Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 1
Index Sl. Paper Title Author Page No. No. 1. Learning outside the box: Peer Atiya Khan 04-18 networking for teacher professional development in India 2. Mentoring At-Risk Students Dr Shalini Yadava 19-24 through the Hidden Curriculum of Higher Education (Book Review) 3. Centre for research and education Dr.Baiju K.Nath 25-34 for social transformation (crest) as & an institute for the empowerment of Anila.M.A scheduled caste and scheduled tribes in kerala 4. A Study of the Perceptionof English Divya Talwar Tandon 35-45 Language Teachers on Formative Assessment and General Pedagogic Practices Adopted by them at Secondary Level 5. Reviewing the Braille Basics in Kavita Choudhary 46-67 Teaching: A Conceptual Framework & Dr. Rajesh Kumar 6. ICT integration in education for Sutapa Bose, 68-86 supporting knowledge construction and developing knowledge workers at schools: The affordances and the constraints dominating the Indian context 7. The spiral model of creativity: Re- Mrs. Moumita Saha 87-100 defining creativity with the Octahedral Structure of Intellet 8. Ensuring multicultural education Sushil Kumar Tiwari 101-119 through inclusion: some & pedagogical interventions Dr. Aejaz Masih 9. Problem Solving Ability of Vijay Jaiswal 120-131 Adolescents in Relation to their & Cognitive Styles Pratibha Verma 10. A study of the impact of Sushil Kumar Tiwari 132-148 organisational climate and job involvement on school effectiveness
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11. Self Concept of Secondary School Rafeed ali 149-158 principals in kerala: A Study 12. Students’ Attitude towards Arup Kundu 159-180 Mathematics in Higher Secondary & Schools of Southern Districts of Aditi Ghose West Bengal 13. The scenario of teacher education Dr. Vikrant Mishra 181-192 institutes in india 14. Underachievement of Sarva Siksha Honey Premendra 193-210 Abhiyaan(SSA): A Comparative Study.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 3
Paper-1 LearningA Study outside on Relationship the box: Peer between networking Personalityfor teacher a professionalnd Socio Economic development Status in o f Student Teachers India S. Prakash Dr. S. Amaladoss Xavier.Atiya Khan S. J.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 4 Learning outside the box: Peer networking for teacher professional development in India
Atiya Khan1
Abstract
In this paper, I would like to present an account of how peer networkingas an aspect of professional learning can improve the professional development of teachers in India. The review is more concerned with collaborative and social learning as an aspect of the professional development of teachers, because this issue is somewhat off the beaten track in India; most practices of teacher professional development in India deal with formal, large-scale and workshop- based in-service teacher training. The literature reflects current thinking and practice ofteacher professional development, with a special focuson online professional learning networks. The aim is to exploreand suggest opportunities for teachers in India to engage in peer learning for enhancing theirprofessional development.
Keywords-Teacher professional development, peer networking, peer learning networks, online professional learning networks
Teacher professional development in India: Is there a problem?
There is a growing concern in India (Padwad& Dixit, 2014; Prince & Barrett, 2014; Stannard&Matharu, 2014) and elsewhere (Ingvarson, Meiers& Beavis, 2005; Kemmis& Smith, 2008; Muijs& Lindsay, 2008; Timperley, 2011, Wei; Darling-Hammond & Adamson, 2010), about maintaining teacher quality and promoting a professional learning culture within schools (Bedadur, 2012).
1 PhD Research Scholar, University of Melbourne, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, Email: [email protected] Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 5
Bolitho and Padwad (2012) present an overview of challenges that our school system in India is faced with, including, but not limited to expected teacher shortages and absenteeism, inequity in education, keeping up with the on-going rapid pace of ICT revolution in our society. Bolitho and Padwad (2012) argue that these challenges have a serious impact, not only on the professional development of teachers, but also in terms of our thinking about how we approach the professionaldevelopment of teachers in terms of educational research. We need to adopt a broader perspective on professional development. Time after time, researchers have reminded us that good education necessitates capable teachers (Hattie, 2009; Kendall & Marzano, 2008) and that anemphasis principally directed by formal education and training merely is not enough (Hargreaves &Fullan, 2012; Knight, 2002; Lieberman & Miller, 2008, 2010; Wei, Darling-Hammond, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009). These researchers emphasise making a connection between professional development policies and their relevance to day-to-day practice and the difficulties that teachers experience during their teaching.
Formal learning refers to planned education and training initiatives provided by experts. This formal approach restricts professional autonomy and creative intervention of teachers. There is an overshadowing dominance of formal education in the professional development practices of teachers in India. Teacher professional learning has been centralised and institutionalised in India. Anything else – any professional learning led by teachers is not encouraged (Bolitho &Padwad, 2012). Formal professional learning has asignificant role in professional development, but it is not all there is. According to a study by Lovett and Cameron (2011), only 40% of the influences on teachers’ professional development derivesfrom books, seminars, workshops and articles. The remaining 60% of the influences come from communications with colleagues, experiences with students and their families, and their everyday Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 6 practice-centred experiences. There is a need for teacher autonomy over management control, and there is a need for increased professional space and active professional participation in policy change and innovation. I would like to invite you to embark on the road less takento explore new possibilities of teacher learning that are yet unknown to us;possibilities that can have an important impact on performance and learning of teachers.
Enabling peer learning spaces-
Peer learning networks is an evolving prospect in the field of professional development that directs to comprehend social learning processes used forprofessional learning and development (Haythornthwaite& De Laat, 2012). A familiar example of a closely knit social network structure is the concept of communities ofpractice (Wenger, White, Smith, & Rowe, 2005). In these communities, people have interconnected and ongoing networks, used to develop their practices and knowledge domains.According to de Laat (2012), “From a professional development point of view it is important to get in touch with this reality and find a way to facilitate the learning that these networks make possible. Rather than putting the emphasis on management control, the emphasis should be on promoting and enabling access to peer learning spacesin which professionals learn together and from each other” (p.11).
The social aspect of professional learning is often overlooked. The social and cultural aspects that characterise professional learning in the workplace also should be taken into consideration (Smith, 2008), rather than reserving our focus predominantly on teacher learning outcomes on student achievement. That will involve institutionsto reconsider their approach to professional development and try to progress from a results-driven culture towards a culture that supports the importance of being engaged in social learning processes. Boud& Hager (2012) put the emphasis on the understanding that professional
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 7 development is acontinuing process. In their opinion, “learning is a normal part of working, and indeed, of most other social activities. It occurs through practice in work settings from addressing the challenges and problems that arise. Most learning takes place not through formalisedactivities but through the exigencies of practice with peers and others, drawing on expertise that is accessed in response to need. Problem-solving in which participants tackle challenges that progressively extend their existing capabilities and where they learn with and from each other appears to be a common and frequent form of naturalistic development” (Boud& Hager, 2012, p.22). In this outlook, the most prominent features of professional learningare participation, construction and becoming. Boud and Hager’s (2012) statement reads as a strong appeal for positioning professional development in a social environment/space where professionals work and learn together, renovatingand innovating both their professional practice as well as who they are. Facilitating this perception of learning includes being in touch with one’s professional peers, and building the networked connections needed for professional discourse. Professionals in challenging jobs particularly are regularly confronted with complex problems and Lohman (2006) observed that professionals rely on each other to a great extent to solve work-related problems. Although professionals may be informed about new strategies individually during training workshops, it is through their informal social networking with peers that they learn how to interpret, share, contextualise and maintain this new knowledge (Baker- Doyle & Yoon, 2010).
Day and Hadfield (2004) maintain that the overemphasis on formal professional development methods, directly or indirectly, dents teacher autonomy for their own professional learning. As a result, many feel little ownership over their teaching, which is repeatedly being controlled by assessment resulting in self- doubt and anxiety. In their project, Day and Hadfield (2004) attempted to establish teacher learning networks in primary schools with the goal of returning Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 8 ownership over professional development to the teachers and expanding the social space in which they can learn collectively. These networks should be regarded as an attempt to change the long established perception about the individual teacher working in isolation with the use of a wide variety of social and intellectual resources available within the school and beyond. They determined that in order to accomplish this they needed facilitators to help to establish a peer learning culture in which social spaces can succeed, fostering the prospects for learning and development. Based on their work, they put together several principles that can help in developing these spaces (Day & Hadfield, 2004)-
Successful schools are learning communities for students as well as their teachers. Teachers learn best when are actively involved in the decision-making about the content, method and outcomes of their learning. Teacher learning aidedonly through one’s own experience will ultimately limit teacher progress. Effective teacher learning needs collaboration with other teachers from inside and outside the institution. Teacher learning and development should contribute to school improvement. School managers play a major role in shaping teacher learning and the development of a school’s capacity to improve and manage change. At its best, learning must have personal and professional implications for teachers. Teacher professional learning sustained over time is likely to be more beneficial to the individual and institution than short term learning.
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Day and Hadfield also found evidence supporting thesignificance of building networked spaces linking internal and external capacity for learning. They cite Southworth (2000) to accentuate that “Knowledge networks will enable staff inside schools to become plugged in to the world of ideas outside their professional contexts, as well as offering them the chance to explore their work with the help of others outside their schools. These networks will be highly interactive thereby making them not only instruments for information dissemination but also as learning networks. Through interaction, people will create new knowledge for themselves that is relevant to professional situations and needs” (Southworth, 2000, p. 7). As a result of the widening perspective of professional development that favour teacher learning through participation, collaboration and networking, we need to make it possible for professionals in India to engage in peer learning spaces.
The current culture ofnetworked learningfor teachers in India-
Of late, research in India, on the professional development of teachers, is beginning to generate anagreement regarding the social characteristics of effective teacher learning (Gupta, 2014). Teacher interaction is what steers authentic learning and development in teachers (Mahajan, 2009). Likewise, the community aspects of online networking make apparent prospects for social learning; it connects individuals to form a network or community of learners, where all contribute to a comprehensive and large-scale sharing of ideas. They rendereasynetworking and collaboration, give chances for follow-up, promote social alliances and communities, and stimulatecooperative learning with no or marginal related expenses (Lunyal, 2012).
Portals for teacher networking are being developed in India where they freely collaborate to impart ideas. According to a report by InfoDev (2010), the development of peer learning networks is now beginning to be considered as
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 10 crucial in India to improve training and continuing professional learning. Several projects, such as The Open University in the UK's TESSIndia project and MOOCS by the British council, are enabling large numbers of teachers to access high-quality online learning for free, including interaction with large numbers of other professionals from around the world (British Council, 2015). The Government of India’s Sakshat portal gives teachers a web-based prospect to connect with each other and share experiences. The Azim Premji Foundation and the National Knowledge Commission of India has worked with teacher networks across six Indian states by developing an online portal called The Teachers of India. The portal, involving a few thousand teachers, was initiated with the purpose of providing an environment for teachers to easily network across languages, and access updates resources and new trends in education from all over the world in all Indian languages (InfoDev, 2010). Another project launched in Kerala state of India enabled around 100 trainee teachers to participate in a study of the benefits of the use of social networks. The project was embraced by the trainee teachers, who were able to develop regular interaction with their online peers as part of their professional learning (Nayar, 2012).
People in India are now usingmany social technologies in a number of ways. However, a study by Chattopadhyay (2013), concerning 46 teachers of English from various states of India, determined that Indian educatorsuse social networking toolsmore in their personal lives, than for classroom teaching and/or for their professional development. The teachers in Chattopadhyay’s (2013) study had quite limited awareness and understanding regarding the possible benefits of web-based professional development. It therefore is timely that the use of online spaces for peer learningis realised and taken advantage of by teachers in India for enhancing their professional development practices.
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There are no technology shortcuts to good learning-
Professional learning solutions do not lie in peer learning networks; they lie in what teachers do with those networks. Moreover, facilitating peer learning networks is clearly not theconcernonly of education managers. A popular saying in teacher professional development is that educational quality begins with good teachers (Lieberman & Miller, 2001). In a changing learning culture, the teachers as professionals also are equally responsible for their professional development. De Laat (2012) advocates that “teachers need to be able to demonstrate that being given autonomy, trust and space will have paybacks for the institution. They need to demonstrate active participation in institutional change processes. They need to live their role as innovators rather than simply carrying out tasks” (p. 11).In the findings from case studies of the introduction of the Intel Teach Essentials Course—a professional development program focused on integrating information and communication technologies (ICT) into project-based learning—into six schools in India, Chile, and Turkey, Light (2009) suggested that mere introduction of a new tool, new practice or new policy in the classroom is not enough. Light (2009) further claimed that change is essential and possible only “by deeply reshaping life in the classrooms—from educators’ beliefs about learning to the relationships that make up the school community.” (p. 12). Bedadur (2012), investigating on the use of mobile phones by rural teachers of English in Karnataka, for their professional learning, explained that “the pedagogical design of a professional development plan has to be collaborative to succeed. Moreover, it has to be an initiative driven by the participants” (p. 94).
Being professional demands an outlook towards lifelong learning, not only for one’s self, but also for one’s peers. This fuels the debate about what stimulates teachers in India to participate in online networksfor professional learning.
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There are very few studies that investigate collaborative teacher professional development in India (Chattopadhyay, 2013) emphasising the need for teachers to support each other’s learning. I said in the introduction that it is crucial to reconsider teacher professional development by opening our eyes also to the collaborative, social and peer learning practices that are largely informal. Being able to see both formal workshops and informal professional learning opportunities for teacher development also comes with new challenges. Instead of contrasting these opportunities, we need to develop a blended approach to teacher professional learning; an approach that magnifies a social culture of learning by creating peer learning spaces and networks for professional development.
Recommendations-
Applying a one-size-fits-all practice of professional development is a recurring error made by many schools in Mumbai which yet recognise formal, large-scale andworkshop-based professional development. The schools which are deep- rooted in mandating the traditional methods of professional learning for their teachers need to be more receptive to organising new learning environments. Schools have the capacity to be blended learning spaces for teachers. The learning environment in schools of India must offer a variety of both formal and informal professional development systems, ranging from face-to-face workshops to online programs depending on teachers’ needs, so that teachers could take advantage of the methods which suit them best. Another possibility with advanced use of peer learning spaces is by connecting teachers to larger national and international online teacher networks and communities. Developing a culture for networked learning is an important condition for all development to start. Perhaps the most formidable barrier to peer-based professional development is the conventional school culture in India, which
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 13 usually considers that a teacher's role only is to teach and achieve better student outcomes. School managers in India must develop changed vision that nurtures their teachers’ collective involvement in ownership and responsibility for their professional learning. It is through embracing and practicingauthentic means of sharing, networking and collaborating, that teachers in India will be able to learn better and reform their professional development for better student outcomes.
Conclusion-
In this paper, I have discussed that professional development is an integral part of daily work and must focus on social learning rather than on prescriptive education. In the course of this review, I have cited researchers who have contested that professional development is not an individual process, but that it is successful when teachers enter into social learning spaces where they engage in networks and communities collaborating with their peers on issues that matter. I have reasoned that, we need an approach that not only spotlights the tip of the iceberg, but an approach that takes into consideration that teacher professional development is influenced by work-related problems, connected with teacher practice and teacher needs, that it is social and requires space and autonomy to succeed.
References-
Baker-Doyle, K., & Yoon, S. A. (2011). In search of practitioner-based social capital: A social network analysis tool for understanding and facilitating teacher collaboration in a US-based STEM professional development program. Professional development in Education, 37(1), 75- 93.
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Bedadur, N. (2012). A design-based study on using M learning for CPD. In R. Bolitho & A. Padwad (Eds.), Continuing professional development: Lessons from India (pp. 88-95). New Delhi, India: British Council. Bolitho, R., &Padwad, A. (Eds.). (2012). Continuing professional development: Lessons from India. New Delhi, India: British Council. Boud, D. & Hager, P. (2012).Re-thinking continuing professional development through changing metaphors and location in professional practice.Studies in Continuing Education, 34(1), 17-30. British Council (2015) Technology for professional development: access, interest andopportunity for teachers of English in South Asia. British Council: New Delhi. Chattopadhyay, K. (2013). Future directions for digital literacy development of Indian educators.WorldCALL 2013 Conference.Glasgow, UK, 10-13 July. Day, C., & Hadfield, M. (2004).Learning through networks, trust partnerships and the power of action research.Educational Action Research, 12(4), 575-586. DeLaat, M. (2012). Enabling professional development networks: How connected are you? Open Universteit. Gupta, D. S. (2014). Social media for teachers of English: A hub for professional development. Research Journal of English Language and Literature, 2(2), 34-38. Hargreaves, A., &Fullan, M. (2012).Professional capital: Transforming teaching in every school. New York: Teachers College Press. Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. London: Taylor & Francis group. Haythornthwaite, C., & De Laat, M.F. (2012). Social Network Informed Design for Learning with Educational Technology. In A. Olofson& O. Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 15
Lindberg (Eds.).Informed Design of Educational Technologiesin Higher Education: Enhanced Learning and Teaching. (pp. 352-374). Hershey: IGI-Global. InfoDev (2010).Essay II: ICT in school education (Primary and secondary). Washington, DC: infoDev, World Bank. Ingvarson, L., Meiers, M., & Beavis, A. (2005).Factors affecting the impact of professional development programs on teachers’ knowledge, practice, student outcomes and efficacy. Professional Development for Teachers and School Leaders.Australian Council for Educational Research. Kemmis, S., & Smith, T. (2008). Praxis and praxis development. In S. Kemmis& S. T. (Eds.), Enabling praxis: Challenges for education (pp.3– 14). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Kendall, J. S., & Marzano, R. J. (2008).Designing & assessing educational objectives. New York: Sage. Muijs, D., & Lindsay, G. (2008). Where are we at? An empirical study of levels and methods of evaluating continuing professional development.British Educational Research Journal, 34(2), 195–211. Knight, P. (2002). A systemic approach to professional development: Learning as practice. Teacher and Teacher Education, 18, 229-241. Lieberman, A., & Miller, L. (2001).Teachers caught in the action: Professional development that matters. New York: Teachers College Press. Lieberman, A., & Miller, L. (2008).Teachers in professional communities: Improving teaching and learning. New York: Teachers College Press.
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Lieberman, A., & Pointer-Mace, D. (2010).Making practice public: Teacher learning in the 21st century.Journal of Teacher Education, 61(1- 2), 77-88. Light, D. (2009). The role of ICT in enhancing education in developing countries: Findings from an evaluation of the Intel Teach Essentials course in India, Turkey, and Chile. Journal of Education for International Development, 4(2). Lohman, M. C. (2006). Factors influencing teachers’ engagement in informal learning activities.Journal of Workplace Learning, 18(3), 141– 156. Lovett, S., & Cameron, M. (2011). Schools as professional learning communities for early-career teachers: How do early career teachers rate them? Teacher Development, 15(1), 87-104. Lunyal, V. (2012). Collaborative spaces on the Web and language teaching: Blogs and Wikis. Language and Language Teaching, 1(1), 46- 54. Mahajan, P. (2009). Use of social networking in a linguistically and culturally rich India.The International Information & Library Review, 41,129-136. Nayar, A. (2012). Social networking as a means for enhancing technology competencies of teacher trainees: Case study of an ICT based pedagogy. Paper presented at the 6th International Technology, Education and Development Conference, Valencia, Spain, 2012. Padwad, A., & Dixit, K. (2014). Continuing professional development policy ‘Think Tank’: An innovative experiment in India. In D.Hayes (Ed.), Innovations in the continuing professional development of English language teachers (pp. 249-268). London, United Kingdom: British Council.
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Prince, E., & Barrett, A. (2014). Continuing professional development in action: An Indian experience. In D.Hayes (Ed.), Innovations in the continuing professional development of English language teachers (pp. 19-44). London, United Kingdom: British Council. Smith, M.K. (2008). Informal learning. Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/biblio/inf-lrn.htm Southworth, G. (2000). How primary schools learn. Research Papers in Education, 15(3), 276-291. Stannard, R., &Matharu, S. (2014). Using technology to provide greater flexibility and access to continuing professional development.In D.Hayes (Ed.), Innovations in the continuing professional development of English language teachers (pp. 159-178). London, United Kingdom: British Council. Timperley, H. (2011).Realizing the power of professional learning.Maidenhead: Open University Press. Wei, R. C., Darling-Hammond, L., Andree, A., Richardson, N., &Orphanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession: A status report on teacher development in the United States and abroad. Dallas, TX: National Staff Development Council. Wei, R. C., Darling-Hammond, L., & Adamson, F. (2010).Professional development in the United States: Trends and challenges. Dallas, TX: Learning Forward. Wenger, E., White, N., Smith, J. D., & Rowe, K. (2005).Technology for communities. Retrieved from http://technologyforcommunities.com/CEFRIO_Book_Chapter_v_5.2.pdf
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Paper-12 MentoringA Study At on-Risk Relationship Students betweenthrough the PersonalityHidden Curriculum and Socio of Economic Higher Education Status of Student Teachers (Book Review) S. Prakash Dr. S. AmaladossDr. Shalini Xavier. Yadava S. J.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 19 Mentoring At-Risk Students through the Hidden Curriculum of Higher Education (Book Review)2
Dr. Shalini Yadava3
The book organised in six chapters is a very engaging attempt to look into the need , relevance and dynamics of the mentoring system for students in the universities of the United States of America especially those students who are more vulnerable on account of their race, color ,nationality, socio-economic status, being first generation learners, reared in single parent families etc. The first chapter of the book – Invest Now or Pay Later outlines the definition of the term ‘Mentoring’ clearly detailing the role of a professional mentor and the mentee .It also provides a brief account of the historical context of mentoring as it started in different countries across the world with a few examples to begin with. This chapter further delves into exploring a new research driven model of mentoring which is cyclical and looks into the acquisition of the Social Capital and Institutional Cultural Capital in the mentoring relationship over time. This chapter also includes an account of the communication between the mentors and the mentees citing from specific case studies which throw light on the fears and dilemmas of the mentees while approaching the mentors for the first time often feeling hesitant to establish contact.
The second chapter ‘Learning at the Margins’ details how the students who do not fall in the league of being meritocratic on account of having an edge based on their capacities, capabilities and propensities owing to different reasons ultimately become marginalized in the system. They are unable to sustain in the
2 Smith&Buffy, Lexington Books,2013.ISBN 978-0-7391-6566-9, 175pp Price:Rs 4210. 3 Assistant Professor, School of Education, GGSIP University, New Delhi Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 20 system without struggle as they are not well versed with the legacy of the hidden curriculum and as a result there is a big gap in their acquisition of the Institutional Cultural Capital for want of the Social Capital. The chapter further delves into how students suffer on account of teachers being prejudiced and biased leading to the award of lower grades or academic scores to them on account of their color, race and socio-economic status .On the other hand the middle and high class students who have not scored well in academics are still perceived to be more capable and intelligent and the lower class students even with high academic scores are considered to be less capable .These embedded stereotypes thus make it very crucial that the mentors equip the students with the necessary social capital in order to enable them to master the hidden curriculum. The chapter also focuses on the interrelationship of the Institutional Cultural Capital and Social Capital. The four constituents of the social capital as given by Coleman include ‘norms ,sanctions ,closure and information channels’ .It is important that the mentor understands and thus makes the needed efforts to make the mentee fully acquainted with the expectations in terms of following the norms or respecting the sanctity of the sanctions if imposed . The attitudes which need to be developed and the behaviors which need to be exhibited also need to spelt out to the mentee in order for him/her to accept new ideas and cultures .Evidence shows that mentors who share their own struggles ,trials and tribulations are able to earn the confidence and trust of their mentees much easily thus giving the mentees the needed boost to share their stories .This thus may become the stepping stone towards building a sound mentor-mentee relationship in future enhancing the social capital in return.
The third chapter advocates the use of the proposed Mentoring model by the author in equipping students with the skills to navigate the hidden curriculum which consists of the cycles of advising ,advocacy and apprenticeship. This chapter also details the four theoretical perspectives on which mentoring is Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 21 based and presents the theoretical framework for the new mentorship design in a comprehensive manner. The author also highlights that it is important not to just base the mentorship programme on the stated needs of the mentee but also include inputs which help and support them in decoding the unwritten rules of the hidden curriculum which the mentee is oblivious of. A number of interactions between the mentors and their mentees provided in this chapter help the reader to understand the mentorship cycle.
The fourth chapter-Transforming Mentoring Programs begins with giving the reader an understanding of the diverse nature of the mentoring process .It highlights that students who have just entered the system need mentors in administrators or faculty on one end of the continuum and on the other hand they need them at the level of peers ,family and community for it to be a wholesome experience. This mesh of mentoring relationships empowers them with different kinds of information and resources thus motivating them to move ahead and on the other hand it gives a sense of gratification to the mentors. The author then proceeds to define the complex term of mentoring wherein an experienced person provides personal, social, vocational and psychological support to a much inexperienced person in a given context such that it is a mutually rewarding experience for both the mentor and mentee and leads to making them better individuals owing to this relationship. This is followed by giving a brief outline about the different phases and functions of the mentoring cycle and the mentoring models such as the “Grooming Mentoring Model” and the “Network Mentoring Model” .This chapter also details the need of a clearly stated mission statement such that it gives a clear map to the prospective mentors and mentees about what is the purpose for which the mentorship programme has been instituted. The author then provides an elaborate descriptive list of the psychological traits and skill sets which define an ideal mentor and mentee .This chapter also briefly lists the beneficial aspects of this Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 22 relationship for both the parties in question although the author cautions that for the programme to be really enriching it is important that it has the best human resource recruited as mentors and that it has the kind of funding it needs and is valued by all the stakeholders .A critical task of any mentoring programme to begin with is to match the mentor and the mentee which is an arduous task for any Director .Towards the end the chapter presents the roles and responsibilities of the mentors and the mentees and provides an overview with respect to the inclusion of the three mentoring cycles in order to equip the mentees with the nuances of the hidden curriculum. It concludes by laying emphasis on the role of the evaluation process in ascertaining whether the mentoring programme has achieved the laid down objectives.
The fifth chapter-Play to Win: Learn the Rules provides a peep into the interactions of mentees through a series of letters exchanged by them based on the experiences of students and mentees shared with the author. However the stories were changed by the author in order to avoid any breach of confidentiality. The author then moves to present a list of the attributes the mentees should possess in order to be successfully transcend the barriers of the hidden curriculum and to get accomplished mentors.
The last chapter –Overcoming Mentoring Barriers: Do not Give up, provides a wholesome account of the fears and perceived threats encountered by the mentors while going through the process of mentoring in terms of the mentees not taking the programme seriously ,being disrespectful to the mentors during interactions ,not accepting the allotted mentor as a guide ,not adhering to the advice given, consistently coming late for the meetings, not being able to find time for studying resulting in falling grades owing to tight schedules at home which includes baby-sitting etc .All these factors may really push the patience of a mentor to the other extreme but in order to nurture a healthy relationship in
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 23 a mentoring programme persistence and empathy are important attributes to rely on.
The book ends with the author hoping that higher education institutions become more just and equitable by instituting mentorship programmes which are amply funded, high in terms of the projected worth and go a long way in rescuing the students who at the margins in terms of this tertiary sector of Education.
The book provides an lucid account of the need and purpose of mentoring in colleges and universities especially to the students who are more vulnerable on account of their color ,gender, race, socio-economic status ,family education background etc. A comprehensive picture is presented with reference to the ways and means of enhancing the Institutional Cutural Capital and Social Capital of the mentee through this relationship by the mentoring model presented by the author. However the issue of Hidden Curriculum though raised in each and every chapter was needed to be dealt with in a more pithy manner by way of including examples from some case studies for the reader to exactly understand how the hidden curriculum comes in the way of the mentees making them uncomfortable in these centres of learning. On the whole the book is a treat for those teachers and students who are yet to venture into the exercise of mentoring. This work is based on a qualitative study undertaken by the author and therefore it enables the reader to understand the role of the administrators, faculty, peers, family and other professionals in the mentoring process based on evidence. In order to prevent students from dropping out and retaining them it is important that the environment is inclusive in all aspects and mentoring is very much an integral part of Higher Education .
