Quaternary Science Reviews 177 (2017) 104e119

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Quaternary Science Reviews

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Tephrostratigraphy of Changbaishan volcano, northeast , since the mid-Holocene

* Chunqing Sun a, b, , Jiaqi Liu a, Haitao You c, Karoly Nemeth d a Key Laboratory of Cenozoic Geology and Environment, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China b University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China c Key Laboratory of Computational Geodynamics of Chinese Academy of Sciences, College of Earth Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China d Institute of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand article info abstract

Article history: A detailed tephrostratigraphy of an active volcano is essential for evaluating its eruptive history, fore- Received 25 June 2017 casting future eruptions and correlation with distal tephra records. Changbaishan volcano is known for Received in revised form its Millennium eruption (ME, AD 940s; VEI 7) and the ME tephra has been detected in Greenland ice 16 October 2017 cores ~9000 km from the vent. However, the pre-Millennium (pre-ME) and post-Millennium (post-ME) Accepted 17 October 2017 eruptions are still poorly characterized. In this study, we present a detailed late Holocene eruptive Available online 5 November 2017 sequence of Changbaishan volcano based on single glass shard compositions from tephra samples collected from around the caldera rim and flanks. Tephra ages are constrained by optically stimulated Keywords: 14 Changbaishan luminescence (OSL) and AMS C dates. Tephra from the mid-Holocene pre-ME eruption can be divided Tephrostratigraphy into two pyroclastic fall subunits, and it cannot be correlated with any known Changbaishan-sourced Explosive eruption tephra recorded in the Japan Sea based on major element composition of glass shards, such as the B-J Millennium eruption (Baegdusan-Japan Basin) and B-V (Baegdusan-Vladivostok-oki) tephras. ME pyroclastic fall deposits from Tephra the caldera rims and volcanic flanks can be correlated to the juvenile pumice lapilli or blocks within the Pyroclastic density current pyroclastic density current (PDC) deposits deposited in the valleys around the volcano based on glass Plinian shard compositions. Our results indicate that the glass shard compositions of proximal ME tephra are more varied than previously thought and can be correlated with distal ME tephra. In addition, widely- dispersed mafic scoria was ejected by the ME Plinian column and deposited on the western and southern summits and the eastern flank of the volcano. Data for glass from post-ME eruptions, such as the historically-documented AD 1403, AD 1668 and AD 1702 eruptions, are reported here for the first time. Except for the ME, other Holocene eruptions, including pre-ME and post-ME eruptions, had the potential to form widely-distributed tephra layers around northeast Asia, and our dataset provides a proximal reference for tephra and cryptotephra studies in surrounding areas. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 2016). Changbaishan volcano is an intraplate stratovolcano on the border between China and North Korea. The summit of the volcanic The comprehensive construction of a stratigraphic framework cone may have experienced several collapses due to the rapid and dating of the deposits of past volcanic eruptions is important evacuation of magma, and thus a complex, large caldera has formed for understanding past volcanic activity and for assessing future (e.g., Nakada et al., 2005). The ~5 km-wide Changbaishan caldera eruptions and associated volcanic hazards (Fontijn et al., 2014, might have been formed in a single collapse event by the Millen- 2015; Gertisser and Keller, 2003; Miyabuchi, 2009; Naranjo et al., nium eruption (ME), at around the AD 940s, which ejected about 100 km3 of tephra (DRE ~25 km3)(Horn and Schmincke, 2000; Sun et al., 2014a; Wei et al., 2003; Zou et al., 2010). Changbaishan has experienced several other explosive eruptions during the Holocene, * Corresponding author. Key Laboratory of Cenozoic Geology and Environment, e Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, such as the pre-Millennium eruption (e.g., the ~4 5 ka eruption), China. and the post-Millennium historically documented eruptions (e.g., E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Sun). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.10.021 0277-3791/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. C. Sun et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 177 (2017) 104e119 105 the AD 1702 and 1668 eruptions) (Cui et al., 1995; Liu et al., 1998; however, these efforts have not yielded a consensus regarding its Yang et al., 2014). Recent monitoring of the volcano, based on age (Liu, 1999; Liu et al., 1998; Wang, 2012; Yang et al., 2014). measurement of the geochemical characteristics of springs and Analysis of the ash from this eruption recorded in Greenland ice seismic inversions on the underlying magma chamber, indicate an cores assigned an age of AD 940e941 (GICC05, or 946e947 by NS1- increasing potential for eruptive activity (Ri et al., 2016; Wei et al., 2011) or 945 ± 4 (GISP2) (Sigl et al., 2015; Sun et al., 2014a). In 2013). However, the lack of detailed knowledge of the stratigraphy addition, the age of the eruption has been constrained to AD 946 by of the most recent eruptions has hindered studies of their eruptive counting proximal tree rings, on the basis of an abnormal cosmo- processes and hence of predictions of future volcanic activity. genic radiocarbon signal at around AD 775 (Oppenheimer et al., Here, we present an integrated and detailed stratigraphic 2017). The occurrence of this tephra in Greenland ice cores, and framework for the young tephras deposited since the mid- associated acidity records, also resolves the controversy regarding Holocene around the caldera rim of Changbaishan volcano and its its climatic impacts as a result of discrepancies in the datings of the surrounding volcanic edifice forming a proximal-to-medial tephra timing of the eruption (e.g., Xu et al., 2013; Yin et al., 2012). record of the volcano. From previously published results and our The ME can be divided into a first phase producing widespread new geochronological data, the eruptive sequence of Changbaishan pyroclastic fall deposits on the eastern flank of the volcano and volcano since the mid-Holocene was established by geochemical non-welded pyroclastic density current (PDC) deposits around the fingerprinting of tephra layers from the caldera rim to the volcanic volcanic vent; and a late phase producing welded PDC deposits flanks. This detailed Holocene stratigraphy offers a relatively pre- along the valleys surrounding the volcano (such as the Jinjiang cise framework for elucidating the volcanic history of Chang- valley and Yalujiang valley) (Horn and Schmincke, 2000). Many baishan and provides a basis for assessing future eruptive hazards pyroclastic fall and PDC deposits have been detected on the eastern and the areas that may potentially be affected. Additionally, this flank of Changbaishan, and the grey pyroclastic fall deposits can be study provides a reference for comparison of proximal tephra for readily traced and correlated with the fall deposits (grey unit of NS- future correlations of the tephras sourced from this volcano since 3, Fig. 2A and B and 3) on TWF summit (Liu et al., 2006; Machida the mid- Holocene. et al., 1990) and NS-3 was deposited by the ME. However, the origin of the pyroclastic fall deposit (subunits NS-4, dark grey in 2. Geological background and eruptive history color; and NS-5, black in color; Fig. 2B and C and 3) covering NS-3 is still controversial. Several studies have proposed that NS-4 and NS- Changbaishan is the highest volcano in northeast China (Fig. 1). 5 on the summit of TWF were also derived from the ME; however, It is located on a shield (the Gaima Basaltic Plateau) chronological results have assigned relatively young ages to them, and covers an area of ~7200 km2. Changbaishan formed from the i.e., post-MEs (Chen et al., 2016; Ji et al.,1999; Sun et al., 2016; Wang Miocene to the early (during three main eruptive in- et al., 1999, 2001). In addition, if they were derived from the ME, tervals: 22.64e15.6 Ma, 5.02e2.35 Ma, and 1.66e1.48 Ma), and questions arise regarding the relationship between these fall de- covered the basement of -Proterozoic metamorphic rocks; posits and the PDC deposits that are present in the surrounding with up to 150 m of shield (Liu et al., 2001; Wei et al., 2003, valleys, and if such pyroclastic fall deposits are also present on the 2007, 2013; Zou et al., 2010). The cone of Changbaishan volcano was flanks of Changbaishan. mainly constructed by eruptions of trachytic , and most of the Historical records from surrounding areas demonstrate that uppermost parts of the cone have been removed by late-stage Changbaishan may have experienced several relatively minor explosive eruptions (Liu et al., 2015; Wei et al., 2013). These eruptions (with an estimated VEI<5) since the ME, the most recent explosive eruptions can be divided into three clusters: the pre-ME being in AD 1903 (Cui et al., 1995; Yun, 2013). Historical documents eruptions, the ME in the AD 940s, and the post-ME eruptions. indicate that the AD 1702 eruption produced a ~3 cm thick fallout The best studied pre-ME event is the eruption that produced the ash layer deposited ~70 km east of Changbaishan (Wei et al., 2013; pyroclastic fall deposits (NS-1 and NS-2) exposed on the Tian- Yun, 2013), but no confirmed field exposures can be precisely wenfeng (TWF) peak of the northern summit (Fig. 1). Tephra from correlated to this. OSL dating of the cone formation trachyte of the this eruption consists of two subunits: the lower grey fall deposit inner caldera of the volcano indicates that the most recent eruption (NS-1) and the upper yellow fall deposit (NS-2) (Fig. 2A). 40Ar-39Ar, has an age of around 400 to 600 a, which may be compatible with uranium series disequilibrium, 14C and optically stimulated lumi- the historical record (Li and Yin, 2001; Yin and Li, 2000). The AD nescence (OSL) methods, have dated this tephra to ~1 to ~5 ka, 1903 eruption was a small phreatomagmatic eruption and the while fission track (FT) dating on zircons gave an age of around 74 affected areas were limited to the inner caldera, while the ka (Ji et al., 1999; Liu et al., 1998; Wan and Zheng, 2000; Wang et al., geochemical compositions of the products of other post-MEs, and 1999; Yang et al., 2014). However, in contrast, other workers have the areas affected, are unclear. suggested that this tephra was a syn-eruptive phase of the ME (Yin and Fan, 2012). Most of the aforementioned studies were concen- 3. Sampling, field characteristics and analytical methods trated on one of the subunits of the pre-ME tephra, the upper yellow fall (NS-2, 2A, 3), while no detailed geochronological and 3.1. Exposures and sampling geochemical studies have been conducted on the lower grey fall (subunit NS-1, Figs. 2A and 3). 3.1.1. Summits around the caldera The most prominent eruption in the eruptive history of Tianwenfeng peak (TWF, the northern slope summit of Chang- Changbaishan is the so called “Millennium eruption” (ME) which baishan, Fig. 1) is an excellent site for tracing the late-stage was one of two largest explosive eruptions in the past 2000 years. explosive eruptions of the volcano since several clear and well- The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of this eruption was up to 7 exposed fall deposits can be observed (Fig. 2A, B, C). A ~30 m and it can be compared with the great Tambora eruption of AD thick pre-ME pyroclastic fall unit consisting of two subunits (NS-1, 1815; consequently, it has received a great deal of research atten- grey in color; NS-2, yellow in color) directly overlies the trachytic tion (Horn and Schmincke, 2000; Liu et al., 1998; Oppenheimer, cone. Pumice blocks from these two subunits were collected for 2003; Stone, 2011, 2013). Over the past few decades, many dating analysis. In addition, there are many mafic blocks up to ~50 cm in methods, such as 14C wiggle matching and 40Ar-39Ar dating, have diameter within this fall deposit. This fall unit is exposed only on been used to try to constrain the precise timing of this eruption; the TWF peak of the northern summit. The overlying NS-3 is a 106 C. Sun et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 177 (2017) 104e119

