
423 423 ByBy introducing,introducing, forfor example,example, a laterlater statementstatement wherwheree AristotleAristotle refersrefers toto "our"our usualusual historians"historians" (Poetics(Poetics 23),23), asas ifif ttoo argueargue thatthat AristotlAristotlee makesmakes a distinctiondistinction betweenbetween goodgood andand badbad historians.historians.
424 424 G.G. E.E. M.M. dede Ste.Ste. Croix,Croix, "Aristotle"Aristotle onon HistoryHistory andand Poetry,"Poetry," Essays on Aristotle's Poetics, eded.. AmelieAmelie OksenbergOksenberg RortyRorty (Princeton:(Princeton: 1992),23.1992), 23. 121121 expressexpress exactlyexactly thosethose universalsuniversals thatthat AristotlAristotlee deemsdeems thethe solesole provinceprovince ofof poetry.poetry.
TheThe LatinLatin historianshistorians certainlycertainly dealtdealt witwithh universalsuniversals inin questioningquestioning thethe moralsmorals andand ethicethicss ooff theirtheir timetime.. TheTheyy werewere concernedconcerned withwith ththee healthhealth ofof ththee state,state, andand theythey wrotwrotee theitheirr historieshistories asas explanationsexplanations ofof whawhatt wawass alreadyalready apparentapparent toto themthem..
ButBut whilwhilee thetheyy mimicmimic ththee stylestyle andand wordwordss ofof Thucydides,Thucydides, theirtheir historieshistories lacklack hishis substance.substance. AlaAlann WardmanWardman putsputs itit thisthis way:way:
ThThee parallelsparallels betweenbetween HerodotusHerodotus andand Livy,Livy, andand ThucydidesThucydides andand Sallust,Sallust, werweree mostlymostly basedbased oonn criteriacriteria ofof stylestyle;; RomansRomans diddid notnot seesee thatthat HerodotusHerodotus andand ThucydideThucydidess werweree greatgreat historianshistorians becausebecause theythey triedtried toto understandunderstand ththee causescauses thatthat laylay behindbehind events.425425
TheThe reasonreason foforr thisthis isis simplesimple andand atat thethe samesame timetime nearlynearly fatal:fatal: Sallust,Sallust, Livy,Livy, andand
TacitusTacitus eacheach hadhad anan agenda;agenda; theythey all embracedembraced a biasbias thathatt dictateddictated thethe tenortenor ofof theirtheir histories.histories. TheirTheir worksworks areare apparentapparent productsproducts ofof genius,genius, butbut theitheirr historieshistories dodo
notnot internalizeinternalize thethe philosophicalphilosophical questionsquestions intointo whicwhichh ThucydidesThucydides inquired.inquired. ForFor
ThucydidesThucydides andand Polybius,Polybius, a GreekGreek writingwriting inin a RomanRoman world,world, historyhistory wawass a
laboratory.laboratory. ThucydideThucydidess was genuinelygenuinely puzzled,puzzled, andand hehe examinedexamined thethe experienceexperience
ofof ththee warwar forfor answers.answers. HeHe observedobserved andand inspectedinspected whatwhat hadhad happenedhappened andand
askedasked legitimatelegitimate questions,questions, andand hehe givesgives nono hintshints thathatt hehe knewknew thethe answersanswers toto thesethese questionsquestions beforebefore hishis inquiry.inquiry. HisHis conclusionsconclusions werewere asas universaluniversal asas anythinganything
AristotleAristotle mightmight havehave comecome upup withwith.. AAnn unforgettableunforgettable exampleexample isis hishis descriptiondescription ofof
warwar asas a "violent"violent teacher.,,426teacher."426 ThereThere isis nothingnothing inin thethe laterlater historians,historians, perhapsperhaps
exceptinexceptingg Polybius,Polybius, asas penetratingpenetrating asas thithiss originaloriginal thought.thought.
ComingComing latelate toto thethe craftcraft ofof historicalhistorical writingwriting,, thethe LatinsLatins heldheld thethe GreeksGreeks inin
42425Wardman,5 Wardman, Rome's Debt (1976),(1976), 7474..
426426 ThucThuc.. 3.82.2.3.82.2. 122122 highhigh regard.regard. However,However, ththee Greeks'Greeks' highhigh standinstandingg wawass basedbased moremore onon criteriacriteria ofof rhetoricrhetoric anandd stylstylee thanthan onon historicalhistorical understanding;understanding; RomanRoman judgmentjudgmentss werweree rarelyrarely concernedconcerned withwith ththee qualityquality ofof GreeGreekk historicalhistorical insight.427427 ThucydideThucydidess invigoratedinvigorated ththee neneww genrgenree ofof historyhistory witwithh hishis inquiryinquiry intointo contemporarycontemporary events.events. Aristotle'sAristotle's portraitportrait ooff ththee universaluniversal wawass thathatt whicwhichh "comprises"comprises ththee kindkind ofof speechspeech oror actionaction whicwhichh belongsbelongs bbyy probabilityprobability oorr necessitynecessity ttoo a certaicertainn kindkind ofof character.,,428character."428
PortrayingPortraying thithiss universauniversall isis somethinsomethingg ThucydideThucydidess accomplisheaccomplishedd inin hishis historyhistory farfar moremore effectiveleffectivelyy thathatt anyany ooff ththee historianshistorians ooff antiquityantiquity.. HeHe alsoalso accomplishedaccomplished thisthis byby doindoingg moremore thathann simplsimplyy relatingrelating ththee wordwordss andand actionsactions ooff thethe particular.particular.
WithWith a nonodd ttoo Aristotle'Aristotle'ss distinctiondistinction betweebetweenn philosophyphilosophy anandd history,history, iitt seemseemss appropriatappropriatee ttoo closclosee thithiss thesithesiss witwithh ththee wordwordss ooff anotheanotherr philosopher.philosopher. InIn a faifairr anandd lastinlastingg assessmentassessment,, DavidDavid HumeHume declareddeclared,, "Th"Thee firsfirstt pagepage ofof ThucydidesThucydides is,is, inin mymy opinion,opinion, ththee commencementcommencement ooff reareall history.,,429history."429
427Wardman,Wardman, Rome's DeW(1976)Debt (1976),, 81,81, 101.101 .