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Paper-13 CentreA Study for Research on Relationship and Education between for Social PersonalityTransformation and (Crest) Socio as Economic an Institute Sta fortus The o f EmpowermentStudent of Scheduled Teachers Caste and Scheduled Tribes in Kerala Dr. Baiju S. Prakash K. Nath Dr. S. Amaladoss Xavier.Anila S. J.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 25 Centre for Research and Education for Social Transformation (Crest) as an Institute for The Empowerment of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes in Kerala Dr. Baiju K. Nath4 Anila5 Abstract Centre for Research and Education for Social Transformation (CREST) which is an autonomous institution under the government of Kerala. The centre was established with the vision to move towards creating a just, equitable and caring society through empowerment of the marginalised and under privileged, based on the principles of humanism, equality and social justice. And a mission to help the marginalised and under privileged, gain confidence, build competence and achieve excellence in all spheres of human endeavor, for their social, cultural and economic development through education. The flagship programme of CREST is Post Graduate Certificate Course in Professional Development (PGCCPD) is a five months programmes which held twice in a year are available for SC,ST and OBC students with a strength of fourty seats in a batch. The investigation aimed to analyse facilities, functioning, and other major aspects of CREST using Case study method. It is found out that institution of this kind is inevitable for empowering weaker sections, hence, it is a social responsibility to sustain those institutions. Key terms- Scheduled Castes, Scheduled tribes, Professional development, CREST Introduction- Scheduled caste and scheduled tribes are groups of people who, for thousands of years, were under clutches of slavery. They were not given education which was
4 Assistant Professor, Dept. of Education, University of Calicut 5 Dept. of Education, University of Calicut Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 26 the monopoly of the elite classes. Their tradition, culture, values, attitudes etc are different from those of others. When compared with other sections of the society, the educational progress of these sections can lead the nation to prosperity. Any educational programs, without proper education for scheduled caste and scheduled tribes are meaningless. The National Commission for education, 1966 observed that:"it is necessary to pay special attention to the education of children from backward classes which include the scheduled caste and scheduled tribes, the denotified communities and a few nomadic and semi-nomadic groups. In accordance with constitutional provisions and in line with recommendations of the National commission for education and the National policy on Education,1986. The union government and state governments have been making efforts to provide educational incentives to SC and ST students. What is expected is that by providing such incentives material assets among the weaker sections of the society could be helped to catch up and cope up with the general population of the country. A number of schemes have been launched for their educational benefits.
Significance of the Investigation-
For a country which has accepted the goal of a democratic egalitarian society, promotion and development of education for the scheduled caste and scheduled tribes is an unavoidable commitment. Education has been perceived to be a pre- requisite for improving the status of the scheduled caste and scheduled tribes. Even though our school system has been expanding steadily since independence, this fundamental pre-requisite for all round development of these sections of the society is not achieved so far.
The educational scenario in Kerala is far better than that of most other states in India. But with regard to education among scheduled caste and scheduled tribes,
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 27 it is still backward. Education is one of the welfare activities under taken by the Kerala government for amelioration of SC's and ST's. Educational concessions are offered to the scheduled caste and scheduled tribes of the state for their formal education at all levels, right from the pre primary to the post graduate stages. All these programmes should have resulted in the upliftment of the educational status of SC's and ST's. But the quantity as well as quality of education among SC and ST pupils is still far from satisfactory.
Maximization of the levels of educational performance of pupils belonging to SC and ST is of prime concerns even today. But the fact still remains that we have failed to achieve this objective up to the desired level. The major supporting programmes introduced by the Kerala government are 1) Tutorial system in pre matric hostels 2) Merit scholarship schemes 3) pre matric and post matric hostel facilities 4) special coaching scheme for std X 5) financial assistance to SSLC failed students to continue education and 6) special incentive grants to SC and ST students who come out of their SSLC, plus two and degree and post graduate students in first class etc.
The investigation is about Centre for Research and Education for Social Transformation (CREST) which is an autonomous institution under the government of Kerala. The centre was established with the vision to move towards creating a just, equitable and caring society through empowerment of the marginalised and under privileged, based on the principles of humanism, equality and social justice. And a mission to help the marginalised and under privileged, gain confidence, build competence and achieve excellence in all spheres of human endeavor, for their social, cultural and economic development through education. The centre has been formed in the backdrop of the new global economy and the debates on affirmative action in the private sector that are taking place in the country.
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CREST is the successor organization of the Centre of Excellence which was incubated by the Indian Institute of Management, Kozhikode since 2002 with the support of Government of Kerala. The centre became an autonomous institution in April 2008 and it receives continued support from scheduled caste and scheduled tribes development department, Government of Kerala.
CREST working as a national institute for the empowerment of SC and ST. It was incubated in IIM Kozhikode. It is domiciled at chevayur in Kozhikode district. It was housed in KIRTADS campus.
It is hoped that the present study will make valuable suggestions to help the planners, administers to plan and implement the supporting programmes more effectively. It will also helpful to the scheduled caste and scheduled tribes pupils as well as their parents to make use of these programmes for their educational advancements.
Objectives of the Investigation-
The main objectives of the study are given follows-
1. To find out the origin, structure and management of CREST. 2. To ascertain the infrastructural facilities provided by CREST to SC and ST students. 3. To analyze the programmes conducted by CREST for the empowerment of SC and ST students. 4. To find out the outcome of programmes organised by CREST in terms of placements. 5. To identify the institutions collaborate with CREST in various empowerment programmes. 6. To study the role of Alumni in the functioning of CREST
Methodology- Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 29
Methodology is the description of procedure or technique adopted in a research study. The success of any research depends upon the selection of appropriate methods and tools for the study of the problem.
Case study and document analysis were the methods choose for the study. Case study is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of the social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, cultural groups or even an entire community. As a method of research it involves the collection and analysis of data pertaining to one or more phase in the life process of an individual. In the present study, the investigator proposes to conduct a detailed study on Centre for Research and Education for Social Transformation.
Document analysis was also choosed as a method for study. It should serve a useful purpose in yielding information helpful in evaluating or explaining social or educational practices. The investigator plans to choose document analysis also as a method for the study. Various documents available in the institution will be the main foci and it may be helpful to understand the progress and functioning of CREST.
Sample-
The total students completed various courses in CREST are nearly 800 and hence, the investigator plans to select a representative sample of about 80 students. Director of CREST and members of Alumni in CREST also were included in the sample. The investigator used purposive sampling technique for the study.
Tools Employed for the Investigation-
The investigator used the following tools for the conduct of the study-
1. Questionnaire for the students of CREST.
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2. Interview schedule for the director of CREST. 3. Interview schedule for the Alumni members.
Statistical Techniques-
Percentage of response of each item in the questionnaire was used to analyse the data. Here the researcher was used the percentage analysis as the statistical technique.
Major Findings of the Study-
CREST was established in 2002, at the time of origin its name was Centre of excellence. It was renamed as CREST in 2008. In 2008, CREST became an autonomous body before that it functioned under the control of Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode (IIMK). The patrons of CREST are Governor of Kerala, the Chief Minister of Kerala and Speaker,Kerala Legislative Assembly. The functioning of CREST was under the supervision of Governing Council and Executive Committee The day to day affairs of CREST managed by the executive director. There are four permanent faculties and others are guest faculties. There is an administrative officer and a course coordinator, two associative programme coordinators, account assistant, office assistant, lab and library assistants as staff in CREST. There is only one classroom, one lab with facilities like sufficient number of furnitures, projector, computers, light, fan and audio system. There is adequate number of bathrooms. There is availability for drinking water facility. There is a library with adequate number of books, periodicals and other reading materials.
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PGCCPD is the flagship programme of CREST. In this five month course, out of fourty seats available for the course, 28 seats reserved for SC, 8 for ST and 4 for OEC/OBC. CREST has been conducted orientation programme for B Tech. students regularly. CREST conducted a research project ‘Wayanad Initiative’ during 2004- 2006. The centre conducts regular workshops, national seminars and special lectures covering a broad range of issues. CREST conducts an annual lecture in memory of Dr.K R Narayanan, former president of India. CREST has set up an internship and placement cell for candidates who successfully completed the PGCCPD course for professional development. Up to 19th batch of PGCCPD, the achievements of this programme has been concluded as follows. Out of 690 candidates, 19% have obtained higher jobs in private sector, 17% are working in GOVT/PSU’s sector,13% gone for higher studies in various universities in India, 1% have turned out as entrepreneurs, 1% gone for higher jobs/studies abroad, 12% are at present preparing for competitive examinations for higher education/jobs, 23% are working in temporary jobs and remaining 14% were unemployed/no information. CREST received academic support from nationally reputed institutions such as NIAS Bangalore, IIM Kozhikode and Tata Institute for Social Sciences etc. The state government has funded CREST and the linkage between CREST and the state government appears to be strong. The centre also made linkage with research networks such as SASNET, Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 32
where it was able to secure student exchange programme and collaboration in research grants with ICSSR. Alumni network is the ambassador for the centre. Alumni members are the best agents of this institution. SC/ST development department of Kerala gave Rs.5000/- as stipend for PGCCPD students. CREST provided an opportunity to learn a foreign language. French, German, Spanish etc has the priority. All students said that adequate number of books and weekly are available in the CREST library. The teaching methods are effective in nature, Text books are the main learning materials in this course. The main components of PGCCPD course are employability enhancement, general awareness, entrepreneurship, communication skill, personality development, information technology and analytical and quantitative skills. All students agreed that these components are effective in nature. Different programmes like webpage creation, blog making etc for improving IT skill are very helpful to the PGCCPD students. The state government gave rupees one crore for the functioning of CREST CREST published a newsletter which is named as excelsior.
Conclusion-
The investigation was an attempt to find out various functioning aspects of Centre for Research and Education for Social Transformation (CREST). On the basis of the findings ifollowing conclusions can be made. The infrastructural facilities where it may require shifting into spacious buildings for IT lab, library, classrooms, staffrooms etc. hostel facilities are also may be improved.
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Now the number of seats of PGCCPD course is limited to fourty and it may be enhanced. The insitution may concentrate on campus recruitments and other job oriented programmes. The placement cell should be active. It should take care that the news bulletins should be up-to-date. The students have not much confident to become entrepreneurs, hence empower them by giving special training in such areas.
So it should have taken into consideration that the improvements in various activities of CREST as per the suggestions of the earlier batches was done. It is needed to maintain the development of deprived sections in the society and thus the development of nation also undertaken. Alumni association has an inevitable part in CREST. So it should actively participate with CREST in future. It is the best dream of CREST that the inadequacies will be removed when shifting into their own campus. So the programmes of CREST should be reconstructed to exchange the ideas into practice. Thus it was going to a new attempt to promote the disadvantaged groups in a different way.
References- www.crest.ac.in www.india.gov.in www.mhrd.gov.in www.tribal.nic.in www.socialjustice.nic.in www.education.kerala.govt.in
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Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 34
Paper-14 A StudyA Study of the on Perceptionof Relationship English between Language PersonalityTeachers on Formative and Socio Assessment Economic and Sta Generaltus of PedagogicStudent Practices Teachers Adopted by them at Secondary Level S. Prakash Dr. S. Amaladoss Xavier. S. J.
DivyaTalwarTandon
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 35 A Study of the Perceptionof English Language Teachers on Formative Assessment and General Pedagogic Practices Adopted by them at Secondary Level
DivyaTalwarTandon6 Abstract The research explores the perception of English Language Teachers on Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation focusing specifically on the Assessment techniques involved. The paper highlights the prospects and challenges faced by English language teachers in integrating formative assessment into instruction for the learners at secondary level in government schools of Delhi. It further deals with the general pedagogic practices adopted by English Language Teachers to develop linguistic skills of learners and also highlightsthe transaction of the English language curriculum at the secondary level. For this, an open ended questionnaire was administered on 25 English Language Teachers teaching at the secondary level in Delhi Government schools. The results were analyzed using the descriptive data analysis technique. The results highlighted that Formative Assessments was perceived as an eminent measure to stand both the learners and the teachers to ensure improvised learning with ample opportunities for improvement and linguistic skill development.
Introduction- “The essence e of formative assessment is that it is a process.” -Tony Frontier After several years of confusion and conflicting viewpoints about what actually constitutes formative assessment, there is emerging consensus about its
6 Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 36 definition. This is evident from the similarities in definitions provided by various experts on this topic (Learning Point Associates, 2009). The definition offered by Noyce and Hickey (2011, p. 1) is representative of the consensus, describing formative assessment as- …“the process of monitoring student knowledge and understanding during instruction in order to give useful feedback and make timely changes in instruction to ensure maximal student growth.” …
Formative Assessment elaborately enhances student learning, elicits evidence of learning through a variety of subject based exercises, activities and tasks, changes the roles of teachers and students, uses learning progressions to anchor learning goals and targets and monitors learning through effective feedback resulting in making requisite adjustments (in terms of pedagogic scaffolding) to improve instruction for students. This enables students to become motivated, self-dependent, self-regulated and autonomous learners.
The research has highlighted that the Formative Assessment enriches the teaching – learning process in terms of both understanding and quality. Students particularly facing challenges in learning the English language develop the ability to comprehend the language and tasks based on it. The language teachers also get an understanding about whether the pedagogy adopted is doing any good to the learners. Thus, it may be viewed as a dual process, where both teacher and the student are able to maintain quality. For the teacher, it lies in delivering the lesson and for the learner, this lies in understanding the lesson delivered.
In this regard, the paper focuses on addressing the current understanding of English teachers about the implementation of formative assessment in the English language classroom.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 37
Review of Related Literature-
Gayal, D. M (2015) attempted to provide insight into Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation in the Indian Context. The study described the situation of English in the present scenario. It was highlighted that the need of English now is very different from that of the past. In the past, it was mainly used as a library language but now English has become part and parcel of everyday life, as well as, the most effective tool of communication. Thus, the present way of teaching and learning English must be innovative to cater to the immediate needs that the globalization has posted. With the introduction of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation, which is both children centric makes the use of eclectic practices, the dream seems to be a realistic goal. The paper discussed the role of CCE in English language teaching.
Shandilya, S. (2014) studied the perception of teachers about Implementing CCE. The study made it evident that secondary school teachers do not have a very favourable attitude towards implementation of CCE, as only 9% teachers were found to be in high favourable attitude towards implementing CCE. The investigator concluded that the situation was of consideration particularly among the teachers who held maximum period of teaching experience as they were found to be more reluctant towards this initiative. Although designation of teachers did not affect much, but it was found that the female teachers had more favourable attitude towards implementing CCE in schools.
The beneficial outcomes of formative assessment, otherwise known as ‘assessment for learning’, have been pointed by researchers and educators alike. The evidentiary basis of much of this confidence can be traced back to several seminal works, which synthesize and interpret existing research on the topic. Learning intentions, as an important component of formative assessment, have also been the subject of substantial research. Hanover Research (2014) provided Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 38 an overview of the main discourses in literature linking formative assessment and learning objectives to student achievement.
Three recurring emphases in the literature on formative assessment are (a) the importance of assessment design in prompting and sustaining students' learning, (b) giving students’ feedback that enables them to improve their work, and (c) clarity of standards to articulate the gap between past and desired performances. Much has been written on how each of these is important in designing and using assessment for learning. But there is considerably less attention (if any) on how these emphases should confluence each other. In this paper, Tan, K. (2013) proposed a framework for assessment for learning (AFL) wherein assessment standards (vertical axis), task design (horizontal axis) and feedback practices (incline) formed a “triangle of practices” that construct the “space” for enhancing learning. Implications for formative assessment to extend learning beyond its triangulated frame were discussed too.
US teachers often view student assessment as something apart from regular teaching, serving primarily the purpose of providing grades or informing, sometimes placating, parents. Assessment as stepchild is also apparent in teacher education where a "lecture" is given or a course allocated to pre-service teachers on "testing and assessment" propagating traditional notions of assessment, that of teacher made and summative uses of tests. This situation is changing in recognition of the importance of formative assessment. Richard J. S. (2006) reported lessons learned about formative assessment and teacher development from joint projects between both Stanford and Kings College London, and Stanford and the University of Hawaii. Both sought ways of developing teachers' formative-assessment capabilities. The former project focussed on teacher development of "informal" formative assessment—clinical (personal, subjective) assessment of students' understanding in the ongoing flow
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 39 of classroom activities. The latter linked such activities with "formal" formative assessment where assessments were designed on a conceptual model of achievement in a domain and embedded in curricula. In both, the primary objective of assessment was to maximize teachers’ information uptake and foster translation of that information into pedagogical action. The goal was to bring about student understanding and conceptual change by providing immediate feedback to students and teachers focused on reducing the gap between the student’s current level of understanding and the place where it ultimately should be.
Objectives-
The study aimed at the following objectives:
1. To study the perceptions of English Language Teachers towardsformative assessment. 2. To study the general pedagogic practices adopted by English Language Teachersto develop linguistic skills of learners. 3. To analyze how the English language curriculum is being transacted at the secondary level.
Design of the Study-
Sample- The sample consisted of 25 teachers teaching English at secondary level in government schools in Delhi.
Tools Used- An open ended questionnaire for teachers.
Procedure for Data Collection-
A self-prepared questionnaire was conducted on teachers teaching the English language at secondary level in Government Schools in Delhi and the results
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 40 obtained were analyzed using the technique of descriptive data analysis. These were then coagulated to arrive at the final result.
Procedure for Data Analysis-
The data collected was analyzed through descriptive data analysis. Descriptive data analysisis a process of inspecting data to meet the goal of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision-making. The purpose of such an analysis was to arrive at qualitative conclusions. The method was used here to facilitate the process of identifying the perceptions of English Language teachers on formative assessment and the way curriculum is transacted focusing on tasks, activities and strategies.
Major Findings- 1. Training Programmes- Approximately 88% of the English Language Teachers found the workshops and in-service training programmes (conducted by CBSE, SCERT, NCERT, DIET, Fullbright Exchange Programme and British Council ) asextremely insightful in getting both a theoretical, as well as, a practical understanding of the Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation of the secondary level English curriculum. The training programmes were beneficial especially in designing the linguistic tasks and activities.
2. Teachers’ Manual on CCE- The Teachers’ Manual issued by CBSE is a ready reference and one stop point to resolve linguistic queries that they may have. The manual provided the teachers with readymadeactivities pertaining to different chapters. All that the teachers need to do is a slight tweaking to suit the requirements and learning potential of the learners.
3. Workload on Teachers-
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Almost 84% teachers found the CCE system to be better than the earlier evaluation system. They were of the opinion that under this system the learners had several opportunities to improve and enhance the quality of their work in an unthreatening environment. Even though they agreed upon the fact that with the coming of CCE, the work load on teachers had increased considerably, they found that the joy of teaching and learning was in no match to it. 4. Variety in tasks and enhanced learning for learners- Teachers felt that students could be tested on class assignments, home assignments, projects, quizzes, discussions, seminars, debates, declamations, panel and group discussions, symposium, creative writing activities etc. The students had a variety of linguistic tasks. The learners could enhance their skill sets in the areas of listening, speaking, reading and writing activities, thereby developing cognitively in areas of learning such as knowledge, understanding, comprehension, application, analysis, evaluation and creation. Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation has thus brought about a holistic learning.
Conclusion- The teachers found that formative assessment aids ina better and comprehensive way analysis of the learners could.Though, with the increased workload, the teachers feel that their job borders on clerical and administrative work pertaining to record keeping and academic teaching has actually taken a backseat in the current scenario. Another observation that was made was that formative assessments in English could be interpreted meaningfully if the class size or students teacher ratio was to decrease.
Educational Implications and Suggestions-
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 42
When teachers assess student learning for purely formative purposes, there is no final mark on the paper and no summative grade in the grade book. Rather, assessment serves as practice for students, just like a meaningful homework assignment does. This is formative assessment at its most valuable. Called assessment for learning, it supports learning in two ways:
Teachers can adapt instruction on the basis of evidence, making changes and improvements that will yield immediate benefits to student learning.
Students can use evidence of their current progress to actively manage and adjust their own learning. (Stiggins et al. 2006)
It is important to take cognizance of the learners’ abilities, interests and experience while choosing activities to grade them as part of formative assessment.
Give students a list of the learning targets they are responsible for mastering, written in student-friendly language.
Show students anonymous strong and weak examples of the kind of product or performance they are expected to create and have them use a scoring guide to determine which one is better and why.
Administer a non-graded quiz part-way through the learning, to help both teacher and students understand who needs to work on what.
Highlight phrases on a scoring guide reflecting specific strengths and areas for improvement and staple it to student work.
Have students identify their own strengths and areas for improvement using a scoring guide.
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Have students keep a list of learning targets for the course and periodically check off the ones they have mastered.
Models of language usage prove to be beneficial in improving the writings of the learners. Teachers can provide such models by sharing with the learners self-written stories, poems etc
A teachers’ trust in the learners’ writing abilities serves to boost their confidence in their writing abilities. The teachers must accept the learners’ attempts at writing and value their efforts. Creativity can’t be instilled. It can only be inspired / nurtured.
Give students feedback and have them use it to set goals.
Have students graph or describe their progress on specific learning targets.
When students use feedback from the teacher to learn how to self-assess and set goals, they increase ownership of their own success. In this type of assessment environment, teachers and students collaborate in an ongoing process using assessment information to improve rather than judge learning.
References- Alvarez, L. (2014). ‘Focusing Formative Assessment on the Needs of English Language Learners’ WestEd. Central Board of Secondary Education. (2009). ‘ Teachers’ Manual on Formative Assessment’. CBSE Chappuis, S. (2005). Is formative assessment losing its meaning? Education Week, 24(44), 38. Gayal, D.M. (2015).Continuous ComprehensivE evaluation: An Effective Evaluation Method in English Language Teaching in an Indian Context.
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International Journal of English Language, Literature and Translation Studies (IJELR), Vol.2.S.1.,2015, 121-134 Learning Point Associates. (2009). Connecting formative assessment research to practice: An introductory guide for educators. Chicago: Author. Available from http:// www.learningpt.org/pdfs/FormativeAssessment.pdf Noyce, P. E., & Hickey, D. T. (Eds.).(2011). New frontiers in formative assessment.Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. Richard, J.S. (2006). ‘On The Integration Of Formative Assessment In Teaching And Learning with Implications for Teacher Education’. Stanford University, USA. For the Stanford Education Assessment Laboratory and the University of Hawaii Curriculum Research and Development Group Shandilya, S. (2014).Perception of Teachers about Implementing CCE.Indian Journal of Experimentation and Innovation in Education. Volume 3, Issue 1 – January 2014 Stiggins, R., Arter, J., Chappuis, J., &Chappuis, S. (2006). Classroom assessment for student learning: Doing it right—using it well. Portland, OR: Educational Testing Service. Tan, K. (2013). A Framework for Assessment for Learning: Implications for Feedback Practices within and beyond the Gap. Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Academic Group, National Institute of Education, 1 Nanyang Walk,Singapore . Volume 2013 (2013), Article ID 640609, 6 pages. ****************************************************************
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Paper-15 ReviewingA Study the on Braille Relationship Basics in between Teaching: A PersonalityConceptual and Socio Framework Economic Status of Student Teachers Kavita Choudhary S. Prakash Dr. S. AmaladossDr. Rajesh Xavier. Kumar S. J.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 46 Reviewing the Braille Basics in Teaching: A Conceptual Framework
Kavita Choudhary7 Dr. Rajesh Kumar8 Abstract This is a theoretical paper which is initiated with an introduction of Braille. The investigators made an attempt to explain in detail the Braille system with special emphasis on Braille cell & its dimensions. Efforts are made to make aware the reader about how Braille was invented and developed. Further this paper imparts knowledge how to begin with Braille reading and writing. It also give essential information on grading of Braille. Mechanism to be followed for Braille reading and writing also highlighted in brief by the investigators in this paper. The every fragment of this paper shows the significance of Braille for the blinds and efforts to be made for successful braille reader and writer. Further the evaluation of braille in India is overviewed while concluding the paper. The paper concludes with essence to Braille for the education of blinds.
Keywords- Braille, Reading and Writing, Braille Cell and Braille System.
Introduction-
Braille is a raised dots system of reading and writing for blinds. Braille is a script which is a substitution of print for blinds. It compensates to a great extent the print for supporting the literacy of blinds. Stakeholders for blinds read the Braille visually. It is indispensable means of literacy for the blind population. Braille is a seven line system. It constitutes of letters of alphabets, punctuation values and part or whole contracted words.
7 Research Scholar, Department of Teacher Training and Non-Formal Education (IASE), Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi-110025, E-mail ID: [email protected] 8 Assistant Professor, Dept. of Education, D.C.M.S., Raipur, C.G., E-mail ID: [email protected] Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 47
There were the luminaries who relentlessly worked for evolving a common Braille code for Indian languages such as Dr. Neelkanth Rai Dahiyabhai Chatrapati who first conceived the idea of a Universal Braille System, Shri P.M. Advani, a staunch advocate of uniformity between Braille scripts for many languages in India, Shri R.M. Alpaiwalla, founder president of the National Association for the Blind and an ardent advocate of uniformity, Dr.Suniti Kumar Chatterjee, a distinguished linguist who lent his helping hand in studying the needs of the various regional languages of India, Shri lal Advani, the first Director of the National Institute for the Visually Handicapped, Dehra dun, and a World authority on the education and rehabilitation of the handicapped.
Methodology-
The present study is pursued on the basis of under mentioned methodology widely practiced in teaching in India.
This seven line system is outlined as follows-
1. The first line of Braille system consists of first ten letters of alphabets i.e., a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j and these alphabets are formed within the upper part of Braille cell by using dot 1,2,4,5.When preceded by the numeric indicators which is dots 3,4,5,6.These cells have number values. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 a b c d e f g h i j ⠁⠀⠃⠀⠉⠀⠙⠀⠑⠀⠋⠀⠛⠀⠓⠀⠊⠀⠚⠀ 2. In the second line we add dot 3 to each characters of line 1 which means in the second line the characters are formed by using dot 1,2,4,5,3.The letters of alphabets which are covered in line second are k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t. k l m n o p q r s t
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⠅⠀⠇⠀⠍⠀⠝⠀⠕⠀⠏⠀⠟⠀⠗⠀⠎⠀⠞ 3. In the third line letters of alphabets and combination of alphabets covered are u, v, x, y, z, and, for, of, the, with. These are formed by adding dots 3&6 to each characters of first line respectively. u v x y z and for of the with ⠥⠀⠧⠀⠭⠀⠽⠀⠵⠀⠯⠀ ⠿ ⠀⠷ ⠀⠮⠀ ⠾⠀ 4. In the fourth line letters of alphabets and combination of alphabets covered are ch, gh, sh, th, wh, ed, er, ou, ow, w. These are formed by adding dots 6 to each characters of first line respectively. ch gh sh th wh ed er ou ow w ⠡ ⠣ ⠩ ⠹ ⠱ ⠫ ⠻ ⠳ ⠪ ⠺ 5. The fifth line of Braille system consists of most of the punctuation values besides letters of alphabets combinations i.e., comma, semi-colon, colon, full stop, en, exclamatory sign, bracket opening and closing sign, opening double quotation mark; question mark “, question mark sign?, in, closing double quotation mark” and these punctuation values and letters of alphabets combination are formed within the lower part of Braille cell by using dot 2,3,5,6. In this line we shift line 1 dots by one cell below. , ; : . en ! ( ) “/? in ” ⠂ ⠆ ⠒ ⠲ ⠢ ⠖ ⠶ ⠦ ⠔ ⠴ 6. In the line six of Braille system st, ing, #, ar, apostrophe sign, and hyphen are covered. These are formed by using dots 3,4,5,6. st ing # ar apostrophe hyphen ⠌ ⠬ ⠼ ⠜ ⠄ ⠤ 7. Braille system seventh line covers general accent sign, used for two cell contraction, italic sign, decimal sign, letter sign, and capital letter sign. These are formed by using dots 4, 5, 6.