Fig. 1. Location and regional topography of Changbaishan volcano shown on digital elevation model (spatial resolution is ~30 m; data are from www.gscloud.cn). The solid grey circles are tephra site locations referenced in the text. The insert map (base map from NaturalEarthData.com) shows the tephra dispersal of Changbaishan Millennium eruption. The major representative sites where the B-Tm tephra (solid black circle) and tephra sourced from pre-Millennium eruptions (e.g. B-V or B-J, solid red circle) were found and referred in text (Ikehara, 2003; Lim et al., 2013; Machida and Arai, 1983; Machida et al., 1990). Abbreviations: CBS, Changbaishan; GST, Gushantun peat; SHL, Sihailongwan lake; NTC, Naitoucun; XGFSL, Xiagufushilin; LFZ, Laofangzixiaoshan; HSG, Heishigou; SMF, Shuangmufeng; SMFD, Shuangmufengdong; YC, Yuanchi; DYT, Diaoyutai; NS, northern summit; WS, western summit; SS, southern summit; JJ, Jinjiang Valley. Tianwenfeng (TWF) is a peak on the northern summit (NS). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) widespread ME pyroclastic fall deposit with pure grey rhyolitic 3.1.2. Shuangmufengdong (SMFD) and Shuangmufeng (SMF) pumice lapilli, and can be traced across the southeastern slope At SMFD, a ~60 cm thick well-sorted normally-graded fall de- (Fig. 2D, Horn and Schmincke, 2000; Zou et al., 2010). The pyro- posit (SMFD-1) directly overlies peat sediments (Fig. 4A). The clastic fall deposits overlying NS-3 consist of two subunits: the dark SMFD-1 fall deposit is the typical widespread ME Plinian tephra, grey NS-4 and the black NS-5 (Fig. 2C). In a small trench at TWF and can be traced across the southeastern flank of Changbaishan summit (42010N, 128040E), we observed that there is no clear (Liu et al., 1998). SMFD-1 consists predominantly of grey pumice depositional break between NS-4 and NS-5, implying that they may lapilli with minor amounts of dark and banded pumice lapilli. The be the product of a single eruption. Pumice blocks from these two SMFD-1 fall deposit is covered by a ~20 cm thick mud-rich layer, subunits were collected for laboratory analysis. Overall, the five which in turn is overlain by a yellow fall deposit of SMFD-2. The pyroclastic fall units (NS-1 to NS-5) on TWF peak are relatively inverse-graded SMFD-2 deposit consists of pumice lapilli up to poorly sorted with sizes ranging from lapilli to blocks (>30 cm 3e4 cm. The ~4 cm yellow fall deposit of SMFD-3, consisting of pumice blocks can be found in NS-1, NS-2, NS-4 and NS-5). pumice lapilli, is separated from SMFD-2 by a ~10 cm black pyro- No stratified pyroclastic fall deposits, such as those recorded on clastic deposit consisting mainly of fine pumice lapilli and mafic the TWF peak, were detected on the western and southern sum- scoria. The uppermost section is an ~80 cm coarse ash deposit mits. These fall deposits are poorly sorted and composed of lapilli to (SMFD-4). blocks (up to 10 cm in diameter). Grey pumice lapilli from the ME, At SMF, there is a ~20 cm well-sorted normally-graded pyro- corresponding to the NS-3 unit on the TWF peak, are the most clastic fall deposit (SMF-1) overlying peat sediments (Fig. 4B). The widely-dispersed deposits, and dark grey to banded pumice lapilli SMF-1 fall deposit consists of pumice lapilli up to 3e4 cm with and blocks can be found therein (Fig. 2D, E and 2F). In addition, minor amount of dark and banded pumice lapilli, and traychyan- lithics, such as traychyandesitic and traychyandesitic volcanic and desitic and traychyandesitic scoria (up to ~0.5 cm) similar to those granite clasts (up to 10 cm in diameter), can also be found in the recorded on the southern and western summits. Large charcoal pyroclastic fall deposits from these two summits (Fig. 2E and F). fragments and Larix leaves dated to ~1 ka can be found in the SMF-1 Grey and banded pumices from the two summits were collected for fall, demonstrating that this fall deposits was from the ME and can analysis (SS-1 and SS-2 from the southern summit, and WS-1 and be correlated with NS-3 and SMFD-1. This is overlain by a massive WS-2 from the western summit, see Table 1). PDC deposit ~1 m thick, containing several large (up to 20 cm in C. Sun et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 177 (2017) 104e119 107

