DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 302 344 PS 017 730
AUTHOR Bauch, Jerold P., Ed. TITLE Early Childhood Education in the Schools. (NEA Aspects of Learning). INSTITUTION National Education Association, Washington, D.C. REPORT NO ISBN-0-8106-1464-2 PUB DATE Sep 88 NOTE 350p. AVAILABLE FROMNational Education Association (NEA) Professional Library, P.O. Box 509, West Haven, CT 06516 ($19.95). PUB TYPE BoOks (010)
EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS Community Involvement; Computer Uses in Education; Discipline; *Early Childhood Education; *Educational History; *Educational Policy; *Educational Trends; Futures (of Society); Parent Participation; *Preschool Education; Program Effectiveness; Program Evaluation; Student Behavior
ABSTRACT Collected are 68 articles on a wide raLge of topics related to the education of young children in the schools. Section One offers historical perspectives of early childhood education. Section Two samples policy decisions about present and future issues, especially those with economic, social, and philosophical importance. Section Three explores issues, trends, and directions related to unanswered questions and sources of conflict and choice in early education. Section Four goes to the heart of the issues by focusing on preschool programs. Section Five, which concerns curricul'im issues, aims to provoke thought by exploring what to teach, and why, how, and how not to teach it. Evidence and evaluation are discussed in Section Six, which summarizes some of what is known and what should be evaluated in the future. Section Seven explores both research and common-sense frameworks for thinking about electronic technology, particularly computers, for early childhood programs. Section Eight concerns parent involvement and partnerships between parents and teachers. Section Nine, which advocates nonviolent childhood, discusses child behavior and discipline. Section Ten probes future issues. Discussion questions are included at the end of each article. Numerous acknowledgements, footnotes, and references are listed by article in the final 33 pages of the book. (RH)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * from the original document. U S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Ed.k.ationai Research andImprovement INFORMATION EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES s CENTEERI e This document has beenreproouced as eceivei from the person ^organ,zation originating it Minor changes have beenmade to improve reproduction quail'
Points of view or opinions statedin thisdocu- represent official ment do not necessarily OERI position or policy WPECTS OF LEARNING
Ma
"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL IN MICROFICHE ONLY to HAS BUN GRANTED BY ts1 E A
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (MC)." Early Childhood Education in the Schools
Jerold P. Bauch, Editor
nea trate National Education Association Washington, D.C. To my mother for a safe and happy childhood. J.P.B.
The editor and publisher will to extend their thanks to the authors and publishers who granted permission to use the material in this publication. Please see pp. 318-51 for a detailed listing of publishers and other copyright holders.
Copyright © 1988 Nationa! Education Association of the United St: tes
Printing History First Printing: September 1988
Note
The opinions exprzssed in this publication should not be construed as representing the policy or position of the National Education Association. Materials published by the NEA Professional Library are intended to be discussion documents for educators who are concerned with specialized interests of the profession.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Early childhood education in the schools / Jerold P. Bauch, editor. p. cm.(NEA aspects of learning) Includes bibliographies ISBN 0-8106-1464-2 1. Early childhood educationUnited States. 2. Public schools United States. I. Bauch, Jerold P. II. Series LB1140.23.E18 1988 372'.21dc19 88-19569 CIP "EDP' CONTENTS
Introduction, by Jerold P. Bauch 7
Section One: Historical Perspectives of Early Childhood Education Editor's Overview 9 1.Early Childhood Education's Past as Prologue: Roots of Contemporary Concerns, by Bernard Spodek 10 2.The European Roots of Early Childhood Education in North America, by Gary Woodill 14 3. A Mini-History of Early Childhood Education, by Blythe F. Hinitz 23 4.The Kindergarten in Historical Perspective, by S. Dianne Lawler and Jerold P. Bauch 25
Section Two: Policy Decisions About Present and Future Issues Editor's Overview 29 5.Policy Options for Preschool Programs, by Lawrence J. Schweinhart, Jeffrey J. Koshel, and Anne Bridgman 30 6.Early Childhood Development Programs: A Public Investment Opportunity, by Lawrence J. Schweinhart and David P. Weikart 36
7.Quality: The Key to Successful Programs, by Daniel S. Cheever, Jr., and Anne E. Ryder 44
Section Three: Issues, Trends, and Directions Editor's Overview 50 8.Trends in Early Childhood EducationPart I: Demographics, by Valora Washington 51 9.Trends in Early Childhood EducationPort II: Instruction, by Valora Washington 56 10.Early Childhood Education: Issues and Trends, by Paula Jorde 60 11.Educating the Very Young: A Call for Clear Thinking, by David Elkind 65 12.Preschool Children in the Public Schools: Good Investment?or Bad? by Deborah Burnett Strother 71 13.Day Care and the Public SchoolsNatural Allies, Natural Enemies, by Bettye M. Caldwell 76 14.Let Children Start School When They're Ready! by Cynthia Parsons 81 15 It Depends on Your Aim, by Raymond S. Moore 82 16.In Defense of Early Childhood Education, by David Elkind 84 17.Synthesis of Research on School Readiness and Kindergarten Retention, by Lorric A. Shepard and Mary Lee Smith 88 CONTENTS
18.Uses and Abuses of Developmental Screening and School Readiness Testing, by Samuel J. Meisels 95 19.Educating Young Handicapped Children: What Can Ear:i Childhood Education Contribute? by Anne H. Widerstrom 104
Section Four: Preschool Programs Editor's Overview 110 20.Public Education for Preschoolers, by Diane Scott Jones and Lynne Baker-Ward 111 21.Should Four-Year-Olds Be in School? by Edward F. Zigler 115 22. Pubh Schools and Four-Year-Olds: A Teacher's View, by Mary Hatwood Futrell 119 23.Quality Four-Year-Old Programs in Public Schools, Position Statement of the Southern Association on Children Under Six ... 122 24.Here Come the Four-Year-Olds! by Diane Dismuke 124 25.Prekindergarten Programs for Four-Year-Olds: State Involvement in Preschool Education, by Carolyn Morado 127 26.Safeguards: Guidelines for Establishing Programs for Four-Year-Olds in the Public Schools, by The Natic,i.al Black Child Development Institute .. 13" 27.Public School for Four-Years-Olds, by James L. Hymes, Jr 131 2---, Full-Day or Half-Day Kindergarten? by Dianne Rothenberg 133 8 I 29.! Kindergarten in America: Five Major Trends, ---.... - by Sandra Longfellow Robinson 135 30.Kindergarten Programs and Practices, Educational Research Service Staff Report 136 31. NAEYC Position Statement on Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Primary Grades, Serving Five- Through Eight-Year-Olds 140
Section Five: The Curriculum for Young Children in School Editor's Overview 146 32. Joint Statement on Literacy Development and Pre-First G. de, prepared by the Eady Childhood and Literacy Development Committee of the In- ternational Reading Association for ASCD, IRA, NAEYC, NAESP, NCTE 147 33.Writing in Kindergarten and First Grade, by Mary Renck Jalongo and Sally Zeigler 149 34. How Should Reading Be Taught in Kindergarten? by Patricia M. Cunningham 156 35."Success"ful Reading Instruction, by Carol J. George 157 36.Hispanic Books/Libros Hispanicos, by Isabel Schon 159 37.Learning Mathematics and Science Through Play, by Michael L. Henniger162 38.Montessori: Right or Wrong Abut Number Concepts? by Jerold P. Bauch and Huei-hsin Joyce Hsu 166 39.Theoretical FIRIIIM ,rk for Prescho31 Science Experiences, by Robert F. Smith 169 40.Music in the Early Childhood Curriculum, by Manny Brand and David E. Fernie 174 Contents
41.Appreciate the Drawing and Dictating of Young Children, by Annc Haas Dyson 178 42.Encouraging Positive Social Interaction Among Young Children, by Dwight L. Rogers and Dorene Dome Ross 187 43.Teaching with Less Talking: Learning Centers in theKindergarten, by Barbara Kimes Myers and Karen Maurer 192 44.Influences from the Past: Play in the Early Childhood Curriculum, by Margie L. Hardy and Laurie J. Greene 198 45.Leading Primary Education Toward Excellence: BeyondWorksheets and Drill, by Constance Kamii 201
Section Six: Evidence and Evaluation Editor's Overview 209 46.Effects of Program Models and Teaching Practices, by DouglasR. Powell 210 47.Evidence That Good Early Childhood Programs Work, by Lawrence J. Schweinhart and David P. Weikart 216 48. The Promise of Early Childhood Education, byLawrence J. Schweinhart, John R. Berrueta-Clement, W. Steven Barnett, Ann S. Epstein,and David P. Weikart 222 49.Early Childhood Evaluation: What? Who? Why? by Doris Bergen Sponseller and Joel Fink 226