424288 AristArist.. Poet. 99..
429 429 DaviDavidd Hume,Hume, Essays: Moral, Political, and Literary, editeeditedd byby EugeneEugene FF.. MillerMiller (Indianapolis:(Indianapolis: 1985),422.1985), 422. EPILOGUEEPILOGUE
ONON THETHE DEATHDEATH OFOF THUCYDIDESTHUCYDIDES430
Thucydides'Thucydides' historyhistory ofof thethe PeloponnesianPeloponnesian WarWar abruptlyabruptly terminateterminatess inin midmid-- sentencesentence ofof whawhatt wwee callcall BookBook 8,8, withwith stillstill sevenseven yearsyears leftleft inin thethe eventevent hehe iiss narrating.narrating. OneOne historianhistorian ofof ancientancient GreeceGreece hashas stated,stated, "The"The so-calledso-called 'evidence''evidence' fromfrom antiquityantiquity onon Thucydides'Thucydides' deathdeath isis worthlesworthlesss andand speculationspeculation isis futile.'.431futile."431
ThisThis commentcomment mustmust havehave beenbeen offeredoffered witwithh a greatgreat sensesense ofof irony,irony, perhapsperhaps unintended,unintended, givengiven thatthat thethe remarkremark isis anan earlyearly footnotefootnote toto a chapterchapter entitledentitled
"Book"Bookss 'IX'IX' anandd 'X':'X': Thucydides'Thucydides' Plan."Plan." TheThe comment,comment, however,however, suggestssuggests thethe greagreatt compositioncomposition questionquestion aboutabout whewhenn ThucydideThucydidess composedcomposed thethe differentdifferent partsparts ofof hishis history;history; die Thukydideische Frage dominateddominated ThucydideaThucydideann scholarshipscholarship frofromm thethe middlemiddle ofof ththee nineteenthnineteenth centurycentury toto thethe middlemiddle ofof thethe twentiethtwentieth century.432century.432 InIn thethe finafinall assessment,assessment, examinationexamination ofof thethe evidenceevidence ofof thethe timetime andand circumstancescircumstances ofof hishis deathdeath maymay bebe futilefutile butbut itit isis notnot excludedexcluded asas a properproper subjectsubject ofof investigationinvestigation..
ThoughThough ThucydidesThucydides famouslfamouslyy remarksremarks inin hishis openingopening lineslines thatthat hehe startedstarted
430 PortionsPortions ofof whichwhich werweree givengiven atat ththee SouthwesternSouthwestern SocialSocial ScienceScience ConferenceConference inin Albuquerque,Albuquerque, NewNew Mexico,Mexico, MarchMarch 16,2007.16, 2007. "On"On thethe DeathDeath ofof ThucydidesThucydides'' hashas beenbeen acceptedaccepted forfor publicationpublication inin Ancient World.
431 431 RawlingsRawlings III,III, Thucydides'Thucydides'History History (1981),(1981), 216216 fn.fn. 22..
432 432 N.G.L.N.G.L. Hammond,Hammond, 'The"The CompositionComposition ofof Thucydides'Thucydides' History,"History," CO,CQ, volvol.. 34,34, no.no. 3/43/4 (Jul.-Oct.)(Jul.-Oct.) 146.146. 124124 immediately onon hishis historyhistory ofof thethe PeloponnesianPeloponnesian WaWarr (431-404),433(431-404),433 itit mustmust followfollow thathatt a goodgood measuremeasure ofof hishis effortsefforts tooktook placeplace betweenbetween twotwo significantsignificant events:events: hishis exileexile fromfrom AthenAthenss inin 424424 andand hishis death.death. TheThe formeformerr eventevent initiatedinitiated thethe timetime availablavailablee overover ththee twentytwenty yearsyears leftleft inin thethe warwar toto visitvisit itsits mainmain centerscenters andand toto
interview,interview, ifif notnot thethe principalprincipal characterscharacters inin ththee struggle,struggle, thenthen thosethose personspersons whowho
hadhad first-hanfirst-handd knowledge.knowledge. ThThee latterlatter event,event, toto thethe lossloss ofof futurefuture readersreaders andand
historians,historians, was surelysurely thethe causecause ofof thethe abruptabrupt terminationtermination ofof thethe workwork.. TheThe
uncertaintiesuncertainties surroundingsurrounding thethe timtimee andand thethe circumstancescircumstances ofof hishis deathdeath ledled toto
problematicproblematic conclusionsconclusions byby bothboth modernmodern andand ancientancient historians.434434 ThucydidesThucydides iiss explicitexplicit throughoutthroughout thethe workwork thatthat hehe witnessedwitnessed thethe finafinall defeatdefeat ofof AthensAthens,, andand thertheree isis somesome confidenceconfidence thatthat hishis forcedforced exileexile frofromm AthensAthens endedended inin 404.435435 ItIt isis
onlyonly ttoo thithiss yearyear,, 404404,, thatthat thertheree isis a suresure recordrecord ofof hishis life.life. WhileWhile speculationspeculation maymay
bebe futilefutile,, itit is,is, itit seems,seems, worthworth atat leastleast another reviewreview ofof thethe ancientancient evidencesevidences
anandd thethe attendantattendant questions,questions, complications,complications, andand implications.implications.
SomSomee ofof ththee evidenceevidence thatthat wwee havehave atat ourour disposaldisposal isis internal:internal: ThucydidesThucydides
himselfhimself givesgives usus hintshints asas ttoo whewhenn partsparts ofof hishis historyhistory werweree written.written. OtherOther
evidencevidencee isis external.external. I woulwouldd likelike toto addressaddress firstfirst somesome externalexternal evidence.evidence.
OneOne ofof hishis greatgreat modernmodern commentatorscommentators hadhad thisthis ttoo say:say:
ThThee storystory thathatt ThucydidesThucydides dieddied byby assassinationassassination eithereither inin AthensAthens oror inin
433 433 AllAll datedatess areare BC,BC, unlessunless otherwisotherwisee notednoted..
434 434 ThanksThanks areare duedue ttoo PeterPeter GreenGreen forfor noting,noting, inin a personalpersonal e-mail,e-mail, onlyonly twotwo remarkableremarkable scenarios:scenarios: AdcockAdcock pOSitsposits thatthat ThucydidesThucydides dieddied inin a shipwrecshipwreckk whilewhile deliveringdelivering ththee finalfinal twotwo chapterschapters toto hishis publisherpublisher andand MunnMunn surmisedsurmised thatthat Thucydides,Thucydides, intointo thethe 390s,390s, wrotwrotee policypolicy paperspapers forfor ththee AthenianAthenian government.government. SeeSee Adcock,Adcock, Thucydides (1963),(1963), 103;103; MarkMark Munn,Munn, The School of History: Athens in the Age of Socrates (Berkeley:(Berkeley: 2000)2000),, 323323..
