KRILL OIL Join the Omega Oil Revolution Today!

EducationISSUE 21 FROM THE NUTRIGOLD NUTRITIONAL UPDATE SERVICENews KRILL OIL Join the omega oil revolution today!

Many people are aware of the need to supplement their diet with omega 3 essential fatty acids (EFAs) to support different areas of health including the heart, brain and joints. However, with the vast array of omega 3 EFA supplements on the market which product is the most effective and therefore the best value for money?

Krill oil is a naturally occurring blend of highly bioavailable omega 3 EFAs (in phospholipid form) and antioxidants that combine to give a potent health- supporting daily supplement. In fact, it’s the market leader for supplying omega 3 EFAs. Research shows that krill oil supports many areas of health including heart, brain, hormone balance and weight management more effectively than fish oils due to its unique natural formulation.

Omega 3 polyunsaturated essential fatty acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). vegetable oils. For optimal health the correct acids (EFAs) are indisputably essential EPA and DHA can only be obtained from ratio should be around 4:1 with some sources to maintaining a healthy body from dietary sources such as oily fish like salmon, citing equal daily amounts of omega 3 and 6.4 development in the womb right through trout and sardines, or vegetarian sources such As a result, omega 3 EFA supplements, along to sustaining health in old age.1 Multiple as flaxseed oil, which is rich in the EPA and with dietary EFA balance, can be very important clinical trials have demonstrated that omega DHA precursor alpha linoleic acid (ALA). Many in helping to maintain the correct omega 3:6 3 EFAs play a pivotal role in eye and brain diets also contain elevated levels of omega 6 ratio and support health. However, recent studies development, as well as promoting cognitive EFAs; these are essential but required at lower have suggested that not all omega 3 supplements and immune system function. Deficiencies levels compared to omega 3 EFAs. High intake are equal in terms of absorption and therefore in omega 3 EFAs have been linked to many of omega 6 EFAs can increase levels of pro- efficacy and value for money. Krill oil is packed illnesses including cardiovascular disease, inflammatory mediators in the body that can lead full of readily bioavailable omega 3 EFAs and dementia, arthritis and different cancers.2 to increased blood clotting and impair immune many other essential nutrients so let us help you repsonses. Modern diets often have ratios of up Omega EFAs can only be obtained through the clear the confusion about essential fatty acids to 30:1 omega 6 to omega 3 EFAs due to high diet but a typical western diet is inadequate for and join the omega oil revolution today! intake of processed foods, meats, dairy and supplying enough omega 3 eicosapentaenoic TOP 5 BENEFITS OF KRILL OIL VERSUS FISH OILS Krill oil has over 50% greater bioavailability compared to fish oils and at lower doses meaning better value for money. Krill oil is free from marine contamination including heavy metals, unlike many fish oils. Krill oil has 48 times antioxidant capacity compared to fish oils. Krill does not produce a fishy aftertaste! Krill oil is clinically proven to be more effective than fish oils in: • helping balance healthy cholesterol levels • promoting brain health • improving appearance of the skin • improving emotional and physical symptoms of PMS • supporting weight management • reducing intake of anti-inflammatory drugs

For more newsletters, log on to updates.nutrigold.co.uk or call 0845 603 5675 THE MANY HEALTH BENEFITS OF KRILL OIL

BRAIN POWER

The brain contains up to 60% phospholipids, mainly as polyunsaturated fatty acids like omega 3 DHA.18 Studies show that the brain absorbs dietary phospholipids, such as those found in krill oil, twice as efficiently as triglyceride EFAs from fish oils19. DHA is critical for the correct development of the brain in the foetus and in young children20 where deficiencies can lead to behavioural problems, such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and adolescent emotional dysfunction.21 Phospholipids are also vital for adult memory and learning, cognitive performance and mood.22 Clinical studies also show krill oil can improve concentration and planning abilities.23