Fig. 2. Exposures and sampling sites near the volcanic vent of Changbaishan. A is the north summit of Changbaishan (Tianwenfeng) (note people for scale), and B is an enlarged photo of the upper part of A. C is a trench site on the north summit, and NS-4 and NS-5 in B can be clearly observed in this trench. D is a general view of the southern summit of Changbaishan, E is a photo illustrating sampling at the southern summit, and F is a photo illustrating sampling at the western summit. diameter), black (dark) grey pumice lapilli and blocks. The upper- fall deposits was detected. PDC deposits with thicknesses >2 m can most deposit SMF-3 is a dark, poorly sorted PDC deposit consisting be found here (Fig. 4D). The lower part of the PDC deposits consists of ash, rounded pumice lapilli (~2 cm) and some small charcoal of ash deposits. The poorly-sorted upper part consists of ash, grey fragments. Yellow pyroclastic fall deposits, consisting of well- pumice lapilli and grey pumice blocks (up to 50 cm). 14C dating of sorted yellow pumice lapilli similar to SMFD-2, can be found be- the charcoal wood (1070 ± 70 14C a BP) from the PDC deposits tween SMF-2 and SMF-3. This yellow fall deposit is succeeded by demonstrate that they are from the ME (Liu, 1999). Overlying the the grey ME fall deposit (e.g., NS-3 and SMF-1) and thus it could not thick PDC deposits is a pyroclastic surge deposit (~20 cm). be correlated with the pre-ME yellow NS-2 fall deposit on TWF peak. 3.1.4. PDC deposits around the Changbaishan vent At Xiagufushilin (XGFSL), northeast of the Changbaishan vent, 3.1.3. Laofangzixiaoshan (LFZ) and Naitoucun (NTC) there is a ~50 m PDC deposit. The lower part consists of a massive The exposure at LFZ (northwest of SMF), where there are layers weakly-welded to non-welded and poorly sorted dark grey PDC of pyroclastic fall and PDC deposits covering the basaltic volcanic deposit consisting of ash and grey-dark pumice blocks up to cone, is similar to that at SMF (Fig. 4C). The ~5 cm relatively well- ~10 cm. The upper part is yellow in color and its composition is sorted grey fall deposit of LFZ-1 consists of grey pumice lapilli up similar to the lower part (Fig. 5A). Well-preserved charcoal frag- to 1e2 cm and contains numerous wood charcoal fragments. This ments occur in the lower part of the section and 14C dating of the fall deposit with almost entirely rhyolitic glass composition can be charcoal (860 ± 100 AD) indicates that the PDC deposits were from correlated with SMFD-1 and NS-3. Overlying LFZ-1 is a thick PDC the ME (Jwa et al., 2003). Similar weakly-welded to non-welded deposit (of variable thickness because of the concave shape of the PDC deposits also occur in Yalujiang valley, along the Yalujiang , Fig. 4C) which also contains numerous charcoal river (Fig. 5B). wood fragments. Grey pumice blocks up to 10 cm can be found in At Jinjiang valley (JJ), welded and non-welded PDC deposits can this PDC deposit. The uppermost section at LFZ is a well-sorted be found (Fig. 5C and D), which are different from the loose PDC yellow fall deposit with pumice lapilli up to 2e3 cm similar to deposits at XGFSL. In addition, the JJ PDC deposits consist pre- SMFD-2, and a similar yellow fall deposit also can be detected at dominantly of ash with black pumice lapilli to blocks. At Heishigou NTC (Fig. 3). (HSG), northeast of the volcanic vent, the exposed bottom of the At NTC, no marker ME Plinian tephra like the NS-3 and SMFD-1 valley is a basaltic flow dated to ~190 ka (Fig. 5E, Liu et al., 1998). 108 C. Sun et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 177 (2017) 104e119

Fig. 3. Stratigraphic correlations between representative exposures from the summit to the flank of Changbaishan volcano. The abbreviations are the same as in Fig. 1. The sections range from proximal deposits at the north summit (TWF), medial deposits at Shuangmufengdong (SMFD) to Heishigou (HSG), and more distal deposits at Naitoucun (NTC). Py- roclastic fall deposits (subunits NS-1 and NS-2) were from a pre-ME eruption, and TWF is the only site where they are present. The basal grey shading represents the most widespread fall deposit (e.g., well sorted grey pumice lapilli) of the ME. The medium grey shading is the correlation of the PDC deposits (e.g., ash with grey, dark grey and black pumice lapilli) of the ME. The yellow shading is the correlation of the yellow fall deposit from the post-ME eruption (AD 1403 eruption). The dark grey shading is the correlation of the coarse ash deposit of a post-ME eruption. Pyroclastic fall deposits (YC-4, YC-6 and YC-7) were from historically-documented post-ME eruptions, e.g., the AD 1668 and AD 1702 eruptions. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

The exposure here reveals a less well-sorted pyroclastic fall deposit, of DYT-2 with well-sorted pumice lapilli (up to 1e2 cm) can be consisting of ash and pumice lapilli enriched in wood charcoals correlated with it (Fig. 6, right). Overlying the YC-6 fall deposit, at (Fig. 5F). Overlying the fall deposit is a >10 m PDC deposit (both least five coarse ash subunits have been identified that are inter- welded and non-welded, Fig. 5G). The welded PDC deposits similar bedded with four pumice lapilli subunits. Similar tephra deposits, to those at JJ, with black pumice lapilli and blocks, and the loose with coarse ash interbedded with pumice lapilli, also occur at DYT: PDC deposit is similar to those from LFZ and SMF. The upper most DYT-3 and DYT-4. An ending eruption with several phases of part is a well-sorted pyroclastic fall deposit consisting of pumice different styles of activity (from coarse ash to pumice lapilli) is lapilli with sizes ~1e2 cm. This fall deposit is similar to SMFD-2. present at the eastern flank of Changbaishan volcano.