435 435 Thuc.Thuc. 5.26.2-3;5.26.2-3; G.G. Busolt,Busolt, "Aufhebung"Aufhebung derVerbannung,"der Verbannung," Hermes 3333 (1898),336-337.(1898), 336-337. 125125
ThraceThrace hashas ververyy littlelittle authority;authority; butbut itit certainlcertainlyy suitsuitss ththee enendd ofof hishis worworkk -- hehe dieddied,, seemingly,seemingly, penpen inin hand.hand. TheThe threthreee fourth-centurfourth-centuryy historianshistorians hadhad 436 ttoo pickpick upup ththee penpen andand dodo whawhatt hehe hadhad beenbeen preventedprevented frofromm doing...doing ... 436
TToo ththee threethree historianshistorians ttoo whowhomm GommeGomme refers,refers, XenophonXenophon,, Cratippus,Cratippus, andand
TheopompusTheopompus,, wwee maymay adaddd thethe anonymousanonymous writewriterr ofof ththee HellenicaHellenics Oxyrhynchia.Oxyrhynchia.
AlAlll ooff thesethese writerswriters,, ththee "continuators""continuators" ofof Thucydides,Thucydides, beganbegan theitheirr historieshistories bbyy recordingrecording eventsevents frofromm 411411,, inin itselfitself evidencevidencee thatthat thethe publishedpublished historyhistory ofof
ThucydideThucydidess wawass incomplete.437437 ThThee momentmoment thathatt eaceachh undertookundertook hishis worworkk wouldwould,, ofof course,course, restrictrestrict ththee possiblepossible limitslimits ofof ththee terminus ante quernquem ofof Thucydides'Thucydides' activeactive composition,composition, whicwhichh wwee havehave ttoo assumassumee wawass untiluntil hishis death.death. OOff ththee four,four, onlyonly XenophoXenophonn andand CratippusCratippus andand perhapsperhaps ththee historianhistorian frofromm OxyrhynchuOxyrhynchuss werewere contemporariescontemporaries ooff Thucydidies.438438 ItIt hashas beenbeen concluded,concluded, rightlyrightly soso,, thathatt thethe
Hellenica Oxyrhynchia historianhistorian coulcouldd notnot havhavee startedstarted hishis worworkk priorprior ttoo 386386 thoughthough argumentsarguments havehave pushedpushed eveevenn thathatt forwarforwardd toto 356. 439439 ThatThat leavesleaves
CratippusCratippus anandd XenophonXenophon..
Cratippus,Cratippus, itit seemsseems,, wrotwrotee a littlelittle laterlater thathann ThucydideThucydidess anandd a littlelittle earlierearlier thathann XenophonXenophon.. Plutarch,Plutarch, inin chapterchapter oneone ooff hishis De gloria Atheniensium, mentionsmentions himhim betweenbetween ThucydidesThucydides anandd Xenophon.44o440 LackingLacking otherother convincinconvincingg contrarycontrary
436 436 AA.. WW.. Gomme,Gomme, More Essays in Greek History and Literature (Oxford:(Oxford: 1962),1962), 127127..
437 437 Marincola,Marincola, Ancient Historiography (1997)(1997),289., 289.
438 438 TheopompuTheopompuss ooff ChiosChios wawass notnot bornborn until 378378 anandd flourisheflourishedd aass a writewriterr inin ththee latlatee fourthfourth century.century.
439 439 McKechnieMcKechnie andand Kern,Kern, HeflenicaHellenica Oxyrhynchia (1988),85-87,(1988), 85-87, 154;154; F.F. JacobJacobyy anandd P.P. Maas,Maas, "The"The AuthorshiAuthorshipp ooff ththee HellenicaHeflenica of Oxyrhynchus," CQCQ,, volvol.. 4444,, no.no. 1/21/2 (Jan.-(Jan.-AprApr.. 1950),1950), 1;1; BruceBruce,, Commentary (1967)(1967) 44..
440 440 Plut.Plut. De glor.AthA;g/or. A th. 1; WilliaWilliamm K.K. Prentice,Prentice, "Thucydides"Thucydides anandd Cratippus,Cratippus,"" CPCP,, volvol.. 2222,, nono.. 4 (Oct,(Oct, 1927),407.1927), 407. 126126 support,support, thithiss isis likelylikely a safsafee observationobservation aass ttoo ththee chronologychronology ooff thethe threethree..
AdditionalAdditional effortsefforts ttoo narrownarrow ththee datedate ooff Cratippus'Cratippus' writinwritingg areare unfortunatelyunfortunately deficientdeficient.. ThiThiss leadsleads usus ttoo XenophonXenophon..
XenophoXenophonn unsatisfactorilyunsatisfactorily takestakes upup wherwheree ThucydideThucydidess leftleft off;off; hishis accountaccount ooff ththee lastlast yearyearss ooff ththee wawarr isis superficiasuperficiall comparedcompared ttoo ththee formeformerr work.work.441441 ItIt hashas beenbeen notednoted thatthat itit givesgives ththee impressionimpression thathatt XenophoXenophonn isis tryintryingg ttoo flesfleshh outout thethe eventsevents basedbased onon transientransientt memory.442memory.442 Indeed,Indeed, comparedcompared ttoo ththee restrest ooff thethe
Hellenica, whicwhichh relatesrelates eventeventss afteafterr ththee PeloponnesianPeloponnesian War,War, therethere isis anan obviousobvious breakbreak inin organization,organization, mannermanner anandd continuitycontinuity.. ThThee questioquestionn is,is, whewhenn diddid
XenophoXenophonn starstartt hishis Hellenica? InIn alalll probability,probability, XenophoXenophonn was bornborn betweenbetween 430430 andand 425.443443 ItIt isis likelylikely thathatt hhee serveservedd inin ththee cavalrycavalry underunder ththee oligarcholigarchyy ooff "The"The
Thirty"Thirty" inin 403;403;444444 hehe enlistedenlisted inin Cyrus'Cyrus' ill-fatedill-fated attemptattempt ttoo taktakee ththee PersianPersian thronethrone inin 401,401, returningreturning ttoo ththee mainlandmainland inin 399.399. EvidenceEvidence showshowss thatthat XenophoXenophonn waswas mostmost likelylikely exiledexiled frofromm AthenAthenss duringduring thethe upheavalsupheavals contemporaneoucontemporaneouss witwithh thethe trialstrials ofof AndocideAndocidess andand SocratesSocrates inin 399.445445 HeHe entereenteredd ththee serviceservice ooff thethe SpartanSpartan
KingKing AgeselauAgeselauss inin ththee outbreaoutbreakk ofof ththee wawarr betweenbetween SpartaSparta andand PersiaPersia inin 399.399. ItIt iiss logicallogical thathatt aatt thethe timetime ofof hishis retirementretirement ttoo hishis SpartaSpartann baronybarony ofof Scillus,Scillus, perhapsperhaps
441441 XenXen.. Hell. 1-2.2.1-2.2.
442 442 J.J. KK.. AndersonAnderson,, Xenophon (New(New YorkYork:: 1974),66.1974), 66.