Krill oil phospholipids are a vital part of a healthy brain contributing to memory, learning and mood

CURBING CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE

Recent clinical studies show that daily krill oil supplementation significantly reduces the level of circulating triglycerides, total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol (major risk factors for cardiovascular disease) whilst increasing beneficial HDL cholesterol levels compared to fish oils or placebo.5,6 Cardiovascular disease (CVD), causes over 25% of all deaths in the UK every year.7 There are often no visible signs of CVD so prevention through diet and nutritional support such as omega 3 EFAs is imperative.8 Krill oil has a greater impact on reducing blood lipid levels to support heart health compared to fish oils

TYPE 2 DIABETES

There are now over 3 million cases of diabetes in the UK.36 Krill oil improves insulin sensitivity and prevents the depletion of the GLUT 4 protein, which helps reduce blood sugar levels by increasing muscle and adipose (fat) tissue sensitivity to blood sugars.37 The high astaxanthin antioxidant status of krill oil (not found in fish oils) reduces oxidative cell damage during hyperglycemic (high blood sugar) states.38 Diabetes is also associated with elevated blood fats and poor liver health. Krill oil can promote liver health improving the breakdown of sugars, fats and proteins that contribute to diabetic and metabolic syndrome symptoms.39

Krill oil improves insulin sensitivity and also protects cells from oxidative damage, unlike fish oils

LIVER HEALTH

Liver disease, including Non Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD), is the 5th biggest killer in the UK – more than diabetes and road deaths combined!33 Krill oil is rich in phospholipids, in particular phosphatidyl choline34, which is a key component of hepatocyte (liver cell) structure.35 Krill oil can help maintain a healthy liver by reducing liver fat formation (i.e. hepatic steatosis), preventing weight increase, protecting against hepatic oxidative damage, as well as promoting bile production, which reduces the risk of developing gallstones.

Krill oil reduces fat content of the liver by 50% more than fish oils

PMS

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is characterised by a set of hormonal changes that trigger disruptive symptoms in a significant number of women for up to 2 weeks prior to menstruation.28 After just 3 months of krill oil supplementation, all measured physical and emotional PMS symptoms significantly improved compared to fish oil, which only improved 3 out of the 10 measured symptoms (including irritability, depression, joint pain, breast tenderness, weight gain and bloating).29,30 Krill oil supplements also worked faster being fully effective by the second menstrual cycle compared to the fish oil, which only improved three symptoms by the third cycle.

Krill oil improves the emotional and physical symptoms of PMS more effectively than fish oils

2 NATURALLY BOOSTING MOOD

DHA increases production of the hormones serotonin and dopamine that are important in balancing mood, emotions and enhancing feelings of wellbeing.24 Krill oil has been demonstrated to reduce symptoms of anxiety25 and may improve the quality of life in a natural way for adults and children with depression.26,27

Krill oil reduces anxiety and boosts mood

ANTI-AGEING

Krill oil is rich in a natural antioxidant, astaxanthin, which can powerfully protect cells from free radical damage caused by overexposure to UV sunlight and chemical pollutants. Studies show that Krill oil protects against UV sun damage and improves skin condition including reducing crow’s feet type wrinkles and increasing skin moisture content.31 Phospholipid omega 3 EFAs, only found in krill oil, also keep all cell membranes flexible, fluid and healthy, including those in skin cells.32

Krill oil reduces wrinkles and improves skin condition

FIGHTING OBESITY

Around 25% of the UK population is obese,9 which contributes to many potentially life-limiting inflammatory diseases including CVD, type 2 diabetes and certain cancers.10 Krill oil is a superior form of omega 3 EFA for weight loss as studies show that blood levels of endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoyglycerol (2AG), a signalling molecule that influences appetite and emotional state, are significantly reduced aiding weight loss.11 This result was not seen with fish oil supplements. Krill oil, alongside diet,12 also improves metabolic obesity parameters such as lowering blood lipids,13 increasing fat burning enzymes and reducing inflammation.14

