HOL0010.1177/0959683616670473The HoloceneZhao et al. 670473research-article2016

Research paper

The Holocene 14–­1 Tephrostratigraphical investigation of lake © The Author(s) 2016 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav sediments and a peat bog in Northeastern DOI: 10.1177/0959683616670473 since 20,000 years hol.sagepub.com

Hongli Zhao,1 Jiaqi Liu,2 Valerie A Hall3 and Xiaoqiang Li4

Abstract This is a detailed tephrostratigraphical investigation of late Quaternary deposits in the Longgang and Changbaishan Volcanic Fields of northeastern China. A total of 45 reference samples which were collected from either side of the Chinese/Korean border showed very similar geochemical characteristics to the Millennium eruption of Tianchi Volcano. Through comparing the published data of the glass shards detected in Gushantun with these reference samples, further description is that the glass shards in the sediment of Gushantun came from the Tianchi Volcano eruption in AD 1702, 1668, and 1597. A basaltic tephra layer found in the sediment of Hanlongwan associated with an eruption of the Jinlongdingzi Volcano which happened in 1500–2100 cal. yr BP by comparing with the published data from Sihailongwan and Xiaolongwan. Tianchi and Jinlongdingzi Volcano are both active and erupted several times during the historical period. Reference samples and the tephra layers detected in Hanlongwan, Sihailongwan, Gushantun, Erlongwan, and Xiaolongwan can be used as marker horizons beyond the Longgang and Changbaishan Volcanic Field, including, for example, in Japan, Korea, nearby coastal area of Russia, and marine records.

Keywords Gushantun, Hanlongwan, Quaternary, Sihailongwan, tephrochronology, tephrostratigraphy Received 25 May 2016; revised manuscript accepted 30 August 2016

Introduction Quaternary reconstructions are often hindered by poor chronolo- tephra deposits for 14C dating has been widely employed in gies (e.g. Shulmeister et al., 2004). Traditional dating methods developing the chronology of the most recent rhyolitic eruptions sometimes lack the precision required to test the spatial synchro- of the Taupo, Okataina, Maroa, and Mayor Island centers. neity of environmental and archaeological change. Tephra as a Although material carbonized during the emplacement of the chronology tool depends, of course, on knowing when the erup- tephra provides the best material for chronology, it is not always tion took place and then linking a tephra fall to a particular available. Many ages are based on organic material interbedded eruption. with the tephra in peat bogs and lakes (e.g. Lowe, 1988). Such Linking sites using geochemical tephrostratigraphy is valu- ages may not precisely reflect the time of the eruption and are able, but where this can be expanded into tephrochronology, it prone to contamination. However, peat and lake sequences do serves Quaternary studies well, especially if dating precision of provide a near-continuous depositional record that commonly sites can be improved. Volcanic ash can be dated (Cheng et al., contains multi-sourced tephra beds that allow chronologic rela- 2008; Guo and Wang, 2002), but it is much more common to date tionships to be established (e.g. Hogg et al., 1987; Lowe, 1988). the profile using, for example, varves if working on suitable lake sites or the organic material associated with the tephra layer in lake sediment or peat profile (Chu et al., 2005; Liu et al., 2009; 1State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Parplies et al., 2008). This approach needs a good understanding Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China of the potential and limits of precision for varve and radiocarbon 2Key Laboratory of Cenozoic Geology and Environment, Institute of dating. Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China The potential of varves as a basis for dating was initially rec- 3School of Geography, Archaeology and Palaeoecology, Queen’s ognized by the Swedish geologist Gerard de Geer who, in 1884, University Belfast, UK made the first attempt to count and correlate varve sequences in 4Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins, Institute of the Stockholm area of Sweden. Because the sediment is deposited Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of annually, varves form a basis for dating; by counting varve Sciences, China sequences, time intervals can be established. If varve series can be Corresponding author: dated by radiocarbon dating of included organic materials, then Hongli Zhao, State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, the varve-chronology can be linked to the calendar timescale. Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi’an Hogg et al. (1987) and Froggatt and Lowe (1990) summa- 710061, China. rized that the use of organic materials found in association with Email: [email protected]

Downloaded from hol.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on October 13, 2016  The Holocene 2

Figure 1. Stratigraphy of tephra layers in five lake and peat profiles. Stratigraphy of Lake SHL, Lake HLW, and peat bog GST from this study; Lake XIL from Liu et al. (2009); Lake ERL from Frank (2007).

There is a great potential accuracy and precision for dating temporal marker layers which can be used to verify or corroborate tephra in the 14C range. other dating techniques. By linking sequences widely separated Annually laminated sediments of Quaternary age have been by location into a unified chronology, the tephra layers can cor- recognized at widespread geographic locations (Anderson and relate climatic sequences and events to assess major volcanism in Dean, 1988; Lamoureaux, 1999; Larsen and Stalsberg, 2004; the late Quaternary of the Changbaishan area. O’Sullivan, 1983; Overpeck, 1996; Smith et al., 2004; Zolitschka, 1996), but, until recently, only a few laminated sediment records have been found in China. Such laminated sediments are often Study area preserved in lakes (Zolitschka et al., 2000). Quite recently, Northeastern China and NE Korea are the regions of active several varved sequences have been recovered from the maar and volcanism because of its reasonably well-understood record of crater lakes of the (LVF). These succes- Quaternary volcanism (Liu, 1999). It was also thought suitable sions provide long, detailed palaeoecological and palaeoclimatic to advance tephra studies through researching cryptotephra records with excellent temporal controls (Mingram et al., 2004a). studies in maar lake deposits. In addition, this volcanically In addition, they are located in an area that is frequently impacted active region has a population of 8.7 million people. A better by volcanic ash deposition. understanding of the chronology of the region’s volcanic his- The tephra layer is widely distributed in Northeastern China, tory would benefit this community through volcanic risk Japan, North Korea, and part of Russia. Guo et al. (2005) pointed assessment. out that Tianchi tephra was found in the sediment of Sihailongwan The modern climate of Northeastern China is controlled by the (SHL) and that probably shows that the products erupted from East Asian monsoonal system which shows a strong seasonal Tianchi Volcano in AD 1199–1200 reached the LVF. A tephra layer variability. Winter seasons are very cold and dry with dominating 4–6 cm thick in the islands of north Japan has also been recognized north-westerly wind directions contributing a substantial amount as coming from the Millennium eruption of Tianchi Volcano of aeolian material from the interior of the Eurasian land mass, (Machida, 1999; Machida and Arai, 1992). One tephra layer origi- including to SHL sediments (Chu et al., 2005). Summers are nating from Tianchi Millennium eruption is found on the east side warm and dominated by humid air masses transported by south- of Kutcharo caldera, in the coastal areas of eastern Hokkaido, in easterly winds from the Pacific. the tsunami sediments at Asahidake volcano in the middle of Hok- Changbaishan and Longgang are two volcanic fields in the kaido, and in the area of Tyatya volcano in the southwestern Kuril Changbaishan area, Northeastern China (Figure 2). The Chang- Island Arc (Sun et al., 2014b). Sun et al. (2014a) reported that the baishan Volcanic Field (CVF) crosses the boundary between ash from Changbaishan Millennium eruption was recorded in China and Korea. It is located at 41–42.5° latitude north and Greenland ice cores. 127–129° longitude east. In the CVF, the Tianchi Volcano is In this paper, we use the detailed analysis from reference sam- one of the largest, most active, and dangerous volcanoes in the ples of Tianchi Volcano and sites Hanlongwan (HLW), Sihailong- world (Liu, 1999). It consists of hundreds of volcanic cones, wan (SHL), and Gushantun (GST) age–depth model, and dating reaches a height of 2755 m a.s.l., and comprises about 12 × 103 carbon-based material found in association with the volcanic ash, km2 of volcanic rock. Documentary evidence records that the along with accurate historical records for the eruptions, produces Tianchi Volcano erupted many times during the past 1000 dates for the tephra layers the site contains. There were three years. A huge eruption occurred in AD 1199–1200 (Cui et al., tephra layers and sub-layers detected in the sediment of SHL 2000). During that time, huge amounts of gray-white panteller- (Zhao and Hall, 2015); one tephra layer was found in HLW (this itic tephra widely distributed thick layers some 50 km from the study) and few tephra shards were detected in GST (Zhao et al., Tianchi crater. Since the big eruption of Tianchi in AD 1199– 2015). Furthermore, there were also some tephra layers discov- 1200 (Cui et al., 2000), historical documents indicate that this ered in the sediments of Erlongwan (ERL; Frank, 2007) and volcano erupted in AD 1413, 1597, 1668, 1702 (Wang, 1989), Xiaolongwan (XIA; Liu et al., 2009). Detailed descriptions and and 1900 (Xu et al., 1993). Tianchi Volcano is still a high-risk correlations of these tephra layers with the data of reference sam- volcano (Liu et al., 1992a, 1992b, 1998) and represents a cen- ples of Tianchi Volcano (this study) are presented in the following tered zone for the eruption of basaltic magma in the region sections (Figure 1, Table 2). These tephra layers provide accurate since late Cenozoic time.