3.1.5. Yuanchi (YC) and Diaoyutai (DYT) 3.2. Geochemical analysis The exposure at Yuanchi (YC) (Fig. 6 left) is similar to the sequence from SMFD, but it records a more detailed tephra The major element composition of glass shards of proximal sequence following the ME. The basal tephra YC-1 is a normally- pumices from the volcanic vent and flanks was measured using a graded fall deposit, and the pumice lapilli are up to 2e3 cm (grey JEOL JXA 8100 electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA, with a pumice lapilli were collected for analysis, see Table 1). The YC-1 fall wavelength-dispersive spectrometer (WDS)) at the State Key Lab- deposit can be correlated to SMFD-1 (Fig. 3); however, the overall oratory of Lithospheric Evolution of the Institute of Geology and the size of the pumice lapilli is relatively small because YC is more Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IGGCAS), Beijing. Ten distal than SMFD. YC-2, above the YC-1 fall deposit, is a mud- major elements (Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, Fe, Ti, Mn, and Cl) were analyzed enriched layer similar to the muddy layer in between SMFD-1 with an accelerating voltage of 15 kV, a beam current of 6 nA, and a and SMFD-2. YC-3 is a ~9 cm coarse ash deposit enriched in beam diameter of 5e10 mm, according to the size of the glass shards. organic material and charcoal fragments, and can be correlated Peak counting times used were 20 s for all elements except for Na with SMFD-4. Overlying YC-3 is the ~9 cm fall deposit of YC-4, (10 s), and the Na content was determined at the start of analysis. consisting of well-sorted pumice lapilli (up to ~2 cm), overlain by Two secondary standard glasses from the MPI-DING fused glass, a coarse ash deposit. Above YC-4, there is a hiatus represented by a ATHO-G (rhyolite) and StHs6/80-G (andesite) (Jochum et al., 2006), mud layer (YC-5); which was followed by an eruption sequence of were used to check the precision and accuracy of the data. several phases (i.e., the YC-6 to YC-7 fall deposits). Pumice lapilli from subunits of this fall deposit were selected for analysis: YC-6 3.3. Geochronology (up to ~3 cm) and YC-7 (up to ~2 cm). YC-6, from the start of the eruption, is a well-sorted pumice lapilli deposit, and the fall deposit A total of six radiocarbon samples were dated by accelerator C. Sun et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 177 (2017) 104e119 109

Table 1 Summary descriptions and analysis of proximal Changbaishan tephras collected in this study. Detailed descriptions for the exposures, sequences and samples referred to the section 3.1, and Fig. 3.

Site Sample Location of outcrop Sample description Analysis Ana. method

NS NS-1 N summit of the calddra rim Grey pumice blocks Geo.&Dat. EPMA&TL NS-2 N summit of the calddra rim Yellow pumice blocks Geo.&Dat. EPMA&TL NS-3 N summit of the calddra rim Grey pumice lapilli Geo.&Dat. EPMA&TL NS-4 N summit of the calddra rim Dark grey pumice blocks Geo. EPMA NS-5 N summit of the calddra rim Black pumice blocks Geo. EPMA

SS SS-1 S summit of the calddra rim Grey pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA SS-2 S summit of the calddra rim Banded pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA

WS WS-1 W summit of the calddra rim Grey pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA WS-2 W summit of the calddra rim Banded pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA

NTC NTC 40 km NE of volcanic vent Grey pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA

LFZ LFZ-1 15 km NE of volcanic vent Grey pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA

SMF SMFD-1 25 km E of volcanic vent Grey pumice lapilli with minor amount of dark pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA SMFD-1-2 25 km E of volcanic vent Bulk organic sediments Dat. 14C SMFD-2 25 km E of volcanic vent Yellow pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA SMFD-3 25 km E of volcanic vent Yellow pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA SMFD-4 25 km E of volcanic vent Coarse ash Geo.&Dat. EPMA&TL

JJ JJ 10 km SW of volcanic vent Dark pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA

XGFSL XGFSL 20 km NE of volcanic vent Grey and dark pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA

YC YC-1 30 km E of volcanic vent Grey pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA YC-3 30 km E of volcanic vent Bulk organic sediments and charcoal fragments Dat. 14C YC-4 30 km E of volcanic vent Grey pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA YC-5 30 km E of volcanic vent Bulk organic sediments Dat. 14C YC-6 30 km E of volcanic vent Grey pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA YC-7 30 km E of volcanic vent Coarse ash with pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA

DYT DYT-1 40 km E of volcanic vent Peat sediments with charcoal Dat. 14C DYT-2 40 km E of volcanic vent Grey pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA DYT-3 40 km E of volcanic vent Coarse ash Geo. EPMA DYT-4 40 km E of volcanic vent Pumice lapilli Geo. EPMA