Krill oil aids weight loss more effectively than fish oils

HEALTHIER JOINTS

Omega 3 EFA deficiencies contribute to inflammatory conditions such as arthritis.15 Krill oil supplements reduce inflammatory swelling in joint tissue in people with rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis.16 Moreover, patients treated with krill oil (not fish oils) dramatically reduced their consumption of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) like aspirin, which have been linked to increased risk of gastric ulcers, gastric bleeding and stroke.17

Krill oil reduces dependence on harmful Non-Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs

CALMING INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASES

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD), including Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, have a complex set of causes and symptoms that greatly impact on quality of life. Krill oil reduces levels of gut inflammatory markers and has a potent antioxidant effect (unlike fish oils), which ultimately may help to protect and restore gut tissue function in IBD.40

Krill oil reduces inflammation and damage in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

TUMOUR INHIBITION

Krill oil significantly inhibits up to 64% cell proliferation within 72h shown in vitro studies using tissue from osteosarcoma (tumours in area of bone growth). Fish oil resulted in no significant changes.41 The inhibitory effects of krill oil were comparable to clinical doses of drugs typically used to control these tumours that come with many unwanted side effects.

Krill oil inhibits tumour cell proliferation by 64% whereas fish oils showed no effect

ENERGY BOOST

Krill oil can boost energy! Krill oil switches on genes involved in the mitochondrial electron transport chain42, a crucial pathway responsible for producing cellular energy (ATP).43 This exciting research suggests that krill oil could be important in preventing a decline in cellular energy production, a common symptom of which are reduced in illness, stress and ageing. This increased energy production effect has not been reported with fish oils.

Krill oil boost cellular energy producing pathways, unlike fish oils

3 KRILL OIL COMPOSITION Krill oil is rich in bioavailable forms of omega 3 EFAs proven to improve many areas of health including supporting heart, joints and brain function.45 Krill oil also naturally contains high levels of phospholipids and antioxidants, like astaxanthin proven to reduce skin ageing from UV sunlight.46 Krill oil is also extremely safe for human consumption and certified sustainable. These are just some of the reasons why krill oil is the omega 3 supplement of choice.

FABULOUS Figure 1. Phospholipids (e.g. phosphatidyl choline) KRILL FACTS PHOSPHOLIPIDS! are integral to cell membrane structure Euphausia Superba (i.e. common • Phospholipids are a unique component Krill) are shrimp-like marine of krill oil and are not found in fish oils. phosphatidyl crustacean about 2 inches long, Phospholipids within cell membranes act choline commonly found in cold water as “gate-keepers” and form the membrane oceans such as the Antarctic Ocean. structure by linking in a double layer • Krill’s naturally pink colour comes interspersed with proteins and other key from the high levels of potent health- fats like cholesterol, vital for transport of promoting carotenoid antioxidant nutrients and waste to and from the cell called astaxanthin. (Figure 1). Membranes also surround the internal structures inside cells such • Krill forms the largest biomass as mitochondria, the batteries of the cell (i.e. collection of living biological that produce energy (ATP).47 Membrane organisms) on the planet, which integrity always subserves cell function so, also glows from bioluminescent krill in simple terms, phospholipids are vital for organs! overall cell function. • Krill can only live in a pure environment unlike fish, which may be contaminated with mercury and WHY KRILL OIL PHOSPHOLIPID STRUCTURE IS IMPORTANT other heavy metals. Fats in general are comprised of a glycerol hydrophilic (i.e. water loving) or polar and head and fatty acid chains such as omega 3 the fatty acid omega 3 fatty acids tails are • Antarctic krill are herbivores and and 6 EFAs (Figure 2). EFAs in fish oils are in hydrophobic (i.e. water-hating) or non-polar. feed off phytoplankton (microscopic the triglyceride form where three fatty acid plants) and algae, which are at the This unique polar and non-polar (i.e. amphipathic) chains are attached to the glycerol head (Figure bottom of the ocean food chain, so nature allows phospholipids to mix with water, 2B). However, krill oil contains two omega 3 have very limited accumulation of unlike other fats including triglycerides found DHA and EPA fatty acid chains attached to environmental contaminants, unlike in fish oils, which are entirely non-polar. This the glycerol head, which is associated with many fish. means that krill oil omega 3 EFAs are readily a special group such as choline. This forms absorbed into cell membranes (Figure 1), unlike • Krill food is rich in chlorophyll, phospholipids such as phosphatidyl choline triglyceride omega 3 EFAs from fish oils, which which is comprised of many (Figure 2A), a very important fat for liver and have to be converted into phospholipids. Krill health-promoting nutrients including brain health. The choline (or inositol, serine or oil also mixes with the contents of the stomach oxygen and magnesium.44 ethanolamine) attachment gives phospholipids greatly reducing any fishy aftertaste that many a dual nature, as the glycerol head becomes • Krill oil is naturally rich in phospholipid people experience with fish oils. omega 3 essential fatty acids, as well as astaxanthin and other Figure 2. Structure of krill oil phospholipid (A) and fish oil triglyceride (B) omega 3 EFA vitamins and minerals. FATTY ACID 1 GLYCEROL • Krill oil’s numerous health benefits Polar CHOLINE have also conquered the outer (hydrophilic) space market, as NASA spaceship PHOSPHATE 2 3 FATTY ACID crews enjoy this as a regular part of head head group their space travelling diet!