Downloaded from hol.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on October 13, 2016 Zhao et al. 3

Figure 2. Schematic maps of the research area (modified from Zhao and Hall (2015)).

Adjacent to the CVF, just 200 km to the west, lies the LVF. It by a 600-m-high basaltic plateau and is thus well placed to preserve covers 1700 km2 and has more than 160 craters and calderas of tephra fallout. The terrain at GST slopes from north to south with a Quaternary age (Liao, 1990; Liu, 1999; Ou and Fu, 1984). Jinlong- small outlet steam in the southeast that seeps into the bog through- dingzi Volcano is the youngest and it represents the most recent out the year. HLW is a dry maar lake. It is almost circular, the lake volcanic activity in LVF. The AD 460 eruption of Jinlongdingzi, floor is located at ca. 700 m a.s.l., and it has a surface area of 0.85 dated by varve-chronology, was identified as the region’s most km2. The relative height of the tuff ring around the maar is about 10 recent explosive basaltic eruption (Liu et al., 2009). During the past m, and it is made up mostly of basaltic fulgurite. Lake SHL 15,000 years, Jinlongdingzi Volcano erupted several times and has (42°17′N, 126°36′E, 791 m a.s.l.) is located 20 km southwest of been confirmed as basaltic magma eruptions (Fan et al., 1999, Jingyu County, Jilin Province (Figure 2), and is one of eight maar 2000, 2002; Liu et al., 2009). The present regional topography of and crater lakes in the LVF. SHL has no surface outflow and does the LVF was shaped mainly in late Pliocene to early not receive significant surface inflow from rivulets (Liu et al., times because of westward of the West Pacific plate and 2000; Mingram et al., 2004; Schettler et al., 2006a, 2006b). associated volcanic activity (Liu, 1999). Eight maar lakes were formed in the west of LVF (Liu, 1999): XIA, ERL, Dalongwan (DAL), Sanjiaolongwan (SJL), Donglongwan (DOLO), Nanlong- Methods wan (NAL), Longquanlongwan (LQL), and SHL (Figure 2). Sediments from GST, HLW, and SHL were selected for this Field work and lithology study. GST is one of several large blanket bogs (42°N, 126°E, alti- CVF. A total of 45 reference samples were collected from the field tude: 500 m a.s.l.) with a diameter of about 1 km. It is surrounded in CVF in 2002, 2004, and 2006. Samples were taken mainly

Downloaded from hol.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on October 13, 2016  The Holocene 4

Figure 3. Proximal and medial–distal tephra sampling sites (red dots) with sample codes from the Changbaishan Volcanic Field. from proximal to medial–distal Plinian fallout and pyroclastic used for scanning the cryptotephra in this study. We analyzed flow deposits on the eastern and southeastern flank of the Tianchi samples by 10 cm interval and reanalyzed at 1 cm within the crater, lying on either side of the Chinese/Korean border (Figure tephra layers. 3, Table 1). These tephra reference samples were considered to SHL T1 has a wide distribution for most major elements, and drive from eruptions of the Tianchi Volcano and represent valu- some of them overlap with Jinlongdingzi. This tephra layer is 8 able correlatives for the comparison with potential distal tephra cm in thickness. SHL T2 has a thickness of 19 cm and three sub- findings in deposits at SHL, GST, or HLW. layers were detected. SHL T3 is 29 cm in thickness; this is the thickest visible tephra layer examined in this study. Most glass LVF. At each study site, we selected a location within the lake shards are between 50 and 100 µm with sharp edges and with basin where a complete sedimentary sequence was anticipated, bubble inclusions. away from any damage from the initial drilling test and where we could avoid or reduce the influence of the local pollen or areas GST. GST is a large blanket bog (42°N, 126°E, altitude: 500 where perturbation was suspected, such as obvious stream flow. m a.s.l.). The GST core was obtained using a D-section corer as described by Jowsey (1966). The samples were then packed in SHL. As the main coordinator of the SHL coring program, plastic sleeves, sealed with polyethylene thin film, and placed in GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Potsdam and with China, co- a hard box for transport to the laboratory. The depth was 673 cm. operative drilling campaigns were conducted in the LVF in late From the top to the bottom, samples varied from Tan sedge to summer of 1998, 1999, and 2001. The basin of Lake SHL has a peat. The stratigraphy is presented in Figure 4 (Zhao et al., 2015). circular, simple U-shaped structure. The SHL sediments are com- posed of homogeneous, layered, and finely laminated diatoma- HLW. HLW is a dry maar lake. The HLW core was also ceous gyttja with some intercalations of thick graded single event obtained using a D-section corer as described by Jowsey (1966), bed (Mingram et al., 2004a). and then, the samples were packed in plastic sleeves, sealed with The sediments from the last glacial period, deposited in SHL polyethylene thin film, and placed in a hard box for transport to maar lake, contain a considerable amount of silt and clay. Three the laboratory. The depth sampled was 443 cm. Samples varied parallel sediment cores were recovered by the Usinger piston core from moss, grass, to clayey loam. The stratigraphy is presented in technique from the center of the maar lake SHL during a field Figure 4 (Zhao et al., 2015). campaign in summer 2001. This is the deepest lake cored so far with a Usinger-corer (the water depth at the coring point was 49 m; Mingram et al., 2004b). Overlapping 2-m drives from a total of Tephra preparation and geochemical analysis the three adjacent coring sites at the center of the lake basin Laboratory procedures for the determination of loss-on-ignition enabled us to establish continuous composite profiles. The outer and extraction of cryptotephra from the reference samples and parts of the cores were carefully removed to avoid possible con- GST, HLW, and SHL deposits follow the ashing method of Pilcher taminations from the steel core tubes that may have occurred dur- and Hall (1992), and the density separation technique for minero- ing storage and transport to the GFZ Potsdam laboratories. genic sediments follow the method developed by Turney (1998). Continuous cooling of the sediments was used from the field to Some of the samples were rich in diatoms, whose presence the laboratory. obscured the glass particles during microscopic examination. The By aligning minerogenic layers and tephra layers, three com- diatoms were dissolved in 5% KOH solution (Rose et al., 1994) posite profiles of lake sediments have been constructed. In this heated in the water bath at 90°C for an hour and shaken after 30 study, the sediment samples for geochemical and sedimentologi- min. The samples were then processed, following procedures out- cal investigations are from composite profile II. This profile has a lined above. Samples were analyzed under polarized light at 400× depth of 2321 cm and the sediment of the upper 1000 cm was magnification using an Olympus BH-2 microscope. Samples for

Downloaded from hol.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on October 13, 2016 Zhao et al. 5

Table 1. Details of reference proximal samples from the Changbaishan Volcanic Field (Nos 1–45 are the red dots shown in Figure 3).

