REMAINS OF KHMER ROUGE VIOLENCE: THE MATERIALITY OF BONES AS SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE AND AFFECTIVE AGENTS OF MEMORY By Julie Michele Fleischman A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Anthropology—Doctor of Philosophy 2017 ABSTRACT REMAINS OF KHMER ROUGE VIOLENCE: THE MATERIALITY OF BONES AS SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE AND AFFECTIVE AGENTS OF MEMORY By Julie Michele Fleischman The Khmer Rouge regime, led by the infamous Pol Pot, governed Cambodia from 1975 to 1979. Living conditions were severe, and it is estimated that approximately one quarter of the Cambodian population of nearly eight million died from mistreatment, overwork, malnutrition, and violence. Using a biocultural anthropological approach, this research addressed questions concerning individuals executed by the Khmer Rouge regime and the agency (the effect on living individuals) of the resulting skeletal remains. An osteological analysis of more than 500 crania was conducted at the Choeung Ek Genocidal Center (Choeung Ek) in Phnom Penh. More than 100 original Khmer Rouge execution lists from the detention and torture facility known as S-21—today called the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum—were assessed to gather known demographic data for those who were executed and buried at Choeung Ek between 1977 and 1979. To comprehend the incorporation of human skeletal remains from the Khmer Rouge period into the socio-religious framework of modern Cambodia, 13 memorial stupa containing human remains were visited and the caretakers of these memorials were interviewed. The 508 crania at Choeung Ek were assessed for demographic characteristics and traumatic injuries. Results indicate that the majority of crania were estimated to be male (82.9%) and nearly all were of Asian ancestry (86%). The majority of the individuals were young adults (68.3%) between the ages of 20 and 35 years old, although subadults and older adults were represented. Perimortem trauma was present on 311 crania (61%), with 179 (58%) having ii discernable impact locations. Blunt force injuries (87%) were the most common mechanism of trauma and the basicranium (53%) was the most frequently impacted region. When the mechanism and location of traumatic injuries were evaluated by sex and age-at-death categories, no statistically significant differences were found indicating that all victims with perimortem trauma were subjected to similar execution methods regardless of their age or sex. At the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum, 97 definitive Khmer Rouge execution lists were evaluated documenting the murders of 6,285 individuals. The majority (82.1%) were male, the minimum age was 11, the maximum age was 77, and the average age was 29.1 years. When these archival demographic data were compared to these osteologial data, however, there were statistically significant differences between the samples. Observational data from all 13 memorials, and interview data from 10 memorials indicated that the human remains were not formally preserved to prevent decay and there was never a clear indication of how many individuals were represented by the remains with the stupa. The informant’s responses addressed issues such as the identification of the human remains within the memorial, current religious practices conducted at the memorials often in conjunction with caring for the remains, how the remains are displayed for knowledge and/or teaching purposes—although often with a political undertone—and that the memory of the Khmer Rouge period, as well as that of the victims, is crucial for modern Cambodians. This research embraced a holistic approach to move beyond the confines of traditional osteological laboratory research by addressing the social impact of the remains. While the Khmer Rouge period was devastating, the human remains of the victims have not been forgotten; the remains continue to remind all who visit that immeasurable violence occurred in Cambodia but also that Cambodians are resilient and they will continue to memorialize those they lost. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The preparation for this dissertation, the research period, and the subsequent writing of this document required endless support both behind the scenes and on the “front line.” It is with sincere appreciation that I thank the following individuals and organizations for making this project possible and successful: First, to my doctoral committee. The five of you are fantastic scholars, incredible mentors, and my cheerleaders. Dr. Goldstein, thank you for accepting me as your student and never giving up on me, especially given the direction my research took; you are an academic inspiration and I can only strive to accomplish what you have in your career. Thank you for always answer my questions, providing feedback on my writing, and helping me to navigate the world of (international) doctoral research. Dr. Fulginiti, you are my personal and forensic anthropology hero; you have been there for me since day one and have relentlessly pushed me to achieve the impossible. Dr. Hefner, thank you for jumping on board with me and being my statistical and craniometrics guru (I could not have completed my analytical sections without your assistance); thank you for teaching me how to successfully use a digitizer, as well as providing advice on living in Southeast Asia. Dr. Drexler, you have been a true inspiration for me in the field of human rights; you also supported me during some of my darkest times and never let me give up—and I will never forget how wonderful it was to see your smiling face in Jakarta at the 2016 Fulbright Conference. Dr. Keith, thank you for sharing your knowledge about Southeast Asia and pushing me to think beyond the confines of historical narratives; thank you as well for detouring into Cambodia with me. And an honorable mention goes to Dr. John iv Piakis for teaching me how to use the portable dental radiography machine and for his assistance with aging individuals from my (often poor) dental radiographs. Second, to those who made possible my research in Cambodia: Ms. Ros Sophearavy, Mr. Voeun Vuthy and the staff at the Choeung Ek Genocidal Center, particularly Mr. Neang Sai. The staff at the Cambodian Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts, particularly His Excellency Prak Sonnara, and the Phnom Penh Municipality. My wonderful friends and colleagues at Choeung Ek: Mr. Heng Sreang, Mr. Kim Keo, Mr. Heang Mesa, Mr. Ry Sovannarith, Ms. Phat Phina, Ms. Cheun Navun, and Ms. Sam An Sopheaktra. At the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum, many thanks to Mr. Chhay Visoth, Mr. Yin Nean, and the archival staff for their kindness, generosity, and research assistance, and Mr. Hoin Channara and Mr. Chhun Seyha for their help with translations. Mr. Chhang Youk, Mr. Vanthan Peoudara, Ms. So Farina, Mr. Eng Kok-Thay, Mr. Veng Seanghai (for his translations), and Ms. Sin Sothida at the Documentation Center of Cambodia. To my interview translators: Mr. Heng Sophady, Mr. Vasomnoleak Ly, Mr. Khuoy Suosobranith, Ms. Vibol Gnol Rumnea, Mr. Khien Song, and Mr. Thoul. To my Khmer language Neak Kruus and Lok Kruus: Dr. Chhany Sak-Humphry, Ms. Oeur Sisotha, Mr. Frank Smith, and Mr. Kheang Leang. Many thanks as well to those who provided invaluable support, guidance, and friendship while I lived in Cambodia: Ms. Sarah Rose-Jensen, Mr. Vasomnoleak Ly, Dr. Helen Jarvis, Dr. Nancy Beaven, Mr. Jay Raman and the U.S. Embassy staff, Dr. Anne Guillou, Dr. Karen LeGrand, Dr. Colleen McGinn, Mr. Thoul (for his friendship and his safe driving), Ms. Anne Laure Porée, Mr. Andy Brouwer, Ms. Ambika Flavel, Dr. Daniel Franklin, Ms. Jacqueline Noble, Dr. Craig Etcheson, Dr. Henri Locard, Ms. Elena Lesley, Ms. Catriona Miller, Ms. Mary Collier-Wilks, and Mr. Hudson McFann. v Finally, to my family, friends, and colleagues. Mom, Dad, Kristie, Corinne, Kevin, Nancy, Don, Chris, and Don: thank you for your never ending support and your willingness to bear with me through this interminable process. Dr. Ashley Kendell, Dr. Amy Michel, and Dr. Jen Vollner: you are my inspiration, and my years at MSU would not have been successful or tolerable without your humor, support, and friendship. Family and friends too numerous to mention by name, I could not have survived 10 months in Cambodia without your endless encouragement and your ability to talk me down off of ledges! A sincere thank you to Mr. Mike Michalek for providing all of the maps used in this dissertation. Thank you to Dr. Derek Congram, Dr. Douglas Ubelaker, and Dr. Luis Fondebrider for your advice and assistance in navigating the world of forensic anthropology/archaeology and human rights. To Ms. Lisa Bright for your friendship and statistical guidance when paleodemography was beating us down. To Ms. Bing Tong for your statistical assistance and for answering my numerous inane questions. Thank you as well to Dr. Erik Davis for your guidance on Khmer Buddhism and Cambodian funeral rituals, and to Dr. Gregory Berg and Ms. Sabrina Ta’ala for discussing your research at Choeung Ek and sharing your photos. This research was generously funded by the Fulbright IIE Student Program, the Graduate Women In Science’s Nell Mondy Fellowship, the Frank and Adelaide Kussy Memorial Scholarship, Michigan State University’s Foreign Language and Areas Studies (FLAS) Program, and a Michigan State University Graduate School Dissertation Completion Fellowship. It is with deep gratitude that I thank these organizations for their financial support. Additionally I would like to thank Aribex, Inc. for their long-term