groupPolar (hydrophillic) GLYCEROL FATTY ACID

1 2 Krill oil phospholipids (left) have two omega 3 fatty acid tail groups and mainly choline associated with a glycerol head group forming a cell membrane ready omega 3 EFA phospholipid. Triglyceride fish oils (right) do not contain choline and are entirely non-polar (i.e. hydrophobic) so need to be converted into Nonpolar phospholipids before being incorporated into cell membranes.

(hydrophobic) FATTY ACID head tail group “Krill oil mixes with the stomach group Non-polar (hydrophobic)

FATTY ACID contents greatly reducing the chance of fishy aftertaste.”

4 KRILL OIL IS MORE COST EFFECTIVE THAN FISH OILS Krill oil omega 3 EFAs have 42% greater KRILL OIL IS READILY ABSORBED INTO CELL MEMBRANES AND FAVOURABLY ALTERS THE OMEGA 6:3 RATIO bioavailability compared to fish oils after just Studies have show that krill oil increases the Omega 3 Index (a reliable 7 weeks of supplementation and are readily indicator of omega 3 incorporation into cell membranes) by 125% after incorporated into cell membranes. Bioavailability just 8 weeks of supplementation (Figure 4) with a 45% increase after just 2 weeks. There is also a two-fold improvement of omega 6:3 ratio (i.e. accounts for how much of a substance (e.g. omega increase in cell membrane omega 3 EFA content) using krill oil compared 3 EFAs) reaches the blood and covers absorption to fish oil.52 The omega 6:3 ratio has many adverse health consequences when omega 6 EFAs are too high in cell membranes. Supplementing with from the gastrointestinal tract and survival rate krill oil has been proven to help raise membrane omega 3 EFA ratio and in the blood and body. Greater bioavailability and improve many areas of health. bioefficacy means a better value for money product! KRILL OIL IS EASILY ABSORBED THROUGH THE Figure 3. Krill oil produces 24% increased plasma levels of DHA GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT and EPA after 4 weeks and 42% after 7 weeks compared to fish oils Unlike triglycerides, krill oil phospholipids do not need bile salts from the liver and gallbladder and the fat digesting enzyme lipase released by the pancreas in order to be digested. Phospholipids are readily absorbed across through the gastrointestinal tract and available for membrane 50403020100 structure. However, triglyceride omega 3EFAs from fish oils need to be emulsified by bile, digested by lipase enzymes, absorbed as micelles into the lymphatic system before entering the blood stream and converted into phospholipids in the liver ready for membrane insertion.48 This is a very energy consuming and time dependent process that can be greatly affected 7 weeks by factors including stress, poor diet and illness.49 KRILL OIL HAS HIGHER PLASMA LEVELS AT LOWER DOSES 4 weeks COMPARED TO FISH OILS