mass spectrometry (AMS) at the Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Labo- and comendite (almost all of the glass shards have a value of Al2O3/ ratory, Florida, USA (Table 2). Radiocarbon ages were calibrated (1.33*FeO þ 4) > 1) (Le Maitre, 2002). The pre-ME fall deposits using the IntCal13 curve, and the calibrated ranges are reported as (subunits NS-1 and NS-2) can be separated from the ME and post- two standard deviations (Reimer et al., 2013). The widespread py- MEs by high ratios of FeO/CaO (Fig. 7). The grey fall deposit NS-1 roclastic fall deposit SMF-1 was dated to cal AD 770e905 and cal AD have a heterogeneous glass composition, e.g., most of glass shards 920e965 (95% probability) based on AMS 14C dating of Larix (larch) share similar composition with the yellow fall deposit NS-2, while contained within (Sun et al., in preparation), confirming that the some other shards exhibit relatively high SiO2 and lower Al2O3 fall deposit was from the ME. contents (Fig. 7). In this study, a total of four samples were dated by OSL at the The glass shards from the NS-3 fall exhibit a comenditic Luminescence Dating Laboratory at IGGCAS (Table 3). The samples composition, and glasses of the NS-4 and NS-5 falls exhibit a (NS-1, NS-2, NS-3, and SMFD-4) were collected using a 30 cm comenditic trachytic composition. The grey fall deposits of SS-1 and length steel tube. The bulk samples were treated with 10% HCl and WS-1, from the southern and western summits, exhibit a similar H2O2 to remove carbonates and organic materials. Grains between glass composition to NS-3. However, the dark and banded fall de- 90 and 125 mm were sieved from the bulk samples, and then so- posits from these two summits (WS-2 and SS-2) have a heteroge- lutions of sodium polytungstate (SPT, 2.62e2.75 g/cm3) were added neous glass composition, and can be compared with the distal to extract quartz. The quartz grains were then etched using 40% HF tephra ME (Fig. 8A and B). to remove any feldspar. The OSL measurements were made using The basal grey ME fall deposit from the flanks of Changbaishan, an automated TL/OSL reader of Risø-TL/OSL-DA-15 (Gong et al., such as SMFD-1 and LFZ, has a similar heterogeneous glass shards 2014). composition to WS-2 and SS-2. The overlying yellow fall deposits (e.g., SMFD-2, SMFD-3) have an exclusively trachytic glass compo- sition, and can not be separated from the dark grey-black fall de- 4. Results posits on the TWF (NS-4 and NS-5). Glass shards of the juvenile pumice lapilli from XGFSL have a continuous composition ranging 4.1. Glass shards geochemistry from trachyte to rhyolite, while those from JJ have a relatively restricted trachytic composition, similar to dark fall NS-4 and black Volcanic glass compositions from the explosive eruptions of fall NS-5. Changbaishan range from ~60 to 77 wt% SiO2 (Table S1), and almost The basal grey fall deposit of YC-1 exhibits a rhyolitic glass all of them exhibit a perakaline composition. Fall deposits NS-1 and composition, and can be correlated with the most widespread fall NS-2, from the pre-ME eruption, exhibit comenditic-to- deposit of the ME (e.g., NS-3). The fall deposits from post-ME < pantelleritic glass compositions (0.83 Al2O3/ eruptions, such as YC-4 and YC-6, also have rhyolitic glass compo- þ < (1.33*FeO 4) 1.13) (Le Maitre, 2002). The pyroclastics from the sitions with some shards distinguished from the rhyolitic member ME and post-ME eruptions can be classified as comenditic trachyte 110 C. Sun et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 177 (2017) 104e119

Fig. 4. Exposures and sampling sites predominantly associated with fallout deposits on the flank of Changbaishan. A is SMFD where there are several well-defined pyroclastic fall deposits. B is the exposure at SMF. C is the exposure at LFZ where the thin fall deposit is covered by thick PDC deposits. D is the exposure at NTC where there is abundant charcoal within the PDC deposits. Dated layers are indicated by a red circle and star. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) C. Sun et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 177 (2017) 104e119 111

Fig. 5. Exposures and sampling sites predominantly associated with pyroclastic deposits on the flank of Changbaishan. A is XGFSL where there is abundant charcoal. B is a general view of the Yalujiang valley. C is a general view of JJ and D is also a site along JJ valley which is closer to the volcanic vent. E, F and G are the exposures at HSG. E is the basalt dated to ~190 ka (Liu et al., 1998) in the lowest part of the valley, and is covered by pumice-rich deposits in which large charcoal fragments (>20 cm in diameter by hammer) occur (F). Welded to non-welded PDC deposits are present in the topmost part of Heishigou site (G). of the ME (e.g., NS-3, YC-1) (Fig. 9A and B). The fall deposit of DYT-2 for the ME (Oppenheimer et al., 2017; Sun et al., 2014a). The fall has similar glass composition to YC-1 and YC-4, and DYT-3 and DYT- deposits from pre-ME eruptions (subunit NS-1 and subunit NS-2) 4 have similar heterogeneous glass compositions to YC-7 (Fig. 9C were dated to 2.0 ± 0.7 ka and 1.9 ± 0.6 ka, respectively. The and D). coarse ash SMFD-4 was dated to 0.7 ± 0.4 ka.

4.2. Geochronology 5. Discussion

The 14C dating results are presented in Table 2. The ages of YC-5 5.1. Pre-Millennium eruption (pre-ME) (cal AD 1670e1780 and 1800epost 1950) and YC-3 (cal AD 1670e1780 and 1800epost 1950 or cal AD 1470e1650) demon- 5.1.1. Geochronological and geochemical implications strate that the pyroclastic fall deposits of YC-4, YC-6 and YC-7 are An exposure on the TWF reveals that there are many angular from post-ME eruptions, such as the historically-recorded AD 1668 volcanic blocks within the thick pre-ME fall deposit (Fig. 2A). and 1702 eruptions. 14C dating of charcoals of DYT-1 (cal AD Usually, many lithic breccias will be incorporated in the fall de- 1695e1725, 1815e1835,1880e1915, Post AD 1950) also suggest that posits or related PDC deposits during caldera and pre-caldera for- DYT-2, DYT-3 and DYT-4 are from post-ME eruptions. Dates on bulk mation because of the fragmentation of the magma, erosion and organic materials (SMFD-1-2-1: cal AD 1155e1255, SMFD-1-2-2: abrasion of the volcanic conduit wall and tapping, entraining and cal AD 1300e1370 and 1380e1415) from the muddy layer be- excavation of country rocks (Bear et al., 2009a,b; Browne and tween SMFD-1 and SMFD-2 also demonstrate that the pyroclastic Gardner, 2004; Rosi et al., 1996). Previous studies have demon- fall deposit of SMFD-2 is from a post-ME eruption. strated that the formation of Changbaishan caldera mainly resulted OSL dating assigned an age of 1.0 ± 0.7 ka to the thin, grey fall from the ME (Horn and Schmincke, 2000; Wei et al., 2003; Zou deposit of NS-3, which overlaps with the most recent dating results et al., 2010). This study shows that pre-ME eruptions also made a 112 C. Sun et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 177 (2017) 104e119