No. Sample no. North latitude East longitude Lithology/shards Site location

1 K02001 41°57′55.7″ 128°11′50.7″ Gray pumice/colorless shards Wutou peak 2 K02002 41°57′55.7″ 128°11′50.7″ Black pumice/colorless shards Wutou peak 3 K02005 41°58′0.1″ 128°9′34″ Gray tephra/colorless shards Way of Tianchi 4 K02006 41°58′0.1″ 128°9′34″ Black tephra/colorless shards Way of Tianchi 5 K02007 41°58′0.1″ 128°9′34″ Wood Way of Tianchi 6 K02011 41°58′0.1″ 128°9′33″ Black pumice (heavy)/colorless shards Sanchiyuan 7 K02013 41°51′51″ 128°6′12.5″ Gray pumice (below)/a few light brown and Qianbiyan colorless shards 8 K02014 41°51′51″ 128°6′12.5″ Gray tephra (upper)/many brown shards and few Qianbiyan colorless shards 9 K02015 41°51′51″ 128°6′12.5″ Gray tephra/colorless shards Qianbiyan 10 K02016 41°49′5.8″ 128°7′17″ Black rock waste/colorless shards Qianbiyan 11 K02017 41°47′31.4″ 128°16′11.1″ Gray pumice/colorless shards Below Dazhentou peak 12 K02018 41°48′40″ 128°16′15.8″ Gray brown/tephra (thick)/colorless shards Below Dazhentou peak 13 K02019 41°48′40″ 128°16′15.8″ Gray brown/tephra (granule) Below Dazhentou peak 14 K02020 41°48′40″ 128°16′15.8″ Root Below Dazhentou peak 15 K02021 41°53′14″ 128°21′39″ Gray tephra (below)/colorless shards Way of yuanfeng reservoir 16 K02022 41°53′14″ 128°21′39″ Gray tephra (upper)/colorless shards Way of yuanfeng reservoir 17 K02023 41°57′8″ 128°27′13″ Yellow pumice/colorless shards Way of yuanfeng reservoir 18 K02024 41°58′40″ 128°30′59″ Gray pumice (granule)/colorless shards Way of yuanfeng reservoir 19 K02025 41°58′40″ 128°30′59″ Gray pumice (granule)/colorless shards Way of yuanfeng reservoir 20 K02026 41°59′12″ 128°33′25″ Gray tephra (upper)/colorless shards Tianfan country 21 K02027 41°59′12″ 128°33′25″ Gray tephra (below)/colorless shards Tianfan country 22 K02030 41°57′42″ 128°38′21″ Gray pumice/colorless shards Youting mountain toward Zhen mountain 23 K02037 41°49′10″ 128°18′37.6″ Pumice (thick) (upper)/colorless shards East of Zhentou peak 24 K02038 41°49′10″ 128°18′37.6″ Pumice (granule) (below)/colorless shards East of Zhentou peak 25 K02049 41°48′31.4″ 128°19′20.6″ Gray pumice (middle diameter)/colorless shards Mountain back of Sanchiyuan 26 K02050 41°48′31.4″ 128°19′20.6″ Gray pumice (granule) Mountain back of Sanchiyuan 27 K02065 41°59′20.5″ 128°7′36″ Black tephra/colorless shards Gulch of Tianchi Baitian bridge 28 K02070 41°59′22.7″ 128°7′46″ Gray tephra/colorless shards Gulch of Tianchi Baitian bridge 29 K02071 41°57′52.5″ 128°18′53.5″ Charcoal New Wucheng area 30 C04-14 41°26′50″ 127°46′02″ Volcanic ash/colorless shards West sentry in 13th channel 31 C04-15 41°26′10″ 127°46′13″ Tephra, pumice/colorless shards 13th channel 32 C04-16 41°48′42″ 128°06′14″ carbonized wood Yalu river (upper) 33 C04-17 41°48′42″ 128°06′14″ Carbonized wood Yalu river (upper) 34 C04-18 41°48′42″ 128°06′14″ Tephra, pumice/colorless shards Yalu river (upper) 35 C04-19 41°48′33″ 128°06′14″ Volcanic ash/colorless shards Yalu river (upper) 36 C04-20 41°48′28″ 128°06′14″ Tephra/colorless shards Yalu river (upper) 37 C04-23 41°48′28″ 128°06′14″ Tephra, pumice (below)/colorless shards Yalu river (upper) 38 C04-24 41°48′28″ 128°06′14″ Volcanic ash (middle)/colorless shards Yalu river (upper) 39 C04-25 41°47′29″ 128°06′15″ Carbonized wood (upper) The first sentry in Yalu river 40 C04-26 41°47′29″ 128°06′15″ Tephra/colorless shards The first sentry in Yalu river 41 C06008 41°58′47.1″ 127°33′43.0″ Gray volcanic ash/colorless shards Beside the road of Songjing river–Changbai town 42 C06020 41°48′28.1″ 128°06′18.1″ Carbonized wood Roadside of South of Tianchi 43 C06021 41°48′28.1″ 128°06′18.1″ Gray volcanic ash/colorless shards Roadside of South of Tianchi 44 C06022 41°48′28.1″ 128°06′18.1″ Black volcanic ash/colorless shards Roadside of South of Tianchi 45 C06025 41°58′05.4″ 128°03′40.4″ Yellow volcanic ash/colorless shards Roadside of South of Tianchi wave-length dispersive electron probe microanalysis (WDS- radiocarbon dating from published findings (Liu et al., 2005) EPMA) were prepared using the method described by Hall and were used to construct the chronology for this site (Figure 5). Pilcher (2002) and Turney (1998) and performed on JEOL FEG- Nine and six radiocarbon dates were used to establish the SEM 6500F (Coulter et al., 2009) at Queen’s University Belfast age–depth model for GST and HLW, respectively. Five GST (QUB). Operating conditions were 15 kV, 20 nA with a raster dates and four HLW dates were obtained from Tokyo Univer- beam current of 5 µm. Lipari natural glass (Hunt and Hill, 2001) sity, and the others were dated at the 14CHRONO Centre in the was used as an intermediate standard. Totals of 95% and above for School of Archaeology and Palaeoecology, QUB (Zhao et al., the analysis of the reference samples were retained. 2015). Within the dates of HLW dated in Tokyo University, four samples were of organic material from a range of depths, and one of the other dates dated in QUB was of organic material Dating method associated with HLW tephra layer. An age–depth plot is shown The sediments from SHL in this study contained so little carbon in Figure 6. that they were unsuitable for radiocarbon dating; therefore, no All radiocarbon ages are calibrated using the IntCal09 calibra- new radiocarbon data were obtained from SHL. In all, 16 AMS tion curve (Reimer et al., 2009). The polynomial line-fitting

Downloaded from hol.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on October 13, 2016  The Holocene 6

Table 2. Geochemical compositions of glass shards from reference samples and published data of Tianchi (%).