A randomised double-blind human clinical study measured EPA and DHA DHA and % increase plasma EPA levels in 76 overweight and obese men and women after daily administration after krill oil compared to fish oil intake of 2g/day krill oil, fish oil or olive oil. When the EPA and DHA doses were adjusted to account for lower levels found in krill oil, the study showed krill oil supplementation resulted in 24% increased plasma EPA and DHA Krill oil has 24% increased plasma bioavailability compared to fish oil at just 4 weeks and 42% greater after just 7 weeks levels of DHA and EPA after 4 (Figure 3).50 So even though EPA and DHA levels are lower in krill oil, they weeks compared to fish oils. have greater plasma bioavailability compared to fish oils. Studies also Figure 4. Krill oil increases level of omega 3 EFAs in red blood show that lower doses of EPA and cell membranes by 125% after 8 weeks, unlike fish oils DHA from krill oil are required to produce plasma EPA and DHA levels similar to those found fish oils (Figure 3).51 100% 8 weeks Omega 3 Index 50% 2 weeks

Krill oil has greater biological activity compared to fish oils so is more cost effective.

5 KRILL OIL NUTRIENTS Krill oil is rich in a very special carotenoid called astaxanthin.53 Astaxanthin has very potent antioxidant activity preserving cell membranes from free radical (oxidative) damage, as well as anti- inflammatory properties and can readily cross the blood brain barrier.54,55 Astaxanthin protects lipids from oxidation, including reducing damage caused by LDL cholesterol in the vasculature, as well as raising “good” HDL cholesterol and lowering blood triglycerides.56,57,58 Astaxanthin also protects skin from UV damage and ageing.59

ASTAXANTHIN - A POWERFUL Krill oil has 48 times greater ANTIOXIDANT antioxidant action compared to fish oil Krill oil has 48 times greater antioxidant action compared to fish oil, 500 due to natural levels of astaxanthin times greater than vitamin E and 34 times that of coenzyme Q1060 using the Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC) scale to compare Figure 5. Comparison of antioxidant ORAC the relative antioxidant power of foods (Figure 5). This is due to the krill scores of different oils and nutrients oil astaxanthin content that is found in naturally high levels in marine micro-algae, which krill consume. As the marine food chain progresses, Vitamin A astaxanthin is diluted so fish oils do not contain any significant levels of Vitamin E this health-promoting antioxidant. Lutein Fish Oil VITAMINS & MINERALS Coenzyme Q10 Astaxanthin Krill oil naturally contains other valuable nutrients including fat soluble Lycopene vitamins A and E (both important antioxidants) in higher levels than found Krill Oil in oily fish such as trout or salmon. Krill also contain minerals such as magnesium and selenium,61,62 as well as astaxanthin, omega 3 EFAs and 0 125 250 375 500 other phospholipids. ORAC Total FL Value (µmole/g) KRILL OIL SAFETY AND STABILITY