Fig. 6. Exposures and sampling sites for the eruptive products of post-ME eruptions. Left is YC and right is DYT. The red stars are the locations of samples for radiocarbon dating of the organic-rich layers interbedded within the fall deposits. The length of the green shovel is about 50 cm. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) not insignificant contribution to the development of the Chang- deposit (subunits NS-1 and NS-2) with the tephra layers recorded baishan caldera. in the Japan Sea, such as the B-V tephra which is dated to about 24.5 Previous dating of the pre-ME events was focused on samples ka, and the B-J tephra with an age of ~51 ka (Ikehara, 2003; Pan, from the subunit of yellow fall NS-2, while no samples were from 2016; Wei, 2014). The major element compositions of glass shards NS-1. The results assigned ages of ~4 ka, 61 ka and 74 ka to this pre- exclude the pre-ME fall deposit as a source for the B-J tephra based ME fall deposit (Pan, 2016; Wan and Zheng, 2000; Wang et al., on the contents of K2O or FeO (Fig. 10). The B-V-like tephra exhibits 1999; Yang et al., 2014). In the present study, both subunit NS-1 a similar glass composition to the pre-ME deposit, but the age and NS-2 were sampled and dated by OSL, and the results difference between these two distal and proximal tephras pre- demonstrate that these two subunits are from the same eruption. cludes the fall deposit of pre-ME (NS-1 and NS-2) with an age of ~4 These geochronological results are in accord with field descriptions ka as a source for the B-V tephra. Given the present geochrono- (i.e., there is no clear depositional break between the two subunits), logical and major element composition characteristics of glass which suggests that this section represents a continuum of the shards from proximal Changbaishan tephra and distal tephra from eruptive event. Although OSL dating can provide a means of dating the Japan Sea, we are unable to correlate the proximal pre-ME young volcanic eruptions (Fattahi and Stokes, 2003), we still prefer pumice with any specific distal tephra layer in the Japan Sea. to accept the published 40Ar-39Ar dating results for the pre-ME Usually, trace element composition of glass shards can be used to rather than the OSL results, such as the ~4 ka dating results by distinguish tephras with similar major element glass compositions Yang et al. (2014) because the OSL signals may have been reset by (Pearce, 2014; Pearce et al., 2014). Therefore, future trace element the subsequent ME. However, if the age of this pre-ME fall deposit is analysis of Changbaishan-sourced tephras may provide evidences ~4 ka, it is also interesting that no known exposures (e.g., highway to confirm that the pre-ME (NS-1 and NS-2) is the source of B-V cuttings or forestry roads) from medium to distal areas can be tephra. Trace element variations may also help to better discrimi- correlated with it. nate ME, B-Ym tephra and B-Sado tephra (e.g. Chen et al., 2016). Invisible ash from the ME and visible AT tephra (Aira-Tanzawa, from the Japanese Aira volcano, with an age of ~29 ka) is recorded 5.1.2. Tephrostratigraphic implications in the sediments of Sihailongwan maar lake, ~120 km west of Over the last 0.5 Ma, numerous tephra layers purportedly from Changbaishan (Mingram et al., 2008; Sun et al., 2015). The >30 m- Changbaishan volcano have been detected in marine sediments of thickness fall deposit of pre-ME eruption (NS-1 and NS-2) may also the Japan Sea. This is based on characteristics such as a higher alkali be deposited over a wide area, like the tephra from the ME. Given content and high FeO/CaO compared to the arc volcanics from the relatively long time scale of the Sihailongwan core (the age of Japan, and usually a lower alkali content than phonolitic volcanics the base is about 90 ka) (J. Mingram, personal communication), from the eastern Korean peninsula (Lim et al., 2013; Machida and future cryptotephra and tephra-related research on the sediments Arai, 2003; Sun et al., 2014b). of this maar lake could potentially be used to date the fall deposits Comparison of some of the potential Changbaishan-sourced from the pre-ME eruptions. tephra layers recorded in the Japan Sea with the proximal tephra from Changbaishan volcano indicates that the ME ash with both trachytic and rhyolitic glass compositions can be separated from 5.2. Eruptive processes of the Millennium eruption (ME) these older tephras using FeO-CaO or K2O-Al2O3 diagrams (Fig. 10). Although the heterogeneous glass compositions of the 85.8 ka B- 5.2.1. Another type of eruptive product of the ME Ym (Baegdusan-Yamato Basin) tephra and 67.6 ka B-Sado (Baeg- The most noticeable eruptive products around Changbaishan dusan-Sado-Oki) tephra fall within the continuous trend of volcano are the extensive pyroclastic fall deposits (e.g., NS-3, SMFD- composition of the ME, their ages preclude the ME as a source. 1, YC-1) and PDC deposits (e.g., XGFSL, JJ) from the ME (Horn and Several studies have attempted to correlate the pre-ME fall Schmincke, 2000). The thickness of PDC deposits along the C. Sun et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 177 (2017) 104e119 113

Table 2 Radiocarbon samples and age results for the late Holocene Changbaishan tephra. Radiocarbon ages were calibrated using the IntCal13 curve (Reimer et al., 2013).

Site Lable Beta code Sample type d13C(‰) 14C Age (yr BP) Calibrated Age (cal AD, 95% probability)

SMFD SMFD-1-2-1 448800 Bulk organic 24.1 840 ± 30 1155e1255 SMFD-1-2-2 448801 Bulk organic 23.5 580 ± 30 1300-1370, 1380-1415

YC YC-3 448795 Bulk organic 25.8 130 ± 30 1670-1780, 1800-Post 1950 YC-3 448796 Charcoal 24.7 320 ± 30 1470e1650 YC-5 448799 Bulk organic 26.1 130 ± 30 1670-1780, 1800-Post 1950

DYT DYT-1 448797 Charcoal 22.3 50 ± 30 1695-1725, 1815e1835, 1880e1915, Post AD 1950

Table 3 OSL datings for the tephra from the Holocene eruptions of Changbaishan volcano.

Sample K content (%) Cosmic ray (Gy/ka) De (Gy) Dose rate (Gy/ka) OSL age (ka)

NS-1 4.06 0.29 7.1 ± 2.3 3.52 ± 0.32 2.0 ± 0.7 NS-2 4.13 0.33 7.3 ± 2.3 3.87 ± 0.34 1.9 ± 0.6 NS-3 4.03 0.33 4.1 ± 2.9 4.22 ± 0.36 1.0 ± 0.7 SMFD-4 4.73 0.26 3.1 ± 1.6 4.33 ± 0.34 0.7 ± 0.4

Fig. 7. Biplots of the major element composition of glasses illustrating the difference between the Changbaishan ME ash and tephra from the pre-ME. NS-1 and NS-2 are the pre-ME fall deposits. NS-3, NS-4, NS-5, SS-1, SS-2, WS-1, and WS-2 are the ME fall deposits. Error bars (2s, 95% probability) were calculated from secondary glass standard analyses (ATHO- G).

Yalujiang valley is up to 100 m, and the pyroclastic fall deposits in ME) of these scorias (Fan et al., 2005; Ramos et al., 2016). North Korea can also be 70e100-m thick (Liu, 1999; Liu et al., 1998). At SMF, it is possible to find such mafic scorias within the ME There are widespread mafic scorias with trachyandesitic and grey fall deposit of SMF-1 overlain by the ME late stage PDC de- basaltic trachyandesitic composition, within the extensive ME fall posits of SMF-2 (Fig. 4D). The size of the scoria here is smaller than deposits on the southern and western summit. However, there is no that on the southern and western summits (Fig. 2E and F, 4D), consensus regarding the provenance (post-ME eruptions or the which may be the result of a greater distance to the source volcanic 114 C. Sun et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 177 (2017) 104e119

Fig. 8. Biplots of the major element composition of glasses from the ash from the ME. A and B show comparisons between the proximal Changbaishan deposits and distal tephras from Japan (JS and Kushu) (Chen et al., 2016; Hughes et al., 2013), Sihailongwan (SHL) maar lake in China (Sun et al., 2015), and Greenland ice cores (Coulter et al., 2012; Sun et al., 2014a). C and D illustrate correlations of the tephras from the volcanic vent and flanks. E and F illustrate correlations between the fall deposits from the volcanic vent and PDC deposits around the volcanic cone. Insert diagrams in B, D and F are enlargements of the grey boxes. Error bars (2s, 95% probability) were calculated from secondary glass standard analyses (ATHO-G). vent than the southern and western summit. The pyroclastic fall ejected by the early stage eruption of the ME while they could not deposit of SMF-1 was from the first stage of the Plinian tephra of represent a single post-ME eruptive event. the ME, and therefore this study demonstrates that such wide- spread trachyandesitic and basaltic trachyandesitic scorias were C. Sun et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 177 (2017) 104e119 115