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general accent sign used for 2cell contraction italic; decimal sign letter sign capital letter
⠈ ⠘ ⠸⠐ ⠨ ⠰ ⠠
Below is seven line Braille system-
Line 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
a b c d e f g h i j ⠁⠀⠃⠀⠉⠀⠙⠀⠑⠀⠋⠀⠛⠀⠓⠀⠊⠀⠚⠀
Line 2 k l m n o p q r s t
⠅⠀⠇⠀⠍⠀⠝⠀⠕⠀⠏⠀⠟⠀⠗⠀⠎⠀⠞
Line 3 u v x y z and for of the with
⠥⠀⠧⠀⠭⠀⠽⠀⠵⠀⠯⠀ ⠿ ⠀⠷ ⠀⠮⠀ ⠾⠀
Line 4 ch gh sh th wh ed er ou ow w
⠡ ⠣ ⠩ ⠹ ⠱ ⠫ ⠻ ⠳ ⠪ ⠺
Line 5 , ; : . en ! ( ) “/? in ”
⠂ ⠆ ⠒ ⠲ ⠢ ⠖ ⠶ ⠦ ⠔ ⠴
Line 6 st ing # ar apostrophe hyphen
⠌ ⠬ ⠼ ⠜ ⠄ ⠤
Line 7 general accent sign used for 2cell contraction italic; decimal sign letter sign capital letter
⠈ ⠘ ⠸⠐ ⠨ ⠰ ⠠
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Besides above mentioned configurations, these punctuation and letter values have other meanings when used in conjunction with different Braille characters.
These six dots embossed in a cell which is known as Braille cell and also represents Braille symbol. This Braille cell is the basis of Braille. A single Braille cell consists of six raised dots, forming two parallel rows having three dots in each row of this quadrangular Braille cell. These dots are evenly arranged in Braille cell. By arranging the combinations of these raised dots letters, sentences, numbers, calculations, punctuation marks can be formed and performed. Maximum six dots can be embossed in each Braille cell and 63 different characters can be formed. Braille font has uniformity in spacing which means very formed character occupies the same space.
The arrangement of dots in the Braille cell is as follows: Among two vertical parallel rows in left row - Top dot is dot 1, below dot 1 is dot 2, and bottom dot is dot 3 and in right row - top dot is dot 4, below dot 4 is dot 5 and bottom dot is dot 6.It means top left dot is dot 1 and top right dot is dot 4, middle left dot is dot 2 and middle right dot is dot 5, and bottom left dot is dot 3 and bottom right dot is dot 6.
The Braille Dimensions: As per ADA (the Americans with Disabilities Act)
Minimum in Inches Measurement Range Maximum in Inches 0.059 (1.5 mm) to 0.063 (1.6 Dot base diameter mm) 0.090 (2.3 mm) to 0.100 (2.5 Distance between two dots in the same cell mm) 0.241 (6.1 mm) to 0.300 (7.6 Distance between corresponding dots in adjacent cells mm) 0.025 (0.6 mm) to 0.037 (0.9 Dot height mm) Distance between corresponding dots from one cell directly 0.395 (10 mm) to 0.400 (10.2 below mm) Measured center to center.
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(Source:http://www.ada.gov/regs2010/2010ADAStandards/2010ADAstandards.htm#mcenter)
Development of Braille-
Valentin Hauy, Dr.William Moon, Charles Barbier, Louis Braille, William Wait, Francisco Lucas of Sargossa, Girolamo Cardano, Rampensetto of Rome, Pierre Moreau, Schonberger of Konigsberg, George Hardorffer of Nuremburg, Didymus of Alaxandria and Samuel howe are some of the historical figures who played a significant role in the inventing and developing of various methods which finally leads to development of Braille.
Braille system was developed by Louis Braille who was born on 4th January 1809 in Coupvray, a small French village 25 miles east of Paris. (France).His father was a cobbler and made saddles for horses. While playing in his father’s workshop Louis badly injured his one of the eyes at the age of 3 years. The infection from one eye spread to his other eye due to which he lost his vision and became blind.
Louis Braille system of raised dots was the modification of the raised dot system invented by Charles Barbier. In 1821, Charles Barbier de la serre visited Louis school to apprise about his invention. Barbier was an artillery captain in the French Army who had invented a system for militaries to communicate at night without a sound. Barbier’s system was not devised as a medium for literacy for the blinds. His system combined 12 dots to represent sounds and he
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 52 called it sonography. It is also referred to as "night writing." He believed his invention could be valuable to the blind. Louis Braille modified the Barbier’s raised dot system by reducing it from twelve dot cell to six dots, two columns of three dots each. Even though raised dot system was introduced by Charles Barbier but perfected by Louis Braille in 1824.In 1827 the first Braille book was published. Louis perfected the raised dot system for educating blind population and allowing them to communicate effectively therefore, this six dots raised system is named after Louis Braille. Louis Braille passed away on 6th January 1852 at the age of 45 years. Braille was not recognized as a way of reading and writing until 1918 and unfortunately Louis did not live to see Braille used widely.
Reading and Writing of Braille-
Braille reading and writing are the significant skills to be acquired by blinds for their language development. Braille reading and writing necessitates regular practice. These skills compensate limitations of the blinds which is caused by loss of sight in their education and communication to an extent.
Braille reading is preceded by Braille writing. Braille reading and writing includes Pre-Braille reading and writing readiness skills which are also referred as Readiness Skills or pre requisite skills or Braille Mechanism. Before we introduce the Braille reading and writing to the Braille beginners we need to develop readiness skills among them. By Braille Mechanism we mean efficient movement of the hands and fingers over the Braille line. The Braille beginner who do not develop better Braille mechanism just butterfly over the Braille sheet which leads to slow reading scrubbing. Tactual discrimination activities need to be performed for proper Braille Mechanism.
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Mostly Braille slate and stylus is used for Braille writing. Braille writing using Braille slate and stylus requires enormous muscle control, and thus, it cannot be introduced as early as writing with the mechanical Braille writer. The hand positioning of proper handling of slate and stylus is very critical and requires continuous practice to overcome the difficulty which is faced by Braille reading and writing beginners in the early days .In holding the stylus, the forefingers should be squarely placed over the top of the stylus resting the area between the knuckle and the first joint of the forefingers with rest of the finger over the edge and pointed down the stylus shaft. The slate should rest on a firm surface at a lower left to upper right angle. This whole mechanism would be difficulty for the Braille beginners in early days of learning. The Braille beginners must be aware of and familiar with the dots configuration of the words which are written. Unless the beginner has the ability to read braille words, cannot check what is written. Because of these important factors, braille writing is followed by braille reading.
For effective and fast Braille writing, the left hand should always identify the braille cell while the right hand punches the letter in the previous cell. The stylus and the left hand should be placed on the consecutive cells. By this the left hand is assisting the right hand to identify the correct dot in the braille cell. While writing, the stylus should be held vertically. Tilting the stylus may make holes in the braille paper which may not bring neatness to the braille writing work.
The necessary Pre-Braille reading skills are as follows-
1. Develop of sense of touch for tactile discrimination. Tactile discrimination helps in recognizing the different shapes, patterns, diagrams and figures etc.
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2. Carry out Pre-Braille activities for tactual discrimination to discriminate between big & small, rough & smooth, soft & hard, heavy & light weighted etc.,. 3. Perform the activities for developing concepts related to position and space. 4. Familiarize the child with books by the means of activities. 5. Create awareness among the beginners of Braille reading and writing about the most comfortable pad area of finger to support correct Braille reading. 6. Pre-Braille reading exercises to be carried out for accuracy in Braille reading. 7. Develop figure dexterity for movement of the hands from the left to the right of the page for Braille reading. 8. Develop Pre-Braille worksheets with various combinations of dots. Leave cells in between continuation of lines to develop, space cell concept. 9. Develop the Braille mechanism among the beginners of Braille reading. 10. Create motivation to read Braille and ability to associate the Braille reading with concrete example of real life. 11. Develop the concept of body and space awareness. 12. Provide information about various directions. 13. Create time and object awareness. 14. Develop flash cards of letters, words and sentences. 15. Label in Braille different objects, articles and material which are in contact of Braille beginners. 16. Develop hand strength for reaching, grasping, releasing and manipulating toys and materials. 17. Develop embossed diagrams to stimulate the braille beginners’ interest to read the braille material.
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18. Short stories and poems in Braille can be done for differentiating the lines in terms of length, dots configurations, etc.
Technique of Braille Reading-
1. Use both forefingers for reading Braille 2. Read Braille with the tips of the fingers. 3. Fingers should be slightly bent and wrist should be slightly elevated 4. Fingers should be slightly curved and resting lightly on the reading material 5. Lightness of touch is stressed and the scrubbing of dots (up and downward movements of reading fingers) should be discouraged. 6. While the right hand moves through the braille line, the left hand should follow from left to right. 7. When right hand reaches the end of the line, the left hand should retrace the line, which was just read and identify the beginning of the next line. Then the right hand which is at the right corner of the previous line will be brought to the position of the left hand in a diagonal manner and the process continues. 8. Most people read Braille with the right index finger, using the left index finger to read part of the Braille line or as a marker at the left margin to help find the next line. 9. To develop the Braille mechanism, certain tactual discrimination activities should be undertaken. 10. Start with Grade I Braille only. 11. First Braille word introduced to the child should be a familiar word. 12. Sentence-Word-Letter method of teaching Braille reading is recommended, sentence should be introduced to the child at the outset.
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13. Once a child is able to analyze the sentence, words of the sentences should be given in pieces. 14. When the child is able to understand sentence and words completely, he should be encouraged to break words into characters. 15. The analysis would help him to understand configuration of each character which is very essential for a blind child to understand.
The necessary Pre-Braille writing skills are as follows-
1. Develop finger manipulation skills 2. Develop fine motor coordination and control of muscles. 3. Introduce with Braille slate and stylus. 4. Explaining the meaning of Braille Cell. 5. Elucidate about Braille paper and locking mechanism of paper in Braille slate. 6. Illustrate the punching of Braille dots. 7. Develop ability to recognize and read the familiar Braille words. 8. Explain that Braille is written from right to left and read from left to right.
Technique of Braille Writing-
1. Ask the child to punch all the dots. 2. Teach easiest formations, to begin with. 3. Left hand should identify the Braille cells while the right hand punches the dots in the previous cells. 4. Stylus should be held vertically. 5. Left hand and the stylus which is held in the right hand should be held consequently 6. It helps in identifying the correct dots.
Braille Grading-
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The Braille reading and writing is classified into three level namely Grade I, Grade II, and Grade III. This is classified on the basis of difficulty level and its complexity.
Grade I Braille-
It is the first of the grades of Braille Grading It is also known as Uncontracted Braille because single cell represents each print alphabet or character in a braille cell and cannot represent contracted words or abbreviations in this grade of Braille. Grade 1 Braille is especially for the Braille beginners, who are new to learning the grades of Braille. Sometimes we call it as Open-Braille as well. For example: house, the word house will occupies five braille cells to write house.
Table-01
(Retrieved from http://www.omniglot.com/writing/braille.htm)
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Table-02
(Retrieved from http://www.omniglot.com/writing/braille.htm) Grade 2 Braille- It is second level of Braille reading and writing. It is also known as Contracted Braille because the words or part of words characters contracted. It is for those who have learned the grade 1 Braille (uncontracted braille). In this grade few letters of a word or whole word is combined and punched in a single braille cell. A single Braille cell also represents a meaningful word. It is practiced by the experienced users of Braille grade1. It helps in saving time and space for writing braille. Because of the emergence of Grade 2 braille the books, newspapers and magazines became light weighted in comparison to grade 1 braille books etc. Contracted (Grade 2) Braille-
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Table-03
(Retrieved from https://brailleworks.com/braille-resources/what-is-braille/) Grade 3 Braille- The last of the grades of Braille is grade 3.It is the complex form of grade .It is a system of Braille shorthand. Because it has not been officially standardized, it is not used in publications. Instead, it is typically used by individuals for their own personal convenience such as for personal letters, diaries, and notes, and also in literature to a limited extent. In addition, the amount of spacing between words and paragraphs is minimized in order to shorten the length of the final document. It also sometimes substitutes combinations of punctuation symbols for words.
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Word Analysis and Word Synthesis Skills-
Word Analysis and Word Synthesis Skills follow a specific logic in Braille learning. In Word Analysis Skills means when some words are given to the child on flash cards which are written in braille. Each flash card carries single word. When the child reads the words again and again, then the child will be able to analysis the each letter of the word even if the words are separated. It further helps to enhance the understanding of dots configuration each character or letter of the word. If the same word will come in any sentence which the child has learned and understood its dots configuration, the child will be able to recognize that familiar word.
Word Synthesis Skills means the skills in which the new meaningful words are formed from the exiting familiar words by the means of rearrangement of letters of words or by regrouping them. With rigorous practice the children will be able to develop and enhance their vocabulary skills by using these new words in various sentences.
‘Sentence-Word-letter’ Method of Braille-
Letters are taught only at the end and not at the beginning .This Technique is highly desirable to enable the flow in braille reading. In order to avoid the scrubbing habit of the child ‘sentence-word-letter’ approach should be taught to the child. It will help the child to recognize the letter through forms and not by positions of dots. This contributes to rapid and efficient reading of braille.
1. Sentence Method: In this method the child is exposed to small sentences with varying construction. In these sentences few common words are repeated in each sentence. The child memorizes these sentences by rote. By sufficient reading and rote the child becomes familiar to few words further analysis the common words used in these sentences.
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2. Word Method: In this method the child is exposed to various meaningful words. These words carries few similar letters which are repeated in two or more words in a single line. When the children move their finger on the lines for reading words they will be able to analyze the similar letter which are repeated in various words. Analysis of individual letters can be done later on when the children are able to recognize the whole word configuration. 3. Letter Method: It is also known as Synthetic method. In this method the children learns to recognize the individual letters and then combines them into a complete word.
Braille in India-
In 1922, Shri P.M. Advani in front of central advisory board of education presented his idea for Braille common codes throughout the country. In 1923, in Bombay a report submitted to review the existing Braille script. In 1936 & 1938, again the meeting was organized discussing in central advisory board of education for formulation of common braille code. In 1941, to discuss the above said matter a committee of 14 members was formed to work upon it with guidelines provided by advisory board. In 1943, script of uniform Indian Braille Code was formed on the principle of “concurrent sequences” which was circulated to all state Government and institution for blinds. In 1945, the central advisory board of education gave approval to above said script on the favorable comments received from various sources. Under the chairmanship of Lt. col. Sir Clutha Mackenzie “Standard Indian Braille” was formed due to the great opposition from the “enlightened” blind towards uniform Indian Braille.
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In 1948, In Bombay during the provincial conference of the Blind the “Uniform Indian Braille” was rejected due to the controversy among two groups who formed Uniform Indian Braille and Standard Indian Braille. Declared the support of former group for a code base on the principle of traditional Braille. In 1949, further the Government of India in the Ministry of Education decided to refer the matter regarding braille code to UNESCO for dispassionate and impartial study. Lt. Col. Clutha Mackenzie was appointed by UNESCO to survey the world Braille situation. Subsequently to consider the survey report an advisory committee met in December 1949, in Paris and concluded that a Uniform World System is needed. In 1950, during March in Paris, An international Braille Conference was convened to discuss the above matter with more representative body. The Government of India accepted the recommendations of the Paris Conference. It appointed an expert committee to frame a national code in the light of these recommendations. The tentative code thus framed was presented at a regional conference convened by UNESCO at Beirut Conference. It was found that certain adjustment in the tentative code were desirable in order to achieve affinity between the Indian code and those of Shri Lanka and Malaysia. Accordingly the tentative code was revised to fit these requirements and what emerged was the final common code for India to be called “Bharti Braille”. The Government of India approved this code in April 1951 and it was adopted for general use in the country.
By the year 1947 when India gained her freedom, there were ten different Braille codes being used in different schools for the blind across the country which were as follows- Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 63
Tamil Braille of Miss Askwith Oriental Braille by Reverend J. Knowles and Mr. L. Garth Waite Shah Braille Code Indian Braille of Doctor Neelkanth Rai Dahiyabhai Chatrapati Mysore and Kannada Code Sindhi Braille Code of Mr. P.M. Advani Shirreff Braille Chatterjee Braille Code Uniform Indian Braille Code framed by the Expert Braille Committee of the Central Advisory Board of Education Standard Indian Braille Code framed by an Informal Committee under the Chairmanship of Lt. Col. Sir Clutha Mackenzie, Commandant, St. Dunstan’s Hostel for Indian War Blinded which later culminated into NIVH. Due to relentless work of many luminaries today in India we have Braille script in 14 regional languages which includes Hindi, Sanskrit, Marathi, Gujarati, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Punjabi (Gurumukhi), Urdu, English. Devanagari is a common script for Hindi, Sanskrit and Marathi language.
Conclusion-
In the conclusion we can say that emergence of braille in teaching did not happen automatically with an ease but it took years to get recognition. Many historical figures contributed their efforts to development of Braille however it was perfected by Louis Braille. The Braille reading and writing has a systematic approach with needs to be adopted in order to get perfection in braille. It requires rigorous practice proceeded by various braille activities which are per requisite to braille reading and writing. The braille mechanism should be kept in
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 64 mind in the beginning of braille reading and writing. The sequences of learning braille method should be followed from sentence to words then to letters for getting accuracy in Braille. Due to relentless work of many luminaries today in India we have Braille script in 14 regional languages which includes Hindi, Sanskrit, Marathi, Gujarati, Tamil, Telugu, Kannad, Malayalam, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Punjabi (Gurumukhi), Urdu, English,.
References-
Ahuja, Swarna. (2004).Bharti Braille Shikshak (Hindi). Mumbai: National Association for the Blind, India (Education Department). Mani, M.N.G. (1992). Techniques of teaching blind children. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Nijhawan, R.C. (1992). Teaching of Braille. Handbook for the teachers of the visually Handicapped, Dehradun: Teachers Training Unit, NIVH. Nijhawan, R.C. (1992). Reading systems for the blind. Handbook for the teachers of the visually Handicapped, Dehradun: Teachers Training Unit, NIVH. Punani, Bhushan and Rawal, Nandini (2000). Visual Impairment. Handbook. Ahmedabad: Harish M. Panchal, Gujarat. Sharma, Sushama. (1992). A common braille script for India.. Handbook for the teachers of the visually Handicapped, Dehradun: Teachers Training Unit, NIVH. Retrieved from https://nfb.org/images/nfb/publications/fr/fr15/issue1/f150113.html on April 25, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.blind.state.ia.us/educators/how-read-or-write- Braille on April 25, 2016.
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Retrieved from http://www.afb.org/info/living-with-vision- loss/Braille/what-is-Braille/123 Retrieved from http://www.Brailleauthority.org/sizespacingofBraille/sizespacingofBraille .pdf on April 26, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.compliancesigns.com/media/resource- bulletins/CRB-ADA-Braille.pdf on April 26, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.pharmaBraille.com/pharmaceutical- Braille/marburg-medium-font-standard/ on April 26, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.ada.gov/regs2010/2010ADAStandards/2010ADAstandards.ht m on April 26, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.nise.go.jp/kenshuka/josa/kankobutsu/pub_a/nise_a-8/nise_a- 8_1.pdf on April 26, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.afb.org/louisBraillemuseum/Braillegallery.asp?GalleryID=45 on April 26, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.branah.com/Braille-translator on April 26, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.ie/sites/default/files/All_About_Braille_FINAL_3.pdf on April 26, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.acb.org/tennessee/braille.html on April 26, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.rnib.org.uk/braille-and-other-tactile-codes- portal-braille-codes/uncontracted-grade-1-braille-explained on April 26, 2016. Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 66
Retrieved from http://www.elearnrci.com/resources/courses/1/1/sm04_Assistive%20devi ces%20for%20children%20with%20visual%20impairment.pdf on April 26, 2016. Retrieved from https://brailleworks.com/braille-resources/what-is-braille/ April 26, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.omniglot.com/writing/braille.htm April 26, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.pib.nic.in/newsite/backgrounders.aspx?relid=68832 May 2, 2016 ****************************************************************
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Paper-16 ICT integrationA Study on in Relationship education for between supporting Personalityknowledge aconstructionnd Socio Economic and developing Status o f knowledgeStudent workers Teachers at schools: The affordances and the constraints dominating S. Prakash the Indian context Dr. S. Amaladoss Xavier. S. J. Sutapa Bose
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 68 ICT integration in education for supporting knowledge construction and developing knowledge workers at schools: The affordances and the constraints dominating the Indian context Sutapa Bose9 Abstract The National Policy on ICT use in schools (2012) envisions effective use of ICT for developing future knowledge workers. Therefore, it makes ICT use in education, instrumental for developing knowledge workers. So as to concretize the idea of “development of knowledge workers” this article refers to relevant literature and draws out from it the competencies defining knowledge workers and the pedagogies that are better suited for the development of the competencies. Thereafter it states that the inadequacies in teacher preparation and limited access to ICT at schools, can although be construed as the primary challenges to the fulfillment of the vision of the national policy, there are more such constraints. Having depicted some of them, it attempts to identify the emerging affordances in the school situation and construes them as opportunities for the vision fulfillment. It infers that along with the challenges the opportunities too merit serious consideration in India for fulfilling the policy vision. Key words- ICT integration; knowledge construction; constraints; affordances Introduction- The vision of India’s national policy on ICT in schools (2012) is that “the youth is prepared to participate creatively in the establishment, sustenance and growth of knowledge society leading to socioeconomic development of the nation and global competitiveness” (p.3). In order to fulfill the vision, the Policy has many
9 School of Education, IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110068 [email protected] Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 69 requirements like optimum utilization of ICT for collaborative activities leading to the creation and sharing of localized and digitized resources, the development of professional networks of teachers, resource persons and schools to catalyse and support resource sharing, continuing education of teachers for providing support to students, among others. The Policy therefore considers ICT use to be a precondition for developing knowledge workers. It also calls for technology integration into the instructional system of schools for fulfilling the twin objectives of enhancing the quality of education and developing knowledge workers. This naturally requires a critical examination of teacher preparation strategies as well as of the access to ICT. However, there are also other aspects that may afford or constrain the fulfillment of the policy visions and with the focus on the constraints that are construed as threats to the vision fulfillment, the affordances are often overlooked.
Among the constraints, teacher preparation although remains much criticized and institutional access to ICT is still considered to be a serious challenge, there are many more factors that are potent for impeding the fulfillment of the policy vision and hence, deserve due consideration. At the same time affordances for ICT integration are also emerging in India. However, it is easy to project the challenges in a credible manner as there is a plethora of empirical evidences to support the projections. The literature indicating the affordances for ICT integration is relatively less but it is adequate for drawing inferences that ICT integration may not after all be impossible to achieve. In the backdrop of the policy requirement and the emerging affordances as well as constraints to policy implementation, this article defines knowledge age competencies by referring to the relevant literature and draws out from it the competencies required by knowledge workers as well as the pedagogies that are better suited for the development of the competencies, so as to concretize the idea of “development of knowledge workers”. Thereafter in the perspective of these aspects it Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 70 proposes that while there are serious challenges, apart from those posed by teacher preparation strategies and restricted access to ICT at schools, there are also affordances that can be turned into opportunities for the vision fulfillment. It describes some of these challenges as well as the affordances and underscores the need for focusing on both.
Developing knowledge workers-
The idea of developing knowledge workers comprises two concepts, one is of knowledge workers and the other is of their development. Hence the former looks for certain well defined competencies, possession of which, will qualify one to be deemed as a knowledge worker. The latter focuses on the means for developing the competencies, in other words, the pedagogy suited for the development of the competencies. The literature on these aspects has therefore been reviewed and the competencies as well as the pedagogies have been drawn out from the literature.
Definition of knowledge workers- One way to define a knowledge worker is by the competencies s/he requires. In a knowledge society information, ideas and knowledge gain importance over land, labour and capital, the mainstay of the industrial age. Therefore, information and knowledge are at the centre of economic growth and development and the ability to produce and use information effectively is vital for knowledge workers (OECD, 2000e). Apart from this competency, which is generic in nature, ICT skills are also important in the knowledge age as a knowledge society, which is shaped by ICT, is highly interrelated and interdependent (Pons, 2010). Further, as ICT mediated interconnectedness is central to a knowledge society, technical literacy, which comprises the skills for using ICT skills is valued. Hence, skills from the higher echelons like those for collaboratively creating and sharing knowledge presume ICT use for these
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 71 processes and hence presume technical literacy. India’s national policy on ICT in schools (2012) also envisions ICT use for carrying out the functions required in a knowledge society and therefore it is implicit that skills for using ICT are necessary.
Competencies beyond technical literacy are also required so that ICT use is not limited to purposes like seeking information but is used for applying and creating knowledge (UNESCO, 2011). The National policy on ICT use in schools also affirms it. Hence, children need to learn to advance knowledge with processes like theorizing, inventing, innovating and designing in collaborative way (Moreno, 2005; Tan, Hung & Scardamalia., 2006) and as future knowledge workers they need to develop abilities like autonomy, innovation, lifelong learning, abilities for collaboration and use of technology for creating shared understanding (Drucker, 1999; Tan, Hung & Scardimalia, 2006). As collaboration gains significance over competition and individualised functioning in the knowledge age, Stasz (2000, as cited in OECD, 2000e) says that there is a strong need for interpersonal skills for effective team work, ability to collaborate for pursuing common objectives, leadership abilities; intrapersonal skills with the motivation and the ability to learn, problem solving skills, capacity for effective communication, analyzing information; and technological or ICT skills. From these assertions it can be inferred that the knowledge workers are different from the workers of an industrial or agrarian society and they need to possess not just knowledge but also competencies that enable them to use ICT for collaboratively seeking, sharing and creating knowledge.
Pedagogies suitable for developing knowledge society competencies- The competencies for collaborative learning with ICT being the fundamental requirement of the knowledge age, the pedagogies underpinned by learning
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 72 theories that emphasize the essentiality of the societal context in learning, will take precedence over those allowing transmission of decontextualised information. This calls for pedagogies that do not fill minds with information but help minds to construct knowledge collaboratively (UNESCO, 2002). Hence the focus has to shift from pedagogies supporting knowledge acquisition to those for collaborative knowledge application as well as creation. Teachers, free from the obligation of information transmission are therefore expected to support collaborative learning practices. Therefore, in a knowledge society the focus of education needs to be on learning, as development of human capabilities that are fundamentally social and socio-technical where innovation, knowledge creation and communication are the key to individual as well as social development, against the tradition of transmitting knowledge into the minds of the learners followed during the industrial age (Tuomi, 2008). The UNESCO (2002) therefore considers the traditional approach to teaching and learning unsuitable in the present age and refers to the tradition of teaching through lectures as the factory model of education whereby huge numbers of learners are prepared for low skilled jobs by teachers who act as knowledge repositories and are transmitters of information for filling up the deficits in knowledge. In the knowledge age, education needs to overcome such ‘mind-as- container’ metaphor and acknowledge the capability of mind of sustaining knowledgeable, intelligent behaviour without amassing information and the need for knowledge building along with learning (Bereiter, 2002). Thus there is an epistemological shift as knowledge is no longer considered as a fixed product for filling minds through didactic linear transmission but is conceived as a dynamic entity which is continually constructed and reconstructed through experience (Dewey, 2015). Pons (2010) also says that traditional education causes educational engineering, whereby learning is conceived as a closed, manipulable and evaluable process and teachers have all the authority and
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 73 responsibility for education, while the constructivist view of learning sets a different educational culture with initiative and authority being shared by teaching staff and students for knowledge construction and is therefore a need of the knowledge age schools.