No./mean References SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2OK2O Total

K02014 This study 65.05 0.36 15.09 3.63 0.17 1.06 5.59 5.92 96.93 K02015 This study 72.37 0.19 10.29 3.84 0.05 0.01 0.29 5.04 4.40 96.67 K02065 This study 64.28 0.43 14.27 4.56 0.22 1.21 5.70 5.41 96.08 K02050 This study 71.23 0.20 10.05 3.79 1.93 0.01 0.21 5.29 4.36 95.19 C04-26 This study 70.85 0.22 11.03 3.98 0.05 0.03 0.35 5.54 4.66 96.70 K02018 This study 72.45 0.20 10.25 3.94 0.10 0.02 0.21 5.41 4.41 96.97 K02017 This study 70.71 0.23 11.22 3.99 0.08 0.05 0.39 5.17 4.44 96.28 K02030 This study 72.12 0.22 10.73 3.73 0.05 0.02 0.23 5.09 4.31 96.50 C06025 This study 67.60 0.27 12.02 4.26 0.12 0.01 0.39 5.15 5.15 94.96 F-pfl Machida et al. (1990) 72.86 0.29 11.65 4.43 0.07 0.11 0.35 4.61 5.28 99.65 E-7afa Machida et al. (1990) 70.56 0.37 13.14 4.53 0.06 0.13 0.66 4.94 5.24 99.63 E-5pfa Machida et al. (1990) 75.62 0.23 10.12 4.10 0.03 0.12 0.11 4.34 4.55 99.22 E-4afa Machida et al. (1990) 70.14 0.34 13.27 4.57 0.05 0.11 0.67 5.26 5.28 99.69 E-2pfa Machida et al. (1990) 66.53 0.53 15.42 4.98 0.15 0.14 1.17 5.04 5.92 99.88 E-1pfa Machida et al. (1990) 67.66 0.41 14.87 4.74 0.04 0.17 1.01 5.26 5.68 99.84 C-pfl Machida et al. (1990) 73.14 0.27 11.33 4.39 0.03 0.07 0.32 4.99 4.86 99.40 C-pfl Machida et al. (1990) 73.55 0.23 11.27 4.41 0.05 0.13 0.33 4.67 4.93 99.57 C-pfl Machida et al. (1990) 66.55 0.44 15.13 4.93 0.12 0.09 1.14 5.50 5.98 99.88 C-ps Machida et al. (1990) 74.24 0.25 10.58 4.13 0.12 0.09 0.14 4.99 4.56 99.10 B-pfa Machida et al. (1990) 74.74 0.23 10.51 4.09 0.10 0.05 0.09 4.70 4.53 99.04 98-328 Guo and Wang (2002) 67.51 0.27 12.46 5.78 0.10 0.02 0.65 5.89 4.82 98.09 99-518 Guo and Wang (2002) 65.98 0.18 13.96 6.08 0.07 0.05 0.29 6.31 4.69 98.17 99-109 Guo and Wang (2002) 66.71 0.23 13.46 5.19 0.16 0.03 1.00 5.97 4.79 98.29 00-203 Guo and Wang (2002) 69.36 0.31 12.53 4.35 0.09 0.01 0.34 5.34 4.68 97.63 98-628 Guo and Wang (2002) 72.36 0.28 10.82 4.12 0.06 0.02 0.21 4.30 4.51 97.47 98-201 Guo and Wang (2002) 71.06 0.33 11.52 4.41 0.06 0.02 0.43 4.65 4.28 97.55 99-203 Guo and Wang (2002) 73.42 0.24 10.59 3.75 0.13 0.01 0.24 4.28 4.11 97.81 00-628 Guo and Wang (2002) 71.86 0.23 11.06 3.86 0.01 0.02 0.23 4.61 4.53 97.33 98-364 Guo and Wang (2002) 72.36 0.21 10.14 3.46 0.08 0.02 0.19 4.45 4.06 95.99 99-508 Guo and Wang (2002) 73.12 0.23 10.36 3.64 0.06 0.02 0.02 4.28 4.01 96.80 99-203 Guo and Wang (2002) 73.51 0.19 11.19 4.10 0.07 0.02 0.41 4.68 4.20 98.84 99-109 Guo and Wang (2002) 75.02 0.23 10.29 3.87 0.12 0.01 0.21 4.19 4.13 98.75 00-312 Guo and Wang (2002) 74.64 0.27 10.34 3.91 0.09 0.02 0.20 4.66 4.21 98.88 GST-1 Zhao and Hall (2015) 71.59 0.26 9.73 4.02 −0.01 0.23 3.80 3.96 94.38 GST-2 Zhao and Hall (2015) 70.98 0.20 9.48 3.97 0.03 0.33 3.55 3.86 92.45 GST-3 Zhao and Hall (2015) 70.68 0.21 9.44 4.06 0.03 0.21 3.92 3.78 92.52 GST-4 Zhao and Hall (2015) 70.20 0.15 9.62 4.22 0.01 0.23 3.67 3.83 92.00 age–depth model (y = a + bx + cx2 + dx3) was used to estimate LVF the ages at the different depths. HLW. A 1-cm-thick tephra layer was detected at a depth of 299–300 cm in HLW, and within it, most of the glass shards are brown and large (over 100 µm) with bubbles (Figure 8). Results Description of tephras SHL. The copious shards detected from SHL are large and fre- Proximal samples from the CVF. On the basis of shard color, mor- quently over 100 µm in length, typically light brown to dark phology, and vesicularity, nine samples considered characteristic brown and with bubbles, but no rhyolitic shards were detected. of the range of type material examined were selected for micro- Three visible tephra layers were detected in the sediment (Liu probe analysis (Table 2). In total, 10–20 characteristic shards per et al., 2005, 2009; Stebich et al., 2007). Within the three visible sample were geochemically analyzed in an attempt to assess the tephra layers, the distribution of glass shards was not uniform in homogeneity of the volcanic glass or to search for evidence of layers T2 and T3; cryptotephra sub-layers were detected in the magmatic gradients or magma mixing. Analysis of individual two layers (Zhao and Hall, 2015). shards of reference samples, except K02014 and K02065, revealed that most rhyolitic tephra shards are compositionally GST. Four colorless, bubbly glass shards, 90–100 µm in size, homogeneous and have an overlap with part of the published data. were detected in GST at 40–43 cm depth. No totals above 95% A series of photographs showed representative tephra glass shards were obtained. Except few rhyolitic tephras found in Longgang from the proximal Tianchi tephra samples (Figure 7). area (Guo et al., 2005), there is no more record of rhyolitic volca- Of the 45 reference samples, C06025 contains a few yellow nism in the LVF (Zhao and Hall, 2015). tephra shards with colorless shards, K02013 contains a few light According to AMS 14C dating, the ages for three tephra layers brown shards with colorless shards, and two tephra samples in SHL sediments are as follows – T1: 1710–2110 cal. BP; T2: (K02014 and K02065) originated on the Korean side of the 10,250–10,700 cal. BP (T2a and T2b are 10,250–10,340 cal. BP, region, which contain many brown shards with few colorless T2c is 10,600–10,700 cal. BP); T3: 17,000–18,500 cal. BP. Liu shards. The other type samples were composed only of colorless et al. (2009) through varve-chronology reveals that three basaltic shards present in huge quantities (Table 1, Figure 3). explosive eruptions of Jinlongdingzi occurred at AD 460 (1600

Downloaded from hol.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on October 13, 2016 Zhao et al. 7

Figure 4. Gushantun and Hanlongwan stratigraphic diagram (from Zhao et al. (2015b)): (a) Gushantun stratigraphic diagram and (b) Hanlongwan stratigraphic diagram.

produced by the Jinlongdingzi Volcano’s most recent eruption. The age of GST tephra is 260–420 cal. BP, and combined with the geochemical characteristics, this age fits the historic Tianchi eruptions of AD 1702, 1668, and 1597. However, due to the very similar geochemistry of these three eruptions (Liu, 1999), it is hard to say where GST tephra layer came from, and the eruption source needs further investigation.