Fig. 9. Biplots of the glass composition of ash from Changbaishan post-ME eruptions. A and B show comparisons between proximal ME fall deposits (NS-3, NS-4, NS-5, SS-1, SS-2, WS-1, WS-2 and YC-1) and the deposits from post-MEs (YC-4, YC-6 and YC-7). C and D illustrate correlations of the tephras from post-MEs (YC-4, YC-6, YC-7, DYT-2, DYT-3 and DYT- 4) and distal tephra from the Gushantun peat deposit (GST) (Zhao and Liu, 2012), and ME from YC (YC-1). Insert diagrams in B and D are enlargements of the grey boxes. Error bars (2s, 95% probability) were calculated from secondary glass standard analyses (ATHO-G).

Fig. 10. Biplots of glass shards showing comparisons of Changbaishan proximal tephra from the pre-ME eruption (NS-1: pre-ME-1 and NS-2: pre-ME-2) and ME (NS-3, NS-4 and NS- 5), widespread tephra layers younger than 100 ka recorded in sediments of the Japan Sea, and major tephras from Japanese volcanoes (AT and Aso-4). Glass data sources: AT is from Furuta et al. (1986); Aso-4 is from Aoki (2008); B-J is from Ikehara et al. (2004); B-Ym and B-Sado are from Lim et al. (2013); B-V is from Shirai et al. (1997). 116 C. Sun et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 177 (2017) 104e119