Technology integration and collaborative learning can be intertwined as ICT has the potential to support collaboration. The learner centered pedagogies require ICT use to help learners access vast knowledge resources, collaborate with others, consult with experts, share knowledge, and solve complex problems using cognitive tools and also provide learners with powerful new tools to represent their knowledge with text, images, graphics, and video (UNESCO, 2002), while ICT use in traditional approaches only supports the transmission but encourages individualised learning, failing to tap the potential of technology for interactive and collaborative learning (Laurilard, 1993; 2000; Oliver & Herrington, 2003). Therefore there is a need for the recognition of the potential of ICT, which as per Dias (1999); Jarvela, Hakkarainen, Lipponen, & Lehtinen (2001) can support collaborative knowledge construction, for instance through the use of Web 2.0 technologies that support collaborative learning and learners' engagement within digital learning environments (Boulos, Inocencio, & Wheeler, 2006; McLoughlin & Lee, 2007). ICT integrated teaching is thus the key to developing knowledge workers. The affordances and constraints to these processes are therefore significant.
Affordances for technology integration-
Several factors enhance the possibility of vision fulfillment. Some of these factors are:
Availability of a framework for guiding technology integration-
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There is the availability of a framework for guiding technology integration and there is also growing awareness about the framework. The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework (Koehler & Mishra, 2009; Mishra & Koehler, 2006, 2008) guides the integration of technological knowledge with pedagogical and content knowledge. The framework helps with the integration of technology into teaching and learning in meaningful ways (Bull & Bell, 2009) that are contextually authentic and pedagogically appropriate (Abbitt, 2011). TPACK has become a widely referenced conceptual framework within teacher education (Hammond & Manfra, 2009). Hence, technology integration has a theoretical underpinning with clear directions for developing an ICT integrated teaching-learning strategy. Growing access to mobile technology- India is likely to have 314 million mobile Internet users by end of 2017 from 159 million users at present (Srivastava, 2015) and with third largest smart phone market in the world, India is expected to reach 314 million mobile internet users by 2017 (Mallya, 2015). These are only some of the reports indicating growing access to technology in India. Though the access is at the individual level and there are no reports to indicate similar growth pattern of access to ICT at school level, nevertheless, it is a positive sign so far as ICT integration is concerned as it is likely to support the development of the skills required for ICT use as well as the attitude.
Growing ability to use technology- The growing access to technology indicates the growing capacity for using ICT. Besides as mentioned on the website of the National digital literacy mission, the Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (DISHA) or National Digital Literacy Mission (NDLM) Scheme has been formulated to impart IT training to 52.5 lakh persons, including Anganwadi and many other category of workers in all the States/UTs across the country so that the non-IT literate citizens are trained to Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 75 become IT literate. Digital literacy is also one of the thrust areas identified by the Department of Information Technology for women and this is clearly articulated in the department’s website. In-service teacher training also focuses on the development of ICT skills. Hence, apart from the ability to use ICT, the inhibition for ICT use is also likely to be on the wane.
Decrease in curricular load- Following the development and implementation of the National Curriculum Framework of India in 2005, the curriculum followed at the primary level of schools focuses on joyful learning and to make it a reality the curricular load has been substantially reduced. Therefore, the availability of the time required for planning and using ICT in teaching-learning processes is likely to be more at least at the primary level of school education.
Constraints for ICT integration-
There are several factors that can be construed as constraints to ICT integration. Some of them are:
Teacher preparation - Teachers who have themselves been converted into knowledge workers by teacher education institutions are more likely to develop knowledge workers when they teach in schools. Therefore they need to be taught through the very pedagogies that they are expected to practice at schools. Further they need to be equipped with the knowledge age competencies they are expected to develop in children. This is because teachers are more likely to teach the way they have been taught (Bigge & Hunt, 1980; Hargreaves, 2003). Therefore, adoption of didactic practices at teacher education institutions put at risk the adoption of pedagogies at schools that are not didactic. Didactic practices are however common in teacher education institutions (Scott, 2008). The NCFTE (2009) of
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India too expresses concern over the prevalence of didactic approaches during teacher education.
Regarding the competence for integrating ICT in education, the same adage that teachers teach the way they have been taught applies. Hence a teacher who has learnt about ICT and has seldom been taught thorough ICT is unlikely to develop the competencies required for ensuring learning through ICT. The reason for this apprehension is that the teacher education curriculum framework of India still insists on the teaching a course on ICT and makes no suggestions for infusing ICT in the entire teacher education curriculum, while the UNESCO (2002) recommends that ICT be infused into the entire teacher education programme in order to enable teachers to develop the ability to integrate ICT. The UNESCO is also strongly critical of attempting to develop such abilities through an isolated course on ICT as it teaches ‘about ICT’ but not ‘through ICT”. The UNESCO (2011) therefore requires the development of ICT competencies in the context of the major activities carried out by teachers. The curriculum framework followed in India for teacher preparation however follows a radically different approach that does not suggest the mechanisms for learning to use ICT for solving real-world problems, accessing, managing and communicating information, integrating appropriate tools, applications, digital resources and networks and managing own learning during teacher education. The competency based curriculum as sought by the UNESCO (2002; 2011) that makes student –teachers ‘do’ rather than merely ‘know’ is not in vogue in India even today.
Reasonable access to ICTs is also important for the acquisition of competence with hardware and soft ware (UNESCO, 2002) but even when these facilities are available they may remain underutilized or even unutilized as the curriculum framework does not suggest the mechanisms for activity based learning with
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ICT tools. This makes teacher preparation strategy a challenge to ICT integration in education at schools
Access to ICT- The pedagogic shift required in knowledge society schools undoubtedly requires schools to possess the required ICT tools. Indian classrooms have besides this constraint many others that may impede the adoption of these practices. One such impediment is the high student–teacher ratio (Jha, 2012) that in-spite of the Right to Education mandate on this aspect, remains high in many schools. It is unrealistic to expect ICT integrated teaching and learning in classrooms with huge number of students. Further schools also have infrastructural inadequacies (Dhar, 2012). These inadequacies get compounded with limited access to technology. Students and teachers must have sufficient access to digital technologies and the Internet in their classrooms and schools and ICTs will improve learning very little if teachers and students have only rare and occasional access to the tools for learning and high quality, meaningful, and culturally responsive digital content must be available for teachers and learners (UNESCO, 2002). Besides, there is although no empirical evidence about the outcomes of the smart classes created in several schools, there are isolated reports of techno centric approaches that focus mainly on the technology in isolation from the content to be taught and the pedagogy to be followed at smart classrooms. There is therefore an apprehension that static content recorded in CDs and DVDs is used and reused for the purpose of information transmission and not for knowledge creation. There are also reports on India’s low Internet penetration and internet facilities not being widely available (Internet Live Stats, 2014). Even when it is available, the speed is often too less for data sharing in various modes and media as India’s broadband penetration is very low and even in terms of ICT access, its use and its skills, India ranks 129th among 166 countries and against Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 78 the target of achieving 175 million broadband connections by 2017, only 85.74 million have been achieved with the current download speed of only 512 kbps (Business Standard, April 18, 2015).
It is not difficult to make out that even though ICT access is increasing rapidly but many schools are still grappling for basic facilities like an adequate infrastructure and hence are nowhere close to acquiring high speed broadband facilities. Though there are reports of innovative practices like equipping schools with laptops and tablets instead of desktops so that power outages do not shut down ICT use in schools, nevertheless there are no reports of these innovations being taken out of the few pockets and being applied across states. Hence, access to ICT remains a challenge to ICT integration in education.
Evaluation system- The competencies to be developed and the type of pedagogies required in knowledge age schools require an evaluation system which is in sync with these aspects. Therefore the instructional strategy that aims to promote knowledge use, sharing and construction requires the support of an assessment strategy, which does not oppose the instructional strategy. The constructivist learning environment therefore emphasizes authentic assessment of learning rather than the traditional paper/pencil test (UNESCO, 2002).
In an ICT integrated teaching- learning situation, assessing complex instead of straight jacketed and standard learning outcomes is required (Angeli & Valanides,2008) making continuous assessment, which is integrated with instructions, more suitable. However, continuous comprehensive evaluation is yet to be adopted across the boards that affiliate schools of India. Even in those in which it is being implemented, it is dictated by a formula that decides the minimum number of tests. This makes the continuity of assessment and its integration with instructions, required for assessing complex learning outcomes Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 79 questionable. As students tend to employ learning approaches according to their perceptions of the assessment requirements (Kirkwood & Price, 2008), unless evaluation system is reformed its role in ICT integrated teaching- learning processes may remain limited.
Growing popularity of private tuitions- It is well known that in India there has been a phenomenal rise in the popularity of private tuitions. The tuition offered by organized and unorganized endeavours have led to a parallel system of education in countries like India (Bray, 2007). The term used for this parallel system of education is ‘shadow education’ and it basically caters to the needs of the much criticized evaluation system of India (Bray (2007; 2012) and reduces learning to a mechanical process, instrumental for evaluation. Since this system competes for time and efforts directed by students and their parents towards education, the schools’ attempts to develop knowledge society worker may not be the first priority for many, who will continue to learn the way the shadow education system demands. Conclusions-
The National policy on ICT use of India as well as other documents like the Report of the National Knowledge Commission (2006) considers schools to be the sites for the development of knowledge workers. These documents naturally focus on enhancing access to ICT and on teacher education for the fulfillment of the vision. Even though access to ICT at the institutional level may remain limited, it is well known and there are also reports to suggest that individual access to ICT is on the rise. The contribution of this development on ICT integration in educational processes has not yet been established. Nevertheless this is a positive development and along with growing digital literacy, it is likely to have a positive albeit indirect impact on ICT integration.
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However, it has to be accepted that teacher preparation and ICT access still remain as limiting factors in ICT integration at schools. Nevertheless, these are major but not the sole factors that decide ICT integration in education. There are also other factors that impact ICT integration and some can be construed as affordances.
The availability of a theoretical framework to guide ICT integration is an affordance. In the absence of such a framework teachers and even teacher educators may have to grapple with the idea of ICT integration and formulate a strategy for ICT supported meaningful learning. The other factors relate to ICT itself. In India there is a growing access to ICT as well as growing opportunities for developing ICT skills. These factors as mentioned earlier may be treated as affordances and hence as opportunities for ICT integration. The lowering of curricular load is also a promising factor for ICT integration as it allows teachers more time, which would have otherwise been devoted to completing a heavy curricular load. However, the lessening of the curricular load is more perceptible at the primary level of school education that follow a curriculum guided by the NCF.
Along with the constraints pertaining to teacher preparation and limited access to ICT, the system of evaluation remains an impediment to ICT integration in education as it overlooks the dynamic nature of knowledge along with its multiple perspectives. Standard responses are therefore still demanded and continuous assessment also remains bound by a formula dictating the number of tests to be administered.
Yet another factor that compromises the scope for ICT integration is the present craze for private tuitions, which is grabbing the center stage and is a threat to school education. It is well known that private tuitions serve the cause of evaluation, which in itself remains a much criticized component of education.
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Therefore the focus deflects from learning to securing grades and marks and contradicts the concept of learning, knowledge and ICT mediated development of knowledge workers.
Though there are several constraints and affordances for ICT integration and hence for the development of knowledge workers, the concept of ICT integration for developing knowledge society skills remains crucial. Therefore apart from the constraints the affordances too merit serious consideration because these aspects are opportunities, waiting to be tapped.
References-
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Bray , M. ( 2007). UNESCO (2007). The shadow education system: private tutoring and its implications for planners. Fundamentals of education planning-61. Paris: UNESCO: International Institute for Educational Planning Bray,M. & Lykins,C. (2012).Shadow Education Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia. CERC Monographic Series in comparative and international education and development.Philippines: Asian Development Bank Bray,M. (2007) . Shadow Education: Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia. Paris: UNESCO: International Institute for Educational Planning Business Standard (April 18, 2015). India ranks below Bhutan & Sri Lanka in broadband penetration: TRAI. http://www.business- standard.com/article/economy-policy/india-ranks- below-bhutan-sri- lanka-in-broadband-penetration-trai-115041700839_1.html Dewey, J. (1915). Democracy and Education. Delhi: Akar Books Publication. Dias, B.L. (1999). Integrating Technology some things you should know. ISTE - L&L, 27 (3). Retrieved from http://www.dirkdavis.net/cbu/etc520/resources/Integrating%20Technolog y.pdf on 15th June,2010. Dhar, A. (2012, April5). Lack of school infrastructure makes a mockery of RTE. The Hindu. Retrieved on 15th June, 2013from http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article3281720.ece Hammond, T. C., & Manfra, M. M. (2009). Giving, prompting, making: Aligning technology and pedagogy within TPACK for social studies instruction. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education
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[Online serial], 9. Retrieved from http://www.citejournal. org/vol9/iss2/socialstudies/article1.cfm Hargreaves, A. (2003). Teaching in the knowledge society: education in the age of insecurity. New York: Teachers College Press. Internet Live Stats (2014). Elaboration of data by International Telecommunication Union (ITU), United Nations Population Division, Internet & Mobile Association of India (IAMAI), World Bank. www.InternetLiveStats.com Jarvela,S. Hakkarainen, K., Lipponen, L. & Lehtinen, E. (2001). Creating Computer Supported Collaborative Learning in Finnish Schools: Research Perspectives on Sociocognitive Effects. International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Life Long Learning. 11 (4-6). 365 – 374. Jha, R. (2012, Feb. 02). Skewed pupil-teacher ratio takes toll on govt. schools. The Indian Express. Retrieved on 18th June,2013from http://www.indianexpress.com/news/skewed-pupilteacher-ratiotakes-toll- on-govt-schools/906829/ Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2005). Teachers learning technology by design. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 21, 94–102. Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2009). What is technological pedagogical content knowledge? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education. 9. Retrieved from http:// www.citejournal.org/vol9/iss1/general/article1.cfm Kirkwood, A. & Price, L. (2008). Assessment and student learning- a fundamental relationship and the role of information and communication technologies. Open Learning, 23(1), 5–16. Laurillard, D. (1993). Balancing the media. Journal of Educational Television. 19(2), 81-93.
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Mallya,H. (2015). With 3rd largest smartphone market in the world, India to reach 314 million mobile internet users by 2017. Your Story. Retrieved on 2.11.15 from http://yourstory.com/2015/07/mobile-internet-report- 2015/ McLoughlin, C. & Lee, M.J.W. (2007). Social Software and Participatory Learning: Pedagogical Choices with Technology Affordances in the Web 2.0 Era. International Journal of Learning Technology. 3 (1), 87-107. Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108, 1017–1054. Mishra, P. & Koehler, M. J. (2008). Introducing technological pedagogical content knowledge. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York City, March 24–28, 2008. Moreno, J.M. (2005). Learning to teach in the Knowledge Society. Final report. HDNED, World Bank. Retrieved on 15th April, 2015 from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/Resources/278200- 1126210664195/16369711126210694253/Learning_Teach_Knowledge_ Society.pdf National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education (NCFTE) (2009).New Delhi: NCERT National Policy on ICT in school education (2012). Ministry of Human Resource Development Government of India. OECD (2000 e). Knowledge Management in the Learning Society , CERI, Paris. Retrieved on July, 3, 2010 from http://www.oecd.org/innovation/research/1842070.pdf Retrieved on July, 3,2010
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Oliver, R. & Herrington, J. (2003). Exploring technology-mediated learning from a pedagogical perspective. Journal of Interactive Learning Environments, 11(2), 111-126. Pons, J.P. (2010). Higher Education and the Knowledge Society. Information and Digital Competencies. Universitat Oberta de Catalunya Barcelona 7(2),6-15. Report to the Nation (2006).National Knowledge Commission. Government of India. Srivastava, M. (2015).Mobile Internet users in India to double by 2017, says study. Live Mint. Retrieved on 2.10.15 from http://www.livemint.com/Industry/VThUq5I4BivpTDZdQb5sNN/Mobile -Internet-users-in-India-to-double-by-2017-says-study.html Tan,C.S., Hung, D. & Scardamalia, M. (2006). Education in the Knowledge Age – Engaging Learners through Knowledge building. In D. Hung & M.S. Khine (Eds.). Engaged Learning with Emerging Technologies (pp 91-106) Netherlands: Springer. Tuomi, I.(2008). Skills and Learning in the knowledge society (Abstract). Eu e learning 2007 conference, Lisbon 16 October 2007. UNESCO (2002).Information and Communication Technologies in Teacher Education: A Planning Guide. Paris : UNESCO. UNESCO (2011). UNESCO ICT Competency framework for teachers. Paris: UNESCO. ****************************************************************
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Paper-17 The SpiralA Study Model on Relationship of Creativity:Re between-defining creativityPersonality with and the Socio Octahedral Economic Structure Status o off Student Teachers Intellet S. Prakash Dr. S. AmaladossMrs. Moumita Xavier. Saha S. J.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 87 The Spiral Model of Creativity:Re-defining creativity with the Octahedral Structure of Intellet
Mrs. Moumita Saha10 Abstract “The human mind …operates by association. With one item in its grasp, it snaps instantly to the next that is suggested by the association of thoughts, in accordance with some intricate web of trails carried by the cells of the brain…” -Vannevar Bush
The main focus of this writing is to establish the ability of an individual in associating thoughts thus progressing towards his creative journey which includes “the process of sensing difficulties, problems, gaps in information, missing elements…making guesses and formulating hypothesis, possibly revising and retesting them and finally communicating the results”.(E.P. Torrance, 1988:47).The creative journey of an individual, therefore, starts with a stimulus and ends in the Final product which is analysed through the Spiral Model of creativity; and we know that there is a noticeable relation between Intellignce and Creativity, the Spiral Model is explained and defined with the Octa – hedral Structure of Intelligence thus analysing and focusing on components, stages, characteristics, factors and modes of creativity. This article also throws light on the fact that creativity also varies from man to man according to the respective structure of intelligence.
Key words- Creativity, Intelligence, Spiral Model, Octa-Hedral Structure,Indivldual, Education system.
Introduction-
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Intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge and skills and applying them properly and perfectly. Intelligence is gathering information and knowledge about an adversary which can be obtained through the skills of observation, investigation, analysis and comprehension. Thus Intelligence provides the cognitive abilities of- 1. Learning 2. Forming concepts 3. Understanding & comprehending. 4. Reasoning. 5. Recognizing patterns 6. Solving problems 7. Communicating ideas.
The summation of all these enables the human mind to experience and think, thus making a person creative or rather enhancing the creativity in a human being. Therefore, Intelligence and creativity are highly related to each other and Intelligence is thought to form a necessary condition for creativity. Therefore, if Intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge, thein creativity is the ultimate accomplishment of that knowledge; and it can be said that Intelligence is proportionately related to creativity. The relation can be expressed in terms of the following equation- Intelligence α creativity.
Therefore, Intelligent persons are creative and creative persons are intelligent. Before redefining creativity through the octa-hedral structure of Intellect, let’s have a glance on creativity itself.
Definition of creativity-
Creativity is a thinking process that enables one to think beyond the existing boundaries, to awake curiosity, to rely on imagination,and consider multiple
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 89 solutions. It can also be said that creation is the generation of imaginative new ideas to integrate existing knowledge in a different way and it must have a value of its own that will certainly imply a positive evaluation.
Creativity can be defined in a different way-
C: concrete R: requisite E: experimental A: apriori T: thorough I: intelligent V: verifying I: inventive T: total Y: yearnings. According to the above mentioned description creativity is a yearning; it is an urge to combine facts that are concrete and requisite.It is an apriori experiment, totally inventive and verrifying process with thorough and intelligent perception. Components of creativity-
Creativity is a process that requires some necessary elements. These elements are the components of it. Creativity is very much a human behaviour and can be seen or felt exclusively among human being. Rather it can be said that Human beings tend to be creative. Therefore, the most important component of creativity is PERSON. Now if a person is creative, then it is obvious that there is some probability in him-that makes him creative. His entelechy approves his creativity and this is said to be his inner potentiality. So another component of creativity is POTENTIALITY. These two components work together to form a
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 90 design of creative work. The potentiality or the inner capability or the probability help the person to form a creative design with intense understanding. This is considered as the creative patter; and the other component is thus the PATTERN. Now when a creative person with enough creative potential can understand a creative design and pattern, then the final product is created. Therefore, the ultimate component of creativity is PRODUCT. So, creativity is the combination of person, potentiality, pattern & product.
C= Person×Potentiality× Pattern× Product Person or, C = 4P
Potential Pattern
Product
Fig: 1-4P components of creativity An example justifies it. The potentiality in a poet helps the poet persona to recognize and understand the pattern of writing poetry that culminates into the final outcome of a poem. Stages of creative Thinking-
Analysing the 4p components of creativity, different stages in creative thinking process can be detected. At first the person engaged in the creative process detects a stimulus with the help of the skill of perception. After detecting the Stimulus the creative person identifies the possible source of that stimulus. Once the source is identified the creative person starts gathering information with an intense understanding and select a proper method to be followed. After Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 91 starting to work according to the new method the creative person analyses and evaluates and evaluates the whole process and again thus reviewing it accordingly. At last the final product , are thus put in an order-
1. Perception- Stimulus Detecting 2. Observation- Indentifying the possible source of the stimulus 3. – Analysis and Synthesis- a) Informations are gathered b) Proper method is selected c) Analysis of the method is done 4. Evaluation- a) Evaluation as a whole is done b) Review is made 5. Creation- Performance or final product comes out
Model of Creativity- Now, it should be remembered that all these stages passes through the structure of Intelligence that can vary from than to max. In my previous paper, “The Octa-Hedral structure of Intelligence” I have shown that the most stable structure of Intelligence is the octa-hedral structure. Here also, in reference to it, octa-kedral structure of Intelligence, these stages of creative thinking find a concrete way towards its final culmination.(Fig: 2) Here the model of creativity or creative thinking takes the spiral structure and a one- way flow.
1.Stimulus 2.Source 3.Method 4.Evaluation 5.FinalProduct
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Fig 2: spiral model of creativity (with Octa-hedral Structure of Intellect)
This can also be explained with the help of electro- magnetic process. Primarily an event or an incident may be considered as a high frequency radiation in an individual which acts as a stimulus and elates his state towards the source with the help of his structure of intellect. Here a churning or internal conversion happens due to the structure of intellect (octa- hedral, Trianguler, squarl plannar , square ,square- pyrahidal , Trigonal. Bi- Pyradnidal, Tetra- hedral or as simple as an octagon – whatever the case may be). [Fig:2and Fig: 3-4 Fig: 8]. It flows likewise to the next level called Method and successively to Evaluation level both passing through the non- radiative process culminating to the Final product level.
Fig 2(a): Basic Spiral Model
Fig 3: Spiral Model of Creativity with Triangular Structure of Intellect
Fig 4: Spiral Model of Creativity with Square Planar Structure of Intellect
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 93
Fig 5: Spiral Model of Creativity with Square Pyramidal Structure of Intellect
Fig 6: Spiral Model of Creativity with Triangular bi-Pyramidal Structure of Intellect
Fig 7: Spiral Model of Creativity with Tetrahedral Structure of Intellect
Fig 7: Spiral Model of Creativity with Octagonal Structure of Intellect
Characteristics of Creativity-
According to Guildford, creativity sometimes refers to creative potertial, sometimes to creative production and sometimes to creative productivity.” To be creative means to be well aware of one’s own creative potential. Analy sing
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 94 the spiral model of creativity it can be said that creativity is a complex process with a one- way flow. Apart from this, the other characteristics are –
1. Dynamic and Divergent Thinking Process – No doubt, a creative person thinks creatively according to the changes in his circumstances. This is called dynamic thinking. On the other hand a creative individual always possess an openness in this thinking process and should learn to think beyond the terms of approved social behaviour. This is considered as Divergent Thinking which characterizes creativity. 2. Originality– Originality is an essential characteristic of creativity. A creative person always creates something new which is not confined to age- old ideas or experiences. A creative person always conducts new experiments or new ideas, new attitudes and new methods which is purely and truly original. 3. Flexibility- Flexibility is also a characteristic of creativity. A creative person should be flexible enough to examine, re-examine, analyse , re- analyse; interpret reinterpret his methods, attitudes and experiments in course of his process of creation. Then only the final product or the outcome of creativity will be flourished. 4. Uniqueness- It is an essential characteristic of creativity. A creative product must be unique in order to attain gravity of substance. Its uniqueness will differentiate the product from other. For example, all the poems of great poets are original products of the poet’s creativity but all of them have an important place in respective literature because of their uniqueness. 5. Implementation- It is also a characteristic of creativity. A creative person with his creative potential identifies and designs a creative pattern; when this creative pattern is properly implemented then the Final product comes out or performance is done. Therefore, in order to Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 95
complete the creative process and bring out the creative product , one need to know how to implement his creative potential into the creative process to create the new product.
Factors Enhancing Creativity-
Before approaching the factors that enhance creativity, we may take a glance at the skills required for the same. As we know that creativity is a dynamic process and it varies from person to person; therefore, the skills are different for different individual according to the spiral Model of creativity.(Fig.2 to Fig.8). Still there are some strategies or techniques that are responsible for creative thinking in an individual. These techniques are-
1. Insight 2. Patience 3. Fluency 4. Flexibility 5. Originality 6. Implementation.
With the help of these skills a creative person can exercise his| her creativity.
Now these kills are promoted or enhanced by the three most important factors namely intelligence, Environment and Motivation.
Intelligence-
Since Intelligence is a necessary condition for creativity and is proportionately related to each other, Intelligence can be and should be considered as one of the most important factors to enhance creativity. Intelligence, as earlier I have stated , is the ability to acquire knowledge and apply the skills. It is also a good mental capacity of a person. According to Einstein, “the true sign of intelligence
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 96 is not knowledge but imagination”. Therefore, intelligence promotes the skills of creative thinking thus enhancing the process of creativity.
Environment-
Environment is also an important factor in enhancing creativity. A creative person, in an appropriate environment, can be able to flourish his creative potential. In this regard environment can be considered as‘ creative Environment’ which includes elements like Family, school and the cultural Habitat of an individual. The summative and cumulative influence of all these elements has a great effect on the creative thinking of an individual who is best nourished in his family, superbly flourished in the school environment and excellently formed within the cultural Habitat.
Motivation-
Motivation is a personal drive, a process of inspiration. It is both a trait and a state that boosts creativity – when a trait, motivation includes individual likings or disliking, temperament and previous experience and thus increases the probability of creativity; as a state, motivation can be divided into two sectors- intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is something that originates from within while Extrinsic motivation is affected by some external factors. As far as motivation is concerned, the creative potential cannot be fulfilled without an urge from the within of an individual and the final creative product cannot be produced unless that individual self is motivated externally such as support from family or society. therefore, motivation is extremely important in creativity because it individual.
Modes of creativity-
‘Mode’ of creativity implies the way of an individual’s creative thinking, the road that will lead an individual to the ‘Final product’ from ‘stimulus’ in the Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 97
spiral Model of creativity. As the spiral Model posses through the sieve of intellect in an individual. So there are, naturally, different modes or roads that help an individual towards the creative journey. The modes can be classified through the following flow-chart:-
Modes of Creativity-
Cognative Mode Physical Mode Cognitive Mode
Thinking Intellect Risk Personality Process taking Traits Society Environmental attitude
Self Expression
Divergent Thinking Analogical Thinking Openess
Toleration
Logical Curiosity Thinking
An individual who will follow the cognitive Mode of creativity will use his| her intellect and thinking process for creative journey from ‘stimulus’ to ‘Final
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 98 product’ (spiral Model). The selection of mode of creativity will determine that the individual is a person of knowledge and his/ her creativity is based upon his knowledge. Likewise, an individual, selecting cognative Mode, i.e, using risk- taking attitude or personality traits, will prove emotional or psychic aspect of his/ her character. A person using social and Environmental factors for creative journey will be considered relying upon his rationality. Therefore, the modes of creativity are necessary to judge a person’s creative skill.