443 443 XenophoXenophonn arguearguess thatthat hhee isis notnot totooo younyoungg ttoo replacereplace ProxenosProxenos,, whwhoo wawass "abou"aboutt thirtythirty"" whenwhen hehe dieddied;; XenXen.. An. 2.6.20,2.6.20, 3.1.14.3.1.14.
444 444 PeterPeter M.M. Green,Green, "Text"Text andand ContexContextt iinn thethe MatterMatter ooff Xenophon'Xenophon'ss Exile,"Exile," Ventures into Greek History, Essays in Honor of N.G.L.N. GL Hammond, ed.ed. IanIan WorthingtoWorthingtonn (Oxford:(Oxford: 1994),1994), 222222..
445 445 GreenGreen,, "Xenophon's"Xenophon's Exile"Exile" (1994),(1994), 226226.. 127127 inin 393,393, hehe thenthen hadhad thethe timtimee toto write.446446 TheThe Hellenica, witwithh thethe Anabasis, isis a logicallogical bridgebridge toto thethe Spartan-PersianSpartan-Persian WarWar.. IfIf hishis writinwritingg commencedcommenced atat thethe timetime ofof hishis acquisitioacquisitionn ofof Scillus,Scillus, wwee mustmust looklook priorprior toto 393393 asas ththee terminus ante quemquern ofof
Thucydides'Thucydides' activactivee compositioncomposition..
ItIt isis at thisthis pointpoint thathatt internalinternal evidenceevidence inin ThucydideThucydidess cancan shedshed lightlight onon thethe extentextent ooff hishis activeactive composition.composition. ThroughoutThroughout hishis historyhistory ThucydideThucydidess takestakes pausepause toto commentcomment onon personalities.personalities. TheseThese commentscomments havehave beenbeen termetermedd eulogieseulogies forfor thethe expresexpresss reasonreason thathatt hehe refrainsrefrains frofromm commentcomment onon individualsindividuals whowho areare livingliving atat thethe timtimee ofof hishis writing;writing; thosethose onon whowhomm hehe does commentcomment numbernumber nearlynearly twotwo dozen.dozen.447447 MuchMuch hashas beenbeen writtenwritten aboutabout Thucydides'Thucydides' commentscomments onon Archelaus,Archelaus,
KingKing ofof Macedonia.Macedonia.
ArchelauArchelauss reignedreigned asas MacedonianMacedonian kingking frofromm 413413 toto 399.399. ThucydidesThucydides givesgives tributtributee ttoo himhim inin thethe yearyear 429429 ofof hishis narrative:narrative:
OfOf thesethese (i.e.,(i.e., "strong"strong placesplaces andand fortresses")fortresses") therethere was nono greatgreat number,number, mostmost ofof thesthesee nownow founfoundd inin thethe country havinghaving beenbeen erectederected subsequentlysubsequently byby Archelaus,Archelaus, sonson ofof Perdiccas,Perdiccas, onon hishis accession,accession, whwhoo alsoalso cutcut straightstraight roads,roads, andand otherwiseotherwise putput thethe kingdomkingdom onon a betterbetter footingfooting asas regardsregards horses,horses, heavyheavy infantry,infantry, andand otherother warwar materialmaterial thanthan hadhad beenbeen donedone byby all ththee eighteight kingskings thathatt precededpreceded him.him. ThucThuc.. 2.100.22.100.2
WhenWhen waswas thisthis writtenwritten?? WhaWhatt allowedallowed MacedoniaMacedonia ttoo prosperprosper was thethe weakeningweakening ooff thethe GreekGreek states,states, especiallyespecially thethe defeatdefeat ofof thethe AthenianAthenianss atat SyracuseSyracuse inin 413413,, ththee samesame yearyear asas ArchelausArchelaus'' accession.accession. ThessalThessalyy waswas tortornn withwith internalinternal strife;strife;
ChalcidiceChalcidice enteredentered a timetime ofof relativerelative calm,calm, witwithh AmphipolisAmphipolis securesecure asas anan
446 AndersonAnderson,, Xenophon (1974),(1974), 165165..
447 SAd·Seeee Appendixppen IX. . 128128 independentindependent statstatee ratherrather thathann a basebase foforr AtheniaAtheniann imperialism.448448 ByBy 407/6407/6
AthenAthenss publishespublishes a decreedecree,, thankinthankingg ArchelauArchelauss foforr servicesservices inin ththee forformm ofof shipbuildingshipbuilding products.products. WhileWhile itit isis questionablquestionablee thatthat ArchelauArchelauss hadhad byby thithiss datedate achievedachieved all oorr mostmost ooff ththee accomplishmentaccomplishmentss suggestesuggestedd inin ththee ThucydideanThucydidean tribute,tribute, itit isis thethe tontonee ooff thethe tributtributee thathatt isis ofof consequence.consequence. ThThee tributtributee comescomes closclosee ttoo beinbeingg a summarysummary ofof a life'slife's effort.449449 Granted,Granted, thithiss reasoningreasoning hashas beenbeen dismissedismissedd asas a "mechanical"mechanical argument,argument,"" thathatt is,is, ThucydidesThucydides couldcould havehave writtenwritten thisthis immediatelyimmediately afteafterr significantsignificant achievementachievement,, i.e.,i.e., byby 406.450450 ButBut agaiagainn wwee areare backback ttoo ththee twtwoo dozendozen tributes:tributes: thethe ononee thingthing thethe individualsindividuals havehave inin commoncommon forfor
ThucydideThucydidess isis thathatt thetheyy areare allall deaddead.. TherTheree araree nono otheotherr tributestributes oror praisespraises thatthat cacann bebe termetermedd encomiencomiaa inin alalll ththee restrest ofof ththee historyhistory pertainingpertaining ttoo thosthosee whwhoo hadhad careercareerss durinduringg ththee PeloponnesianPeloponnesian WarWar,, hencehence anotheanotherr modernmodern criticriticc concludesconcludes thathatt ththee chaptechapterr mustmust havehave beenbeen writtewrittenn afterafter ArchelausArchelaus'' deathdeath inin 399.399 454511
AAss ifif ttoo stistirr upup ththee question,question, a problematicproblematic inscriptioninscription frofromm ththee islandisland ooff
ThasoThasoss wawass publishedpublished inin 1983.452452 InIn thithiss inscription,inscription, a listlist ooff locallocal magistrates,magistrates, iiss ththee entrentryy foforr 397:397: "Lichas,"Lichas, thethe sosonn ooff Arkesilas.Arkesilas."" ThisThis waswas consideredconsidered a phenomenalphenomenal find:find: ThucydidesThucydides,, narratingnarrating eventeventss inin ththee lastlast yearyear ofof hishis history,history, 411,411 ,
448 N.G.L.N.G.L. HammondHammond andand GG.. TT.. Griffith,Griffith, History of Macedonia: 550-336 BC, volvol.. 2 (Oxford:(Oxford: 1972),1972), 138.138.