Tephrostratigraphical studies Geochemical analyses CVF. On the basis of its whole rock composition, the 1-ka Tianchi tephra is published as an alkaline rhyolite with a small amount of alkaline feldspar and aegirine augite. The tephra layers, described by Machida et al. (1990), are composed of light and dark colored pumice and glass shards. The analyzed samples were taken from all the fall and flow units at several reference sections. The geochemical compositions of eight representative types from reference samples and published data of Tianchi are shown in Table 2. Figures 9–11 show the comparison of geochemical character- istics between reference samples and previously published analy- ses of Tianchi tephra. Analysis of individual shards, except K02014 and K02065, revealed that most rhyolitic tephra which Figure 5. Sihailongwan profile II age–depth plot (data from Liu et al. (2005)). erupted from Tianchi Volcano are compositionally homogeneous (Guo and Wang, 2002; Machida et al., 1990). SiO2 content in most type materials is between 72 and 73 wt%. Analysis also cal. BP), 11,460 cal. BP, and 14,000 cal. BP. The most recent showed CaO (wt%) ranges from 0.1 to 0.3 wt%, K2O ranges from basaltic eruptives (AD 460) can be observed in the outcrops and 4.0 to 4.6 wt%, FeO total varies from 3.6 to 4.1 wt%, and Al2O3 lake deposits, which combining the dating showed that T1 was ranges from 10 to 11 wt%. K02014 and K02065 are the only

Downloaded from hol.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on October 13, 2016  The Holocene 8

Figure 6. GST and HLW age–depth plot (Zhao et al., 2015b).

Figure 7. (a) Colorless glass shards, (b) brown shards, (c) yellow shards, and (d) light brown shards from the Tianchi reference samples.

Figure 8. Photographs of glass shards from HLW.

Downloaded from hol.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on October 13, 2016 Zhao et al. 9

Figure 9. Biplots for comparing glass analyses from proximal reference samples from this study and previously published analyses of glass from Tianchi tephra. Red diamonds are the data published by Machida et al. in 1990 and yellow with green circle dots are data from Guo and Wang (2002). (Data are normalized to 100%.)

Downloaded from hol.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on October 13, 2016  The Holocene 10

samples with abundant brown glass shards. Their composition is

as follows – SiO2: 60–67 wt%; FeO: 4.3–4.8 wt%; CaO: 0.8–1.6 wt%; K2O: 5.1–6.2 wt%; Al2O3: 13–18 wt%. It is obvious that K02014 and K02065 have lower SiO2, higher FeO, higher Al2O3, higher K2O, and higher CaO than other type materials. Further- more, the geochemical analysis of K02014 and K02065 shows a wide diversity in glass shard composition (Figure 9).

LVF HLW. It has a depth of 443 cm, and one basaltic tephra layer was detected between 299 and 300 cm. The geochemical com- parison between the glasses of the tephra layer in deposits at HLW and previously published data for Jinlongdingzi and SHL T1 is shown in Figure 12. It shows the overlap, and they are the most homogeneous populations.

SHL. It has a depth of 2321 cm, and the sediment of the upper Figure 10. Classification of volcanic ash from Tianchi Volcano 1000 cm was used for scanning the cryptotephra. There were reference samples and Gushantun (GST-43) based on the total three visible tephra layers detected (named T1, T2, T3). And three alkali-silica (TAS after Le Maitre et al. (2002)). (Data are normalized non-visible tephra layers were found within T2 and T3 (named to 100%.) T2a, T2b, T2c and T3a, T3b, T3c). Most tephras from SHL T1 are

Figure 11. Ternary diagram showing the relative proportion of FeO, CaO, K2O and Al2O3, Na 2O, MgO (%) for glass from tephra from Tianchi type material and glass from GST-43. (Data are normalized to 100%.)

Downloaded from hol.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on October 13, 2016 Zhao et al. 11