Conclusion-
The modern – day education system is a type of interaction, where a teacher is a mediator and a student is not a passive learner but an active participant. Teacher here provides information only to help the students initialize their pedagogical activities thus expressing their creativity. Therefore, as a mediator – guide- friends-benefactor, a teacher should know cleativity and its aspect in details. Then only the overall development of a child can be known. A child’s overall development is also an indicator of his/her sound mental health. This helps to know how a child can adjust himself or herself to his/her natural and physical environment, how does a child react in his/her classroom environment. This helps to know a child’s family background and his/her upbringing and future prospects. With all these understanding it will be easy for an instructor to construct curriculum accordingly and compose appropriate text books, e.g., Mental Maths, Moral science, Language Activity Books and so on which will further help in the Formative Evaluation of a child throughout the year. Therefore, knowing creativity in its fullest is must in modern teaching- learning process.
References-
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 99
Creativity- Report produced for the EC funded project TNNOREGIO- dissemination of innovation and knowledge management techniques- By- Dr. Eleni Scfertzi (January, 2000) Springer- http:|www. springer. com| 978-3-319- 19233-8 STEM and ICT Education in Intelligent Environments kanemastu, H; M. Barry, D. – 2016, xx, 198p. 33illus Hardcover, ISBN: 978-3-319- 19233-8 Creativity- Theory, History, practice, By- Rob pope, Routledge Taylor & Francis croup. London and New York. An Analysis of Research and literature on CREATIVITYT IN EDUCATION- Report prepared for the Qualifications and curriculum Authority- By- Anna craft, March 2001. Creativity and Education- by Robina shaheen school of Education, University of Birmingham, Birmingham,Uk – scientific Research. “As we May Think”, by Vannevar Bush , MIT, The Atlantic, July 1945. “How criticality Affects students” creativity” An essay by Hanne Kristine Adriansen. The octa – Hedral structurc of Intellect, paper -26, by- Moumita saha Education India Journal; A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, vol.5, ISSNE- J February-2016. ****************************************************************
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Paper-18 EnsuringA Study Multicultural on Relationship Education between through Inclusion:Personality Some and PedagogicalSocio Economic Interventions Status of Student Teachers Sushil Kumar Tiwari S. Prakash Dr. S. AmaladossDr. Aejaz Xavier. Masih S. J.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 101 Ensuring Multicultural Education through Inclusion: Some Pedagogical Interventions
Sushil Kumar Tiwari11 Dr. Aejaz Masih12 Abstract Multiculturalism is the reality of the present post-modern world. It may be a new term for another, but for Indians it is the integral parts of its DNA. The present paper pleads the case of making classroom truly inclusive as an essential condition of multicultural education. The core objective of this paper is to provide a pedagogical strategy/method, logically as interventions with desirable outcomes of multiculturalism. We have the concept of inclusion in our educational system, but yet the class suffers one or more levels of exclusion. The associated objectives of the paper definitely deals with all the sections of inclusion in a multicultural classroom bestowed with multicultural teacher. It includes social variations, i.e. regardless of religion, class, caste, creed and sex, regional variations, lingual variations and even the variations due to different abilities. The paper tries to deal with the research questions pertaining to multicultural pedagogy for this sort of true inclusion. Some of them may be like what type teaching strategy should we adopt to satisfy all the variations in a particular classroom? How the fulfillment of child right with all these variations is possible with certain pedagogical intervention? To what extent the teacher may teach freely with the certain pedagogical intervention? Finally, the present paper attempts to entail multicultural pedagogy as moulding agent of the diversity in India with an opportunity.
11 Research Scholar, Department of Educational Studies, Faculty of Education, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi-110025, E-mail: [email protected], Phone: 09835193084 12 Professor, Department of Educational Studies, Faculty of Education, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi- 110025 E-mail: [email protected], Phone: 09968069687 Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 102
Keywords- Multiculturalism, pedagogical strategy/method, inclusion, social variations, regional variations, lingual variations, variations due to different abilities.
Preamble-
Diversity is a natural phenomenon. The natural world is full of variations and due to this feature; our surroundings are gratifying to all of us. In contrast, the human approach on the interpersonal variations is quite different. Although, there may be some doubt to accept this statement in India. We have a firm ground when we say this as, ‘It may be the case that other countries are still theoretical on diversity, India is passing through the high level of this in years’. Still, we need to be specific and generous to accept that there is a huge gap in opportunities due to these variations. It is high time now to accept all over the world that variations are quite natural and inclusion in the system is the right of all units. Education is the basic system and one of its explanations is as ‘man making’. That’s why no one should be left behind in this race of being educated. Even we need to welcome any individual with the proper recognition. The best practice of multicultural education in the classroom is mandatory if we need such type of true inclusion of all variations.
Postmodern world accepts that diversity in education is playing a major role and it is mandatory to address the diversified groups in the classroom. “Diversity and Multiculturalism are postmodern concepts in organizational theory that are no longer a "myth but a reality" in our current globalized economy” (Obiakor, 1992, p. 2). Further, it is reiterated as ““Empowering students” is a central concept in postmodernism. For the most part, multicultural education is postmodern ideology in disguise” (Quest, n. d.). Quest, explained it in his earlier part of his article as “If truth is defined by each culture, then it is not real truth. Truth, by its nature, is universal. Truth is absolute. Relative truth is not truth.
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Postmodernists replace the word “truth” with words like “perspectives,” “constructs” or “points of view.” That is, they believe the best we can do is describe how various groups see the world; but we cannot presume to know what is true.” Thus, the discourse is quite relevant and somehow important because the global world is multicultural and resolution of conflicts of postmodern world with proper recognition to each other is possible, only when we prepare that type of students in our classroom. Banks (1998) spoke with NEA Today’s M. Tucker about the importance of multiculturalism as, “Multiculturalism is important because the world is changing every day. We must learn to accept and get along with all cultures, races, and religions in order to become productive citizens of the world. It is our job as teachers to prepare our students for the real world, and the real world is a multicultural one.” Actually, multicultural education is more or less part of their educational system for many countries where two or more cultural groups are present in classrooms. In the Indian classroom also, we are practicing the multicultural education but the discourse needs conceptual clarity to attain the objectives. It is also believed that “Failure to understand intercultural relationships in schools has helped perpetuate ineffective strategies for multicultural education.” (Connor & The, 2014) In this regard, the most important aspect is to deal with pedagogical interventions by teachers in the classroom.
Researchers agree on the fact that India is one of the most suitable population for the study of multiculturalism. It is explained further as, “it is home to policies of legal pluralism in religious family law (Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Parsi), territorial autonomy for several linguistic and tribal groups, as well as quotas in legislatures, government jobs and educational institutions for caste and tribal minorities”(Bajpai, 2015). Broadening this perspective in this paper we shall discuss and describe that multicultural educaetion should also recognize the rights of children with different abilities. Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 104
Multiculturalism and Multicultural Education-
Multiculturalism may be considered as an integrated human relation approach to provide common platform for existing diversified cultural groups in the society where cultural differences are not only recognized, but valued and that is free from a sort of injustice in the form of prejudiced, biased or discriminated behaviour towards any cultural group. This is a comprehensive and interpersonal approach in this way. The education aims such type of justice and to promote overall humanity.
Thus, “Multicultural education is a field of study in pedagogy designed to create equal educational opportunities for students originating from diverse racial, ethnic, social-class, and cultural backgrounds” (Banks & Banks, 1995, p. xi). Multicultural education aims to prepare children for living in a multicultural society. Its major aim is to create equal educational opportunities for students characterized with social, regional, lingual and other variations and to help all students; irrespective of their cultural differences; to acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to function effectively in a pluralistic democratic society and to interact and communicate with peoples from diverse groups. Incorporating multiculturalism in education, we may define the term as the best drawing out from the man with guiding principle of respecting cultural differences. Other definitions are like, “Multicultural Education has emerged as an instructional approach that promotes the development of cultural competence and proficiency in an effort to understand and appreciate differences as a positive force and of intrinsic value.” (American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1973).
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Multicultural Pedagogical Interventions-
Multicultural education is not just about what to teach the students, many experts believe that it also concerns how to teach. Teachers need to practice “equity pedagogy,” says James Banks of the University of Washington. It is to help that diverse students should achieve, teachers should use “a variety of teaching styles that are consistent with the wide range of learning styles within various cultural and ethnic groups,” (Banks, 1998). For example, teachers should be “demanding but highly personalized with the help of cooperative learning techniques in math and science instruction to enhance the academic achievement of students of diversified groups on the basis of caste, creed and sex.”
It is mandatory now to develop multicultural perspective of teaching and learning. Through this we ensure a positive as well as a trusting classroom environment for the students. Multicultural classroom is that one where all the students are made to feel welcome, recognized, comfortable and respected.
Multicultural pedagogical approach most of time basically-
a learner-centred approach;
learning in an active mode being more effective;
teaching and learning as shared experiences that are mutually enriching;
enhancement of a learner’s ability to reflect on his/her own assumptions and thought processes through sharing ideas in a group;
small-group activities being more conducive to developing higher-order thinking skills and the ability to use knowledge;
group work developing interpersonal skills and tolerance for diversity.
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students working together in small groups (of 2–5 students per group);
learning tasks that are designed for group work;
emphasis on interdependence while maintaining individual accountability and participation;
the teacher in a facilitative role.
There are many strategies as given that are believed to be useful in promoting multicultural perspectives in teaching learning process-
Questioning Styles-
It is concerned to the teacher’s skill of asking questions to all the diversified groups commonly but seeking the reflection of all the cultural diversity through this technique. The students will be exposed to the cultural differences which will further lead to recognition of those differences. “There is a definite pattern to the length of the pauses. When a child with a learning disability is to be called on, the pause is longer and the question is repeated several times giving prompts along the way prior to calling the student’s name. If the response is incomplete or incorrect, the student is referred back to the readings (notes, texts, other resources) and instructed to search for the correct or complete answer while the class moves on. The teacher returns to the student after the next question is answered. If the answer is still unsatisfactory, the student is instructed to continue his or her research and is called on after each succeeding question until he or she has an acceptable answer.” (Brown, 2002)
Role-Playing-
Role-playing is one of the important and a versatile activity which allows a number of students in particular time to express their concerning views in the given situation. “Role- playing enables students to express and to examine their Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 107 attitudes, beliefs, and feelings about prejudice and discrimination. Poetry, biography, and powerful fiction are excellent sources for both discussion and role-playing” (Banks, 1998).
Language congruence-
It is must that language should be facilitator and not the barrier. Language is core to the development of cognitive and affective domain. It may be the means for cultural development of masses at a time and also for the personal development. It is more important than any other component of cultural interaction irrespective of boundaries. The success or failure within a society in case of linguistic minorities may suffer due to dominance of language.
Cooperative and collaborative learning-
Both of these strategies are somehow believed to be similar but still we can discuss with the differences between them. Group dynamics tend to be more important in cooperative learning. Students are generally given training in appropriate small-group social skills (e.g. listening, giving feedback, conflict resolution) and there is periodic stocktaking of group dynamics and performance. Practitioners of collaborative learning tend to start with the assumption that students already possess the necessary social skills and the group resolves on its own such issues as participation, performance and conflict.
In essence, cooperative learning might be said to be more managed than collaborative learning. The difference arises from differences in aims and objectives: the former emphasizes mastery of facts, development of cognitive, personal, and social skills while the latter is perhaps more focused on development of autonomy and knowledge construction. Underpinning the two modes, then, are fundamental assumptions about how knowledge is assimilated or constructed, the teacher-student relationship, motivation and incentives, and
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 108 the degree of individual/group accountability and is reflected in implementation concerns such as group formation, agenda setting, task construction, and how knowledge is assimilated or constructed.” (Source: http://www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/Handbook/Learn/coop.htm)
Active Involvement-
Instructional strategies which allow for recognition of individual differences and will create a sort of excitement and motivation to classroom activities. It should be used in place of passive approach of learning activities. Students should be active and must be engaged in listening with speaking, reading with writing, and thinking with responding activities that will definitely provide opportunities for them which is to make decisions and to solve problems effectively in the classroom.
The above mentioned interventions are more or less common to all type of variations but for the children with one or more disorders and disabilities, the discourse needs some more attention in this regard.
Variations with Different Abilities and Pedagogical Interventions-
We termed such as no one claims that the child with lacking in one or more domain has no abilities at all. It is obvious and quite natural to recognize their other abilities. There are many types of learning disabilities; they often impact student abilities in one or more of the following categories-
Spoken language—listening and speaking.
Written language—reading, writing, and spelling.
Arithmetic—calculation and mathematical concepts.
Reasoning—organization and integration of ideas and thoughts.
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Described below are some of the functional limitations that may require accommodations. A student with a learning disability may have one or more of these limitations.
Auditory perception and processing—the student may have difficulty processing information communicated through lectures or class discussions. He or she may have difficulty distinguishing subtle differences in sound or knowing which sounds to attend to.
Visual perception and processing—the student may have difficulty distinguishing subtle differences in shape (e.g., the letters b and d), deciding what images to focus on when multiple images are present, skip words or repeat sections when reading, or misjudge depth or distance. He or she may have difficulty processing information communicated via overhead projection, through video, in graphs and charts, by email, or within web-based distance learning courses.
Information processing speed—the student may process auditory and visual information more slowly than the average person. He or she may be a slow reader because of the need for additional time to decode and comprehend written material.
Abstract reasoning—the student may have difficulty understanding the context of subjects such as philosophy and logic, which require high level reasoning skills.
Memory (long-term, short-term)—the student may have difficulty with the storing or recalling of information during short or long time periods.
Spoken and written language—the student may have difficulty with spelling (e.g., mixing up letters) or with speaking (e.g., reversing words
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or phrases). Mathematical calculation—the student may have difficulty manipulating numbers, may sometimes invert numbers, and may have difficulty converting problems described in words to mathematical expressions. Executive functioning (planning and time management)—the student may have difficulty breaking larger projects into smaller sub-projects, creating and following a timeline, and meeting deadlines.
(Source:http://www.washington.edu/doit/academic-accommodations-students-learning- disabilities)
There are many ways where teachers can help children in learning and attention related issues to succeed in school. Following are some common type of accommodations in such cases of different abilities to apply even in the classroom-
Presentation accommodations-
As per the need of the learner there should be proper arrangement for audio recordings and learning from the audiotapes, movies, videos and also from the other sources of digital media. For some there should be oral instruction as well as for some written and gestural. Peer support should be encouraged during taking notes. An outline of a particular lesson should be given for proper understanding.
Response accommodations-
Oral and written both type of response needed. Capturing the responses on recorder, dictating to scribe, using calculator or table for maths, etc. will be a common practice.
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Setting accommodations-
Taking a test in small group setting, sitting where she learns the best; for example, near the teacher on the front bench, conducting a test in another setting, such as a separate quiet room with a few distractions, etc. should be done.
Timing accommodations-
Providing frequent breaks after completing a task, providing extra time to complete the task or a test also having extra time that is essential to process orally presented information and directions, etc. are some of the major interventions needed in the classroom.
Scheduling accommodations-
Providing a test in several sessions or allowing them for several days, providing more time for a project, providing a test at a specific point of time of day, providing sections of test in a different order, etc. should be done.
Assignment modifications-
Allowing to write short papers, completing fewer or different type of homework problems may be discussing with the peers, creating alternate projects for proper learning or assignments, Answering fewer or different type of test questions, etc. is needed in this regard.
Curriculum modification-
Withdrawing attention from particular projects and expanding the learning space, Learning some different material; such as continuing the work on multiplication simultaneously classmates move on to fractions, Getting assessed with the help of using different categories other than the classmates, etc.
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Now, we have dealt so many teaching strategies so we should try to put them in an Indian multicultural classroom with the discourse of almost all existing variations and scope to recognize them. For that purpose, we will imagine one such activity for the classroom:
Activity for an Indian Multicultural Classroom-
To elect class leader for teaching the lesson “Election”. The teacher will make 4 groups of 5 students in each group and named North, South, East & West. She will ask one by one to the students of different groups that if the particular student from each group is regular in the class and also if she tries to interact with all members of the groups then will you nominate her for the group leader? Similarly they have to assume a variety of assigned roles within a group to perform a task also contributing to group with effective ideas and consistent effort. Then they are instructed that they have to convince and appeal other students of the class to vote for their group leaders on the logic of democratic leadership capacity. In order to perform the duties for their group they have to respect others’ feelings and all children will have the right to participate in the activity.
Protecting the ‘right to learn’ of each and every student-
All students will be part of the activity. No student will be left behind as far as pedagogical intervention is concerned in multicultural educational approach.. Students have to assign themselves the work in the groups based on interpersonal skills on ‘role modeling’ for appropriate skills. The role; like their conversation with class needs communication ability; voting agent needs some sort of quality regarding arrangements; Voting agent associated with time schedule maintainer makes sure that group finishes within time limit; Encourager which provides positive reinforcement for voting to all should be
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 113 good orator; for counting of votes and calculation one needs arithmetical ability. Thus that should be assigned on the basis of student academic and communication strengths. When determining group and membership with individual roles, we should ensure that all students of the class are participating in the activity and any of them are not singled out anyway, in a negative manner.
Teaching Strategies- A number of teaching strategy should be used in the classroom to address all the groups and abilities. Some of them are given as follows-
Grouping, Role modeling, Co-operative learning, Collaborative Learning, Accommodation Learning, etc. With all these pedagogical interventions we should be clear that either the classroom has the diversities or it is homogeneous, the interventions to make the students aware about the diversities of the outer world will always be the relevant one. Now, we will consider the scope for all types of variations in a multicultural classroom.
Scope for social variations- Identifying as Group Leader or placing at other better positions in the group to the students belonging to the so called deprived classes or minorities in society. The following activities are important in this regard-
They are encouraged for positive Interdependence. The group formation will be followed by the sense of equality among group members. If possible representativeness from different religions, class, caste, gender, creed or other socioeconomic status should be taken into account.
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The group supposed to be on the lower level of socioeconomic status or religious minorities should be provided with some examples for their better performance in the classroom. They should be given the better position in the group activity, but with equal opportunity to perform for the other group members.
Scope for regional variations-
Naming the group in the name of different regions, but strictly followed by the similar treatment to all of them.
By providing the examples form the different region, the teacher should play a major role if less representativeness of region is present in the classroom. The naming of the region should be followed by the inclusion of the student in the particular group of region where she belongs to. Again the positive interdependence will be encouraged.
Scope for lingual variations-
Putting or at least trying to put together the lingual minorities and good communicators of different languages present in the classroom, in the entire group. The following activities are important in this regard-
The student should use communication strategies with skills to work together. The Students should use language to interact effectively even with the lingual minorities and showing a sense of responsibility to communicate with others. The Teacher should use language that is respectful, but also common for most of all.
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The student having a communication disorder or who does not feel comfortable in communication; then they should be assigned with a different role other than that of the Orator or Encourager.
Scope for the students with different abilities-
Putting together with the general students with students of different abilities, but identified as Visual Impairment, Hearing Impairment, Mentally retarded or suffering with other Learning Disorder of different levels present in the classroom, in the entire group. The following activities are important in this regard-
The students with any specific learning disability from the area of written language, the role as the Recorder or the Checker would not be the best roles for them, but they may be with different abilities and some roles they may be identified to play as best suited to them. Depending on skill levels for the specified roles and interests a student with ‘mental retardation’ may be best at being encourager in association and co- operation with another group member of good communication skill. The students who have a serious behavior disorder, being the voting agent may be too active and role and she may do better at being the recorder of events or time schedule maintainer because she may get enough time and actively engage for longer periods of time for the completion of work. The students with other different abilities like; information could be presented visually to the students with deafness; auditorially to the Visual Impairment, and, kinesthetically or through tactile mode to address multiple learning modalities; for example students in activity inform for the activity going on and activity presented verbally to the Visual Impaired Students and takes their idea that what to do next? Information Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 116
for the Hearing Impaired students should be exchanged together through direct observation of role-play, through writing analogies and plans, visual tapes, etc. Through kinesthetically or through tactile mode: information for the activity involved commonly through hands on activities using simulation, games, etc. The student who is suffering with serious behavior disorder, the teacher should identify the student relevant behavior and also social skills to practice or to generalize in the cooperative learning activity prior to the particular lesson. The teacher and student, both can monitor progress on the given role and identified The behavior for social skill during the activity of Election.
Feedback of the Activity-
The teacher has to review group membership, the overall group behavior, the particular individual behavior in the group, cooperative learning individual or group behavior, roles played and should describe group roles through multicultural perspectives. The student will also participate in the feedback part of multicultural education. They will be given a sheet on which they have to rate the leaders and other performers, encourager, recorder, voting agent, etc. on the degree of cooperation and interpersonal rapport they exhibited during the election activity.
Thus, the whole activity is the example to attain the objectives of multicultural education with true inclusion, i.e. including the variations of all kinds in a diversified or non-diversified classroom.
Teacher’s Role-
Role of teacher cannot be denied when we are looking forward to the desired outcomes. Actually the whole plot will be prepared by the teacher. Further, the
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 117 teacher will teach freely in comparsion to the traditional approach of imparting knowledge. Using various teaching styles teacher will be able to address the diversities in the classroom. The interaction pattern with so many teaching strategies will resolve the learning difficulty issues and fill the gap between teacher and learner. The educational aims may be effectively outlined and formulated in the case of multicultural education. Content construction with building an interpersonal relationship is for the all-round development of the learner and for the sense of gratification for the teacher.
Conclusion-
It is quite clear that multicultural education is the best approach to reconstruct the nation, putting all diversified groups on common platform. India is a country where extreme forms of diversities exist. On various occasions, the diversities lead to the conflicts between the groups. Through multicultural education, it is possible to prepare the students of next generation which will be free from these conflicts. India needs the citizens of multiculturalism and it should be a country where cultural differences will be recognized and respected. Incorporating multicultural education in our classroom we will be able to turn the challenges of diversities into opportunities.
References-
American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, Commission on Multicultural Education. (1973). No one model American. In Journal of Teacher Education, 24, 264- 265 cited in Nieto, J. & Johnson, J. R. (2016). Truly Inclusive? Disability and Deaf Experience in Multicultural Education in Online Urban Education Journal Retrieved from http://www.urbanedjournal.org/node/155
Bajpai, R. (2015). Key Issues in Religion and World Affairs
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Multiculturalism in India : An Exception ?, 1–13.
Banks, J. A.& Banks, C. A. M. (1995). Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Banks, J. A. & Tucker, M. (1993). Multiculturalism’s Five Dimensions In Teachers College Press, Retrieved from neatoday.org. Brown, L. (2002). Mrs. Boyd’s Fifth-Grade Inclusive Classroom A Study of Multicultural Teaching Strategies IN Urban Education, Vol. 37 No. 1, pp. 126-141 Corwin Press, Inc. retrieved from http://www.rosado.net/pdf/Def_of_Multiculturalism.pdf Connor, T. O., & The, S. (2014). Trustees of Boston University Cultural Voice and Strategies for Multicultural Education, 171(2), 57–74.
Obiakor, F. E. (2014, April 5). Multiculturalism in higher education: A myth or reality? Retrieved From ERIC - Multiculturalism in Higher Education: A Myth or Reality?, 1992- Feb: http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED343511
Quest, A. (n.d.), Postmodernism:HowTeacherscan Recognize Postmodernism in School Textbooks In “Cmods/Curriculum Modules” Retrieved From http://cmods.org/Units/Unit1/Cmod2PostmodernismInEducation.pdf Strom, E. (n.d.). Common Modifications and Accommodations Retrieved from https://www.understood.org/en/learning-attention- issues/treatments- approaches/educational-strategies/common- modifications-and-accommodations
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Paper-19 ProblemA Study Solving on Relationship Ability of Adolescents between in PersonalityRelation a ndto theirSocio Cognitive Economic Styles Status of Student Teachers Vijay S. PrakashJaiswal Dr. S. AmaladossPratibha Xavier. Verma S. J.
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Problem Solving Ability of Adolescents in Relation to their Cognitive Styles
Vijay Jaiswal13 Pratibha Verma14 Abstract The present study was an attempt to study the problem solving ability of adolescents in relation to their cognitive styles. The population of the study is defined as all the students studying in XIth class of UP Board schools in rural and urban areas of Bulandshahr district. The researcher has adopted Stratified Random Sampling technique for selecting the sample. First of all a list of secondary schools of Bulandshahr district was prepared. Randomly secondary schools were selected through lottery technique from rural and urban areas schools respectively. The investigator selected the four schools from the urban areas and four schools from the rural areas. Thus, the investigator selected a total of 200 students of XI class as sample from the population. The results showed that that cognitive style has an impact on adolescents’ problem solving ability.
Key words- Cognitive Styles; Problem Solving Ability.
Introduction-
Cognition is an act or process of knowing and a collection of mental processes that includes awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment. The study of cognitive processes has its roots in the Gestalt psychology of Wertheimer, Kohler, and Koffka and in the studies of cognitive development in children by Piaget during the
13 Associate Prof., Dept. of Education, C.C.S. University, Meerut-250004 14 M.Ed. Student Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 121
19th century. At the beginning of the 20th century, it was considered that personality is comprised of three facets each with a continuum descriptor. The first facet, attitude, can range from extraversion, those personalities that are outgoing, to introversion, those personalities that are focused inward. The second facet, perception, deals with a person’s method of understanding stimuli; an intuitive person is meaning-oriented while a sensory person is detail-oriented. Judgment is the final facet of personality and deals with a person’s approach to making decisions; a thinking person tends to be analytical and logical while a feeling person tends to judge based on values.
Curry (1983) regards cognitive style as the individual‘s approach to adapting and assimilating information, which does not interact directly with the environment, but is an underlying and relatively permanent personality dimension that is observed across many learning instances. Cognitive style is considered here as static, relatively in-built, and fairly fixed characteristic of an individual. Individuals may vary their learning strategy or approach to learning as required, but the underlying cognitive style will remain fairly constant.
Cognitive style is an aspect of overall personality and cognitive processes. It is a bridge between cognition or intelligence measures and personality measures (Grigorenko & Sternberg, 1997; Cheema & Ridding, 1991). Cognitive styles are constructs developed to describe perceptual traits of individuals, have their origins in studies of human cognition in the differential perspective (Lemes, 1988). Learning style is sometimes synonymous with cognitive style (Pask, 1976). However, various authors draw a distinction between cognitive and learning style. Learning styles refer to ways that people learn information, and cognitive styles are more global, referring to the way that people see the world around them and
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 122 interact with it. Learning style is a preferred strategy, thereby implying that a person‘s learning style can change, while cognitive style is an immutable characteristic of personality (Cheema & Ridding, 1991; Curry, 1983).
The way students learn and deal with problem largely depends upon the link between personality and cognition. This link is called cognitive style. Cognitive style describes the manner in which information is acquired and processed by the brain. It is a manner of dealing with problems and making of wise decisions and solutions. It includes one’s way of processing and acquiring information. It is an important indicator of one’s success in life. It determines the possible effect of individual differences on problem solving ability and level of social maturity of an individual. Problem solving gives students the opportunity to use their imagination and to get into the habit of doing so.
The problem solving abilities are directed by the goal and perception of the essential relationship in the situation. It is goal directed, selective, insightful, creative and critical. Problem solving ability helps an individual in the growth and development of his personality, making his life happier and wiser by appropriate adjustment. Students having higher abilities of problem solving are considered very useful members of society. Cognitive style and problem solving ability of learners not only influence learning from interactions but also play an important role in the way learners function in the society psychologically and socially.
Problems are inseparable part of human life. One solves a problem in a particular way by which he satisfies himself while solving the problem. In this way he develops a style for solving the problem. Thus each person has a unique style of his own. Mayer and Wittrock (2006) defined as “Problem solving is cognitive
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 123 processing directed at achieving a goal when no solution method is obvious to the problem solver.” This definition consists of four parts-
1. problem solving is cognitive, that is, problem solving occurs within the problem solver's cognitive system and can only be inferred from the problem solver's behavior.
2. problem solving is a process i.e., problem solving involves applying cognitive processes to cognitive representations in the problem solver's cognitive system.