KRILL OIL SAFETY AND STABILITY Antarctic krill live in a naturally clean environment, devoid of pollution, so there’s significantly less risk of heavy metal contamination compared to some commercially produced fish oils. Krill oil has undergone extensive in vitro, in vivo and human studies to determine its safety and lack of toxicity. A recent study with 76 men and women63 showed that four weeks of krill oil supplementation increased plasma EPA and DHA and was well tolerated Figure 6. Krill oil omega 3 EFAs do not oxidise and with no adverse effects to health or wellbeing. However, people with known have much greater stability compared to fish oils. allergies to crustaceans (prawns, crab, lobster etc.) should not use krill products and instead take a premium quality fish oil with high potency phosphatidyl

choline lecithin powder and broad spectrum plant digestive enzyme complex 250200150100500 containing lipase for daily omega 3 boost. 18/12 fish oil Krill oil is far less prone to oxidation (i.e. free radical formation, which damages fats and destroys omega 3 EFAs) compared to traditional triglyceride forms of omega 3 found in fish oils. A study of krill oil and fish oil kept at 40˚C for 6 days showed no oxidation occurred in the krill oil after 6 days but Peroxide Value Krill Oil there was a high oxidation rate of omega 3 fatty acids in the fish oil (Figure 6). A recent study in Nature also found that 83% fish oil products sold in New Zealand exceeded the recommended peroxide value levels.64 The powerful antioxidant astaxanthin that naturally occurs in krill oil protects the oil and 0 3 6 omega 3 EFAs structure against oxidation ensuring a more stable product with Days at 40˚C increased shelf-life.65

6 KRILL OIL SUSTAINABILITY Krill form an important part of independent certifying body. The MSC focuses on the the marine food chain. They are health of ocean stocks and how they are managed ecologically important in helping to in addition to assessing the effects of the fishery on limit the extent of global warming due the wider ecosystem including marine mammals, to krill waste containing significant birds and fish. Reputable krill oil supplements should amounts of atmospheric carbon, therefore have minimum MSC certification but some which sinks to the bottom of the sea. oils also achieve the MSC eco-friendly label, providing It’s for these reasons that krill must be consumers with a guarantee of sustainability, effective harvested from sustainable sources. fishery management and full traceability from sea to shelf. Look for the MSC eco-friendly label to be sure of The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) is an your krill oil supplement origin. international nonprofit organisation with an

KEY ADVANTAGES OF KRILL OIL OVER FISH OILS

• Krill oil omega 3 phospholipids are naturally absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract and are membrane-ready, unlike fish oil triglyceride omega 3 EFAs. Phospholipid omega 3 EFAs • Krill oil increases membrane omega 3 EFAs by 125% improving the omega 6:3 ratio two-fold compared to fish oils.

• Krill oil phospholipid omega 3 EFAs have 42% greater bioavailability compared to triglyceride forms of EFAs found in fish oils, and at lower doses. Bioavailability • Gastrointestinal absorption of krill oil is quicker than triglyceride forms of omega 3.

Scientifically proven • Krill oil supports the heart, weight loss, liver, joints, brain function, emotions, female hormone balance, blood sugar balance, fat metabolism, skin (anti-ageing) health benefits and increases energy production pathways in the cell.

Naturally present astaxanthin stabilises krill oil by preventing oxidation, Stability • preserving omega 3 EFAs and prolonging shelf-life.

High levels of naturally occurring antioxidant means krill oil has 48 times more Astaxanthin • antioxidant activity compared to fish oils.

• Krill oil is free from contaminants such as dioxins, heavy metals and PCBs, as krill Safety* only live in naturally clean environment with minimal contamination. • Safe for human consumption.

• Greater bioavailability at lower doses so fewer capsules of krill oil are required. • Greater stability improves shelf-life. Value for money • Direct gastrointestinal absorption of phosholipids means no extra cost of taking digestion enhancing supplements (such as high potency phosphatidyl choline lecithin powder or broad spectrum plant digesting enzymes) with krill oil, unlike fish oils.

*People with known shellfish allergies should not use krill oil. Instead, fish oil free from contaminants such as dioxin and PCBs can be used to supplement the diet with omega 3 EFAs alongside a broad-spectrum plant digestive enzyme supplement containing lipase and a lecithin powder to support digestion and absorption of triglyceride fish oil omega 3 EFAs.