Figure 12. Ternary diagrams showing the relative proportion of FeO, CaO, K2O and Al2O3, Na 2O, MgO (%) for glass from tephra layer 1 within Sihailongwan, Jinlongdingzi outcrop and HLW-300. (Diagrams were drawn by the data from Zhao and Hall (2015) and Zhao et al. (2015b), and data are normalized to 100%.) trachybasaltic and are similar compositionally to those at Jinlong- As a possible source volcano and also according to the geo- dingzi in the outcrop, although there are still some within the chemical analysis and supported with radiocarbon data, SHL T1 tephrite and basaltic compositional fields. Samples came from the Jinlongdingzi Volcano eruption. The age for this from SHL T2 are . T2a and T2b overlap with those eruption is defined by most scientists as 1600 yr BP (AD 460, from volcanic ash from Jinlongdingzi. Although T2c is just sepa- 1336–1694 cal. BP) (e.g. Cheng et al., 2008; Fan et al., 1999, rate, it is still trachybasalt. Most volcanic ash from three sub-lay- 2002; Liu et al., 2009). The age is slightly younger when com- ers of T3 is trachybasalt. Comparison of glass compositions of pared with the tephra layer within the SHL and XIL deposits. The three tephra layers and cryptotephra sub-layers in the SHL deposit age discrepancies may arise from some carbon reservoir effect showed that FeO–CaO–K2O are similar for three tephra layers within the aquatic ecosystems or from older marginal organic and those at Jinlongdingzi, with a wider compositional spread for material being incorporated into the sediment from the deepest shards from T3b (Zhao and Hall, 2015). part of the lake or from a combination of these processes (e.g. Davies et al., 2004; Guilderson et al., 2005; Oldfield et al., 1997; GST. It has a depth of 673 cm, and only a few colorless volca- Oswald et al., 2005). nic glass shards were detected in the sediment at 40–43 cm (Zhao Considering the evidence, the first tephra layer found in SHL and Liu, 2012); their characteristics were compared with those of came from the Jinlongding AD 460 eruption. The glass shards are the colorless shards from the Tianchi type materials. The reason is deposited in HLW and XIL as well, but due to slumping it was not that GST is located in LVF, and as we know, the rocks distributed detected in ERL. Furthermore, most glass shard sizes in this layer in LVF consist of basaltic and basaltic pyroclastic rocks; are large (over 100 µm) with sharp edges and bubbles which there is no rhyolite outcropped around it (Guo et al., 2005). Geo- showed they are most likely airfall tephra. chemical comparison between the analyses of these colorless shards and those of the Tianchi Volcano type material is shown in SHL T2 Figures 10 and 11. The glass from the volcanic ash detected from GST has similar geochemical characteristics to glass from the Tephras could be found through the whole tephra layer with SHL Tianchi type material. Furthermore, the TAS plot shows that the T2, however not in the same concentration. These sub-layers rep- glass from the volcanic ash from GST is rhyolite. resent three layers with comparatively numerous tephra shards. Comparisons also have been made between the tephra shards in Most shards are over 100 µm with bubbles and sharp rims which the GST peat with those from Machida et al. (1990), Guo and Wang appear similar to shards in T1. The stratigraphic position (Figure (2002), and the published data from Longgang area (Zhao and Hall, 1) of T2c, T2b, and T2a shows that they represent the base to top, 2015). From Figures 10 and 11, we can obviously see that the glass respectively, of a thick continuous tephra layer. If this unit repre- shards detected in sediments at GST show similarity with those sented an evolving eruption, shards should become more basic from the Tianchi eruption but may differ from those from Jinlong- toward the top of the sequence, SiO2 should decrease, and FeO dingzi. The geochemical characteristics of the glass from Jinlong- should increase toward the top of the tephra unit. However, both dingzi and Tianchi tephras show marked dissimilarities. Figures 5 and 6 show the same trend of T2a and T2b for most major element analysis and differ slightly from T2c. The FeO content of these three sub-layers differs less. In the stratigraphic figure (Figure 1), there is a 2-cm gap between T2a and T2b, but 8 Discussion cm between T2b and T2c. SHL T1 The published varve-chronology for the Jinlongdingzi Vol- Tephra layers are well preserved and corresponded stratigraphi- cano eruption revealed that before the big eruption in AD 460, cally with those in SHL T1, HLW, and XIL (T1) (Liu et al., 2009) two more eruptions happened in 11,460 and 14,000 cal. BP (Liu (blue broken lines). Radiocarbon ages for the tephra layers in et al., 2009). Varve-chronology can be compromised by missing HLW and XIL are 1566–1806 and 1714–1894 cal. BP, respec- or adding varves, ambiguous laminations, human counting error, tively. This tephra is not present in ERL (Frank, 2007), possibly and so on (e.g. Tian et al., 2005), possibly explaining the few because the slump dispersed this thin tephra layer (Frank, 2007). hundred years age difference between this layer and Jinlong- Peat bog GST does not contain this layer, maybe because of the dingzi. SHL T2 is also well preserved and corresponded strati- different distribution and preservation of tephra shards for peat graphically with those in ERL (Frank, 2007; Figure 1, Table 3). bog and lake sediment (Figure 1). The radiocarbon age for the first tephra layer in ERL is about

Downloaded from hol.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on October 13, 2016  The Holocene 12

Table 3. Summary of all tephras found in Maar lakes and peat bog. Jinlongdingzi 1, 2, 3 refer to an eruption in AD 460, 11,460 cal. BP, and 14,000 cal. BP, respectively (Liu et al., 2009).

Sites Age (cal. BP) Depth (cm) Source volcano

SHL T1 1710–2110 112.5–118.5 Jinlongdingzi 1 SHL T2 T2a 364.5–365.5 T2b 10,250–10,340 367.5–369.5 Jinlongdingzi 2 T2c 10,600–10,700 377.5–380.5 SHL T3 T3a 17,000–18,500 806.5–812.5 T3b 816.5–817.5 Jinlongdingzi 3 T3c 823.5–832.5 HLW 1566–1806 299–300 Jinlongdingzi 1 GST 260–420 40–43 Tianchi eruption in AD 1702, 1668, and 1597 XIL (Liu et al., 2009) T1 1714–1894 100–109 Jinlongdingzi 1 T2 16,569 580–592 Jinlongdingzi 3 T3 17,348 690–700 Jinlongdingzi 3 ERL (Frank, 2007) Up 10,785–10,979 612–620 Jinlongdingzi 2 Bottom 16,997 902–918 Jinlongdingzi 3

10,785–10,979 cal. BP, which corresponded with T2c in SHL, cm), and SHL T3c (823.5–832.5 cm). The age for this tephra shown with red broken lines in Figure 1. layer is 17,000–18,500 cal. BP which came from the Jinlong- Considering all the evidence described above, the glass shards dingzi eruption in 14,000 cal. BP. Tephra layer which was in SHL T2 are fall events and represent two eruptions of Jinlong- detected in HLW is 299–300 cm and the age is 1566–1806 cal. dingzi Volcano. T2c represents an earlier eruption than T2a and BP and it came from the Jinlongdingzi eruption in AD 460. The T2b. It could be argued that after the 11,460 cal. BP eruption, the few glass shards which were found in GST peat bog is 40–43 cm Jinlongdingzi Volcano remained dormant for about 500 years, fol- and the age is 260–420 cal. BP, and many of these glass shards lowed by a similar basaltic eruption that occurred at about came from Tianchi eruption in AD 1702, 1668, and 1597. 10,250–10,340 cal. BP. According to the published data from XIL and ERL, glass shards detected in XIL T1 came from Jinlongdingzi eruption in AD 460; XIL T2, XIL T3, and ERL bottom were from Jinlongdingzi SHL T3 eruption in 14,000 cal. BP; ERL came from Jinlongdingzi erup- Tephra distribution in SHL T3 is similarly uneven to T2. T3a and tion in 11,460 (Table 2). T3b glasses have a wider compositional spread for most major Tianchi Volcano and Jinlongdingzi Volcano are both active element analyses; however, T3c is quite concentrated. Most and erupted several times during the historical period. Glass tephra shards in the sub-layers overlap with Jinlongdingzi tephra shards in SHL T1, T2, T3, HLW, and GST may be used as marker geochemistry and they are all trachybasaltic. The geochemical horizons beyond the LVF and CVF. composition based on FeO, CaO, and K2O are similar for the three sub-layers and Jinlongdingzi, with a wider compositional spread for shards from T3b. In his paper, Liu et al. (2009) stated Conclusion that tephra layers T2 and T3 in XIL were found and had similar A total of 45 reference samples have very similar geochemical ages, 16,569 and 17,348 cal. BP, respectively. He also described characteristics to Tianchi Volcano eruption and the published data the similar geochemical characteristics of these two layers and of GST peat bog. In further description, the few glass shards Jinlongdinzi Volcano. Through research on ERL, the second which were found in GST were considered coming from the Tian- tephra layer detected by Frank (2007) also showed geochemistry chi Volcano eruption in AD 1702, 1668, and 1597. similar to Jinlongdingzi, the calibrated radiocarbon age being One basaltic tephra layer was found in HLW 299–300 cm, in 16,996 cal. BP. These correspond with SHL T3 in this paper. Due two clear parts. Geochemistry and radiocarbon age showed that to possible sample resolution, neither T2 nor T3 was detected in part of them came from Jinlongdingzi AD 460 eruption and the HLW and GST here. others may be from an earlier eruption. Or, there are two stages Considering the evidence, tephras in SHL T3 came from an for the Jinlongdingzi AD 460 eruption; during that time, higher earlier eruption of Jinlongdingzi Volcano occurring at about SiO2 and lower FeO erupted first, followed by the lower SiO2 and 17,000–18,500 cal. BP, and these tephras are most likely fall higher FeO tephra. tephra. Although this eruption has three stages, they all emitted Through the investigation of tephra layers in the sediments of geochemically similar glass shards. It could be argued that T2 and HLW and published data of SHL, GST, XIL, and ERL, tephras are T3 in XIL came from different stages of this eruption event which well preserved and corresponded stratigraphically with those in corresponded with T3 in SHL and the second tephra layer in ERL. lake SHL T1, lake HLW, and lake XIL T1. Tephra SHL T2 corre- The green broken line marks this in Figure 1. sponded stratigraphically with the first tephra layer in ERL. In summary, SHL T1 is 112.5–118.5 cm and the age is 1710– Tephra layers T2 and T3 in XIL probably corresponded strati- 2110 cal. BP, and this tephra layer came from Jinlongdingzi graphically with SHL T3 and ERL T2. eruption in AD 460; SHL T2 has three sub-layers, named SHL The tephra that originated from the Tianchi eruption was first T2a, SHL T2b, and SHL T2c, and the depth and age are 364.5– found in Hokkaido, Japan, and later in the Sea of Japan, North 365.5 cm (10,250–10,340 cal. BP), 367.5–369.5 cm (10,250– Korea, nearby coastal area of Russia, marine sediments, Green- 10,340 cal. BP), and 377.5–380.5 cm (10,600–10,700 cal. BP), land ice cores, and in the sediments of maar lakes in northeastern respectively. This tephra layer came from Jinlongdingzi erup- China. The westward boundary of the eruptives includes the LVF. tion in 11,460 cal. BP. SHL T3 also has three sub-layers which The impact of the Tianchi Millennium eruption on regional and are named SHL T3a (806.5–812.5 cm), SHL T3b (816.5–817.5 global environmental records needs further studies.