Section Seven: Electronic Technology for Early ChildhoodPrograms Editor's Overview 231 50.Computers for Young Children? Perhaps, by Sandra Ansclmo and R. Ann Zinck 232 51.Computers and Young Children: A Review of Research, by Douglas H. Clements 237 52.Technological Priorities in the Education of Young Children, by Warren W. Buckleitner and Charles F. Hohmann 245
Section Eight: Parents and Community Involvement Editor's Overview 249 53.In Designing a Preschool Program, We Went Straightto the Source: Parents, by Robert L. Zorn 250 54.Is 'Parenting' Essential to Good Teaching? by James P. Comer, M.D. 253 55.Making Conferences Work for Parents, Teachers, and Children, by Gail Bjorklund and Christine Burger 259 56.Innovation in Parent Involvement: Using High Techto Connect Parents and Teachers, by Jerold P. Bauch 264 57.Literacy Environments: Bridging the Gap Between Home and School, by Jon Shapiro and Ray Doiron 266 58.Communicating with Parents About Beginning Reading Instruction, by Dorene D. Ross and Elizabeth Bondy 271
41 I CONTENTS Section_ Nine: Child Behavior and Discipline Editor's Overview 277 59The Banning of Corporal Punishment: In Child Care, School and Other Educative Settings in the United States, by John R. Cryan 278 60. A Cognitive Approach to Benavior Management, by Jerold P. Bauch 284 61.Corporal Punishment in the Schools, by John H. Meier 287 62.Child Abuse and Neglect: Preventim and Reporting, by Barbara J. Meddin and Anita L. Rosen . 290
Section Ten: The Future Editor's Overview 295 63.Societal Influences on Children, by Joan Isenberg 296 k4. Developmental and Experiential Programs: The Key to Quality Education and Care of Young Children, by Barbara Day and Kay N. Drake 302 65. Upon What Can We Build Our Children's Educational Future? by Walter Hodges 305
66. BACK to Basics or FORWARD to Fundamentals? by Alice V. Keliher ... 309 67. The Future of Education, by Wilson Riles 311 68.Early Schooling and the Nation's Future, by Ernest L. Boyer 314
Acknowledgments, Footnotes, and References 318 INTRODUCTION
A new baby in a family is always cause for great excitement and perennial interest in the education excitement,reorganization, and emotional reac- of young children in the schools. In the true sense tion. The field of early childhood education is like of the dialectic, the answers are the source of the that too:each new event makes waves, causes new questions. A thorough reading of this book extensive communication, and serves to renew the should produce numerous answers and many in- field and the people who work with young chil- triguing questions. The diversity that makes the dren. There is a surprising continuity in the main field dynamic is well represented, and the consen- ideas and basic qualities of early education, howev- sus on major themes is also present. As in the er. This book marks the end of a quarter century child, each reader must construct a reality from of wild innovation, astou. ding growth, and rapid interactions with the information and ideas that change. Yet what remains from all that "newness" are presented here. There is no point in flipping to is a better-informed commitment to the very quali- the last pages to find the ultimate answer, because ties that have marked early childhood education the search for excellence in the education of our for centuries. This is not to say that all the issues youngest is a journey, not a destination. Thus, the have been resolved; far from it.It may fairly be collection offers readers a chance to construct or said that the more things change, the more they reconstruct views on how young children should be stay the same in early education. educated, and tf+find places where what they The education of our youngest continues to bring to the reading connects with what the au- progress in a state of dynamic equilibrium, where thors have to say. the dialectic between seemingly contradictory ideas As if developing an individual perception of the produces new insight. From the very beginning, field and Ending one's placeinitwere not the balance between the needs of the child and difficult enough, the internal and external forces the expectations of the society have been a primary that shape early childhood education are also rep- source of argument. There is agreement that every resented. Ideas have a history and that history is young child has a right to optimal development in represented in Section One. Policy decisions, espe- a safe and nurturant environment. There is dis- cially those of economic, social, and philosophical agreement about what is optimal, how we can importance are sampled in Section Two. Unan- assure security and support for every child, and swered questions and sources of conflict and choice what is thright blend of family roles and orga- are the topics organized in Section Three. Section nized education in the process. Four goes to the heart of the issues represented in There is agreement that young children progress the titleyounger children in school programs. It through developmental stages with unique charac- is highly representative of the seeming diversity of teristics, but disagreement even about the names viewpoint that adds up to sensible agreement of the stages and the meaning of their effectson about the nature and quality of any early educa- child growth. There is agreement that young chil- tional experience. dren master their environment through a complex Section Five is intended to challenge and lead of thought, language,socialrelationships,and the reader to further study. Wha to teach, why, physical exploration. There is disagreement about how, and how not to are the themes of these how parents and teachers should guide this pro- presentations;each one should be provocative. cess, when intervention is necessary or desirable, Section Six summarizes some of what we know so and how to facilitate development. There is agree- far, and what we should be evaluating in the ment that every planned educational experience future.Since early childhood education in the should help prepare the child for success in the schools is a prime candidate for electronic technol- future, but disagreement about how to make an ogy in the learning setting, Section Seven explores enduring contribution to the child that is vital for both research and common-sense frameworks for the present and the future. thinking about computers.Because parents are It is the intent of this collection to represent certainly the child's first teachers, Section Eight is both the agreements and disagreements that cause about parent involvement and partnerships be-
7 J INTRODUCTION tween parents and teachers. Section Nine is obvi- by seeking new insight from old arguments. ously a biased group of chapters that stand togeth- We hope that this collection provides some fuel er in favor of a nonviolent childhood for our to the fires of discussion and some illumination to children. And the final section, Ten, uses some of help light the way for early c'ildhood education in today's realities as stepping stones toward the near- the schools. term future. It will come as no surprise to the reader that writers about the future connect their speculations to the past, to trends and issues, to -JEROLD P. BAUCH policyquestions,to curriculum and instruction Professor of Early Childhood Education themes, and to other topics found in earlier chap- Peabody College of Vanderbilt University ters. Remember, this is a field that makes progress Nashville, Tennessee
8 10 Section One: Historical Perspectives of Early Childhood Education
Editor's Overview 9 1, Early Childhood Education's Past as Prologue: oots of Contemporary Concerns, by Bernard Spodek 10 2. The European Roots of Early Childhood Education in North America, by Gary Woodill 14 3. A Mini-History of Early Childhood Education, by Blythe F. Hinitz 23 4. The Kindergarten in Historical Perspective, by S. Dianne Lawler and Jerold P. Bauch 25
EDITOR'S OVERVIEW
Early childhood education in the schools is an ry is a transition to the most dramatic period of idea with a div'rse and interesting history; this our past: 1960 to the presenta short period of section explores that history. The authors discuss time, historians remind us, that saw more change social reform, religious beliefs, national policy, and than any other period in human history. Finally, common senseas some of the sources of our Lawler and Bauch trace the specific history of the historical heritage. kindergarten, documenting the changes' that have The pastis an important touchstone for all taken place. professionals; therefore, the aistorical selections in- As our society and our culture are re-created cluded here span a period of several hundred years. through the education of young children in the Since the emphasis is on recent developments in schools, the need for thoughtful and informed the field of early childhood education, however, decisionsisessential. The history of the field the writers concentrate on those events that give provides a critical context for evaluating the pre- shape and substance to the present. Spotlek sets sent and planning the future; we are not likely to the stage by giving the broad perspective and do either very well without an accurate understand- Woodill fills in the details. Hinitz's quick summa- ing of what has gone before.