3. problem solving is directed, that is, problem solving is guided by the problem solver's goals, and
4. problem solving is personal, that is, problem solving depends on the knowledge and skill of the problem solver.
Problem solving is the framework within which creative thinking and reasoning take place. It is a process of removing obstacles that appear to interfere with the attainment of goals. One of the major responsibilities of education is to develop the ability of problem solving and creativity. The success, efficiency and happiness in life to a large extent depend upon these abilities. A child is not born on these abilities but has to develop to these abilities in course of his lifetime with the help of his parents, teachers and society at large.
Objectives of the study-
The objectives of the study were as follows:
1. To study the problem solving ability of systematic and intuitive cognitive style of rural male students. Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 124
2. To study the problem solving ability of systematic and intuitive cognitive style of rural female students. 3. To study the problem solving ability of systematic and intuitive cognitive style of urban male students. 4. To study the problem solving ability of systematic and intuitive cognitive style of urban female students.
Hypotheses of the study-
The following objectives were framed and tested in the present study:
H1: There is significant difference between problem solving ability of rural male students having systematic and intuitive cognitive styles.
H2: There is significant difference between problem solving ability of rural female students having systematic and intuitive cognitive styles.
H3: There is significant difference between problem solving ability of urban male students having systematic and intuitive cognitive styles.
H4: There is significant difference between problem solving ability of urban female students having systematic and intuitive cognitive styles.
Methodology-
Method of the Study-
In order to accomplish the objectives of the present investigation, the researcher had been used the Descriptive Survey method for the study.
Population of the Study-
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The population of the study is defined as all the students studying in XIth class of UP Board schools in rural and urban areas of Bulandshahr district.
Sample & Sampling Technique-
The researcher has adopted Stratified Random Sampling technique for selecting the sample. First of all a list of secondary schools of Bulandshahr district was prepared. Randomly secondary schools were selected through lottery technique from rural and urban areas schools respectively. The investigator selected the four schools from the urban areas and four schools from the rural areas. Thus, the investigator selected a total of 200 students of XI class as sample from the population.
Tools Employed-
The following tools were used to carry out the present study:
1. Cognitive Style Inventory- In the present study the Cognitive Style Inventory developed by Praveen Kumar Jha is used. Inventory has 40 items, 20 items were Systematic Cognitive Style and 20 items were Intuitive Cognitive Style. Cognitive Style Inventory (CSI) is a self-report research tool which gives an estimate of cognitive style of an individual in a five-point-Likert format. Five response categories are: Strongly Disagree; Disagree; Undecided; Agree and Strongly Agree. To obtain estimates of reliability and validity of the final Hindi version of CSI; 100 male students of Post-graduate class were given to fill in the questionnaire and the data obtained from them were taken in to account. Reliability of test was determined by two methods- the full length split-half reliability of CSI was found 0.653 and by test-retest method it was
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calculated 0.39. The validity of a test is examined in different ways i.e., judge’s validity, concurrent validity and internal validity. 2. Problem Solving Ability Test- In the present study the Problem Solving Ability test standardized by L.N. Dubey is used. There are 20 problems in the test. Each problem has four alternative answers. Out of these four answers only one is the correct. If the pupil writes the correct answer he should be given one mark, and if he writes a wrong answer zero should be given. In the end all the marks should be added. The reliability coefficient of the test was calculated by the following methods: Spearman-Brown Formula is 0.78 and Kudar-Richardson formula is 0.76. The coefficient of validity was calculated by correlating the scores with the following tests: Group Intelligence Test (R.K. Tandon) is 0.68 and Test of Reasoning Ability is 0.85.
Results and Discussion-
Table- 1
Mean, Standard Deviation & t-value of Problem Solving Ability of Rural Male
Variables Problem Solving Degree t- ratio level of Ability of significance Rural Male Students N Mean S.D. freedom having Systematic Cognitive 20 9.35 4.08 Significant Style 38 4.51 at Intuitive Cognitive 20 5.35 1.79 0.01 level Style
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Students having Systematic Cognitive Style and Intuitive Cognitive Style.
The table-1 depicts that calculated t-value is 4.51 which is higher than table t-value 2.72 at degree of freedom 38 and level of significance 0.01. Hence, the difference between means is significant at 0.01 levels. Thus, the research hypothesis (H1) is accepted. Therefore, it may be concluded that there is significant difference exists between problem solving ability of systematic and intuitive rural male students.
Table- 2
Mean, Standard Deviation & t-value of Problem Solving Ability of Rural Female
Variables Problem Solving Degree t- level of Ability of ratio significan Rural Female Students N Mean S.D. freedo ce having m Systematic Cognitive 21 8.23 2.73 Style 40 2.16 Significan
Intuitive Cognitive Style 21 10.33 3.49 t at 0.05 level Students having Systematic Cognitive Style and Intuitive Cognitive Style.
The table-2 depicts that calculated t-value is 2.16 which is higher than table t-value 2.02 at 0.05 level and degree of freedom 40. Hence, the difference between means is significant at 0.05 level. Thus, the research hypothesis (H2) is accepted at 0.05 level. Therefore, it may be concluded that there is significant difference exists between problem solving ability of systematic and intuitive rural female students.
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Table- 3
Mean, Standard Deviation & t-value of Problem Solving Ability of Urban Male Students having Systematic Cognitive Style and Intuitive Cognitive Style.
Variables ProblemSolvingAbi Degree t- level of lity of ratio significance Urban Male Students N Mean S.D. freedo having m Systematic Cognitive 22 10.09 3.67 Style 42 2.18 Significant Intuitive Cognitive Style 22 7.95 2.75 at 0.05 level
It is obvious from table-3 that calculated t-value is 2.18 which is higher than table t-value 2.02 at 0.05 levels and degree of freedom 42. Hence, the difference between means is significant at 0.05 levels. Thus the research hypothesis (H3) is accepted at 0.05 level. So it may be concluded that there is significant difference exists between problem solving ability of systematic and intuitive urban male students. Table- 4
Variables Problem Solving Degree t- level of Ability of ratio significance Urban Female Students N Mean S.D. freedo
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having m Systematic Cognitive 21 9.76 4.14 Significant Style 40 at0.01 level Intuitive Cognitive Style 21 6.52 3.10 2.86 Mean, Standard Deviation & t-value of Problem Solving Ability of Urban Female Students having Systematic Cognitive Style and Intuitive Cognitive Style.
The table no. 4 depicts that calculated t-value is 2.86 which is higher than table t- value 2.71 at 0.01 level of significance and degree of freedom 40. Hence, the difference between means is significant at 0.01 levels. Thus, the research hypothesis (H4) is accepted. So it may be concluded that there is significant difference exists between problem solving ability of systematic and intuitive urban female students.
Findings of the Study-
1. Systematic and Intuitive cognitive style rural male students have different level of problem solving ability. 2. Systematic and Intuitive cognitive style rural female students have different level of problem solving ability. 3. Systematic and Intuitive cognitive style urban male students have different level of problem solving ability. 4. Systematic and Intuitive cognitive style urban female students have different level of problem solving ability.
Discussion of Findings-
Systematic and Intuitive cognitive style of male and female students residing in rural and urban localities have different level of problem solving ability. Rural Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 130
Male students belonging to Systematic Cognitive Style are found to be good in problem solving as compared to Intuitive Cognitive Style. But Rural Female students belonging to Intuitive Cognitive Style are found to be good in problem solving as compared to Systematic Cognitive Style. In case of Urban male and female students belonging to Systematic Cognitive Style are found to be good in problem solving as compared to Intuitive Cognitive Style. Reason behind this may be an individual who typically operates with a systematic style uses a well defined step by step approach when solving a problem; looks for an overall method or pragmatic approach; and then makes an overall plan for solving the problem. Thus, it may be concluded that cognitive style has an impact on adolescents’ problem solving ability.
References-
Curry, L. (1983). An Organization of Learning Styles Theory & Constructs: Retrieved from ERIC Database. Grigorenko, E.L. & Sternberg, R.J (1997). Are Cognitive Styles Still the Style? American Psychologist, 52(7), 700 – 712. Jena, Parkash Chandra (2013). Cognitive Styles of Rural Senior Secondary School Students in Relation to their Gender and Stream. International Journal of Education and Psychological Research, 2(4), 37. Mayer, R. E., & Wittrock, R. C. (2006). Problem solving. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology: Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Riding, Richard J.; Cheema, Indra (1991). Cognitive styles—an overview and integration. Educational Psychology, 11(3) 193–215. ******************************************************************
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PaperPaper--101 A StudyA Study of the on ImpactRelationship of Organisational between PersonalityClimate and and Job Socio Involvement Economic o nSta Schooltus of Student Teachers Effectiveness S. Prakash Dr. S. AmaladossSushil Kumar Xavier. Tiwari S. J.
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A Study of the Impact of Organisational Climate and Job Involvement on School Effectiveness
Sushil Kumar Tiwari15 Abstract The importance of a teacher is not new to educational setup. In spite of this recognition, relatively little and less reliable information is available regarding the Job Involvement of teachers and administrators in the secondary school system. In this struggle, role of a teacher believed to be pivotal as she is one behind many guns who lead to success. But what is the link between climate and teacher motivation, school improvement efforts, student achievement, and other school effectiveness indicators? There is no easy answer for the relationship and that is indeed complex. The present paper attempts to find out the relationship of causal factors with school effectiveness. Ultimately, the goal is to find school organisational climate processes or factors that are causally related to desired outcomes.
Introduction-
Progress and development of a nation is directly linked with the successful implementation of policies based on a good educational system. It needs careful planning and painstaking efforts. Education is the backbone for any developmental body. To make the educational system effective for a country the schools needs to be effective.
15 Assistant Professor (M. ED.), Faculty of Education, Jamshedpur Women’s College, Email: [email protected] Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 133
“An effective school is one that promotes the progress of its students in a broad range of intellectual, social and emotional outcomes, where students progress further than might be expected from knowledge of their backgrounds” (Balani, 2015). An effective school must first be a place where students can feel safe, physically and emotionally. It must be a supportive community where kids—and teachers—of all backgrounds can focus on learning. To create a climate of safety, halls and classrooms must be free of behavior like fighting, bullying, and harassment. That said, a safe environment is not created merely through punishment. Effective schools expect students to succeed. Because of that, students at these schools learn more. Teachers at effective schools genuinely believe that every kid has the raw materials to be a successful student.
The mission of the Division of School Effectiveness is to improve student achievement and school performance through the development and delivery of highly effective programs and services. A central issue of the concept school effectiveness is the identification of the characteristics of effective schools or the factors associated with school effectiveness.
Our society is an organizational society. The progress and welfare of a society depends on organizations. We as members of a society work and play our part in various organizations. So it may be said that organizations play a dominant role in our lives. We are involved in organizations as employees, students, clients, patients and citizens. Organizations are essential to the way our society operates. In industry, education, health care and defense, organizations are engaged to raise the standard of living and our worldwide image. Four elements are universally recognized for a good organization, that is, men, money, methods and material. Out of these the single most important common element amongst organizations is
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 134 human being. This element manipulates and causes the other three to operate in a fashion so as to yield desired results, that is, organizational objectives. It is human being, the man, who is living and is interactive vis-à-vis other elements which are classified as inanimate matter. What in turn causes the human beings in organizations to act maximally has been the focal point of past researches in the field and is gaining currency in this age of knowledge explosion. A successful organization has clear cut objectives. Its members pursue goals and objectives that can be achieved efficiently and effectively by the concerted efforts. So organizations are essential to the way our society operates.
Climate is interchangeable with the term psychological environment and is concerned with the structure, autonomy, reward, structure, tolerance and conflict, need for innovation, warmth, support, consideration, job stress, job satisfaction, leadership style etc. organizational climate is the term frequently employed to describe the psychological structure of organization and their sub units. Every educational institution has a personality uniqueness or climate of its own. Among the various interactions taking place in the college system, the interaction between the principal and the teachers decides or contributes to a large extent in determining the atmosphere or the climate. This climate affects the behaviour of the individual living and working in the environment which in turns influences their performance. Thus the environment of an organization is an important factor, which influences the behaviour and activities of the role participants.
Organisational climate for the schools has obvious implications for improving the quality of work life for those who work in schools. Schools characterized by a great deal of togetherness, familiarity, and trust among teachers may not be more effective –and indeed may be less effective – than schools in which this familiarity
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 135 does not exist. In this sense, climate is a form of organizational energy whose effects on the school depend on how this energy is channeled and directed.
Climates are largely built, shaped and channeled as a result of effective interpersonal leadership by the principal. Climate conceived as potential energy to act –the capacity to change, improve and achieve – is a concept primarily related to the educational leadership force. School improvement and enhanced effectiveness are products of the proper channeling of this potential capacity to act. Sound educational leadership provides the necessary know-how and direction.
“Organizational climate is the study of perceptions that individuals have of various aspects of the environments in the organizations” (Owens, 1998).
Reichers and Schneider (1990) define organizational climate as …”the shared perception of the way things are around here. It is important to realize that from these two approaches, there is no “best” approach and they actually have a great deal of overlap.”
Organizational climate, however, proves to be hard to define. There are two especially intractable and related difficulties: how to define climate and how to measure it effectively on different levels of analysis. Furthermore there are several approaches to the concept of climate, of which two in particular have received substantial patronage: the cognitive schema approach and the shared perception approach. The first approach regards the concept of climate as an individual perception and cognitive representation of the work environment. From this perspective climate assessments should be conducted at an individual level.
The second approach emphasizes the importance of shared perceptions as underpinning the notion of climate (Mathisen and Einarsen, 2004). Katz and Kahn
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(1996) say that “the climate in an organization which reflects the type of people who compose the organization, the work processes, means of communication and the exercise of authority within the individual organization.” Further, they recognize that it is easy to detect differences in the climate of organizations but it is difficult to name the dimensions of these differences. “Climate is atmosphere in which individual help, judge, reward, constrain, and find out about each other. It influences moral attitude of the individual toward work and his environment.”
“The climate of an organization is thought to represent the perception of objective characteristics by organizations members.” As an example, the size of an organization is objectives but a person’s feelings about that size is subjective, it is the perception of these objectives that is represented by the climatic of an organization (Landy and Trumbo, 1980).
Cooper (2003) describes organizational climate as “people’s perception of their working environment with regard to caring and friendliness.” In other words, the interaction of workers and management should create a healthy organizational environment. It means that organizational climate is subject to the perceptions of staff and students. Litwin and Stringer (1968) maintain that “organizational climate is a set of ‘measurable properties of the work environment’, based on the collective perceptions of the people who live and work in the environment, and whose behavior is influenced by their perceptions.”
No educational system can rise above its teachers. Importance of teachers should be accepted. As the teacher is the key person to make the educational system a success, therefore it is necessary that he should be provided all facilities so that he may discharge his duties earnestly and as it is universally accepted that a dissatisfied worker cannot do full justice with his job. Keeping in view the role of
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 137 the teacher, the researcher conducted to try to make a survey of the prevalent conditions and atmosphere in which the secondary school teachers are performing their duties.
The highest official position in the college is that of principal. Thus, the responsibility of running the college is that of the principal (Freiberg and Stein, 1999). According to Dunklee (2000) “the differences in students’ behaviour and academic outcomes are influenced inter alia by the principal. The principal leads from his/her values. The activities of the college are determined by what the principal does.” Buttressing the above claim, Ramsey (1999) contends that, “in an organization like the college, students and staff tend to live up to the image of the principal; because no college is high performing without an effective and efficient principal; he is the gospel that his/her staff and students read, a model of behaviour and work attitude to be copied by all.” Wilmore (2002) states that “principals play diverse roles: they are responsible for effecting education policy, keeping track of all activities within the college and ensuring that their colleges run smoothly. The principals’ tasks are divided into two major types: instructional and the leadership roles.”
A teacher has a significant role in the teaching learning process. His role in nation building is well known. Neither the best curriculum nor the books of high quality confer a meaningful advantage unless the teacher fulfills his obligation with care and devotion. The demands on the teacher are many, he has to be an initiator, an innovator, a moralist, a guide and above all, an architect of the society which expects him to work beyond the call of the duty … the teacher complains of the bad treatment he is receiving from the society. His needs and aspirations and his hopes for future life are no different from the rest of the members of the society.
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He is in the same competition as anyone else. In his fall, has fallen the quality of education. And it has been in his rise alone that education will rise to the expected heights.
Job involvement is an individual identification and engagement level for a job or to what extent a person views a job as an important component in his or her life i.e., Work centrality. Job involvement has multi-work attitudes, which means the importance of work in a person’s self-image.
Robbins (2001) considered that job involvement is an identification level for a job from a person’s psychological viewpoint. Chang (2010) assumed that job involvement contains work values and work attitudes, which are often affected by individual factors; when a person perceives job satisfaction, he or she will engage more in his or her job to increase job performance.
Rationale of the Study-
Researchers generally lack consensus on what constitutes school effectiveness: It has been argued in the input-output perspective of schools in which student’s progress further than might be expected from consideration of its intake, growth in student achievement. On a more broader stand that should not focus on mere academic achievement. Reynolds et. al. (1996) is of the view that effectiveness is dependent on people and the resources available. Hence the difficulty in defining school effectiveness is dependent on people who are forced to choose from competing values. One view is that effectiveness should be judged by the product, and that the ultimate product of schooling is the 'value added': what pupils have gained from their years in school. The fact that the report noted non-cognitive areas that should be part of the product is supported by other researches. There is
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 139 an argument that a school is effective if school processes result in observable (not always quantifiable) positive outcomes among its students consistently over a period of time (Reynolds, 1985; Ninan, 2006) This implies that the effectiveness of a school is dependent more on its 'processes' and gauged by its 'outcomes' than on its 'intake'. 'Intake', plays only a marginal role in school effectiveness. This is in contrast with the argument that differential effects of schools play a role in school effectiveness (Teddlie and Reynolds, 2000, p.15). One view was that an effective school adds an extra value to its students’ outcomes in comparison with other schools serving similar intakes. This concept of the ‘value added’ by the school resulted in a need to explicitly focus on student outcomes in all methodologies involving school effectiveness research. This then led to methodological issues such as consistency and stability in effectiveness. Hoy and Miskel (2001, p.290) argued that a school is deemed as effective if the outcome of its activities meets or exceeds its goals. Relevant here is the view that an effective school is one that promotes high levels of student achievement for all students in the school (Murphy, 1990) It is no surprise, therefore that academic emphasis and frequent monitoring of student academic progress has been viewed as important correlates of an effective school (Al Waner, 2005). An effective school hence is a school that can achieve or exceed its academic goals. A rather different view is that schools are effective if their pupils perform at a higher than average level than an average school.
There is a need to take value added scores into consideration of prior achievement of pupils on entry to school (Sammons et al, 1996a in Teddlie and Reynolds, 2000, p.72). An effective school hence is argued as a school that can achieve or exceed its prior set goals. In a production function analyses, Wößmann‟s (2003) found that student-level international differences in achievement in science and Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 140 mathematics could not be attributed to resource differences but were considerably related to institutional differences such as centralised examination system and school autonomy. World Bank Operations Evaluation Departments review on the “determinants of education quality in developing countries” (Boissiere 2004) further confirmed the five “golden” contributors to school effectiveness at primary level. Boissiere (2004) reviewed the dominant and alternative approaches to determinants of schooling outcomes of developing countries. Educational production function approach has been predominant in understanding the relationships between outcomes and inputs. Two alternatives, namely, randomized trials and natural experiments which are oftentimes used for impact evaluation of educational policy and programme interventions, also shed valuable light on how input, such as resources, school and student characteristics can influence schooling outcomes. The aforementioned approaches that are very often quantitative in nature are gradually being complemented by qualitative methods, for example, classroom observation and interviews to understand the “what‟s actually happening” – i.e. the process variables.
Lloyd et al. (2000) examined the likelihood of dropout and academic achievement of adolescent girls and boys in rural areas of three districts in Kenya (Kilifi, Nakuru, and Nyeri), as the outcome measures of the effects of school quality, such as its curriculum beyond the core (e.g. puberty, sexual biology, sexually transmitted diseases), teachers‟ treatment of students, teachers‟ attitudes towards male and female students, school policies with gender implications (e.g. policies on issues of sexual harassment), and the overall school atmosphere in terms of its organization, rules, and student-to-student interaction.
Statement of the Problem-
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 141
“A Study of the Impact of Organisational Climate and Job Involvement on School Effectiveness.”
Operational Definition-
Organisational climate- “Organisational climate is a relatively enduring quality of the internal environment of an organization that (a) is experienced by its members, (b) influences their behavior, and (c) can be described in terms of the values of a particular set of characteristics or attributes of the organization” (Mullins, 1993).
Effectiveness- Effectiveness is operationally defined as the difference between the observed (actual) mean school score and the predicted mean based on these characteristics (i.e., as the regression residual).
Secondary schools- The high schools which are in between elementary and college level of education.
Objectives -
The objectives of the study are as-
1. To identify the strengths of the organizational climates of secondary schools as perceived by the principals and teachers. 2. To identify the weaknesses of the organizational climates of secondary schools as perceived by the principals and teachers. 3. To measure the Job Involvement of the teachers as perceived by the principals of the schools. 4. To measure the Job Involvement of the principals as perceived by the teachers of the schools.
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5. To study the impact of organizational climate on secondary school effectiveness. 6. To study the impact of job involvement of the teachers and the principals on secondary school effectiveness. 7. To study the relationship between organizational climate and job involvement of the teachers and the principals on secondary school in terms of school effectiveness.
Methodology-
Survey technique under Descriptive Survey Method has been used to conduct the present investigation.
Keeping in mind the nature of the problem, the researcher carried out the present study on the lines of Descriptive Survey Method. George J. Mouly has explained its wider reality as “ No category of educational research is more widely used than the type known variously as the survey, the normative survey status and descriptive researches. This broad classification comprises a variety of specific techniques and procedures all similar from the standpoint of its purpose that is to establish the status of the phenomenon under investigation.”
The survey is that method of investigation which attempts to describe and interpret what exists at present in the form of condition, practices, process, trends etc. It is an organized attempt to analyze, interpret and report the present status of a social institution groups or area.
Population-
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 143
Population is the totality or aggregate of the individuals from which inference is drawn in a study. All the secondary school Administrators and teachers of the region has been the population for this study.
Sampling-
This study focused on Secondary school organisational climate and Job involvement of Secondary school Administrators and Teachers. Consequently, participants could be stated as convenient sample in the study. A convenient sample is effortless accessible group which is chosen to save time, money and effort, but at the expense of information and credibility of sample using in a study (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000). Therefore, for collecting the requisite data for this study sample has been selected on the basis of convenience.
Sample-
The study has been conducted on 120 sample of secondary school Teachers of 12 different schools (10 from each of the school) each from 6 private and 6 govt. schools along with 12 principals of the same 12 schools.
Research Instrument-
The researcher prepared two questionnaires for principals and teachers using five- point Likert scale after going through the related literature. The questionnaires comprised of items mainly about the organizational climate (aspects of principal and teacher behaviours) and teacher performance.
First questionnaire consisted of total 30 items about organizational climate. First 16 items of the questionnaire were regarding the principal behaviour aspects (aloofness, production emphasis, thrust and consideration) and remaining 14 items
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 144 were regarding the teachers behaviour aspects (disengagement, hindrance, esprit and intimacy). This questionnaire developed for teachers and principals asked for the information regarding their gender and experience (teaching, administration).
Second questionnaire consisting of total 30 items was developed for teachers and principals asked for the information regarding their job involvement.
Data Analysis and Statistical Tools-
The responses obtained through the above-mentioned research instruments are to be scored before statistical analysis and interpretation. After scoring of organizational climate descriptive questionnaire, data was collected from sampled schools. Scores of all the items measuring each of the four aspects of principal’s behaviour and four aspects of teacher’s behaviour were calculated separately for each of the respondents of a school and to be added up. On the basis of these calculations the sampled schools are further to be divided into six types of organizational climates namely Open, Autonomous, Controlled, Familiar, Paternal and Closed. The most suitable statistical tools like mean, standard deviation, standard error of means and coefficient of correlation (r) are to be used to obtain the results.
Findings-
The Job Involvement of teachers and administrators is as important as the Organizational Climate of any educational institution. Climate intermingled with the shared perceptions of organizational life in the school and related primarily to the human leadership force.
Delimitation of the Study-
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1. This study was delimited to the secondary schools only.
2. This study was delimited to the principals and teachers of secondary schools only.
Conclusion-
Therefore we can say that organizational climate plays important role in setting the atmosphere conducive for a particular organization. It is achieved through the interaction between the principal and teachers, between teachers and students and between the principal and students. The social interaction helps the principal, teachers and students to discuss mutually in area of planning, decision-making, problem solving and control.
References-
Anastasi, A. (1986). Intelligence as a Quality of Behaviour in R. S. Sternberg & D. K. Detterman (Eds.), What is Intelligence? (PP. 19-22). Norwood, NJ:Ablex. Balani, B. (2015). School Effectiveness: A study of perceptions of secondary school teachers of different types of educational boards. In Indian Journal of Applied Research. Vol. 5, Issue 9, Sept. 2015. pp. 423-425. Blau, G.J., Boal, K.B., (1987). Conceptualising how job involvement and organizational commitment affect turnover and absenteeism. The Academy of Management Review, 12, 288-300 Brookover, W. B., Beady, C., Flood, P., Schweitzer, J. and Wisenbaker, J. (1979) School Social Systems and Student Achievement: Schools Can Make a Difference. New York: Praeger.
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Hallinger, P., Heck, R. H. (1996) 'Reassessing the principal's role in school effectiveness: a review of empirical research 1980-95'. Educational Administration Quarterly Vol 32, No. 1 5-44. Levine, D. U. and Lezotte, L. (1990) Unusually effective schools: a review and analysis of research and practice. Madison WI: The National Centre for Effective Schools Research and Development. Meyerson, D. and Martin, J. (1997) Cultural change: integration of three different views. In Harris, A., Bennett, N. et al (Eds) Organisational Effectiveness and Improvement in Education. Buckingham: Open University Press. Mortimore, P., Sammons, P., Stoll, L., Lewis, D. and Ecob, R. (1988) School Matters: the Junior Years. Wells, Somerset,: Open Books. Rutter, M., Maughan, B., Mortimore, P. and Ouston, J. (1979) Fifteen Thousand Hours: secondary schools and their effects on children. Shepton Mallet, UK: Open Books. Sammons, P., Hillman, J. and Mortimore, P. (1995) Key characteristics of effective schools: a review of school effectiveness research, London University Institute of Education and Ofsted, London. Scheerens, J. (1999) Concepts and theories of school effectiveness. In Visscher, A. J. (Ed) Managing Schools Towards High Performance. Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger: 37-70. Teddlie, C., Falkowski, C., Stringfield, S., Desselle, S. and Garvue, R. (1984) The Louisiana School Effectiveness Study: Phase 2 1982-84. Baton Rouge, La: Louisiana Department of Education.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 147
Teddlie, C. and Stringfield, S. (1993) Schools Make a Difference: lessons learned from a 10 year study of school effects. New York: Teachers College Press. http://www.highreliabilityschools.co.uk/bodies-of-knowledge/school- effectiveness.aspx http://greatworkplace.wordpress.com/2009/09/01/what-is-organizational- climate-and-why-should-you-warm-up-to-it/
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PaperPaper--111 Self ConceptA Study of on Secondary Relationship school between Principals Personality inand Kerala: Socio EconomicA study Status of Student Teachers Dr. Rafeedali. E S. Prakash Dr. S. Amaladoss Xavier. S. J.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 149
Self Concept of Secondary school Principals in Kerala: A study
Dr. Rafeedali. E16
Self Concept can be defined as the totality of a complex, organized, and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person holds to be true about his or her personal existence (Purkey,1988). It is an organized collection of beliefs and self perceptions about oneself. In other words it operates as basic schema. The self provide a frame work that determines how human beings process information about their selves including motives, emotional status, self evaluation and abilities. One has to work hard to protect his self image from threatening information to maintain self consistency and find excuses for any inconsistencies. Thus people tend to resist changes and to explain why the inconsistency with their self concept. A self schema is the sum of everything that a person remembers, knows and can image about him or herself. Self is the centre of a person’s individuality as well as social world.