5.2.2. Geochemical characteristics of the ash from the ME inner caldera (Wei et al., 2013), and therefore the deposits near The glass composition of the ash from the Changbaishan ME, SMFD and YC should not be from this eruption. However, there is recorded in northeast China, Japan and in Greenland ice cores, still considerable debate regarding the eruptions in AD 1403, 1597, exhibits a continuous trend in composition ranging from rhyolite to 1668 and 1702 due to the indirect nature of the evidence, which trachyte (Fig. 8A and B) (Chen et al., 2016; Coulter et al., 2012; consists of records of abnormal weather phenomena being Hughes et al., 2013; Machida et al., 1990; McLean et al., 2016; Sun assigned to eruptions of Changbaishan (Chu et al., 2011; Cui et al., et al., 2014a, 2015). However, the directly-dated ME fall deposit 1995; Miyamoto et al., 2010; Yun, 2013); in addition, there has NS-3 on the TWF has an entirely rhyolitic glass composition and no been no precise dating of exposures. Therefore, the reality of at least trachytic glass shards have been detected in it. The dark pyroclastic some of these historical eruptions remains speculative. fall deposits on the TWF, with subunits NS-4 and NS-5, have an The hiatus between SMFD-1 and SMFD-2 was dated to AD entirely trachytic glass composition. Therefore, several studies have 1155e1255 (SMFD-1-2-1, 95% level), and AD 1300e1370 and tried to correlate the dark fall deposits (NS-4 and NS-5) on TWF to 1380e1415 (SMFD-1-2-2, 95% level) (Table 2). These dates imply the trachytic member of ME; however, no glass shards with com- that the fall deposits of SMFD-2 and SMFD-3, and the ash deposit positions between the compositions of ME rhyolitic (NS-3) and SMFD-4, were definitely from some post-ME eruptions. According trachytic (NS-4 and NS-5) members were present in the proximal to a historical document “Chronology of the Joseon Dynasty” earth- fall deposits (Chen et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2016). At the same time, quakes and changes in water color at Yanggang-do in North Korea, some studies ascribed the NS-5 to a post-ME eruption, i.e., AD 1668 80 km from Changbaishan, occurred in October AD 1597. Several eruption (Baguamiao fall deposit) (Ramos et al., 2016; Wei et al., studies have ascribed these phenomena to an eruption of Chang- 2013). baishan (Chu et al., 2011; Yun, 2013); however, others have A previous study by Chen et al. (2016) revealed similar glass attributed them to an eruption of Wangtian'e volcano in NE China, compositions for these three fall deposits (NS-3,NS-4 and NS-5) and or at least not to Changbaishan (Cui et al., 1995; Li, 2013). The concluded that the proximal sequence only recorded bimodal “Chronology of the Joseon Dynasty” records that a ~3 cm ash sourced trachytic and rhyolitic glass compositions of the ME, while any from Changbaishan volcano was deposited at Hamgyeong-do in intermediate glass compositions were absent. However, the major North Korea in January 1403 (Yun, 2013), and such descriptions are element composition of the glass from pyroclastic fall deposits from more likely to be related to a volcanic eruption than the records of the western and southern summits not only records the bimodal AD 1597 (e.g. earthquakes or changes in water color). Moreover, the rhyolitic and trachytic members of the glass compositions of the AD 1403 ash fall event is also recorded in the “Donggukmunheon- MEs, but it also contains glasses of intermediate compositions bigo” (Yun, 2013). Therefore, the fall deposits of SMFD-2 to SMFD-4 (Fig. 8). On the eastern flank of Changbaishan, the initial fall de- are most likely to be from the AD 1403 eruption. posits predominantly consist of grey pumice lapilli with rhyolitic This study has revealed that YC-3 is a coarse ash deposit and can glass compositions, while the minor amount of dark pumice lapilli be correlated with SMFD-4, and in addition the 14C dating results contained within it have a trachytic glass composition. For example, (Table 2) indicate that YC-4 should be from another post-ME the ME-derived fall deposit of SMFD-1 or SMF-1 exhibits a eruption. Although YC-5 has a similar age to YC-3, the deposi- continuous trend in glass composition from rhyolite (major) to tional hiatus implies that YC-6 to YC-7 should have been formed trachyte (minor), similar to the fall deposits from the western and during a much later eruption than YC-4. Therefore, after the AD southern summits. 1403 eruption, at least two eruptive events with pyroclastic fall The second phase of the ME was mainly the welded PDC de- deposits are also recorded on the eastern flank of Changbaishan. posits deposited in the valleys around the volcanic cone (Horn and The “Chronology of the Joseon Dynasty” records several “dust Schmincke, 2000), and black pumice lapilli and blocks encased in rain” events in both AD 1668 and AD 1702 at Kyongsong and Funing welded tuff at JJ were from this phase. The glass geochemistry re- in North Hamgyong, North Korea. In addition, a smell of rotten eggs sults enable the correlation of these pumices with the dark fall (probably H2S) and a rain of “dust like falling snow” (probably fine deposits around the caldera summits, such as NS-4, NS-5. 14C dating ash consisting of white pumice) was observed at Kyongsong. These of the wood charcoal within the non-welded PDC deposits from records of ash-fall events are similar to historical records of ash XGFSL suggests that these deposits are associated with the ME fallout from the ME at Nara Japan (Hayakawa and Koyama, 1998). (Horn and Schmincke, 2000; Jwa et al., 2003). Both grey and black Therefore, the recorded eruptive events at AD 1668 and 1702 are pumice lapilli and blocks can be found within the non-welded PDC likely to be related to eruptions of Changbaishan, and the historical deposits at XGFSL or SMF. The pumices from XGFSL, north of the records indicate that the AD 1702 eruption was much larger than volcanic vent, exhibit both rhyolitic and trachytic glass composi- the 1668 eruption (Cui et al., 1995). tions, which suggest, that these PDC deposits were from Plinian We attribute the fall deposit YC-4, younger than YC-3, to the AD collapse of both the initial rhyolitic and late trachytic eruptive 1668 eruption; and YC-6 and YC-7, younger than YC-5, to the AD stages. Therefore, from the geochemical evidence and field sec- 1702 eruption. The pyroclastic fall deposits are also in accord with tions, the NS-4 and NS-5 proximal pumice layers on the northern the “ash fall” events around Changbaishan documented in the summit can be used to explain the trachytic member of the ME, “Chronology of the Joseon Dynasty” at AD 1668 and AD 1702. Our while it is clear that they were not from the post-ME AD 1668 results demonstrate that the AD 1668 eruption, with one eruptive eruption which has a rhyolitic glass composition (section 5.3.2) phase, was relatively small; and the AD 1702 eruption was larger (Ramos et al., 2016; Wei et al., 2013). than the AD 1668 eruption, on the basis of the exposure, which is also in accord with descriptions of abnormal historical events (Cui 5.3. Post-Millennium eruptions et al., 1995). The AD 1702 eruption had at least five eruptive phases, corresponding with five major fall units; the first fall unit (YC-6) 5.3.1. Eruption timings was the main eruptive phase and subsequently there was a gradual Historical records indicate that Changbaishan may have erupted decrease in the eruptive energy. in AD 1403, 1597, 1668, 1702 and 1903 (Chu et al., 2011; Cui et al., 1995; Miyamoto et al., 2010; Yun, 2013). The AD 1903 eruption 5.3.2. Geochemical characteristics and tephrochronological was a small phreatomagmatic maar-forming eruption and the implications affected area was mainly confined to the western summit and the The fall deposits (SMFD-2 to SMFD-3) from the historically C. Sun et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 177 (2017) 104e119 117 recorded AD 1403 eruption exhibit an entirely trachytic glass Changbaishan are attributed to the AD 1403 eruption. The glass composition, which is not distinguishable compositionally from the shards of the fall deposit from AD 1403 have an entirely trachytic ME fall deposits of NS-4 and NS-5 recorded on TWF (Fig. 8C and D). composition similar to the trachytic member of the ME. In addition, Numerous exposures have been proposed to be correlated with the AD 1668 and AD 1702 eruptions were also detected based on the AD 1668 and AD 1702 eruptions; for example, the dark fall 14C dates on the hiatus layers between the pyroclastic fall deposits. deposits at Baguamiao were considered to have resulted from a The glass shards of the fall deposits (e.g. YC-4) from the AD 1668 relatively powerful eruption in AD 1668 (Wei et al., 2007, 2013). eruption have a similar rhyolitic composition to the early stage of However, until now, there has been no precise dating of these ex- the ME, and the fall deposits (e.g. YC-6, YC-7) from AD 1702 have posures. From detailed geochronological evidence, our study in- more varied glass compositions (rhyolite and trachyte) than the dicates that the AD 1668 eruption produced a pyroclastic fall proximal ME tephra. deposit (YC-4) predominantly consisting of rhyolitic glass shards, which is not separated chemically from the ME fall deposits (Fig. 9A Acknowledgments and B). Historical documents recorded that a ~3 cm fine grey-white ash This study was supported by the National Postdoctoral Program deposit was from the AD 1702 eruption (Wei et al., 2013; Yun, for Innovative Talents (No. BX201600160), the National Natural 2013), which is similar to the grey fall deposits (YC-6 to YC-7) Science Foundation of China (grants 41472320 and 41272369), and described in the present study. We demonstrated that the fall de- a project funded by the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (No. posit of YC-6 from the AD 1702 eruption has a rhyolitic glass 2015LH001). We thank Q. Mao, Y. Ma and D. Zhang for their composition, while YC-7 has both rhyolitic and trachytic glass assistance with the EPMA analysis; J. Sun and Z. Gong for the compositions. However, we can conclude that the glass composi- luminescence dating; L. Zhang, Z. Zhu, J. Gao, S. Chen for their help tions of AD 1702 are more varied than the proximal ME tephra; for during field sampling; Y.G. Xu (GIG-CAS), Z.F. Guo (IGGCAS), N. Li example, some of the glass shards from the fall deposit of AD 1702 (IG-CEA), Y.S. Lee (KIGAM), Y. Sohn (GNU) for their beneficial dis- exhibit a higher Al2O3 content than the ME (Fig. 9A and B). cussions in the field; and G.Q. Chu and Z.Y. Gu (IGGCAS) for their YC and DYT are ~30 km from the Changbaishan volcanic vent, discussion of the 14C dates. Sincere thanks are extended to Prof. and thus the post-ME eruptions (AD 1403, 1668, 1702) may have Nick Pearce and an anonymous reviewer for their constructive and transported ash to more distal areas and formed time-equivalent helpful comments. Prof. Neil Roberts kind handling of the manu- marker layers. Discrete rhyolitic glass shards have been detected script is also appreciated. in the Gushantun peat deposits, located in the Longgang volcanic field ~120 km from Changbaishan; however, no definite source Appendix A. Supplementary data eruption was proposed (Zhao and Liu, 2012; Zhao et al., 2015; Zhao and Hall, 2015). The ash from the ME, consisting predominantly of Supplementary data related to this article can be found at trachytic glass shards, was clearly detected in Sihailongwan maar https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.10.021. lake close to the Gushantun peat (Sun et al., 2015, 2016). Based on only four rhyolitic shards, the cryptotephra recorded in Gushantun References peat cannot be ascribed conclusively to the ME; however, we could not correlate them to any known post-ME eruptions. It is also Aoki, K., 2008. Revised age and distribution of ca. 87ka Aso-4 tephra based on new interesting that the tephra from relatively small post-ME eruptions evidence from the northwest Pacific Ocean. Quat. Int. 178 (1), 100e118. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2007.02.005. was also detected in the Gushantun peat, while the tephra from the Bear, A.N., Cas, R.A.F., Giordano, G., 2009a. The implications of spatter, pumice and ME with a VEI 7 was absent, although it was recorded at Sihai- lithic clast rich proximal co-ignimbrite lag breccias on the dynamics of caldera longwan maar lake (~5 km to Gushantun, Fig. 1). Overall, the forming eruptions: the 151 ka Sutri eruption, Vico Volcano, Central Italy. e e geochemical and geochronological evidence presented herein J. Volcanol. 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