11 1. EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION'S PAST AS PROLOGUE: ROOTS OF CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS by Bernard Spodek
I have come to better understand myself and the FINDING OUR ROOTS nature of the early childhood field in the historical context of my own developmental experiences. My As early childhood educators we are committed growing identification with my culture and country to the educatiot., development, and well-being of from celebrating holidays is an example 3f this young children because they cannot protect them- process. selves We can better understand our field by Passover has always been a very special holiday. seeing how it, like other organizations or individ- It celebrates the flight of die Jewish people from uals, has become a distinctive institution within slavery in Egypt, an event with symbolic meaning society. for many people. Each year, Jewish families gather According to Clark (1970), an institution initial- at home, retell the story of the Exodus, and eat ly achieves its character either by drifting into or special foods. Even as a child,I could feel that actively seeking its role. The organization's mission each generation of my family had struggled for grows out of its statement of purpose and lends a such freedom. The ritual provides me with a direct sense of direction. This common sense of mis- sense of my history, back to the survivors of the sioncommitment to the education, development, flight from Egypt. and well-being of young childrenholds the field Thanksgiving is another holiday that I remember of early childhood edmation together. vividly, althoughit was mosey a school event A successful mission. in time builds an organiza- during my childhood. Each November, we heard tional saga which undoubtedly is an embellished the story of the joint celebration of Pilgrims and understanding of the organization's development! In :ions, drew pictures, made paper hats and col- This saga further defines the organization and lars, and cooked a feast. Nevertheless, Thanksgiv- suggests that its members, past and present, share ing seemed an alien, somewhat empty holiday to common characteristics. me because I grew up with different rituals: my An organizational saga captures the allegiance parents came from Eastern Europe, not England. and commitment of its members as they proudly When I became a teacher of young children,I bind together for a common cause. As we immerse often wondered if those students with different ourselves in early childhood education's sagaand ethnic backgrounds had as much difficulty relating see how many historicalissues remain relevant to the Pilgrims as I did. todaywe can strengthen our identity as early Interestingly, Thanksgiviag has now become an childhood educators. important ritual for my family. Celebrating this tradition ha: made the history of these cultures a part of me, just as in retelling the story of Passover SCHOOL ENTRANCE AGE each new generation of Jews feelsa sense of participation in the Exodus. The repeated rituals The idea of children starting school before age 5 and retelling of legends helps to acculturate us. is not new. The Puritans were concerned that People come to identify with a profession in children should learn to read the Bible as soon as much the same manner as they come to identify possible, so they were often taught to read at age 3 with a culture or country by becoming immersed or 4. In 1647, Massachusetts enacted a law requir- in its history and traditions. This [chapter] will ing that towns establish schools for young children. explore the roots of and recurring themes in early By the beginning of the 19th century, most childhood education that strengthen our sense of Massachusettstownsofferedschoolingtothe professical identity and commitment. young. In 1826, 5 percent of all children enrolled
See page 318 for acknowledgment and references. The Past as Prologue in these schools were below the age of 5 (Kaestle To thislay, we face the same dilemmas of and Vinovskis,1978). At about this time the determining whatan Americankindergarten Infant School, developed inBritain by Robert should belikeand when readinginstruction Owen, was introduced into the United States. should begin. While the decision cannot be made These schools enrolled children as young as eigh- on research alone, itis imperative that we study teen months and were more activity oriented than not only the consequences of introducing such the primary schools. Many parents felt that their instruction on children, but on the school system children could Ix taught more effectively in infant as well. schools than at home or in primary scnools. During the 1830s the infaA school movement faded. There was a sharp reduction in the enroll- ment of very young children in public schools SOCIAL 'RANGE AGENT because of an increased emphasis on the role of the mother at home as educator of her young Head Startisoften seenas the fastearly children. Maly voiced concern for balanced devel- childhood program to serve the needs of low opment, fearing that excessive intellectual activity income families(Zigler and Anderson,1979). in young children would cause insanity. In addi- While Head Start was and is a unique resource, tion, schools sought to exdude children less than 6 child development programs designed to help chil- years old for bureaucratic reasons and to save dren and their parents cope with poverty and social money (May and Vinovskis, 1977). evils began with the infant school more than 150 Kindergarten was introduced in the latter half of years ago, and continued in the nursery school in the 19th century as a more humane approach to this country with its comprehensive program of educating young children. Also, kindergartens were medical care, nutrition, hygiene, social service, and more dosely related to the family than either the education. early primary schools or infant schools. Owen's Infant School, part of his Institution for the Formation of Character, was rooted in social reform. He believed that character was developed KINDERGARTEN AND EARLY READING through teaching as well as through the environ- ment. In addition, he believed that early learning A great deal of attention has been given i hadseriousconsequencesforthedeveloping recent years to changes in kindergarten programs individual. (Spodek, 1982). The demand to emphasize cogni- The infant schools were feltto embody the tive development in kindergarten seems to have humane innovations and principals of education heightened. that could prove valuable to the public primary schools. They were underwritten by social reformers . the 1980's may see more :aul n.ore kindergartners who saw them as ways to combat the ills of urban poring over readers, workbooks and ditto sheets. Pres- sure to cover academic subjects so early, most kindergar- life. Infant schools, they believed, would perma- ten teachers agree,is coming from anxious parents. nently eliminate poverty by educating and socializ- Parental insistence on pre- first -grade reading programs ing young diildren from low income families, may stem in pan from general mistrust of educational while freeing mothers for work (May and Vinovs- institutions... kis, 1977) While some teachers support this shift in kinde:gar- ten curriculum, nany fear that the urgency with which Owen's infant school idea spread, and by 1827 it is carried out may not be in the best interest of their infant schools were established in several cities in charges. (Mittenthal, 1982, p. C1) the United States. Owen lectured extensively here and purchased a settlement in Indiana where he The pressure to include reading - kindergarten and his son tried to establish a communitarian L more than 100 years old. Anna Coe conducted a society which included an infant school. The com- demonstration kindergarten at the 1876 Philadel- munity, New Harmony, had serious problems and phia Exposition encouraging such activities as read- failed. The infant school movement in America ing and writirg.Elizabeth Peabody, then the faded by the mid-1830s. leading advocate of the Froebelian kindergarten, Less than a qua, .er century after the demise of felt that this dass was falsely advertiseras an the infant school movement, the Froebelian kin- exhibit of kindergarten methods. Coe's program dergarten was introduced to the United States. was defended as providing a way to Americanize Churches, The Women's Christian Temperance the kindergarten idea (Ross, 1976). Union,businesses,charities,settlement houses,