Psychologists could not ignore the role that social self concept plays in determining and predicting human behaviour. It has become essential to construct self concept as a psychological phenomenon, self concept forms the nucleus of personality. Self concept begins to develop from birth (Chadha1984).It develops through interpersonal relationship which provides plenty of experience to a person which enables him to build a stern and consistent behaviour pattern.
Significance of the study-
16 Assistant Professor, Maulana Azad National Urdu University, College of Teacher Education, Srinagar, Mobile- 09961031072, E-mail: [email protected] Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 150
Self concept is a multi-dimensional construct which means one’s own awareness on himself from all perspectives, such as beliefs regarding personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles and so forth. Self Concept can be explained in three dimensions on the basis of self perception. Personal Self Concept, it is the facts or one’s opinions about oneself, regarding his physical, moral, behavioural states and so forth. Social Self Concept which includes awareness of a person regarding his competencies on social skills, leadership abilities, influencing power and decision making and so forth. A self ideal is the third dimension, which means that the intense desire of an individual to what or how one would like to be, emerged from understanding of his personal strengths and weaknesses. In short it is the sum total of one’s knowledge and understanding of one’s self. Understanding oneself leads to recognize the reality, there by foster the positive strength and can eliminate his own limitations. It will constitute success in one’s personal as well as academic life. It is the time to study on self concept of secondary school principals in Kerala. Hence the study
Objectives of the study-
1. To identify the Self Concept of secondary schools Principals in Kerala
2. To find out the differences in Self Concept of secondary schools Principals in Kerala based on Gender, Age, Experience and Type of Management.
Hypothesis of the study-
1. There exist no significant differences in the mean scores of Self Concept of secondary schools Principals in Kerala based on Gender, Age, Experience and Type of Management.
Methodology of the study- Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 151
In the present descriptive research the investigator adopted the survey method. Principals of secondary schools in Kerala were the population of the study. Due representation was given to the subsamples of the study. For the purpose of data collection the investigator contacted and communicated with 260 Heads of secondary schools from different parts of Kerala. Stratified Random Sampling technique was used to select the sample. The investigator was able to collect a total of 130 responses. Out of the total Sample of 130, 78 were males and 52 were females. Age group one (below fifty years) consisted of 36 heads while age group two (50 years and more) included 94 heads. 97 heads belonged to experience group one (below 5 years as head) and 33 heads belonged to experience group two (5 years or more as head). 73 heads of secondary schools were selected from government schools while 57 heads were from aided schools. Self Concept Scale for Teachers developed by Pillai was used as the tools for data collection. Descriptive analysis, Percentage analysis and mean difference analysis were carried out to find out the objectives.
Analysis and Interpretation of Data-
The present study was to find out the Self Concept of Secondary School Principals in Kerala. The collected data were organized and analyzed in accordance with the objectives and hypotheses of the study using SPSS package. The detailed descriptions are given below
Table 1 Statistical Constants of Self Concept for the Total Sample and Subsamples of Heads of Secondary Schools
Sample N Mean Median Mode SD Skewness Kurtosis
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Total Sample 130 70.00 71.00 83.00 13.08 -1.16 1.98
Male 78 68.00 70.00 69.00 14.10 -1.08 1.44
Female 52 73.00 74.00 83.00 10.79 -1.04 2.57
Age group 1 36 71.00 70.00 83.00 09.88 -0.21 -0.53
Age group 2 94 70.00 72.00 71.00 14.14 -1.20 1.74
Experience group 1 97 70.00 71.00 83.00 13.12 -1.21 2.11
Experience group 2 33 71.00 72.00 64.00 13.11 -1.06 2.04
Government 73 68.00 70.00 72.00 14.47 -1.20 1.48
Aided 57 73.00 74.00 68.00 10.43 -0.40 0.01
Table 1 show that the mean, median and mode scores of self concept for total sample as well as categorical samples are nearby equal. Hence it clearly indicates the normal distribution of data as well as reliable for the study.
Table 2 Self Concept level of Secondary School Principals- in Percentage
Variable Self Concept level Sample High Average Poor Total Total 19 72 09 100 Male 15 71 14 100 Female 27 69 04 100 Experience Group 1 19 71 10 100
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 153
Experience Group 2 18 76 06 100 Age Group 1 19 78 03 100 Age Group 2 18 70 12 100 Government School 15 73 12 100 Private School 38 54 08 100
Table 2 reveals that 72 percentage of the total sample have the average level of Self Concept, 19 percentage are with above average level, while 09 percentage are with poor Self Concept. It also shows that among the male sample 71 percentage holds average level of Self Concept, while 69 percentage of female sample are at average level. More over the table exhibits that in comparison to male, female principals are better in Self Concept level because the percentage of female principals falls in poor group are only 04 percentage while male constitutes 14 percentage. Apart from this 27 percentage of female principals possess high level of Self Concept while male constitutes only 15 percentage in this regard. No wider discrepancy shown among the experience and age category in high and average level of Self Concept. 38 percentage of Private school principals shows high level of Self Concept which is much higher than (15%) the percentage level of government secondary school principals in high level of self concept.
Table 3 Data and Results of the Test of Significance of Difference between Mean Scores of Self Concept among Subsamples of Heads of Secondary Schools
Subsamples N Mean Standard C.R Level of Deviation Significance
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 154
Male 78 068 14.10 2.354 0.05
Female 52 073 10.79
Age group 1 36 071 09.88 0.751 NS
Age group 2 94 070 14.14
Experience group 1 97 070 13.12 0.529 NS
Experience group 2 33 071 13.11
Government 73 068 14.47 2.445 0.05
Aided 57 073 10.43
Table 3 shows that the critical ratio obtained for male and female principals are 2.354 which is significant at 0.05 level. It shows that the mean scores of Self Concept of male and female principals differ significantly. This indicates that female heads of secondary schools are superior in their Self Concept than their male counterparts.
The mean scores of Self Concept for age group one and age group two is 71 and 70 respectively. The obtained critical ratio of 0.751 is lower than the value at 0.05 level of significance. It shows that there is no significant difference in the mean scores of Self Concept among the groups.
Table 3 also shows that the critical ratio obtained for subsamples based on experience is 0.529 which is lower than the value at 0.05 level of significance.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 155
Hence it is clear that the mean scores of Self Concept of experience group one and experience group two do not differ significantly.
The critical ratio obtained for government and aided secondary school heads is 2.445 which is significant at 0.05 level. It reveals that the mean scores of Self Concept of government and aided secondary school heads differ significantly. Therefore it is interpreted that heads of aided secondary schools are superior to heads of government secondary schools in their Self Concept.
Difference between mean scores of Self Concept among subsamples of heads of secondary schools is represented by Figure 1
74
73
72
71
70
69
68
67
66
65 Gender Age Experience Type of Management
Figure 1
Difference between Mean Scores of Self Concept among Subsamples of Heads of Secondary Schools
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Conclusion-
Self Concept is a psychological term which indicates the self awareness of one’s own strength and weaknesses. The study was to identify the level of self concept among the secondary school principals in Kerala. The result shows that among the total sample 19 percentage of secondary school principals exhibit their high level of self concept while 72 expressed Self Concept at average level. Remaining 09 percentage are with poor Self Concept. The result also illustrate that the female principals (27%) possesses high level self concept than male principals (15%). It shows the female dominance over male in Self Concept. The very same result also identified in the case of type of management whereas the differences are not significant among subsamples based on age and experience. Heads of aided secondary schools shows superiority in self concept than the government secondary schools Principals.. Awareness on self strength and weakness is very important to a person to gain professional as well as personal development. Hence the department of education should conduct many programmes to enhance the level of self concept among the Principals of secondary schools in Kerala.
References-
Baron, R. A. (2005). Psychology. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall. Burns, R. B. (1979). The self-concept in theory, measurement, development and behaviour. London: Longman. Chadha, N. K. (1984). Manual for Chadha Self Concept Scale. Agra: Psychological Research Cell. Colman, A. M. (2007). Oxford Dictionary of Psychology. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 157
Fitts, W. H. (1991). Tennessee Self Concept Scale, Manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services. Hattie, J. (1992). Self Concept. Hills dale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Purkey, W. W. (1988). An Overview of Self-Concept Theory for Counselors. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service, No .ED 304 630).
Sdorow, L. M. (1998). Psychology. USA: McGraw Hill.
Zimbardo, P. G., Weber, A. L. & Harpet. (1994). Psychology. USA: Collins College Publishers.
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PaperPaper--121 Students’A Study Attitude on Relationship towards Mathematics between in PersonalityHigher Secondary and Socio Schools Economic of Southern Status o f DistrictsStudent of WestTeachers Bengal
Arup S. Prakash Kundu
Dr. S. Amaladoss Xavier.Aditi Ghose S. J.
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Students’ Attitude towards Mathematics in Higher Secondary Schools of Southern Districts of West Bengal
Arup Kundu17 Aditi Ghose18 Abstract The emergent role of attitude in the learning of Mathematics has attracted the attention of Mathematics educators for a very long time. Students’ attitude towards mathematics has been a generator that is known to influence their performance in mathematics. This study has attempted to find out HS students’ attitude towards mathematics and further investigate any disparity in attitude between students in different streams of study. The population for the study were the HS students in southern districts of West Bengal. The sample consisted of 784 students, both male and female, from 25 schools. The tool used was “Modified Fennema Sherman Mathematics Attitude Scale” (Depaken, Lawsky and Padwa, 1993). The results show that the attitude of students with different streams of study is significantly different. In particular, science students have the best attitude while that of arts students is significantly poorer than students in the other streams of study.
Keywords- Attitude towards mathematics, streams of study. HS: Higher Secondary.
Introduction-
17 Assistant Professor of Mathematics (W.B.E.S), Govt. Training College (CTE), Hooghly, West Bengal- 712103. Email: [email protected] 18 Professor (Rtd.), Department of Education, University of Calcutta, Kolkata-700027, Email:[email protected] Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 160
Mathematics is a vital instrument for the conceptualization and application of science and technology. It is an instrument that can be used in our daily lives to overcome the difficulties or problems faced therein (Bishop, 1996). To this purpose, mathematics has been considered as one of the most essential subjects in the school curriculum. More mathematics contents are likely to be taught in school and colleges throughout the world than any other subject (A. Orton, D. Orton, and Frobisher, 2004).
Definition of Attitude-
Various studies discuss the definition of attitude. Allport (1935) defined attitude as a “mental and neural state of readiness, organised through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related” (p.810). This definition implies that an attitude is a response to certain experiences encountered in life. Allport’s definition implies that one’s repertoire of experiences can be regarded as the basic building blocks of one’s attitude. Thus Allport’s view of the function of experience in attitude formation makes his definition immanent for this investigation.
Other definitions point to similar takes on attitude, but impress on the uniqueness of the individual. Eagly and Chaiken (1993) defined attitude as “A psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or disfavour” (p. 155). This definition appears to focus on the manifestation of attitude. Philips (2003) stated that attitude is protean and based on individuals’ beliefs, feelings and values. Thompson (1993) defined attitude as a pattern of perceptions developed through one’s reactions with the environment. These definitions imply that attitude represents one’s feeling and reactions to situations.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 161
Relationship between Attitude and Achievement-
Research has asserted the relationship between attitude and achievement. Studies in various countries show a link between positive attitude and achievement (Iben, 1991; Ma & Nand Kishor, 1997; Mohd, Mahmood & Ismail, 2011; Bramlett & Herron, 2009; Nicolaidou & Philippou, 2003; Tocci & Engelhard Jr., 1991). However, studies conducted on Asian students showed that positive attitudes were not always present in students with high achievement scores (Leung, 2002; Stevenson, Chen, & Lee, 1993). While student achievement does not always correlate with positive attitude, Wilson (2008) recommends that fostering positive attitudes can have long-term beneficial effects. In a study by Reed, Drijvers, & Kirschner (2010), it was concluded that positive attitudes towards mathematics improved learning styles. The study further stated that the attitude of students played an important role in learning mathematics with computer based learning tools.
Positive attitudes generate optimism which is, attributes favourable interpretations to actions and events (Gillham, Shatte, Reivich, & Seligman, 2000). For students, optimism can lead to persistence. Optimistic children are more likely to stay occupied in learning tasks often resulting in enhanced achievement (Wigfield, 1994). In contrast, negative attitudes can enhance maths-anxiety (Trujillo & Hadfield, 1999) and may contribute to poor achievement in mathematics.
Attitude towards Mathematics-
Attitude may therefore be simply regarded as a positive or negative degree of sentiment associated with certain experiences. Obviously, it is manifest in a student’s outlook on particular subjects of study. Thus attitude towards
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 162 mathematics may be seen as just a positive or negative emotional ‘predication’ toward mathematics (Haladyna, Shaughnessy, & Shaughnessy, 1983; McLeod, 1992).
Attitude may not be manifest in overt behaviour. In other words, behaviour signifying particular attitudes may not be outwardly apparent. Instead, attitude toward mathematics may be a conglomeration of patterns of beliefs and emotions regarding mathematics (Daskalogianni & Simpson, 2000).
The above discussion points to the fact that attitude is multidimensional, having three components within it: emotional response, beliefs regarding the subject, and behaviour related to the subject. From this point of view, an individual’s attitude toward mathematics is delineated by the emotions that he/she relates with mathematics, his/her beliefs towards mathematics, and by how he/she behaves (Hart, 1989; Mc Leed, 1992). Thus attitudes towards mathematics can be positive or negative and play a definite role on students’ mathematics achievement. These may be manifest in liking, enjoying and exhibiting interest in mathematics, or the opposite reactions. Attitude influences behaviour and what the learner selects from environment, how he will react towards teachers, towards the material being used and towards the other students. At worst, math phobia (Ernest, 1989) may ensue. However Di Martino & Zan, (2010) opined that attitude is a multi-dimensional concept and it is never too late to change the student’s attitude towards mathematics. Researchers have also found a strong relationship between positive attitudes and beliefs about mathematics and academic success in mathematics (Ashcraft & Kirk, 2001; Sandt, 2007; Schenkel, 2009; Sherman & Christian, 1999; Tapia & Marsh II, 2004).
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As attitude is associated with academic achievement, it is often considered as a significant variable in educational research (Nkwe, 1985). Ma and Kishor (1997) stated that there is a general belief that children learn more effectively when they are curious about what they learn and that impels them to achieve better in mathematics.
Several studies discuss the role of attitude in Mathematics learning and achievement. Fogarty et al. (2001) developed a tool to measure attitudinal factors that play a role in the effective use of technology in mathematics learning. Student attitude therefore plays a central role in mathematics learning and achievement (McLeod, 1992). Choudhury & Das (2012), Mahanta, (2014) showed that attitude to mathematics is affected by various factors like gender role stereotyping and beliefs & perceptions about mathematics and study habits of students.
Emanation of the problem-
Mathematics is an essential and indispensable branch of knowledge in our society (Baroody, 1987). It helps us to overcome many of life’s problems & to improve living (Bishop, 1996). It is an essential device for the understanding and application of science and technology. Hence mathematics has been considered as one of the most important subjects in the school curriculum. More mathematics is taught in schools and colleges throughout the world than any other subject (A. Orton, D. Orton, & Frobisher, 2004). However, evaluation of students’ achievement in mathematics does not give a rosy picture. Standard tests and evaluations show that students do not measure up to the expected level. Student under achievement in mathematics is not just a worry for particular countries, but has become a source of global concern over the years (PISA, 2003).
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Various studies and exploration have been done in many countries to search the factors that enhance students’ achievement in mathematics. Among these measures, students’ attitude towards mathematics is one main measure that has been consistently studied. Tahar, Ismail, Zamani & Adnan (2010) Tezer & Karasel (2010) Maat & Zakaria (2010) Bramlett & Herron, (2009) Tapia & Marsh (2004) and Fennema & Sherman (1976), for example, have measured students’ attitude to mathematics in their respective countries.
In the districts of southern West Bengal students’ performance in mathematics has often been disappointing (Kundu & Ghose, 2015). However, no study on the reason for low achievement of students in mathematics in West Bengal has been carried out to date. It may be presumed that one of the main deterrents to achievement in mathematics is the attitude of students to the subject.
Students in the HS classes have been through the gamut of secondary school education, and should be aware of mathematics as a discipline. They have developed certain attitudes towards the subject that are possibly coloured by their achievements in it and these attitudes have probably influenced their achievement in mathematics. This study has attempted to find out the attitude to mathematics of these students. Further the study has aimed to discern any difference in attitude between the genders and between students in the different streams of study.
Methodology-
The study consisted of a survey using quantitative techniques which explores Higher Secondary students’ attitude towards mathematics in higher secondary schools of West Bengal.
Sample-
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The population of the study consisted of HS students in southern district of West Bengal. The sample consisted of 784 Class XI students from 25 schools in two districts of south West Bengal, viz., Bankura and South 24 Parganas. These were urban schools and drew learners from middle socio-economic communities. Formal approval from the school Head Teachers were obtained in order to conduct this research. The sample is as follows:
Table 1: The sample Streams Total Gender Science Arts Commerce Boys 188 124 95 407 Girls 159 181 37 377 Total 347 305 132 784
Instrument- The following are the instruments used in the study- “Modified Fennema Sherman Mathematics Attitude Scale” (Depaken, Lawsky and Padwa, 1993) consisting of four dimension, viz,
Personal confidence about the subject matter.(12 Items) Usefulness of the subject’s content.(12 Items) Subject is perceived as a male domain.(11 Items) Perception of teacher’s attitudes.(12 Items)
The full test consisted of (12+12+11+12) =47 likert type items translated into Bengali. The Test-retest reliability coefficient of the scale is 0.94. The level of attitude was graded in the following manner by calculating the ‘mean score’ mentioned by Jamil (2001) (Mohd et al, 2011). This was arrived at by Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 166 finding the raw mean score of each dimension and dividing this by the number of items in that dimension. The different levels of attitude were categorized from the ‘mean score’ as follows:
Table 2 Levels of attitude ‘mean score’ Mean score Level 1.00-2.33 Low 2.34-3.66 Medium 3.67-5.00 High Table 2 shows the mean score for each dimension and the corresponding attitude levels.
Findings-
The Modified Fennema Sherman Mathematics Attitude Scale was administered on the sample and responses were scored, tabulated and analyzed. Table 3 shows the level of attitude related to the individual dimensions is as well as overall attitudes towards mathematics for all students, and for girls and boys separately.
Table 3. Mean score of each dimension Attitude dimension All students Boys Girls Personal confidence 3.64 Mediu 3.71 High 3.55 Mediu m m Usefulness of mathematics 3.96 High 4.01 High 3.89 High Subject is perceived as a Male 3.55 Mediu 3.38 Mediu 3.73 High domain m m Perception of teacher’s 3.81 High 3.82 High 3.80 High attitudes
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Overall attitude towards 3.74 High 3.74 High 3.74 High Mathematics
Table 3 reveals that though overall attitude to mathematics is high for all students. It is medium for ‘Personal confidence’ and ‘Subject is perceived as a male domain’. In the case of girls, ‘Personal confidence’ is medium, while in the case of boys ‘Subject is perceived as a male domain’ is medium. The other dimensions of attitude are high both for boys and girls. Table 3 exposes the fact that though attitude to mathematics is high among Class XI students, personal confidence is a factor that may intimidate learners, especially girls. It also shows that the idea that mathematics is a male domain is not so apparent among the girls, though boys tend to view it as such.
Table 4 shows the levels of attitude related to the individual dimensions as well as overall attitude towards mathematics for different streams of study.
Table 4. Mean score of each dimension and streams of study Attitude dimension Science Arts Commerce Personal confidence 4.10 Hig 3.13 Mediu 3.59 Mediu h m m Usefulness of mathematics 4.31 Hig 3.50 Mediu 4.08 High h m Subjects is perceived as a Male 3.79 Hig 3.30 Mediu 3.50 Mediu domain h m m Perception of teacher’s attitudes 4.08 Hig 3.50 Mediu 3.79 High h m
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Overall attitude towards 4.08 Hig 3.36 Mediu 3.75 High Mathematics h m
Table 4 shows that for science students the level of attitude related to the individual dimensions as well as overall attitude towards mathematics are high. For arts students, the levels of attitude related to the individual dimensions as well as overall attitude to mathematics are medium. For commerce students, the levels of ‘Personal confidence’ and ‘Subject is perceived as a male domain’ are medium while attitude in the other dimensions are high. Table 4 exposes the fact that while attitude to mathematics is consistently high among science students, it is consistently less so among Arts students.
Table 5: Gender wise levels of attitude of students in different streams Dimension Boys Girls Science Arts Commer Science Arts Commerc ce e Personal 4.12 H 3.21 M 3.56 M 4.07 H 3.07 M 3.66 M confidence Usefulness of 4.26 H 3.60 M 4.05 H 4.35 H 3.43 M 4.18 H mathematics Subjects is 3.58 M 3.12 M 3.31 M 4.03 H 3.41 M 3.98 H perceived as a Male domain Perception of 4.05 M 3.52 M 3.75 H 4.12 H 3.49 M 3.90 H teacher’s attitudes
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H: High, M: Medium.
Table 5 shows that for science students, while ‘Personal Confidence’ and ‘Usefulness of mathematics’ are high for boys and girls, boys perceive math as a male domain more so than girls. Moreover, ‘Perception of Teachers’ attitude is higher for girls than for boys, exposing the fact that girls possibly require to listen more closely to teachers in order to succeed in what is purportedly a man’s world.
For commerce students, boys perceive mathematics as a male domain more than do girls.
For Arts students, all the dimensions of attitude are consistently medium for both boys and girls. This implies that the selection of the Arts stream is made by students who wish to shy away from mathematics, and are indeed separated from this branch of thought in their studies in Class XI.
Discussion-
The investigation shows that most students in HS classes hold high to medium positive attitude to mathematics. This is possibly because opportunity to study in the HS class is often considered as a rare gift for students in India. Hence students in the HS class do have positive attitudes to most institutionalized forms of study, including mathematics (Choudhury & Das, 2012; Mahanta 2014; Mohd & Mahmood, 2011).
When all students are considered together, the results show that while ‘Usefulness of mathematics’ & ‘Perception of teacher’s attitudes’ are high, ‘Personal confidence about the subject matter’ & ‘Subject is perceived as a male domain’ are medium. This shows that most students definitely regard mathematics as useful, & the mathematics teacher’s attitude to be beneficial to them. In comparison, the Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 170 students appear to lack a little in self confidence when faced with mathematics. Moreover, some of them regard mathematics as a male repository of knowledge.
When boys are considered separately, self confidence in mathematics is high. In contrast, girls’ self confidence is relatively less. Other studies have also inferred that self confidence in mathematics of girls is less than that of boys (Ganley & vasilyeva, 2011). In fact Pomerantz et al., (2002) in their survey of gender difference, found less self confidence about mathematics among girls who had even scored higher grades than boys. In contrast, girls, in this study, were found to regard mathematics as less of a male preserved than did the boys. This is contrary to several other findings that imply that girls do perceive mathematics as a male domain (Catsambis, 1994; Else-Quest et al., 2010; Leder, 1995)
When the sample is separated according to the streams of study, the attitude to mathematics of science streams students is consistently high, and that of Arts students consistently medium. Commerce students show a comparative lack in Personal confidence and ‘Subject is perceived as a male domain’. This implies that not only do Arts students not display high positive attitudes to mathematics; they regard it somewhat as a male area of interest. Some Commerce students, too, regard mathematics a man’s area of study, and display less self confidence than do science students.
Thus, separating the sample into streams of study shows that Science & Arts students particularly differ in attitude to mathematics. This picture is reflected in a similar manner when the streams of study are further examined along gender lines. However, perceptive gender differences can be observed in the Science streams where some boys opine that mathematics is a male domain whereas girls definitely do not subscribe to this opinion. In the ‘pecking order’ of disciplines, mathematics
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 171 holds a high place. This belies the fact that mathematics is meant to serve all areas of thought. Arts and Commerce students are thus intimidated by the subject, and form negative attitudes about it. In particular, mathematics garb as a male domain is imprinted in its chauvinistic association with the high table of knowledge.
Boys in the Science stream also differ from girls in that they do not perceive teachers’ attitudes as positively as the girls do. In other words, girls in the Science stream possibly have more regard for their teachers, and hope to be benefited by their positive attitude to them.
The more positive attitude to mathematics as displayed by Science students can be explained in various ways. The most obvious one is that the better students in our country are induced into taking up science. Further, the study of Science and the liking for it may stem from particularly personality types, like being more logical, wanting to see how things work, etc. This builds a dependence on mathematics and mathematical logic. (Tuna, Biber & İncikapı, 2013).
Arts students often take subjects that they believe do not involve mathematics. They are often victims of failure or bad experience in the mathematics classes in science classes. Some develop mathematics phobia (Gbolagade, Waheed & Sangoniyi, 2013; Olaniyan & Salman, 2015) or helplessness syndromes when confronted with mathematical problems (Yates, 2009).
Gender differences as noted in this investigation arise from multiple sources, social mores being the most prolific. Girls are conditioned from childhood into thinking that mathematics and allied subjects are not for them (Bassey, Joshua & Asim, 2007; Kaino & Salani, 2004). Ergo, they generally develop avoidance techniques
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& desist learning mathematics (Collins, Kenway & McLeod, 2000). It is no wonder that most students of Arts stream are female.
This investigation points to the misplaced notion that Arts students do not need mathematics in their lives or in their studies. Mathematics is inimical to life. Hence it is indispensable, not only in everyday life, but in our studies & our philosophy of life.
Reference-
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PaperPaper--131 TheA Study Scenario on Relationship of Teacher Education between Personality Institutesand Socio iEconomicn India Status of Student Teachers Dr. Vikrant Mishra S. Prakash Dr. S. Amaladoss Xavier. S. J.
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The Scenario of Teacher Education Institutes in India
Dr. Vikrant Mishra19 Abstract Teacher education is an integral component of the educational system. It is intimately connected with society and is conditioned by the ethos, culture and character of a nation. The constitutional goals, the directive principles of the state policy, the socio-economic problems and the growth of knowledge, the emerging expectations and the changes operating in education, etc. call for an appropriate response from a futuristic education system and provide the perspective within which teacher education programmes need to be viewed. Keywords- Scenario, Teacher Education and Problems.
Introduction-
The need for improved levels of educational participation for overall progress is well recognized. The key role of educational institutions in realizing it is reflected in a variety of initiatives taken to transform the nature and function of education -- both formal as well as non-formal. Universal accessibility to quality education is considered essential for development. This has necessitated improvement in the system of teacher education so as to prepare quality teachers.
Various Commissions and Committees appointed by the Central and the State Governments in recent decades have invariably emphasized the need for quality teacher education suited to the needs of the educational system. The Secondary Education Commission (1953) observed that a major factor responsible for the
19 Assistant Professor of Education, Directorate of Distance Education, Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 182 educational reconstruction at the secondary stage is teachers' professional training. The Education Commission (1964-66) stressed that 'in a world based on science and technology it is education that determines the level of prosperity, welfare and security of the people' and that 'a sound programme of professional education of teachers is essential for the qualitative improvement of education.'
India has a large system of education. There are nearly 5.98 lakh Primary Schools, 1.76 lakh Elementary Schools and 98 thousand High / Higher Secondary Schools in the country, about 1300 teacher education institutions for elementary teachers and nearly 700 colleges of education / university departments preparing teachers for secondary and higher secondary schools. Out of about 4.52 million teachers in the country nearly 3 million are teaching at the primary/ elementary level*. A sizeable number of them are untrained or under-trained. In certain regions, like the North-East, there are even under- qualified teachers. As far as in-service education is concerned the situation is not very encouraging. It is estimated that on an average 40% of the teachers are provided in-service teacher education once over a period of five years. Regarding non-formal education, though a number of models are in vogue in various states in the country, much more needs to be done to prepare teachers and other functionaries for the system.