Downloaded from hol.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on October 13, 2016 Zhao et al. 13

These tephra (layers) provide accurate temporal marker layers Froggatt PC and Lowe DJ (1990) A review of late Quaternary which can be used to verify or corroborate other dating tech- silicic and some other tephra formations from New-Zealand niques. By linking sequences widely separated by location into a – Their stratigraphy, nomenclature, distribution, volume, and unified chronology, the tephra layers can correlate climatic age. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 33: sequences and events to assess major volcanism in the late Qua- 89–109. ternary of the Changbaishan area. Guilderson TP, Reimer PJ and Brown TA (2005) The boon and bane of radiocarbon dating. Science 307: 362–364. Acknowledgements Guo ZF and Wang XL (2002) A study on the relationship between Great thanks to Professor John Dodson, from Australian Nucle- volcanic activities and mass mortalities of the Jehol vertebrate ar Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO), and Dr Liu Fauna from Sihetun, western Liaoning, China. Acta Petrolog- Qiang, from the Institute of Geology and Geophysics, CAS, for ica Sinica 18: 117–125. site selection, sample collection, and also for their thoughtful re- Guo ZF, Liu JQ, Fan QC et al. (2005) Source of volcanic ash in views and comments. Thanks to Professor Paula Reimer and Dr the sediments of Sihailongwan maar lake, NE China, and its Maarten Blaauw, Queen’s University Belfast UK, for their help in significance. Acta Petrologica Sinica 21: 251–255. calibrating the radiocarbon dates. Thanks to Zhu Hui and Wang Hall VA and Pilcher JR (2002) Late-Quaternary Icelandic tephras Xiaoli from College of Geography and Tourism, Chongqing Nor- in Ireland and Great Britain: Detection, characterization and mal University, Chongqing, for their help in drawing Figure 3. We usefulness. The Holocene 12: 223–230. are also grateful to the editors and the anonymous reviewers for Hogg AG, Lowe DJ and Hendy CH (1987) University of Waikato their constructive comments and suggestions for this manuscript. radiocarbon dates I. Radiocarbon 29: 163–187. I would like to thank Professor Valerie Hall (one of the authors Hunt JB and Hill PG (2001) Tephrological implications of beam and also my supervisor) for her support and guidance throughout size - sample-size effects in electron microprobe analysis of the research. She passed away on 28 July 2016; we will miss her glass shards. Journal of Quaternary Science 16: 105–117. but never forget her. Jowsey PC (1966) An improved peat sampler. New Phytologist 65: 245–248. Funding Lamoureaux SF (1999) Spatial and inter-annual variations in sed- This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foun- imentation patterns recorded in non-glacial varved sediments dation of China (Grant no. 41202260) and Overseas Research from the Canadian High Arctic. Journal of Paleolimnology Scholarship (UK, 2007–2010). 21: 73–84. Larsen E and Stalsberg MK (2004) Younger Dryas glaciolacus- References trine rhythmites and cirque glacier variations at Krakenes, Anderson RY and Dean WE (1988) Lacustrine varve formation western Norway: Depositional processes and climate. Journal through time. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeo- of Paleolimnology 31: 49–61. ecology 62: 215–235. Le Maitre RW, Streckeisen A, Zanettin B et al. (eds) (2002) Igne- Cheng SG, Mao XM, Wang FL et al. (2008) Tephra discov- ous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms, Recom- ered in high resolution peat sediment and its indication to mendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences climatic event. Journal of China University of Geosciences 19: Subcommission of the Systematics of Igneous Rocks. Cam- 174–183. bridge: Cambridge University Press. Chu GQ, Gu ZY, Xu B et al. (2005) Varvechronology and radio- Liao ZJ (1990) Volcanoes, Hotspring and Geothermal Resource metric dating (137Cs, 210Pb) from the Sihailongwan maar, in China. Beijing: Popular Science Press, pp. 210–215. northeastern China. Quaternary Sciences 25: 202–207 (in Liu JQ (1999) Volcanoes in China. Beijing: Science Press, pp. Chinese). 13–126 (in Chinese). Coulter SE, Pilcher JR, Hall VA et al. (2009) Testing the reli- Liu JQ, Chu GQ, Han JT et al. (2009) Volcanic eruptions in the ability of the JEOL FEGSEM 6500F electron microprobe Longgang volcanic field, northeastern China, during the past for quantitative major element analysis of glass shards from 15,000 years. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 34: 645–654. rhyolitic tephra. Boreas 39: 163–169. Liu JQ, Negendank JFW, Wang WY et al. (2000) The distribution Cui ZX, Jin YT and Li N (2000) A historical record of AD 1199- and geological characteristics of maar lakes in China. Quater- 1200 eruption of Tianchi Volcano, Chanbai mountains and nary Sciences 20: 78–86. its significance. Acta Petrologica Sinica 16: 191–193 (in Liu Q, Liu JQ, Chen XY et al. (2005) Stable carbon isotope record Chinese). of bulk organic matter from the Sihailongwan maar lake, Davies SM, Wohlfarth B, Wastegard S et al. (2004) Were there northeast china during the past 18.5 ka. Quaternary Sciences two Borrobol Tephras during the early Lateglacial period: 25: 711–721. Implications for tephrochronology? Quaternary Science Liu RX, Wei HQ and Li JT (1998) Recent Eruptions of the Chang- Reviews 23: 581–589. baishan Tianchi Volcano. Beijing: Scientific Press, pp. 1–159. Fan QC, Liu RX, Wei HQ et al. (1999) The petrology and geo- Liu RX, Chen WJ, Sun JZ et al. (1992a) K–Ar chronology and chemistry of Jinlongdingizi modern active volcano in Long- tectonic settings of Cenozoic volcanic rocks in China. In: Liu gang area. Acta Petrologica Sinica 15(4): 584–589 (in RX (ed.) Chronology and Geochemistry of Cenozoic Volcanic Chinese). Rocks in China. Beijing: Seismological Press, pp. 1–43. Fan QC, Sui JL, Liu RX et al. (2000) Petrology and geochemis- Liu RX, Li JT, Wei HQ et al. (1992b) Changbaishan Tianchi try of Jinlongdingzi active volcano – The most recent basaltic Volcano – A recent dormant volcano for potential dangerous explosive volcano at Longgang. Chinese Journal of Geo- eruptions. Acta Geophysica Sinica 35: 661–664. chemistry 19: 312–317 (in Chinese). Lowe DJ (1988) Stratigraphy, age, composition, and correlation Fan QC, Sui JL, Liu RX et al. (2002) Periods of Quarternary vol- of late Quaternary tephras interbedded with organic sediments canic activity in Longgang area, Jilin province. Acta Petro- in Waikato lakes, North Island, New-Zealand. New Zealand logica Sinica 18(4): 495–500 (in Chinese). Journal of Geology and Geophysics 31: 125–165. Frank U (2007) Rock magnetic studies on sediments from Erlong- Machida H (1999) The stratigraphy, chronology and distribution wan maar lake, Long Gang Volcanic Field, Jilin province, NE of distal marker-tephras in and around Japan. Global and China. Geophysical Journal International 168: 13–26. Planetary Change 21: 71–94.