11 .13 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES and labor unions sponsored kindergartens for a accused of destroying family life, and of taking wideNaricty of purposes. children away from the close warm relationships The first nursery school was established in Lon- found only in the home. Women are often bur- don at the turn .)f the century to serve children in dened with guilt for seeking services for their poverty. Its founder, Margaret McMillan, felt that children outside the home just as they were in the children could not develop properly unless they pre-Civil War days of "Fireside Education." were healthy in their formative years. She also placed a premium on teaching for creativity, be- lieving that imagination was as important foi chil- CONCEPTS OF KNOWLEDGE dren of workers as for children of managers, espe- cially if working class children were to become From the time of the Middle ages, the Bible, was leaders. seen as a source of knowledge in Western society. Thus, early childhood educators have supported When theories or observations were not consistent a variety of programs intended to change society. with the Bible's teachings, they were considered Throughout this history, the role of women has erroneous. With the Bible as the source of all been a critical factor. knowledge, literacy was the key to being an edu- cated person. As the period of the Enlightenment developed, WOMEN'S ROLES it became more generally accepted that there were other views of the world and other ways of validat- Child care services in the United States have ing knowledge. During this Age of Reason, ratio- grown tremendously inthe pastdecade. This nalism and empiricism evolved as significant ways growth can, in part, be attributed to the increase of conceiving knowledge.Thisisreflectedin in the number of mothers in the work force and to changes in early childhood education. the changing role of women in our society. But Rationalism provided the epistemological basis this is not the first time. As noted earl' er, a large for the Froebelian kindergarten. Rationalism holds proportion of young children were ironed in that truths are composed of self-evident premises educational programs until about the mid-1800s. that are logically and undeniably true rather than The drop in enrollment then can be partly attrib- derived from experience. uted to what was called Fireside Education. Froebel's view of the world suggested that the The women and clergymen who promoted Fire- key idea was the unity of man, God, and nature. side Education viewed the nuclear family as a This and related ideas were presented to children sacred institution, and saw the home more impor- through a set of materials and activities that sym- tant than the church in preserving religious values bolized themcalled the Gifts, Occupations, and (Strickland,1982). The home was seen as the the Mother's Songs and Plays. There was little repository for love, warmth, and intimacy in con- concern with helping children understand objective trast to the cold competitiveness of the market- reality. Gaining access to ideas and thinking logi- place. Women were endowed by nature, the par- cally from given premises were seen as critical to ent educatorsinsisted,with superiormoral developing knowledge. character, intuitive insight, tenderness, and sensi- Empiricism, on the other hand, is the belief tivity to others. that sense perceptions play a central role in knowl- This picture of the Victorian woman and family edge. The information generated by one's experi- was erroneous. In reality, many women had to ences is believed to be internalized through the work outside of the home and could not dedicate senses. The development of the N. ntessori Method themselves wholeheartedly to their children. Strick- reflected the belief that one's knowledge results land suggests that the idealized picture of the from one's experiences. Montessori education is education of the young at the knees of their sensory education. Children are trained through mothers has led to a neglect of the needs of many apparatus which isolate particular attributes of ex- children in our society. periences,helping childrenlearntoorder, the This period's definition of the role of women resultant sensations. For example, children differ- still naunts us. Calls for the development of child entiate and order objects by their color,size, care centers are countered by the argumenthat weight, or shape. prematurely yresting young children from the bo- Sensations, however, do not generate meanings. som of their ismilies plays havoc with our social, The structure that we apply to our experiences to cultural, and economic system. Child care has been give them meaning is equally important when
12
14 The Past as Prologue ur derstanding how one comes to know things. not only a progression in our conceptions of child A more integrated approach to the construction development, but a progression in our conceptions of knowledge can be found in the research and of knowledge. thec- of Jean Piaget. He viewed knowledge as resulting from the application of mentalprocesses and personal experiences. Knowledge isneither These issues represent a part of the saga of early simply the accumulation of sensory experiencesnor childhood alusttion. Knowing the roots of these the accumulation of innate ideas buta human issu7 helps us put our relationship with other early creation using sensory datainformation resulting childhood educators into perspective. We are not from experiencesto create ideas that can be test- and have not been the only ones who have been ed against additional experience, discarded, elabo- confronted with these issues. rated, modified, or affirmed. When we became early childhood educators, In recent years early childhood programs have each of us accepted as our own, either deliberateiy been basing their programs upon this theory of or implicitly, the mission that is central to our constructivism. Constructivism requires that chil- field: We are committed to enhancing the educa- dren actively accumulate experiences andact upon tion, development, and well-being of young chil- or think about those experiences to create their dren. Our saga helps renew our sense of identity own mental structures. These programs represent and commitment to our profession.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How does the history of early childhood education provide perspective and guidance? 2. When should young children start "school" ? 3.Are there similarities between social needs of the past and the present? 4.Has early childhood education responded to social concerns? 5.Should decisions about the future be based on experience., from the past?
13 15 2. THE EUROPEAN ROOTS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN NORTH AMERICA by Gary Woodill
SUMMARY Early childhood education in North America is a case in point. Its beginnings reflected the domi- Early childhood education in North America is nant ideas of Christian education found in the currently in a state of flux. While Piagetian ap- colonizing countries of Europe during the sixteenth proaches to early childhood education curricula and seventeenth centuries. Later, as the industrial seem to predominate in North America today, revolution createdvictims of child labour,the some of the influences of the other paradigms "child saving" movement, which originated in discussed below are still in evidence. The idea of Europe, resulted in many legislative and institu- nurturing children as well as educating them has tional changes for children in North America. In endured, even with the new cognitive focus. The the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, inno- concept of curricula appropriate to a child's devel- vative models of early childhood education were opmental level, first introduced by Froebel, has exported from Europe to North America, and remained an important idea. The Montessori meth- paved the way for the present system of early od has enjoyed a renaissance it North America, childhood education with its heavily psychological and specially designed curricula for the disabled orientation. have been re-established as the norm, after Itard's Of course, the European models have always and Seguin's pioneering examples. been adapted to the new environment and have Yet, new issues in early childhood , education been extended by contributions made by North have arisen in North America. There is a great American educators and psychologists. The docu- debate on the effects of day care, the changing mentation of the assimilation and adaptation in family, the possibility of "hurried children," and North America of European paradigms of early the role of state support in a "universal" child childhood care and education is the subject of this can system. The recent Report of the task force on [chapter]. child carein Canada reviewed many of these issues, and used data on child care arrangements in a number of European countries compared to CHANGING CONCEPTIONS Canada and the United States in much of its OF CHILDHOOD discussion. It is not surprising, given the history of While the ancient Greeks and Romans had a models of child care which have come from Europe conception of early childhood education and its to North America, that North Americans are once importance in the formation of the adult, these again looking across the Atlantic for fresh ideas. ideas were lost in the period known as the Dark Ages (Cubberley,1920;Postman,1982).The re- discovery of early childhood education had to wait Historyis not a smooth continuous flow of until the seventeenth century when conditions in events. Rather itis characterized by periods of Europe made possible the rediscovery of childhood sameness, broken by ruptures, revolutions and re- itself, and with itthe need for the care and gressions. From science to social practices a society education of the young. lives by a given "paradigm" (Kuhn,1967)which Until the end of the sixteenth century, schools directs the thinking of the age and colours the in Europe were elite institutions run by the Church perceptions of most members of thesociety. to educate the clergy and the leaders of society Change usually occurs when rising tensions and (Cremin,1970).During the Dark Ages and the contradictions reach a point where the dominant medieval period, monasteries and churches were paradigm no longer seenis to work and a new way the main repositories of ancient learning, Latin and of conceptualizing the world issought, usually Greek, and thedoctrinesof Christianitythat from the outside. formed the curriculum of schools of that period.
See pages 318-19 for acknowledgment and references.