For more information please see Nutrigold CPD accredited webinars at www.updates.nutrigold.co.uk/educational_webinars

7 Should you need a more detailed approach, or should you have any questions or concerns that are not addressed in this article, you are always welcome to contact our nutritional advice team on 0845 603 5675 (9.00am – 5.00pm Monday – Friday). Alternatively if you would like a more personalised approach, practitioners, or contacting the Federation of Nutritional Therapy Practitioners addressing dietary recommendations, lifestyle changes etc., we on 0870 312 0042 or by emailing them at [email protected]. would suggest you consider consulting a qualified nutrition adviser or For more information visit the website at: www.fntp.org.uk therapist, which you can do by either asking us for details of your local This newsletter was co-written with and for Nutrigold by Dr Elisabeth Philipps, a highly qualified and practicing Natural Nutritional Therapist and a member of the Federation of Nutritional Therapists. To find out more please visit www.hartwellnutrition.co.uk.

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J Lipid Res 6:545–551 Bunea et al (2004) Evaluation of the effects of Neptune Krill Oil on 61. Tou, et al (2007) Krill for Human Consumption: Nutritional Value the clinical course of hyperlipidemia. Alt Med Rev 9(4):420-8 19. Wijendran et al (2002) Efficacy of dietary arachidonic acid and Potential Health Benefits. Nutr Revs 65:63-77 40. provided as triglyceride or phospholipid as substrates for brain ara- Grimsted et al (2011) Dietary Supplementation Of Krill Oil Attenu- 62. Dr L Plaskett. Health Benefits of Krill Oil. Nutrigold newsletter. www. chidonic acid accretion in baboon neonates. Pediatr Res 51:265-72 ates Inflammation And Oxidative Stress In Experimental Ulcerative updates.nutrigold.co.uk/nutritional_newsletters Colitis. Scan J Gastroenterol 1-10 20. Bradbury (2011) Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): an ancient nutrient 63. Maki et al (2009) Krill Oil Supplementation Increases Plasma Con- 41. for the modern human brain. Nutrients 3:529-54 http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/25563592 centrations Of Eicosapentaenoic And Docosahexaenoic Acids In 42. 21. Fontani et al (2005) Cognitive and physiological effects of Omega-3 Bjorndal et al (2013) A Krill Powder-Diet Reduces Fatty Acid and Overweight And Obese Men And Women. Nutr Res. 29:609-615 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in healthy subjects. Eur J Amino acid Catabolism While Increasing Mitochondrial Oxidative 64. Alber et al (2014) Fish oil supplements in New Zealand are highly Clin Invest 35:691–699 Phosphorylation, a Study of the Hepatic Transcriptome in Mice. J oxidised and do not meet label content of n-3 PUFA. Scientific Funct Foods 22. Sinn et al (2012) Effects of n-3 fatty acids, EPA v. DHA, on depres- Reports. Nature. doi:10.1038/srep07928 43. sive symptoms, quality of life, memory and executive function in Dr E Philipps (2014) Optimising Energy. Nutrigold newsletter. www. 65. Pashkow et al (2008) Astaxanthin: a novel potential treatment for older adults with mild cognitive impairment: a 6-month randomised updates.nutrigold.co.uk/nutritional_newsletters oxidative stress and inflammation in cardiovascular disease. Am J controlled trial. Br J Nutr 107:1682-93 Cardiol 101:58D-68D Nutrigold do not support or condone the use of animal experimentation. For all the latest nutritional research and legislation why not log on to: updates.nutrigold.co.uk NUTRIGOLD PO BOX 217, Exmouth, EX8 9AX Tel: +44(0)845 603 5675 (local rate) Fax: +44(0)845 603 5690 This newsletter was co-written with and for Nutrigold by Dr Elisabeth Philipps, a highly qualified and practicing Natural Nutritional Therapist and a member of the Federation of Nutritional Therapists. To find out more please visit www.hartwellnutrition.co.uk.