449 449 Hornblower,Hornblower, Commentary (1991),(1991), 1.3371.337..
454500 Gomme,Gomme, Commentary (1962)(1962),2.247., 2.247.
451 451 HornblowerHornblower,, Thucydides (1987),(1987), 143,143, 151-153.151-153.
452 452 JJ.. PouillouxPouilloux andand F.F. SalviatSalviat,, "Lichas,"Lichas, Lacedemonien,Lacedemonien, archontarchontee a ThasosThasos etet Iele livrelivre viii dede Thucydide," CRAICRM (1983),(1983), 376-403376-403.. 129129 mentionsmentions ththee subsequensubsequentt deathdeath ooff "Lichas"Lichas ththee sosonn ooff Arkesilas."Arkesilas.,,453453 SimplySimply put,put, iiff thithiss samesame LichasLichas wawass alivealive ttoo servservee aass archonarchon inin 397,397, andand thethe historianhistorian mentionsmentions hishis deathdeath,, thethenn ThucydideThucydidess wawass activelyactively writinwritingg aatt leasleastt sevesevenn yearyearss afterafter thethe endend ooff ththee warwar.. ThiThiss conclusioconclusionn hashas comecome undeunderr muchmuch attack,attack, butbut mostmost ooff thethe argumentargument seemseemss ttoo bebe centeredcentered onon thethe facfactt thathatt LichasLichas andand ArkesilaArkesilass areare notnot uniqueunique names.454454 TheTheyy mayormay or maymay notnot bebe uniqueunique,, butbut theirtheir pairingpairing begsbegs thethe possibilitpossibilityy ofof ThucydideaThucydideann activityactivity ttoo 397397..
IfIf ThucydidesThucydides dididd livelive untiluntil ththee earlyearly yearyearss ooff ththee fourtfourthh century,century, whawhatt areare wwee ttoo makemake ooff ththee absencabsencee inin hishis worworkk ooff ananyy otherother fourth-centurfourth-centuryy eventsevents,, especiallespeciallyy ththee triatriall ofof SocratesSocrates inin 399399?? SocrateSocratess isis notnot mentionedmentioned inin ththee historyhistory toto
411411,, thougthoughh iitt isis evidentevident thathatt hehe wawass welwelll knownknown inin AthenAthenss byby thithiss time.455455
ThucydidesThucydides,, gettingettingg ttoo ththee politicallpoliticallyy charged closing yearyearss ofof thethe war,war, surelysurely woulwouldd havehave mentionedmentioned SocrateSocratess inin ththee narrativenarrative ofof ththee finafinall hurrahhurrah ofof thethe ill-fatedill-fated careercareer ooff hihiss studenstudentt AlcibiadeAlcibiadess jusjustt beforebefore AthensAthens'' finafinall defeadefeatt at AegospotamAegospotamii inin
404404;; SocratesSocrates certainlcertainlyy woulwouldd havehave receivedreceived mentionmention onon ththee dayday ofof hishis service,service, inin
406406,, asas ththee prytaneis ooff ththee AtheniaAtheniann AssemblyAssembly,, whewhenn hehe refusedrefused ttoo trytry thethe
ArginusaArginusaee admirals.456456 ThiThiss laslastt eveneventt woulwouldd havehave beebeenn ththee mostmost likelylikely timtimee toto makemake notenote ooff hihiss triatriall andand eulogizeeulogize hishis life.life. ThucydideThucydidess hadhad a senssensee ofof structurestructure iinn hishis history,history, presentingpresenting disturbindisturbingg parallelsparallels alonalongg witwithh thesethesess andand antithesesantitheses;; a eulogeulogyy ooff SocratesSocrates anandd notenote ooff hihiss triatriall woulwouldd havehave beenbeen a strikingstriking examplexamplee ofof thethe
453 Thuc. 8.84.2.8.84.2.
454 454 P.P. Cartledge,Cartledge, "A"A NewNew LeaseLease ooff LifLifee foforr LichasLichas SonSon ofof Arkesilas?Arkesilas?"" LCM ixix (7)(7) (1984),(1984), 98-10298-102..
455 3 455 E.g.E.g. ArAr.. Clouds, presented inin 424233 (K.J(K.J.. Dover,Dover, "Aristophanes,"Aristophanes,"" OC0OCD ,, 164.),164.), wherwheree SocratesSocrates iiss portrayedportrayed asas a corruptcorrupt teacheteacherr ooff ththee youtyouthh ooff AthensAthens..
454566 XenXen.. Mem. 1.1.18,4.4.2.21.1.1.18, 4.4.2. 21. 130130 moralitymorality ofof aann individualindividual overover a mob.mob. ButBut ThucydidesThucydides'' narrative,narrative, aass notednoted aboveabove,, endsends inin 411.411.