14 16 The European Roots
Towards the end of the medieval period,the both "rescue" and "restraint" of a group which purposes of schooling expanded to include prepara- had previously not known either cc adition. Al- tion for university, and training for commercial though rescue and restraint were fast conceptual- needs of the late medieval economy. Yet schools ized in terms of custodial care and habit training, continued to be clerkish, pedantic and narrow in the element of intellectual learning soon became scope, and "they had managed to trivialize or lose establishedespeciallyinProtestantsocieties. much that was essential in the very classical wis- Schools were institutions which both controlled dom they attempt to convey" (Cremin, 1970). children and enabled them, through learning, to The 1400s and 1500s represented a period of escape the circumstances of their birth.It was changing sensibilities toward religion, education, natural that social and religious reformers would childhood, human nature, and science. According turn to them for carrying out the changes they to Postman (1982), the most precipitous event in envisaged in society. this shift was the invention of the printing press. Knowledge which was hidden in a few places, and interpreted by a small number of scholars, could now be disseminated to the public at large, provid- CHILD CARE AS CHRISTIAN TRAINING ed, of course, that the public could read. The reformation in religion which occurred in The printing press invoked the possibility of a the 1500s precipitated a corresponding reformation reading culture as opposed to an oral culture, and in education. The dissolution of monasteries and documents such as deeds, maps, promissory notes, chanuies in England, for example, and their re- and contracts quickly became the norm in the placement by grammar schools reduced ecclesiasti- worlds of exploration and commerce. Since young cal control of education in that country. However, children could not read, adulthood and childhood the Protestant reformation did not dilute the reli- could now be seen as separao. categories of exis- gious conter.t of education. Rather, the relation- tence, with the critical difference being the pres- ship with God was no longer mediated through ence of adult "secrets" only accessible after a the clergy,as each individual had a personal number of years of education. relationship with God, and everyone was responsi- The printing press not only enabled the creation ble for his or her own salvation. The early Luther- of adult literature, but also gave us school text- ans and Calvinists saw reading the Bible as the books and children's literature. It was John Come- road to salvation. They believed that each person nius, the Moravian Bishop who wandered through- was born in utter depravity, and needed to know out Europe, who ci signed the first textbook for the signs of God's offering of grace and salvation. children. In 1628 he also wrote School of Infancy, Not everyone was chosen, but if you were, and which included the "school of the mother's lap" missed the opportunity out of ignorance of God's from birth to six. Comenius's work underscored Word, then you were lost forever. the seventeenth century idea that young children In Catholic countries, however, there was a should be taught by their mothers at home, rather counter-reformation in education spearheaded by than by outside institutions. This was to change in the Jesuits in France and elsewhere which sought to the eighteenth century with the coming of the keep control of education in the hands of the industrial revolution. If the printing press can be clergy.Instead of trying to make possible the seen as starting the process o: defming childhood, individual reading of the Bible, the Jesuits sought the exploitation of children in factories, and the to use education to increase the power of the disruption of family life caused by industrialization clergy and to widen the range of influence of the and urbanization, made the separation and protec- Catholic Church through missionary work. tion of children a grim necessity. As the various European nations colonized the The rediscovery of childhood in the sixteenth New World in the 1600s, they brought with them and seventeenth centuries has been well document- the idea that religion and education were c'osely ed ("ales, 1962; deMause, 1974; Postman, 1982). connected. The children of thefirst Furopean Whereas children had previously been exposed to settlers were generally educated at home in reli- adult behaviours and language, and were treated as gion, morals, culture and behavior. Only a few "miniature adults," European children inthis children attended the first schools in the colonies, period of history came to experience "dependence, and in many areas there were no formal education- separation,protection, and delayedresponsibil- al institutions. ities" (Rooke and Schnell,1983,p.10). The In addition to the indoctrination of the young implication of the new category of childhood was into the Christian faith, both the Jesuits in New
15 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
France and the founders of New England colonies from eternal hell-fire. It was only a short step from discovered a new purpose of educationencultura- concern about the salvation of one's own children tion of a native population. The Jesuits established to the saving of children in general. the first petit ecok,or elementary school,in Quebec City in 1635, with the aim of changing the native population into a loyalFrenchified, Catholic peasantry 'Anderson, 1985). The removal CHILD CARE AS RESCUE of native children from their tribes to attend school in Quebec City was part of that plan. To comple- Locke's writings had a profound effect on West- ment the work of the Jesuits among native boys, ern sensibilities. The Calvinistic ideas of predesti- the Ursuline nun, Marie de l'Incarnation, founded nation and utter depravity came to be replaced in a school for young native girls in Quebec City in the mainstream of the Protestant community by a 1639. This school is still operated by the Ursulines belief in progress and human improvability. today. It was his belief in the improvability of the poor In the New England colonies, the first educa- that led the Protestant pastor Jean-Frederic Ober- tional institutions were for older students, begin- lin, 1770, to hire Sarah Banzet as the first day care ning with the founding of Harvard College in teacher. The day care centres started by Oberlin 1636. There is evidence that Comenius's textbooks and the several women who worked with him in were used at Harvard College by native students the Alsace region of France were known as "knit- (Young, 1932), and the printing of the New ting schools"because the teachers taught the England Primer, a mainstay of elementary educa- children to knit as part of the program. The skills tion in the seventeenth century, followed Comen- learned by the children resulted in the develop- ius's pioneering example. ment of a localtextile industry (Deasy,1978; However, until the nineteenth century, educa- Kurtz, 1976). tion for young children in New England remained Rescue from poverty was also the aim of Hein- either the sole responsibility of the parents, or rich Pe; talozzi in opening an industrial school for lessons were given in a home of a local prominent destitute children from six to sixteen on his farm woman or clergyman. These "dame schools" and near Zurich, Switzerland in 1774. While his ex- "petty schools" were the forerunners of elementary periment led to financial ruin, and the school education in North America. The main purpose of closed in 1780, Pestalozzi was to become famous as these schools was to teach reading and morals, in an innovator in elementary education in the early keeping with Calvinistic views of education. Sha- 1800s. From the examples of both Oberlin and piro (1983) lists the five basic tenets of Calvinism Pestalozzi, the idea of "caring" for the child, as asdivinesovereignty,totaldepravity,limited well as "educating" the child, has remained a part atonement, predestination, and irresistible grace of early childhood education to the present day. and contends that until the mid-nineteenth centu- Based on the knowledge of Oberlin's pioneering ry these principles "continued to determine the work in the Alsace, Madame de Pastoret opened an basic attitudes of American parents and teachers "asile" or "refuge" for infants (under three) of toward the nurture and early education of their working mothers in Paris about 1800. (Later, in- children" (p. 2). For Calvinists, the nature of the fant centres were known as creches.) News of child was ignorant and corrupt. Harsh discipline Pastoret's centre spread to England, and the first was an accepted part of their pedagogy. infant "asylum" was opened in London. Deasey By the eighteenth century the North American (1978) suggests that the London centre was the Evangelical movement had softened the Calvinist inspiration for Robert Owen's pioneering work doctrine somewhat by incorporating John Locke's with young children at his factories, and in his philosophy into their view of the child. In 1690 utopian communities. John Locke wrote Some Thoughts Concerning Edu- The day care centres in France and England, cation emphasizing the importance of a "natural initially modeled on Oberlin's example, soon be- education," a theme later taken up and extended came large warehouses for children, and used the by Rousseau. Locke's concept of tabula rasa meant monitor system developed by Bell and Lancaster in that the child was not born in total. depravity, but England. Long tiers of children sat with their neutral. However, the Evangelicals believed that hands behind their backs, moved to bells or whis- the child was predisposed toward evil and needed tles, and even blew their noses in unison (Deasey, to be trained in Biblical teachings at an early age 1978).This, then, was theinitialinstitutional in order that his or her soul could be "saved" model for day care in North Americathe removal