The Programme of Action (POA 1992) has emphasized teacher education as a continuous process, its pre-service and in-service components being inseparable. The POA, among others, has pointed out the following in respect of teacher education-
1. Professional commitment and overall competencies of teachers leave much to be desired ;
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2. The quality of pre-service education has not only not improved with recent developments in pedagogical science, but has actually shown signs of deterioration;
3. Teacher education programmes consist mainly of pre-service teacher training, with practically no systematic programmes of in-service training, facilities for which are lacking.
4. There has been an increase in sub-standard institutions of teacher education and there are numerous reports of gross malpractices; and
5. The support system provided by the State Councils of Educational Research and Training (SCERTs) and the University Departments of Education has been insufficient and there is no support system below the state level.
In pursuance of the NPE 1986 a major step was taken by the Central Government to enhance the professional capacity of a large number of teacher education institutions. Nearly 430 District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) have already been established by 1997-98. The DIETs are charged with the responsibility of organising pre-service and in-service programmes in addition to being the nodal resource centres for elementary education at district level. Likewise, Colleges of Teacher Education (CTEs) and Institutions of Advanced Study in Education (IASEs) have been given the responsibility of introducing innovations in teacher education programmes at the secondary and higher secondary stages and in vocational education.
The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) as a non-statutory body (1973-1993) took several steps as regards quality improvement in teacher education. Its major contribution was to prepare Teacher Education Curriculum Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 184
Framework in 1978. Consequently, teacher education curricula witnessed changes in teacher preparation programmes in various universities and boards in the country. A similar effort was made in 1988.
During the last decade, new thrusts have been posed due to rapid changes in the educational, political, social and economic contexts at the national and international levels. Curriculum reconstruction has also become imperative in the light of some perceptible gaps in teacher education. Teacher education by and large, is conventional in its nature and purpose. The integration of theory and practice and consequent curricular response to the requirements of the school system still remains inadequate. Teachers are prepared in competencies and skills which do not necessarily equip them for becoming professionally effective. Their familiarity with latest educational developments remains insufficient. organized and stipulatory learning experiences whenever available, rarely contribute to enhancing teachers' capacities for self-directed life long learning. The system still prepares teachers who do not necessarily become professionally competent and committed at the completion of initial teacher preparation programmes. A large number of teacher training institutions do not practice what they preach. Several of the skills acquired and methodologies learnt are seldom practiced in actual school system. This highlights the need to bring realism and dynamism in the curriculum.
Teacher Education and Problems of the Nation-
It is universally acknowledged that education is an effective means for social reconstruction and to a great extent it offers solutions to the problems a society is faced with. These problems may be economic, social, cultural, political, moral, ecological and educational. Since the teachers play a major role in education of
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 185 children, their own education becomes a matter of vital concern. Teacher education must, therefore, create necessary awareness among teachers about their new roles and responsibilities.
Education of teachers needs to strengthen and stress upon the main attributes of a profession, such as, the systematic theory, rigourous training over a specified duration, authority, community sanction, ethical code and culture, generating knowledge through research and specialization. It is acknowledged that formal professional training on continuous basis is necessary for becoming a good teacher as it caters to the development of one's personality and sharpening of communication skills and commitment to a code of conduct.
Economic Problems-
Poverty, unemployment, and low rate of growth and productivity are some of the major economic problems of the country which have led to the compulsions of the backward economy. These problems seek immediate solution and demand a realistic co-ordination between economic planning and manpower planning. Education can help find solutions if it is properly coordinated with manpower needs. Introduction of work education and vocationalization of education in secondary schools will have to be given a modern and meaningful direction. The attitude towards the work culture needs a transformation. The Indian society needs education with special emphasis on science and technology, vocational inputs and realistic work experiences. Teacher education curriculum, therefore, has to promote such attitudes as are necessary for the emergence of a new economic order. Along with the vocational competencies and skills a new work culture will have to be created which necessarily involves the inculcation of dignity of work,
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 186 the spirit of self-reliance and scientific temper among students. The courses of teacher education need to be enriched to enable teachers to understand the attributes of modernity and development.
Social Problems-
Casteism, communalism and regionalism are some of the problems in the body politic of the society which misguide the youth. Increasing delinquency, violence, terrorism and fissiparous tendencies and use of inappropriate means to get one's ends served are threats to the national integration and social cohesion. Democracy, violence and terrorism cannot coexist. Education has to develop a peace loving personality and the programme of teacher education has to contribute in this regard.
The explosion of population with all its allied disturbing trends is not only neutralizing the economic gains but also creating many problems for the country. Indian society still suffers from evils like child labor, child marriage, untouchability, discriminatory treatment to women, violation of human rights, etc. and most of the people are unaware of their legal rights.
Modern model of development which puts man against nature by making it an object of exploitation has disturbed the harmony and equilibrium between the two. Its consequences are visible in serious environmental degradation, pollution and ecological imbalances.
Strengthening national and social cohesion in a diverse and plural society, accelerating the process of economic growth, improving the life of the downtrodden and the people living below the poverty line, removing the widely
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 187 prevalent ignorance, superstition and prejudices from the masses, inculcating scientific temper and developing a critical awareness about the social realities of Indian life are some of the issues which call for immediate attention. Teachers and the teacher educators have a special role to play in such efforts.
Problems of Cultural Reconstruction-
Education is the process of transmission of dynamic and responsive components of cultural heritage and its continuous enrichment. There is a need to reinterpret the Indian culture in its distinct identity and composite strength. Its capacity to absorb the sublime from the other cultures needs to be highlighted. The teachers will have to play their role in cultural transmission and reconstruction.
Crises of Values and Morality-
There has been a persistent erosion of values in the society. In the present day context certain values need to be redefined and reinstalled. There are situations when the values imparted and inculcated in schools are not generally practised in society. Value education demands a planned and purposive approach. It is through education and as of necessity through teacher education programmes that the task of inculcating values can be substantially accomplished. Whereas values are emotive, the other related significant dimension is that of moral education which is essentially conative in character. Morals are situation-specific and demand immediate decision and action and yet there are morals which are considered to be eternal and universal. Through committed teachers, the art of ensuring moral development in a secular, multi-religious and multi-ethnic society needs to be cultivated.
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Over Activism of Distance/Open Universities-
Some of the distance and open universities have become over activists in the context of teacher education. These have a notion that they can open their teacher education extension centres anywhere. To give birth to infinite is their right, but who will rear their babies. Such distance and open universities have resulted into the dilution of teacher education.
Overgrowing Establishment-
Establishment has overgrown enrolment in most of the teacher education programmes. But, at the same time there is uneven distribution of the teacher education institutions. Teacher education regulations, norms and standards though latest visited during 2009, have further scope for perfection. There is a need to have demand and supply estimates. Blanket “NO” and even blanket “YES” can be grossly harmful in the public interest. The States need to justify, substantially, case-wise their stand for objection or no objection with due respect to the establishment of teacher education institutions. There is a need to find out teacher education institutions required countrywide, program-wise and state-wise, at present, and in future. Surveys need to be conducted to find out the present status and requirement. These projections ought to be in tune with the growth of school education. Also, futurological studies need to be conducted to make forecasts of teacher education.
Poor Research Scenario-
One of the major inputs towards enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in schools as well as the teacher education institutions would be the extent to which
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 189 research outputs and the outcomes of innovations are utilized by the system. Researches on teacher education have been and are being conducted in universities, national level institutions and other establishments but their utility for the teacher educator or the classroom teacher remains rather low. Majority of the researches are undertaken to obtain a degree and hence the focus on its possible utility and relevance gets misplaced. The situation is compounded by non- availability of appropriate dissemination mechanisms, like journals, publication of findings in different forms and opportunities to the target group to get an access to these. Institutional capabilities and resources need to be augmented, enabling them to undertake relevant researches.
There is a definite requirement of bringing in research methods and methodologies in appropriate form in teacher education at preservice and inservice programmes. To an extent, it finds a place in master level courses in education though in some universities the same is not insisted upon. The structure and design of future courses and programmes need to take this aspect into account. Preparation of teacher educators can no longer be completed without adequate grounding in various aspects of research. Researches must respond to policy issues, curriculum issues, evaluative procedures and practices, training strategies, classroom practices etc. The areas of teacher preparation for children with special needs, gifted children and children from groups with specific cultural, social and economic needs can no longer be ignored. Surveys and studies also need to be encouraged. These may be exploratory or diagnostic in nature. The new initiatives and innovations need to be encouraged and studied. Wherever considered appropriate, these could be brought into the system of teacher education for wider and gainful use.
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The concept of field interaction and laboratory area approach in the context of establishment of DIETs is indeed timely. Researches, innovations and surveys must become an integral part of the training programmes of teacher education institutions irrespective of the stages. The trainees need to be familiarised with innovations in general and innovative practices in teacher education in particular.
Conclusion-
Every fault of Teacher Education is attributed to the National Council of Teacher Education. Rather than finding faults let us try to meet the gaps between our policies and programmes, vision and mission, wish and will. The foregoing analysis highlights the malaise plaguing the Indian Teacher Education System. It calls for revolutionary changes. There should be open forums and public debates on Teacher Education Policy, rather than leaving it to some selected committees, and commissions.
References-
Mohanty, J.(2003).Teacher Education. New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publications.
Rao, V.K. (2007).Teacher Education. New Delhi: APH Publications Corporation.
Sharma, Shashi Prabha.(2005). Teacher Education, Priciples, Theories and Practices. New Delhi: Kanishka Publisher, Distributors.
Goel D.R., Goel C., Madhavi, R.L. (2010). Abstracts of Research Studies conducted by Teacher Education Institutions, Vol. I, II and III, 2007, 2008, and 2010 www.educationinindia.net Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 191
Rao, G.K. (2009). A Study of Human Resource Development Climate in the DIETs of Rajasthan, a Ph.D. Thesis, The M.S. University of Baroda.
Helaiya, S. (2009). Development and Implementation of a Life Skills Program for Student-Teachers, a Ph.D. Thesis, The M.S. University of Baroda.
Robert Gordon, Thomas J. Kane, and Douglas O. Staiger, (2006). Identifying Effective Teachers Using Performance on the Job. Washington, DC: The Hamilton Project.
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PaperPaper--141 UAnderachievement Study on Relationship of Sarva between Siksha PersonalityAbhiyaan (SSA):and Socio A Comparative Economic Sta Studytus o f Student Teachers Honey Premendra S. Prakash Dr. S. Amaladoss Xavier. S. J.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 193
Underachievement of Sarva Siksha Abhiyaan(SSA): A Comparative Study
Honey Premendra20 Abstract Without education, we cannot see beyond ourselves and consise our surroundings to the reality of global interdependence. Without education, we cannot realize how peoples of other races, communities and religions share the same dreams, same hopes and same expectations in all the phases of life. Opening new schools in areas which do not have this primary facility of improving infrastructure of the present schools, tackling the student teacher ratio, providing training to the teachers and quality elementary education to children, focusing girl education and computer education etc. comes under the few objectives of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (The Education for All Movement) which is a time bound programme working with an aim to make elementary education compulsory for all the children in the age group 6-14 years.
Demand for quality education is increasing in India. At the same time it has been observed that required changes and task of educating all cannot be /done in isolation. It needs collaborative efforts of the state and central government, private organizations, and local government. Based on this and by merging all the District Primary Education Programmes (DPEP), Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan was initiated in year 2001-2002. The crucial role of universal elementary education for strengthening the social fabric of democracy through provision of equal opportunities to all has been accepted since inception of our Republic. The
20 Senior Research Fellow, Department of Education, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, Phone- 09454948243, e- Mail- [email protected]. Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 194 original Article 45 in the Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution mandated the State to endeavour to provide free and compulsory education to all children up to age fourteen in a period of ten years.
The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986/92, which stands as a major landmark in the country’s journey towards universal elementary education (UEE) states:
“In our national perception, education is essentially for all…Education has an acculturating role. It refines sensitivities and perceptions that contribute to national cohesion, a scientific temper and independence of mind and spirit - thus furthering the goals of socialism, secularism and democracy enshrined in our Constitution.”
With the formulation of NPE, India initiated a wide range of programmes for achieving the goal of UEE. These efforts were intensified in the 1980s and 1990s through several schematic and programme interventions, such as Operation Black Board (OBB), Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP), Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project (APPEP), Bihar Education Project (BEP), U.P Basic Education Project (UPBEP), Mahila Samakhya (MS), Lok Jumbish Project (LJP), and Teacher Education which put in place a decentralised system of teacher support through District Institutes of Education and Training, and District Primary Education Programme (DPEP), but still it has been found that the desired objective of this RTE Act-2009 has not become a reality and the guarantee to provide Education to every child as a basic fundamental right is still unattended. In this research paper researcher has tried to figure out what may be the primary and practical cause of underachievement of SSA programme, focusing on the primary availabilities of facilities and resources, which are essential for the success of this programme and
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 195 also highlighting some essential points of this programme which should be kept in mind while attaining the goal of compilsory Universal attainment of Education.
Key Words- Sarva Siksha Abhiyaan (SSA), Right to Education (RTE), NCF-05, NCF-2009.
Introduction-
“The aim of education is not the acquisition of information, although important, or acquisition of technical skills, though essential in modern society, but the development of that bent of mind, that attitude of reason, that spirit of democracy which will make us a responsible citizens.” -Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan.
The RTE Act along with Article 21-A introduced as the Fundamental Rights of the Constitution of India became operational from 1st April 2010, which ensures universal access of Education to each and every part of the society. Universal access to elementary education includes schooling facilities within reasonable reach of all children. If schools are not located in or near the habitations where children reside, children are unlikely to complete schooling, even if they are formally enrolled in schools and thus at minimum described distances primary schools and upper primary schools were planned to establish according to programme. The RTE Act provides children access to elementary schools within the ‘defined area’ or ‘limits of neighbourhood’. This prime assumption laid the foundation stone to design a programme to provide primary educational access, to students of at least the age of 6 to 14 years of age, and this is how under the act of RTE, SSA i.e. Sarva Siksha Abhiyaan came into existence.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 196
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, represents the consequential legislation providence under Article 21-A, which states that every child has a right to achieve full time compulsory elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal school which satisfies certain essential norms and standards. ‘Compulsory education’ casts an obligation on the appropriate Government to provide and ensure admission, attendance and completion of elementary education. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act- 2009 primarily aims for-
1. The right of children to free and compulsory education till completion of elementary education within their neighbouring school.
2. It clarifies that ‘compulsory education’ means obligation of the appropriate government to provide free elementary education and ensure compulsory admission, attendance and completion of elementary education to every child in the six to fourteen age group. ‘Free’ means that no child shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education.
3. It makes provisions for a non-admitted child to be admitted to an age appropriate class.
4. It specifies the duties and responsibilities of appropriate Governments, local authority and parents in providing free and compulsory education, and sharing of financial and other responsibilities between the Central and State Governments.
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5. It lays down the norms and standards relating inter alia to Pupil Teacher Ratios (PTRs), buildings and infrastructure, school working days, teacher working hours.
6. It provides for rational deployment of teachers by ensuring that the specified pupil teacher ratio is maintained for each school, rather than just as an average for the State or District or Block, thus ensuring that there is no urban-rural imbalance in teacher postings. It also provides for prohibition of deployment of teachers for non-educational work, other than decennial census, elections to local authority, state legislatures and parliament, and disaster relief.
7. It provides for appointment of appropriately trained teachers, i.e. teachers with the requisite entry and academic qualifications.
8. It prohibits, physical punishment and mental harassment, screening procedures for admission of children, capitation fees, private tuition by teachers, running of schools without recognition etc.
9. It provides for development of curriculum in consonance with the values enshrined in the constitution, and which would ensure the all-round development of the child, building on the child’s knowledge, potentiality and talent and making the child free of fear, trauma and anxiety through a system of child friendly and child centred learning.
Currently, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is implemented as one of India’s flagship for universalising elementary education. Its overall goals include universal access and retention, bridging of gender and social category gaps in education and enhancement of learning levels of children. SSA provides for a variety of
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 198 interventions, including inter alia, opening of new schools and alternate schooling facilities, construction of schools and additional classrooms, toilets and drinking water, provisioning for teachers, periodic teacher training and academic resource support, textbooks and support for learning achievement.
Over the years there has been significant spatial and numerical expansion of elementary schools in the country, yet the goal of universal elementary education continues to elude us. The number of children, particularly children from disadvantaged groups and weaker sections, who drop out of school before completing their elementary education, remains high. The quality of learning achievement is not always entirely satisfactory even in the case of children who complete elementary education. The Constitution (86th Amendment) Act-2002, inserted in Article 21-A of Constitution of India to provide free and compulsory education of all children in the age group of six to fourteen years as a Fundamental Right is still far from the reach of our policy formers. Keeping the factor of underachievement of this programme in mind, researcher has decided to find out the primary and practical causes of underachievement of this programme.
Objective of the study-
The objective of the present study was to assess the current availability of resources and facilities provided to various school (Primary School of Allahabad district were taken as Case study) on basis of which the attainment of objectives of SSA were desired.
Present Study was focused on the following aspect of institution and comparison of availability and variability of facilities and resources provided to them-
Locality of school.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 199
Infrastructural differences.
Teachers compatibility.
Access of Teaching-Learning Material.
Students learning differences.
Role of Parents and Administration in SSA.
Participation and providence of other resources and facilities.
Methodology-
Present study is taken as comparative qualitative research, which attempts to collect data from the three differently situated primary school of Allahabad district from which data was collected by means of Unstructured Interview, conversation and Observation method of these school by the researcher himself.
To collect data, for assessing the appropriateness of SSA programme in these areas researcher has interviewed teachers and evaluated the facilities and resources present in these schools under the programme of SSA to find out the appropriateness, achievement level and also the primary problems which parents as well teachers faces in their teaching-learning activity, which eventually proves out to be as a hindurance of achieving the objectives of SSA.
Table-1.
Summarised Information from School-1, School-2 and School-3 on various aspects.
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SCHOOL- S. Factor of Comparison. SCHOOL-2 SCHOOL-3 N 1
1. Locality (distance from city) 03 kms 23 kms 88 kms
2. Total Enrolment in school. 149 121 162
Present Students. 52 56 42
3. Number of Classrooms built. 04 06 09
Number of Classrooms for 04 03 03 teaching
Hall/ Arts/Music room. No no No
Room for Vocational No no no courses.
4. Number of Toilets.(Built) 04 02 01
Number of Toilets.(In Use) 02 01 01
yes, in use yes, not in use yes, not in 5. Stores. use Number/Uses of displayed 12, not in 24, not in use 15, not in 6. paintings. use use
yes, not in no No 7. Aids for Vocational Courses. use
8. Special Facilities. No no No
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9. Funds and Grants .
For yes, yes, partially yes, partially Maintenance. partially
For Yes no No 10. Development. For T-L No no No Equipments/Others.
11. Sanctioned Staff.
Teaching. 07 04 06
Non- 01 00 00 Teaching.
yes, not in yes, not in use No 10. Presence of Teaching Aids use
Findings and Discussions-
This comparative study of causes of failure of SSA is based on various factors and their effect on various schools situated in various locality of Allahabad district. The names of these schools are not revealed because of ethical reasons, and are indicated as School-1(situated nearby urban area), School-2 (situated in a village 23 kms away from city) and School-3(situated in a village 88 kms away from city.)
Total enrolment in School-1, 2 and 3 were 149, 121, 162 respectively and 52, 56 and 42 students were present at the time of data collection. The ratio of total
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 202 number of students and regular coming students in these schools clearly indicates that the number of regular students defiantly, gets affected by the locality in which school is situated which equally effects teaching-learning activity significantly. The number of students of School-1 are found to be more regular and active then the students of the School-3, may be because of their more involvement in extra- educational activities or having no or less believe in SSA programme by GoI.
According to the SSA there is a clear minimum infrastructural requirement of every school which should be fulfilled and thus more or less every school do possess these minimum requirement, but the basic difference lies in the use of these made to available facilities as for the purpose as for they are planned to do. Every classroom is equipped with a black board, almirah, tube-lights, fans and sufficient number of benches and other necessary furniture like chairs and tables, but in all three schools purposive use of these articles were restricted to their minimal use. Also preliminary requirements like teaching-learning aids, aids for vocational courses, textbooks, common bicycle for students, free school bags and dress (for girls), clean drinking water and sanitation facilities, mid day meals(MDM) were made available to students upto the limits where there are found insufficient to fulfil even the basic requirements for which they are proposed for.
According to the observation done by researcher, it was found that factors like number of classroom, hall, Arts/Music room, number of toilets, store-rooms, vocational aids, special-aids for special programmes etc are found to be granted evenly in all the schools under the programme of SSA, but the most appropriate use and maintenance of these facilities provided was equally effected by the cause of a inspection-prone area. The classrooms, halls, store-rooms, kitchen of School-1
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 203 along with the visual-aids, charts uses of grant (Rs 500 per teacher/parateacher) etc were found to be in more better position as in compare to other two schools.
The regularity of non-teaching staff at every stage is also found more regular in school-1, whereas these all facilities either were lacking at some or more extent in other two schools or carried out in very informal manner, which ultimately causes distraction or disinterest of students as well as their parents who starts sending their wards to governmental schools especially for some particular reasons like scholarship, MDM or other incentives.
Staff Sanctioned-
Staff sectioned to these schools was also found very unsynchronized in all these schools. Governmental policies assure 30:1 student-teacher ratio and one headmaster, three teachers and a peon as a necessary staff for any governmental school, but although the number of students was very large in School-1 the students-teacher ratio was accurately maintained in School-1, whereas in School-2 the teacher number was more than needed as number of students present there was quite low, this situation was found more severe in School-3 where more teacher them needed was found to be as sanctioned teaching staff according to available number of students in the school. Many subsidary reasons were found responsible for this inappropiate and unreasonable distribution of teachers in different localities of city.
Other important cause of failure of SSA-
These interventions have sometimes taken the form of add on to the existing learning systems and practices, and have not been adequately integrated in nor influenced the mainstream system, largely for the following reasons-
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1. The education system follows a disjointed approach to curriculum formulation which should be followed viewing its core components of curriculum, syllabus formulation, textbook development, teacher training, learner assessment, classroom processes and school management as discrete, fragmented or isolated interventions, rather than being inter-connected and synthesized.
2. There is a tendency for the system, while formulating curriculum, to ignore the ground realities of children. For example, that the child may speak a different language at home, that the child may be a first generation school goer, or that girls perform domestic chores, are realities that are not factored into the curriculum design. Lack of understanding of these ground realities and unity of thought among different agencies are found responsible for the core curricular components is often obvious in the plethora of material prepared by different agencies.
Any attempt to improve the quality of education will succeed only if it goes hand in hand with steps to promote equality and social justice. This can only be achieved when experience of children from all backgrounds and particularly those from disadvantaged groups and weaker sections are fore- fronted in learning experiences with primacy to their socio-cultural context.
3. Present education system has adopted a subject based approach for organisation of curriculum, focusing on areas which readily lend themselves to being formulated as ‘subjects’ only. Areas which do not lend themselves to being organised in textbooks, for example visual and performing arts or work education are relegated to ‘extra’ or ‘co-curricular’ activities. Consequently, subject areas tend to become air tight compartments with
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specific and fragmented knowledge, rather than being interconnected. Any ‘new’ concern or problem, such as environmental awareness or disaster management, is addressed piecemeal or as an add-on, without incorporating it cohesively in the curriculum.
4. There is an emphasis on reproduction of information that is rote learnt, rather than developing ‘constructive knowledge’ emerged out from self- experience, which acts as a hinderence in the natural overall development of a child’s personality and knowledge.
5. Work on the specific fields of curriculum is not accompanied by improvement in the enabling fields, including inter alial teacher recruitment and deployment systems, re-orientation of educational administrators, BRC and CRC faculty.
Conclusion-
Keeping various other aspects in mind, we can summaries that the backbone of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is one of its major limitations and number of factors indirectly acts as an efficient limiting to limit success of SSA it may be indulgement of students in other live earning activities rather than education, less or no believe in governmental policies to provide them education, incorporating less or unable parateachers in this programmes, lack or improper use of available recourse, indulgement of teachers in other activities etc which with one reason or all results in to underachievement of auspicious programme of EFA.
Other effective hurdles on the way to success of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan are majorly from the field of quality assurance, funding, accountability and active participation at all levels of parents, teachers and also administration. In SSA
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 206 equity means equal opportunity for all children to complete their elementary education irrespective of their gender, religion, caste, socio-economic status , cultural, or linguistic background or geographical location. It somehow cuts across the availability of access, enrolment, retention and participation of both students or teachers in one way or another. Given that exclusion tends to take highly contextual forms varying in scope, form and degree in different parts of the country (and sometimes within a state too) strategies to achieve equity and inclusion must also should come to grips with the local situation within which a particular form of inequity or exclusion is manifested.
Although RTE Act provides a legal entitlement particularly for the children belonging to disadvantaged groups and communities, weaker sections, where their actual participation is required for the innovative and sustained measures integrated with mainstream interventions to ensure meaningful progress on the basis equity provide to impart education to all the sections of society. To the extent possible, mainstream SSA provisions should be applied in a cohesive manner so that it may address educational equity issues in a holistic manner on sustainable basis to ensure all aspect development of people engaged in the process of education.
Suggestions-
Keeping all these findings in mind following points can be taken in consideration to improve the efficiency of Sarva Siksha Abhiyaan-
The primary role of not only teachers, but also of parents and administration should be revised such that the minimum and formative objective of educational planning by SSA could be attained.
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There is a need to revaluate and redesign the educational system on the basis of local factors like, distance from headquarters, providence of basic educational funds and resources, proper and effective guidance and continuous and formative evaluation according to the primary objectives of SSA.
There is also the need to redefine role and job description on school heads, teachers, parateachers etc and also their role should be confirmed and evaluated on regular basis with much efficiency and accuracy.
Institutional formal and specialized in-service training for school heads and inspection officers should be conducted to enhance performing abilities of not only teachers but all the components engaged in providing education as an prime objective of SSA.
Monitoring responsibilities should be provided to the component and efficient members of the local community which should capable in identifying and sorting of all sort of problems in attaining educational objectives framed under SSA.
Institutionalizing the enriching the system of monitoring, evaluating and providing alternative or remedial stimulations responsible for enhancing students learning as per their need.
Use of participatory methods in training of authorities should be enhanced to improve the teaching skills, management skills and administration skills to ensure maximum involvement of students in teaching-learning process.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 208
Many efficient programmes and schemes are put forward by various commissions and administration to improve and to achieve basic fundamental objectives of attaining universal education, at all level and in all standards but the basic fault or prime error is observed in their implementation in the form as they are expected to be implemented in the real life situations. Thus it can concluded that, no matter how efficient and innovative we make our educative programmes to attain our objectives of global education, the ideal level will not be achieved until and unless proper implementations of these programmes will be done at ground level.
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Behera K. and Pradhan(2008).Effectiveness of skill supporting cards in developing vocabulary and spelling abilities of learners in English. In Senapathy.H.K.(ed.) Regional level sharing meeting on quality of Elementary Education under SSA, R.I.E.Bhubaneshwar.
Rath P.K.,Behera K. and Pradhan (2008). Impact of questioning Exercise on construction of knowledge. In Senapathy.H.K.(ed.) Regional level sharing meeting on quality of Elementary Education under SSA, R.I.E.Bhubaneshwar.
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Sapon-Shevin, M. (1994). Coopperative Learning and Middle schools: What would it take to really do it right? Theory into practice,33,183-190.
Varghese, N.V. (1996). Decentralization of Education Planning in India: The case of the District Primary Education Programme, Indian Journal of Educational Development. Vol.16(V).
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Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education, ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 5, Issue-3, August-2016. Page 210