Downloaded from hol.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on October 13, 2016  The Holocene 14

Machida H and Arai F (1992) Atlas of Tephra in and around Jilin Province) – Part 1: Hydrological conditions and dust Japan. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 276 pp. flux. Journal of Paleolimnology 35: 239–270. Machida H, Moriwaki H and Zhao DC (1990) The recent major Shulmeister J, Goodwin I, Renwick J et al. (2004) The South- eruption of Changbai volcano and its environmental effects. ern Hemisphere westerlies in the Australasian sector over the Geographical Reports of Tokyo Metropolitan University 25: last glacial cycle: A synthesis. Quaternary International 118: 1–20. 23–53. Mingram J, Allen JRM, Brüchmann C et al. (2004a) Maar and Smith SV, Bradley RS and Abbott MB (2004) A 300 year record crater lakes of the Longgang Volcanic Field (N.E. China) – of environmental change from Lake Tuborg, Ellesmere Island, Overview, laminated sediments, and vegetation history of the Nunavut, Canada. Journal of Paleolimnology 32: 137–148. last 900 years. Quaternary International 123–125: 135–147. Stebich M, Arlt J, Liu Q et al. (2007) Late Quaternary vegetation Mingram J, Schettler G, Nowaczyk N et al. (2004b) The Huguang history of Northeast China – Recent progress in the palyno- maar lake – A high-resolution record of palaeoenvironmental logical investigations of Sihailongwan maar lake. In: Kahlke and palaeoclimatic changes over the last 78,000 years from R-D, Maul LC and Mazza PPA (eds) Late Neogene and Qua- South China. Quaternary International 122: 85–107. ternary Biodiversity and Evolution: Regional Developments Oldfield F, Crooks PRJ, Harkness DD et al. (1997) AMS radiocar- and Interregional Correlations, Volume II (Courrier Forsch.- bon dating of organic fractions from varved lake sediments: Institut Senckenberg, vol. 259). Frankfurt am Main: Sencken- An empirical test of reliability. Journal of Paleolimnology 18: bergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, pp. 181–190. 87–91. Sun CQ, Plunkett G, Liu JQ et al. (2014a) Ash from Changbais- O’Sullivan PE (1983) Annually laminated lake sediments and the han Millennium eruption recorded in Greenland ice: Impli- study of Quaternary environmental changes – A review. Qua- cations for determining the eruption’s timing and impact. ternary Science Reviews 1: 245–313. Geophysical Research Letters 41: 694–701. Oswald WW, Anderson PM, Brown TA et al. (2005) Effects of Sun CQ, You HT, Liu JQ et al. (2014b) Distribution, geochem- sample mass and macrofossil type on radiocarbon dating of istry and age of the Millennium eruptives of Changbaishan arctic and boreal lake sediments. The Holocene 15: 758–767. volcano, Northeast China – A review. Frontiers of Earth Sci- Ou XX and Fu QG (1984) The relationship between the Long- ence 8: 216–230. gang Volcanic Group and Tectonic activity. Jilin Geology 1: Tian J, Brown TA and Hu FS (2005) Comparison of varve and 14C 76–81. chronologies from steel lake, Minnesota, USA. The Holocene Overpeck JT (1996) Varved sediment records of recent seasonal 15: 510–517. to millennial-scale environmental variability. In: Jones PD, Turney CSM (1998) Extraction of rhyolitic component of Vedde Bradley RS and Jouzel J (eds) Climatic Variations and Forc- microtephra from minerogenic lake sediments. Journal of ing Mechanisms of the Last 2000 Years. Berlin: Springer-Ver- Paleolimnology 19: 199–206. lag, pp. 479–497. Wang JP (1989) Changbaishan History. Jilin: Jilin Wenshi Press. Parplies J, Lucke A, Vos H et al. (2008) Late glacial environment Xu DM, Zheng XS and Xu XX (1993) Holocene volcanic activi- and climate development in northeastern China derived from ties and their features in Tianchi area, Changbaishan moun- geochemical and isotopic investigations of the varved sedi- tains. Quaternary Sciences 2: 85–94. ment record from Lake Sihailongwan (Jilin Province). Jour- Zhao HL and Hall VA (2015) Assessing the potential for cryp- nal of Paleolimnology 40: 471–487. totephra studies in Northeastern China. The Holocene 25: Pilcher JR and Hall VA (1992) Towards a tephrochronology for 772–783. the Holocene of the north Ireland. The Holocene 2: 255–259. Zhao HL and Liu JQ (2012) Cryptotephra discovered in Gushan- Reimer PJ, Baillie MGL, Bard E et al. (2009) Intcal09 and tun peat of the China and its significance. Seismology and Marine09 radiocarbon age calibration curves, 0–50,000 years Geology 34(3): 516–530 (in Chinese). cal BP. Radiocarbon 51: 1111–1150. Zhao HL, Li XQ and Hall VA (2015) Holocene vegetation change Rose NL, Golding PNE and Battarbee RW (1994) Selected con- in relation to fire and volcanic events in Jilin, Northeastern centration and enumeration of tephra shards from lake sedi- China. Science China Earth Sciences 58(8): 1404–1419. ment cores. Ambio 23: 296–299. Zolitschka B (1996) High resolution lacustrine sediments and Schettler G, Liu Q, Mingram J et al. (2006a) East-Asian monsoon their potential for paleoclimatic reconstruction. In: Jones variability between 15 000 and 2000 cal. yr BP recorded in PD, Bradley RS and Jouzel J (eds) Climatic Variations and varved sediments of Lake Sihailongwan (northeastern China, Forcing Mechanisms of the Last 2000 Years. Berlin: Springer- Long Gang volcanic field). The Holocene 16: 1043–1057. Verlag, pp. 453–478. Schettler G, Liu Q, Mingram J et al. (2006b) Palaeovariations Zolitschka B, Wulf S and Negendank JFW (2000) Circum-Medi- in the East-Asian monsoon regime geochemically recorded terranean lake records as archives of climatic and human his- in varved sediments of Lake Sihailongwan (Northeast China, tory. Quaternary International 73–74: 1–5.

Downloaded from hol.sagepub.com at CORNELL UNIV on October 13, 2016