16
18 The Emopean Roots
of children from the streets and the factoriesto The North American day care programs run by large institutions providing custodialcare. the hospitals and orphanages in the 1800s were, The child rescue movement increased in strength for the most part, custodial in nature. The staff until the middle of the nineteenth century. By and inspectors were concerned with physical sur- then the self-righteous middle class saw thepres- roundings, hygiene and good behaviour, not with ence of the devil everywhere, especially in the lives what the children were learning. Fein and Clarke- of the poor. It became a moral imperativeto save Stewart (1973) describe the New York City Hospi- souls,especially those of children, even if bilis tal program established in 1854: meant kidnapping, confinement to orphanages and The children, whose ages ranged from 13 weeks to 3 poorhouses, or forced immigration to the New years, received regular medical examinations and:ere World as apprentices to Canadian farmers (Bag- under the supervision of experienced nursemaids. This nell, 1980). Rooke and Schnell (1983) describe the concern for the child's physical well-being was soon spirit of the nineteenth century "child saving" expanded to concern for proper habits, orderliness, and movement in England: manners. In some nurseries older children were trained to use a napkin, were expected to eat their meals in The removal of children from environments which silence, and were marched about in line whenever i: was were described mote often in terms of being vice- necessary to leave the nursery room. ridden, profane,irreligious, and turgid, rather than brutalized and impoverished, frequently consisted of Although an educative element became part of snatching them away from relatives, friends andeven the program of some day care centres, day care parents. The people involved believed that the more continued to be associated with the "care" of extreme the removal the more effective the rescue. children of working women, while kindergarten Moreover,effective rescue implied restraining those and nursery schools were seen mainlyas education- common and base elements that were all too obvious in the coarsened lives of the 'withal poor or the totally al programs. This was not to change until World destitute. Thus order could be imposed on the disorder War II, when day care became a service for women apparent in the vermin infested hovels, the meanest working in the war industries, rather than a "nec- streets, the drunken licentious(ness) of the wharves and essary evil" for women who were forced by circum- the surly looks of the masses (p. 67). stances to go to work. The child rescue movement spread from Europe In 1943, for example, New York City estab- to North America because the same conditions as lished "comprehensive" day care centres (Osborn, in Europerapid industrialization, child labour, 1980). Unlike many day care centres of that peri- and middle-class moralismwere present in both od, these centres moved far beyond physicalcare Canada and the United States. The first taller for children and were designed to care for the d'an'k and the first creche: were established in child's health and social-emotional needs. They Montreal; the New York Hospital established its actively promoted the value of educational experi- "Nursery for the Children of Poor Women," ences for the child and this model became the which provided care for children of workingpar- norm in North America. No longer was day care ents and for the children of wet nurses. Because of seen as primarily for the purpose of rescuing either the economics of the situation, children ofwet the child or the mother. curses often died for lack of sufficient milk (Fein aul Clarke-Stewart, 1973). Women who worked in CHILD CARE AS NATURAL EDUr.ATION the nineteenth century did so out of necessity, and often faced great poverty and stigma. While the initial motivation of both Oberlin Sometimes the children of working womenwere and Pestalozzi was to rescue children from poverty, taken away from them and became "orphans." each contributed new ideas in educating young Many orphanages were built for these children, children. Both men were greatly influenced by where they lived until they could be apprenticedor Rousseau's Emile and believed that natural experi- sent to work. According to Quiney (1982), the ences were vastly superior to book learning for orphanagesalsoadmitted"semi-orphans,"ne- young children. The methods they used contrasted glected children who could be sent home for the sharply with the pedagogy of the day,where night. In a real sense, orphanages operatedas day instruction was often given in the schoolmaster's care centres for the children of the poor. In 1856 living room, or in overcrowded and badly ventilat- in Toronto, for example, a "public nursery"was ed schoolrooms. Pupils memorized the words of attarhed to the Protestant Girls' Home andwas the books and recited them to the teacher. Flog- run by the Female Aid Society (Rooke and Schnell, ging was common. With both Oberlin and Pesta- 1983). lozzi, exercise, play and object learning were the
17 9 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES main methods used. scendentalists. Alcott's hope was to make educa- The idea of educating young children through tion a more pleasurable experience, so he improved interaction with real objects rather than memoriza- das,.-oom furniture, eliminated corporal punish- tion and recitation, or custodial care and control, ment, and introduced songs and gamesinto the came slowly to both Europe and NorthAmerica. It classroom (Shapiro, 1983, p. 11). He opened the started with changes to primary education in the Boston Infant School in 1828, for children between early 1800s, was furthered with the mid-century the ages of 18 months and 4 years.Its stated development of kindergarten,- and became fumly purpose was to relieve mothers of a partof their established with the nursery school movement of domestic work, to enable them to seek employ- the early 1900s. Pestalozzi in Switzerland, Frcebel ment. In addition, the children "wouldbe re- in Germany, Montessori in Italy and MacMillan in moved from the unhappy association of want and England were the most influential pioneers of vice,and be placed under betterinfluences" these new methods of early childhood education. (Steinfels, 1973, p. 36). A few years later Alcott Pestalozzi's work had a profound impact on the opened the Temple School in Boston, with Eliza- course of primary education throughoutEurope beth Peabody as a teacher. However, the people of and North America and an indirect impact on Boston were not ready for him and his school early childhood education on both continents. His closed in1839 ina cloud of controversy.In methods entered North America in three "waves," general, while a number of prominent New En- of which the third was the most successful in gland educators became familiar with Pestalozzi in reaching primary school teachers. the early 1800s, his ideas did not spread across the The earliest presentation of Pestalozzi's work in North American continent because of this fact. the United States was an article by William Mac- The third route for Pestalozzian ideas to come Clurc in the National Intelligencer in 1806. A few to North America was fromSwitze...and to England years later MacClure hired Joseph Neef, a colleague via the British Home and Colonial Infant School of Pestalozzi's in Switzerland, to come to Philadel- Society, and then to Canada through Reverend phia and open a Pestalozzian school. Both Mac- EgertonRyerson,thefastsuperintendentof Clure and Neef joined Robert Owen's utopian schoolsin the Canadian provinceof Ontario. community in New Harmony, Indiana, in 1824. Charles Mayo, an Englishman who had studied After only two years, the community failed and with Pestalozzi in Switzerland, and his sister Eliza- this inmaduction to Pestalozzi had little impact on beth, became prominent in the Home and Colo- the course of American education. nial Infant School Society in the early 1800s. Their The second route for Pestalozzian ideas to reach goal was to prepare and disseminate a graded North America was through a few prominent New course of instruction based on asimplification of England educators who either travelled to Switzer- Pestalozzi's method. Munroe (1907) gave an opin- land to visit Pestalozzi's school or who studied his ioned assessment of the difference between the work (Munroe, 1907). William Russell, founder of Society's approach and the original Pestalozzian the American Journal of Education in 1826, in- ideas: cluded translations of the writings of Pcstalozzi It was thus that Pestalozzianism was "misunderstood and some of his followers in his journal. Reverend and dragged downwArd," to borrow Emerson's words. Charles Brooks visited Pestalozzian schools in Ger- Pestalozzi tau., without books, and chiefly in the many and used Pestalozzian methods at the Massa- open aa; and the moment the Englishattempted "to chusetts Normal School.William Woodbridge, reduce4is principles and methods to a practicable who visited Pestalozzi twice in the 1820s, worked shape," ;.1 the preparation of manuals about objects, whi:h2nuals were to be studied and the lessons on for the improvement of common schools, teacher the c sectslearned and said to the teachers,that training and the education of women in Connecti- morr at a wide gulf separated thePestalozzianism of cut. Henry Barnard, who visitedPestalozzi while Switzerland . .from the Pestalozzianism of England. studying in Europe in 1835, published a mono- (pt.).36-37) graph in 1839 entitled "Pestalozzi, Franklin and Oberlin." Barnard also organized a six week teach- The influence of the Society was felt in Canada er training institute, the fust in North America, as early as the 1830s whenits followers established where he lectured on Pestalozzi. infant schools in the cities of Quebec, Montreal A. Bronson Alcott, the father of Louisa. May and Charlottetown (Corbett,1968). During this Alcott,and a Connecticut school teacher from period Ryerson made several trips to Europe to 1823 to 1828, was part of a small circle who collect materials for an educational museum in subscribed to Pestalozzi's ideas known as the Iran- Toronto. He brought back "many of the pictures,