HistoriansHistorians woulwouldd bebe ablablee ttoo makemake muchmuch betterbetter sensesense ooff ththee sometimessometimes troublintroublingg passagespassages inin ThucydidesThucydides'' historyhistory ifif thetheyy coulcouldd shoshoww thathatt ththee manman livedlived untiluntil 393393 oror eveneven jusjustt 397397.. FirstFirst ofof all,all, ththee tributtributee ttoo ArchelauArchelauss woulwouldd nono longerlonger bebe consideredconsidered anomalousanomalous.. TheThenn thertheree areare ththee parallelparallel forecastsforecasts ofof PericlesPericles andand
AlcibiadeAlcibiadess ooff AtheniaAtheniann defeat.defeat. PericlesPericles hadhad thithiss toto sasayy inin ththee seconsecondd yearyear ooff thethe warwar::
EvenEven ifif now,now, inin obediencobediencee ttoo ththee generagenerall lawlaw ooff decay,decay, wwee shouldshould eveeverr bbee forceforcedd ttoo yieldyield,, stilstilll itit wilwilll bebe rememberedremembered thathatt wwee heldheld rulerule oveoverr moremore HellenesHellenes thathann anyany otheotherr HellenicHellenic statestate,, thathatt wwee sustainesustainedd ththee greatestgreatest warwarss againsagainstt theitheirr uniteunitedd oror separatseparatee powers,powers, anandd inhabitedinhabited a citycity unrivaledunrivaled byby anyany otheotherr inin resourcesresources oorr magnitude.magnitude. ThucThuc.. 2.64.32.64.3
ModernModern historianshistorians araree quickquick notnot ttoo makemake totooo muchmuch ooff thithiss predictionprediction sayinsayingg thatthat
"we"we shoulshouldd notnot totooo rapidlyrapidly assumeassume"" thathatt thithiss passagepassage wawass writtewrittenn byby ThucydidesThucydides afteafterr 404;404;457457 oror thathatt itit isis "difficult"difficult ttoo believebelieve thathatt thithiss isis whatwhat PeriklesPerikles woulwouldd havehave saisaidd hadhad hehe beenbeen ablablee ttoo survesurveyy all thathatt happenedhappened betweenbetween 430430 anandd 404."404.,,458458 ThisThis isis alalll welwelll anandd finefine,, butbut ThucydidesThucydides isis ththee author,author, andand inin ththee nextnext chapterchapter hhee statesstates thathatt hehe livedlived ttoo ththee enendd ooff thethe warwar,, witnessinwitnessingg thethe AtheniaAtheniann defeat.defeat.
SixSix booksbooks laterlater wwee havhavee AlcibiadesAlcibiades'' predictionprediction anandd a warninwarningg inin 412/411412/411 addressedaddressed ttoo ththee PersianPersian TissapherneTissapherness abouaboutt ththee dangerdanger ofof a SpartanSpartan victory:victory:
ItIt wawass notnot likelylikely thatthat ththee SpartansSpartans woulwouldd frefreee thethe HellenesHellenes frofromm thethe HellenicHellenic AtheniansAthenians,, withouwithoutt freeingfreeing themthem alsalsoo frofromm ththee barbarianbarbarian Persians,Persians, unlessunless overthrownoverthrown byby himhim inin ththee meantime.meantime. AlcibiadesAlcibiades,, thereforetherefore,, urgedurged himhim ttoo weawearr themthem bothboth ououtt at firstfirst,, andand afterafter reducinreducingg ththee AtheniaAtheniann powerpower aass muchmuch asas hehe couldcould,, forthwitforthwithh toto ridrid ththee countrycountry ooff thethe Peloponnesians.Peloponnesians.
457 Hornblower,Hornblower, Commentary (1991),(1991), 1.3391.339..
458 GommeGomme,, Commentary (1962),(1962), 2.178.2.178. 131131
Thuc.Thuc. 8.46.3-48.46.3-4
NeitherNeither TissapherneTissapherness nornor thethe PersianPersianss tooktook heeheedd ooff thisthis warningwarning.. WithinWithin fourfour yearyearss ofof ththee SpartanSpartan victory theythey werweree inin AsiAsiaa MinorMinor agitating,agitating, successfullsuccessfullyy forfor atat leastleast a shorshortt periodperiod ofof timetime,, foforr ththee freedofreedomm ooff ththee AsiatiAsiaticc Greeks.Greeks. ScholarScholarss havehave oftenoften pointedpointed ououtt thathatt ThucydidesThucydides admiredadmired inin hishis leadersleaders ththee possessionpossession ofof pronoia, thathatt is,is, ththee abilitabilityy ttoo seseee aheadahead.. However,However, ththee forecasforecastt wwee seesee inin thethe
PericlesPericles exampleexample isis acceptablacceptablee becausebecause wwee knowknow thathatt ThucydideThucydidess livedlived toto thethe enendd ooff ththee warwar,, andand paradoxicallyparadoxically criticscritics areare happyhappy ttoo grantgrant thathatt thethe spectespecterr ooff defeadefeatt inin hishis speecspeechh isis simplsimplyy evidenceevidence ofof hishis pronoia. TheThe examplexamplee ooff forecastinforecastingg byby AlcibiadeAlcibiadess isis acceptableacceptable,, notnot ssoo muchmuch duedue ttoo hishis pronoia, butbut ratherrather Thucydides'Thucydides' completcompletee understandingunderstanding ooff thethe SpartanSpartan mentality.mentality. Perhaps,Perhaps, thoughthough,, ththee reasoreasonn forfor ththee astutenesastutenesss ofof PericlesPericles andand AlcibiadeAlcibiadess isis thatthat
ThucydideThucydidess livedlived toto seseee beyondbeyond ththee endend ofof thethe wawarr anandd ttoo witneswitnesss inin thethe firsfirstt fewfew yearsyears ofof ththee fourthfourth centurycentury thethe SpartanSpartan strugglstrugglee onon behalfbehalf ooff ththee AsiaAsiann Greeks.Greeks.
AnotheAnotherr difficultdifficultyy thatthat a deathdeath datdatee ofof 393933 wouldwould helphelp addresaddresss isis thethe compositiocompositionn problemproblem ofof ththee firsfirstt halfhalf ofof ththee historyhistory comparedcompared ttoo ththee secondsecond halfhalf ooff thethe history.history. TherTheree isis a differentdifferent texturtexturee ttoo each.459each.459 TheThe firsfirstt halfhalf hashas beenbeen editededited anandd reworkedreworked witwithh thethe awarenesawarenesss thathatt ththee wawarr hashas beebeenn lostlost bbyy ththee AtheniansAthenians,, a wawarr thathatt thetheyy shoulshouldd havehave wonwon.. ItIt hashas beenbeen remarkedremarked thathatt ThucydidesThucydides,, afterafter muchmuch worworkk oonn hishis history,history, seemseemss ttoo havehave embraceembracedd ththee 'grea'greatt man'man' vievieww ofof history.46ohistory.460 ThiThiss alonealone couldcould accountaccount foforr ththee narrativenarrative differencedifferencess inin hishis work,work,
459 Gomme,Gomme, eta/., al., Commentary (1981),(1981), 5.1.5.1 .
460 Hornblower,Hornblower, Commentary (1991),(1991), 1.3761.376.. 132132 includingincluding hishis eulogyeulogy ofof ArchelausArchelaus.. ButBut itit maymay alsoalso bebe thatthat ThucydidesThucydides waswas a slowslow editor.editor. IfIf hehe waswas workinworkingg onon ththee texttext frofromm thethe beginningbeginning ofof thethe war,war, itit isis hardhard toto explaiexplainn otherwiseotherwise howhow hehe couldcould havehave livedlived atat leastleast toto thethe war'war'ss end,end, butbut stoppedstopped writinwritingg hishis manuscriptmanuscript a fullfull sevenseven yearyearss beforebefore thatthat endend..