18 20 The European Roots models, objects and appliances used by the Home quickly in the last half of the century. The fast and Colonial School Society in their Pestalozzian kindergarten opened as part of a public school school! in England" (Munroe, 1907, p. 171). system in St. Louis, Missouri, 1873. A kindergarten On a visit to Toronto in 1860, Edward Sheldon, opened in Toronto in 1878, and accordingto superintendent of schools in Oswego, New York, Corbett (1968), in 1887 the province of Ontario viewed the materials that Ryerson had brought became one of the fast governments in the world from England. Sheldon was so inspired that he to recognize officially and support financially kin- ordered the materials from London, and hireda dergartens for four and five year old* ildren as teacher from England to introduce the British part of the public school system. version of Pestalozzian methodology to the teachers The reputation of the new movementwas great- of Oswego. In 1863, his teacher training depart- ly enhanced when Patty Smith Hill conducteda ment became the Oswego Normal School. Through kindergarten class at the 1893 Chicago World's the graduates of the Oswego Normal School and Fair.Yet Patty Hill represented the American the involvement of Sheldon with the National adaptation of Froebel's ideas, rather than a strict Teachers'Association,Pestalozzian methodology adherence to the master. Hill changed some of became well known through the United States. Froebel's materials, added the concept of free play According to Vandewalker (1908) the growth of to the kindergarten, and maintained a flexible the "psychological conception of education,"espe- schedule of activities. The American kindergarten cially as taught at the Oswego Normal School, movement became split into two campsthe con- paved the way for the successful introduction of servatives, such as Elizabeth Peabody and Susan kindergarten; in the United States. "Thesuccess Blow who didn't want deviations from Froebel's and enthusiasm of the graduates of the Oswego prescriptions, and the progressives, such as Patty Normal School was such that theywere sought for Hill and John Dewey, who favoured a freer inter- in nearly every state of the Union. With the pretation. Eventually the progressives won the day gradual acceptance of the new views the kindergar- and free play, child centered discovery learning, ten began to assume significance, and its message and flexibility came to characterize both the kin- no longer fell on unheeding ears" (p. 5). dergartens and thenurseryschools of North The kindergarten originated with Friedrich Froe- America. bel, who spent two year.; (1808-1810) working with Pestalozzi at his school in Yverdon, Switzerland. It was there that Froebel first recognized the educa- EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION tional value of play. Froebel's kindergartens had AND SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL GROWTH spread throughout Germany and Western Europe by the middle of the nineteenth century, andwere A 1908 health study in England showed that 80 introduced into the United States by Germanex- percent of British infants were well at birth while patriots in the 1850s. The first American kinder- only 20 percent were healthy upon entering public garten was opened by Mrs. Schurz in Watertown, schools (Osbom, 1980). Margaret MacMillan and Wisconsin, in 1855. her sister Rachel responded to this report by estab- Because the sentiment of child rescuewas strong lishing an open air nursery school in the London in the nineteenth century, a number of "charity slums in 1911. MacMillan originated the term kindergartens"were founded inBoston, New "nursery school," and these new organizations York, and San Francisco to "give the slum childa emphasized play, nurturing of children, and sup- chance he wohld not otherwise have to enable him port of parents. The differences among the ap- to rise above the disadvantages of poverty and proaches of nursery schools, kindergartens, day care neglect" (Ross, 1976, p. 19). However, the prima- centres at the beginning of the twentieth century ry motivation for kindergartens was an educative are described by Osbom (1980): one, based on "the flowering of the child's In contrast to most public schools of the day, the mind." Froebel's educational philosophyrepresent- nursery school opened its doors to parents and invited them to participate in the total program. Unlike day ed a pantheistic idealism, whereby carefullycon- care programs, the nursery school was viewed as an trived"gifts" and "occupations"were seen to educational experience for the child and his family. elicit the tru -, but hidden, nature of theyoung Emphasis was also placed on the child enjoying the child. "here and now" and the uniqueness of being his age. Given an initial impetus by the writings and Unlike kindergarten (and, other grades), little thought was given to "readiness" but rather to the satisfaction work of Elizabeth Peabody, the number of kinder- of exploration at two or three or four years of age (p. gartens in Canada and the United States grew 118).
19 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
In the United States, Patty Hill became aware of that painting, dramatic play, creative rhythms, etc., the British nursery schools and in 1921 she sent could serve as a release for feelings..his, too, seemed to imply a "hands off" attitude. (p.16). social worker Abigail Eliot to England to study the new methods. At the same time, Hill started a In the 1960s, however, there was another "para- laboratory nursery school at Columbia University in digm shift" in early childhood education in North New York City. The attachment of nursery schools America. The progressive model became known as to research centres continued with the 1921 open- the "traditional nursery school," in contrast to the ing of a laboratory preschool at the Iowa Child "academic preschool"(Elkind,1970), a model Research Station and the founding of the Merrill- which has its roots in the cognitive psychology Palmer Institute in Detroit in 1922. In Canada, the University of Toronto's Institute of Child movement. Study was started in 1925. The philosophy of theprogressives inearly childhood education was that the social-emotional EARLY CHILDHOOD AND COGNITIVE life of the child, as well as learning, was enhanced GROWTH under the conditions of freedom to explore a stimulating environment. The psychoanalytic influ- The idea of early child[hood] education as hav- ence, after the popularization of Freud in the ing a profound impact on cognitive growth, began United States in the 1920s, added to the emphasis with the work of Jean Itard in France with "Vic- on the social-emotional growth of the young child. tor," the wild boy of Aveyron. Itard, who worked In 1915, Margaret Naumberg, a psychoanalyti- in the Deaf and Dumb Institute in Paris, first saw cally inclined teacher, opened a program for young Victor in1799. He and Madame Guerin spent children at the Walden school in New York City, many long hours trying to teach Victor to speak that was described as "audaciously radical" (We- and to read. They were only partly successful, but ber, 1969). According to Osborn (1980), the ef- their methods, along with those evolved in Itard's fects of the psychoanalytic movement on the nurs- successor,EdouardSeguin,startedatradition ery school were manifested in the establishment of which drew attention to the importance of sense- habit clinics, the fast being set up in Boston in training and stimulation in the development of the 1922. "The purpose of these clinics was to prevent child'scognitiveabilities.SeguinusedItard's maladjustments in young children" (p. 102.) methods to teach mentally retarded children to Freud's work on repression in early childhood, read, write and draw, and devised ingenious teach- inner conflict and reenactment of disturbing fanta- ing apparatus to aid his students.In 1848 he sies in play, resulted in the development of play immigrated to the United States where he helped therapy and art therapy. In England, Susan Isaacs, set up educational programs for mentally retarded Melanie Klein, and Anna Freud developed treat- children in the newly formed training schools. ment methods for emotionally disturbed young Itard and Seguin were the main inspirations for children that eventually became known and aday- Maria Montessori's ten years of work with mentally ed in North America. Even when early childhood retarded children in Rome and her opening of the education in North American programs was no Cam dei Bambini in 1906. Montessori wrote many longer being called psychoanalytic, many of the books on her method and visited the United States attitudes and beliefs of the neo-Freudians became and Britain,lecturing on her approach to the embedded in the methods used in the early child- education of young children. hood education of the 1930s and 1940s (Omwake, However, both Seguin and Montessori were 1971). The result of this emphasis on the emotion- eclipsed by hereditarian Darwinism and the belief al side of childhood is described by Weber (1970): in the immutability of intelligence which character- ized American psychology of the early twentieth What seemed to emerge from early studies was the century. Consequently, Seguin's enlightened edu- need for the young child to experience sympathetic understanding, patient support, and tenderness so that cational approach was eclipsed by the eugenics he could accept the process of socialization without movement of the 1920s and the resulting institu- becoming resentful, hostile, or overly aggressive. Guided tionalization and forced sterilization of many of with gentleness and wisdom, it was expected that the the mentally retarded population in North Ameri- child would be free of the mechanisms of adjustment ca. During the same period, the Montessori meth- which foster aberrant behaviour. One response to this was a move from repressive discipline to an extreme od was severely criticizedespecially by W. H. permissiveness. Another response was freeing the ave- Kilpatrick of Columbia University in New York. nues of artistic expression from any adult dictation so The Montessori nursery school in the city closed