AsAs notednoted above,above, Thucydides'Thucydides' "assassination"assassination eithereither inin AthensAthens oror inin Thrace,Thrace, hashas veryvery littlelittle authority;authority; butbut itit certainlycertainly suitssuits thethe endend ofof hishis work.work."" TheThe authoritiesauthorities ttoo whicwhichh GommeGomme refersrefers areare two:two: thethe firsfirstt beingbeing Marcellinus,Marcellinus, whowho inin ththee sixthsixth century ADAD,, isolatedisolated extantextant ThucydideaThucydideann scholia, which,which, hehe claims,claims, statesstates thatthat
ThucydidesThucydides waswas murdered.461461 ItIt isis a slightslight texttext witwithh substantialsubstantial internalinternal contradiction.contradiction. TheThe secondsecond sourcesource isis Pausanias,Pausanias, writingwriting inin thethe seconsecondd centurycentury
A.D.A.D.,, whwhoo saysayss that,that, "he"he waswas treacherouslytreacherously murdered.,,462murdered."462 WhileWhile Thucydides'Thucydides' assassinationassassination wouldwould suitsuit thethe abruptabrupt endend ofof ththee History,History, whatwhat reasonsreasons couldcould bebe putput forwarforwardd asas ttoo whwhyy hehe woulwouldd bebe assassinated?assassinated? InIn anyany attemptattempt toto answeranswer thisthis questioquestionn itit wouldwould bebe prudentprudent ttoo addressaddress thethe politicalpolitical leaningsleanings ofof thethe authorauthor andand ththee politicalpolitical environmentenvironment ofof thethe dozendozen oror soso yearsyears afterafter ofof thethe historyhistory itself.itself.
InIn 411411 BeBC a revolutionaryrevolutionary oligarchy,oligarchy, thethe FourFour Hundred,Hundred, was setset upup toto rulerule
Athens.463463 DespiteDespite anan initialinitial moderatemoderate program,program, extremistsextremists underunder thethe leadershipleadership ofof PisanderPisander tooktook control.control. InIn ththee springspring ofof 411411 prominentprominent democratsdemocrats werewere murderedmurdered andand thethe councilcouncil intimidated.intimidated. ThucydidesThucydides givesgives a vivivividd accountaccount ofof thethe time:time:
461 461 Marcellin.Marcellin. Vit. ThUG.Thuc. 32.32. I wiswishh toto thankthank JuditJudithh MaitlandMaitland andand IanIan PlantPlant foforr makingmaking availableavailable toto meme theirtheir unpublishedunpublished translation.translation.
464622 PawsPaus.. 1.23.111. 23.11..
463 ThUG.Thuc. 8.47-97.8.47-97. 133133
Fear,Fear, andand thethe sighsightt ooff thethe numbersnumbers ooff conspiratorsconspirators,, closeclosedd ththee mouthmouthss ooff ththee rest;rest; oror ifif anyany ventureventuredd ttoo risrisee inin oppositionopposition,, hhee wawass promptly puputt toto deatdeathh isis somsomee convenientconvenient wayway,, anandd thertheree was neitheneitherr searcsearchh foforr ththee murderersmurderers nonorr justicjusticee ttoo bebe hahadd againsagainstt thethemm iiff suspectedsuspected;; butbut ThThee PeoplePeople remainedremained motionless,motionless, beingbeing ssoo thoroughlthoroughlyy cowedcowed thatthat menmen thoughtthought themselvethemselvess luckylucky ttoo escapescapee violenceviolence,, eveevenn whewhenn thetheyy helheldd theitheirr tongues.tongues. Thuc.Thuc. 8.66.28.66.2
TheThe FourFour HundredHundred werweree subsequentlysubsequently overthrowoverthrownn andand democracdemocracyy wawass restoredrestored inin 410410.. OOff thithiss restoration,restoration, knownknown asas ththee FiveFive ThousandThousand,, ThucydideThucydidess sayssays,, "I"Itt wawass duringduring ththee firsfirstt periodperiod ooff thisthis constitutioconstitutionn thathatt ththee AthenianAthenianss appeaappearr ttoo havehave enjoyeenjoyedd ththee bestbest governmengovernmentt thathatt thetheyy eveeverr diddid,, aatt leastleast iinn mymy time.'J464time."464
MyMy interestinterest inin thisthis subjectsubject wawass promptepromptedd byby ththee coincidenccoincidencee ofof thesethese remarksremarks andand ththee facfactt thathatt thethe historyhistory breaksbreaks ofofff a mermeree ninenine paragraphsparagraphs later.later. IInn thethe ensuingensuing politicalpolitical turmoiturmoill itit isis easeasyy ttoo imagineimagine thathatt hishis observationsobservations targetedtargeted himhim foforr violenceviolence.. This,This, ooff course,course, begs ththee questionquestion ooff publication,publication, oror at leastleast knowledge,knowledge, ooff hishis workwork.. ExceptExcept foforr Adcock'Adcock'ss bizarrebizarre shipwreckshipwreck scenariscenarioo ooff
ThucydidesThucydides oonn ththee wawayy toto deliverdeliver ththee laslastt chapterchapterss ttoo hishis publisher,publisher, mostmost modernmodern scholarsscholars taktakee ththee positionposition thatthat therethere isis nono singlesingle passagpassagee ooff ththee historyhistory thathatt wouldwould havehave beenbeen publishedpublished ifif ThucydideThucydidess hahadd livelivedd ttoo finisfinishh hishis work.work.465465 OnOn ththee otherother hand,hand, itit isis notnot unlikelyunlikely thatthat thertheree waswas,, ttoo somsomee degreedegree,, a contemporarycontemporary awarenesawarenesss ofof hishis worworkk inin progress.progress. HeHe wawass certainlcertainlyy interviewininterviewingg peoplepeople aboutabout theitheirr wartimewartime activitiesactivities andand visitingvisiting ththee locationslocations ooff ththee samesame..
AAtt ththee endend ofof thethe wawarr inin 404404,, SpartaSpartann supporsupportt agaiagainn gavgavee ththee oligarchsoligarchs supremacsupremacyy inin ththee forformm ofof ththee ThirtThirtyy TyrantsTyrants,, governinggoverning inin muchmuch thethe samsamee wawayy asas
464 464 ThucThuc.. 8.97.2.8.97.2.
465 465 WilliaWilliamm K.K. Prentice,Prentice, "How"How ThucydidesThucydides WrotWrotee HisHis History,History,"" CPCP,, volvol.. 25,25, no.no. 2 (Apr.,(Apr., 1930),1930), 126126.. 134134 thethe FourFour Hundred.466466 TheThe ThirtThirtyy itselfitself wawass overthrowoverthrownn inin ththee springspring ooff 403403,, whichwhich ledled ttoo ththee reinstitutionreinstitution ofof democracdemocracyy inin September 403403.. ItIt isis aatt thithiss timtimee thatthat thethe generagenerall amnestyamnesty wawass proclaimed;proclaimed; ThucydidesThucydides himselfhimself seemseemss ttoo havehave beenbeen recalled,recalled, oorr atat leastleast givegivenn ththee opportunitopportunityy ttoo return,return, a yeayearr beforebefore througthroughh thethe efforteffortss ooff Oenobius.467467
TheThe politicalpolitical environmentenvironment atat thethe turturnn ofof ththee fourtfourthh centurcenturyy wawass nono lessless volatilevolatile.. InIn a paperpaper thathatt reviewsreviews ththee politicalpolitical circumstancecircumstancess surroundingsurrounding ththee trialtrial anandd executioexecutionn ofof SocratesSocrates inin 399,399, J.J. OO.. LobergLoberg notes,notes, "Th'Thee leadingleading democratdemocratss ooff thethe earlearlyy fourtfourthh century dareddared notnot riskrisk ththee possiblepossible effecteffectss thathatt hishis politicalpolitical criticismcriticismss mightmight havehave oonn ththee recentlrecentlyy restoredrestored demos andand accordinglyaccordingly decideddecided toto suppressuppresss him."him.'>468468 ThucydideThucydidess wawass notnot thethe gadflygadfly thathatt SocrateSocratess waswas.. HisHis historyhistory offersoffers,, however,however, eveneven witwithh itsits rarerare overtovert criticiscriticismm ofof AtheniaAtheniann politicspolitics andand leadership,leadership, a preponderancepreponderance ofof evidencevidencee ofof a statstatee bentbent onon self-destructionself-destruction througthroughh thethe mobmob rulerule ofof radicalradical democracy,democracy, andand ththee violenviolentt oppressiooppressionn ooff oligarchy;oligarchy; thethe killingkilling spiritspirit ofof revengerevenge obviouobviouss inin bothboth regimes.regimes. NeitherNeither sidsidee faresfares welwelll inin Thucydides'Thucydides' narrativenarrative anandd ththee remainingremaining sevenseven yearyearss inin ththee tellingtelling wouldwould witwithh certaintycertainty havehave beenbeen jusjustt aass honesthonest anandd dispassionateldispassionatelyy brutal.brutal. IfIf indeedindeed
ThucydidesThucydides'' workinworkingg manuscriptmanuscript werweree known,known, itit isis doubtfuldoubtful hishis enemiesenemies wouldwould havehave acquiesceacquiescedd ttoo itsits publication:publication: hishis completecompletedd writtewrittenn wordswords,, strongerstronger thanthan thethe philosopher'sphilosopher's spokespokenn wordswords,, woulwouldd havehave provedproved moremore thathann troublingtroubling..
466 466 XenXen.. Hell. 2.2-4;2.2-4; GG.. BB.. Grundy,Grundy, Thucydides and the History of His Age (Oxford(Oxford:: 1948),208.1948), 208.
467 Paus. 1.23.111.23.11..
468 468 J.J. O.O. Loberg,Loberg, "The"The TriaTriall ofof Socrates,Socrates,"" The CJ, volvol.. 2323,, no.no. 8 (May,(May, 1928),602;1928), 602; GreenGreen,, "Xenophon'"Xenophon'ss Exile"Exile" (1994),226,(1994), 226, alsoalso notesnotes ththee politicalpolitical miliemilieuu surroundinsurroundingg Xenophon'Xenophon'ss exileexile:: "Xenophon'"Xenophon'ss exilexilee thuthuss fallfallss intointo ththee samsamee generalgeneral categorcategoryy aass ththee exactlexactlyy contemporaneoucontemporaneouss trialtrial ooff AndocideAndocidess andand SocratesSocrates,, aass partpart ofof a vengefuvengefull anti-oligarchicanti-oligarchic backlash.backlash."" 1 35
II doubtdoubt veryvery muchmuch thatthat thethe acceptedaccepted datesdates ofof Thucydides'Thucydides' deathdeath willwill movemove totooo fafarr frofromm ca.. 404000 BCBC,, thougthoughh thetheyy havhavee iinn recenrecentt yearyearss movemovedd awaawayy frofromm ththee definitivdefinitivee 404.. ThThee internainternall anandd externaexternall evidencevidencee foforr a latelaterr datedate,, thougthoughh circumstantial,, iiss nonott insignificant.insignificant. APPENDIAPPENDIXX
IndividualsIndividuals eulogizeeulogizedd inin ThucydidesThucydides anandd theitheirr datedatess ooff deathdeath..
PausaniasPausanias 484800 AristeideAristeidess 464677 ThemistocleThemistocless 454599 PericlesPericles 429429 CleonCleon 424222 BrasidasBrasidas 422422 AlcibiadeAlcibiadess 40413404/3 AthenagoraAthenagorass (last(last recordrecord:: 415) HermocratesHermocrates 404088 NiciasNicias 414133 AntiphoAntiphonn 414111 PhrynichusPhrynichus 414111 TheramenesTheramenes 404/3404/3 HyperbolusHyperbolus 414111 PhormioPhormio 424288 c.c. DemosthenesDemosthenes 414133 AchidamuAchidamuss 424277 CnemuCnemuss (last(last recordrecord 429) AlcidaAlcidass (last(last recordrecord:: 426426)) GylippusGylippus (last(last recordrecord:: 405) AstyochuAstyochuss (last(last recordrecord:: 411) ArchelauArchelauss 399399
CompiledCompiled fromfrom H.H. D.D. WestlakeWestlake,, Individuals in Thucydides (Cambridge(Cambridge:: 1968)1968).. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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