20 22 The European Roots
and the Montessori method :Ay dormant until its ments were based on Burt's data, their positions rediscovery in the 1950s and 1960s. have been considerably weakened. The hereditarian view of intelligencewas the The compensatory education movement, exem- majority position among psychologists at the be- plified by the Head Start Program, has been based ginning of the twentieth century, although Alfred on a contrasting belief system, that of optimistic W -et in France, who developed the firstintelli- environmentalism. Its basic premise is that intelli- gence test, was an exception in this regard. Bin et gence is not a fixed entity, but can be improved believed that intellectual levels could be improved by stimulating and systematic programming. David over time through "mental orthopedics," a series Elkind (1976) cites several reasons for the paradigm of exercises designed to improve the intelligence shift to environmentalism that occurred in North level of mentally retarded children. Binct'smany American education and psychology in the 1960s. investigations into children's thought influenced One prominent force for change in the 1960s his young assistant, Jean Piaget,to become a was the civil rights movement. The substandard psychologist. While Piaget wrote most of his books quality of education in inner city schools in the on cognitive development in young children in the United States was brought to the attention of the 1920s and 1930s, he too would have to wait until public. The search for a solution led educators and the 1960s to be "discovered" in North America. psychologists in the United States to the discovery Binet's work reached the United States in 1908 of the informal education approach inBritish through Henry Goddard, an outspoken hereditari- primary schools of that time. These schools were an who had been appointed director of research at based on Piaget's theory of child development, the Training School for the Feebleminded in Vine- and Piaget's writings rapidly became well known in land, New Jersey.Goddard, who advocated a the United States and Canada. Montessori was unitary view of intelligInce determined by hered- rediscovered, and hundreds of Montessori schools ity, was also an enthusiastic supporter of eugenics. opened across North America in a short period of Lewis Terman, the American who developed the time. Stanford-BinetIntelligenceTest,sharedsimilar A second impetus for change in the United views to Goddard. In the 1930s, Gesell's extensive States was the shock of the Sputnik launching in work on the "ages and stages" of maturation in 1957. Critics of education pointed to the progres- childrenwasalsobasedonthehereditarian sive philosophy of the American school system as position. the reason the Russians were ahead of the Ameri- cans in space. The emphasis in progressivism was The most famous proponents of the hereditarian the sociai integration of the child into the commu- position in recent years have been Sir Cyril Burt nity. "In its stead, a new philosophy of education, and his student H. J. Eysenck in England and which held that the aim of education was to help Arthur Jensen in the United States. While conced- children develop their mental abilities, to teach ing that environment plays a minor role in the them how to think, came into prominence" (El- development of intelligence, all have argued that kind, 1976, p. 19). Educational criticism and edu- heredity contributes most of the inputto intellec- cational reform were the order of the day. tualdevelopment. Much of the data for this At the same time North American psychology position was provided in the post World War PM examined by the educational reformers and period by Burt's identical twin studies. was found to be inadequate for curriculum devel- The challenge to the hereditarian position has opment. Learning theory and maze psychology, come from two sources, the compensatory educa- heavily based on animal research, provided little tion movement in the United States in the 1960s inspiration for the new cognitivism. Consequently, and the statistical analysis of Leon Kamin. Kamin's American psychology was forced to broaden in the (1974) book documents the evidence that showed 1960s to include more emphasis on developmental that much of Burt's data and collaboratorswere psychology, ego psychology, social psychology, and faked. Since many of Eysenck's and Jensen'sargu- information processing psychology.
21 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How have . iir conceptions of children and childhood changed over the history of civilization? 2. What has been the influence of religion on the educati of young children? 3. How was early childhood education used to "rescue" children from poverty and other socialproblems? 4. What are the sources of our current ideas about early education? 5. How did early ideas about socio - emotional and cognitive growth shape the way we teach youngchildren today?
22 24 3. A MINI-HISTORY OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION by Blythe F. Hinitz
Three historical figures prominent in the early During the 1920s several great strides were taken centuries of childhood education were Commius, inearlychildhoodeducation.CarolynPratt, Rousseau andPestalozzi. Johann Comenius founder of the City and Country School (now Bank (1592-1671), creator of the first known picture Street School) originated the unit blocks now in book, Orbus Pictus (1658), and writer of School of use in most early childhood classrooms. Her school Infancy and The Great Didactici,advocated a was based on firsthand experiences and creative "mother school" to train parents and felt the child teaching and learning. The curriculum utilized should learn at home from birth to age six. He neighborhood excursions and child-run enterprises, believe firsthand exneriences are important for chil- such as the school store and post office. Abigail dren. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1788) was the Adams Eliot founded the Ruggles Street Nursery author of Emile, the "children's charter" (1760), School in Boston in 1922. She brought the philos- which advocates learning through experience rather ophy and practices of England's McMillan sisters to than instruction and also advocates negative rein- the United States. forcement. Johann Pest 'ozzi (1746-1826) is con- Patty Smith Hill (1868-1946), a professor at sidered the father of modern education. He was a Teachers College, Columbia University, was the developer of teaching aids and object lessons, and originator of large building blocks "big enough so author of How Gertrude Teaches Her Children. that children could build houses to play in or set The first recorded factory day nursery was insti- up a store or fire engine house" (Dauntless Wom- tuted in Scotland by Robert Owen (1771-1858). en, p. 261). She was the author of Happ; girth- His nursery emphasized dance, song and outdoor day, and therepresentative of theProgressive play. Owen believed that children could be trained Wing of the International Kindergarten Union without corporal punishment or fear.In 1906 (now the Association for Childhood Education In- Maria Montessori (1870-1952) opened the "Chil- ternational). In 1925 she called a meeting in New dren's House" in an Italian area housing York City which led to the founding in 1929 of project. She used her own mat...ials and methods. the National Association for Nuisery Education She believed the "directress" should be a facilita- (since 1964 the National Association for the Educa- tor of children's learning in the areas of Practical tion of Young Children). Life,Sensorial and Academic Exercises.Her Every decade since 1909 there has been a White "Method" was not widely accepted in the United House Conference on Children. The first one led States until the 1950s. to the formation of the Children's Bureau, now a part of the Administration for Children, Youth Friedrich Froebel (1787-1852) was the father of and Families. During the 1930s and 1940s day care the kindergarten. He founded his school in Ger- was a federal priority. This led tc the W.P.A. many in 1837. He wrote Mother Plays and Nursery nurseries (1933-42) and the Lanham Act War Songs, which includes many fingerplays and songs Nurseries (1940-46). in use in early childhood classrooms today. He The 1960s saw the renaissance of early childhood devised "gifts (of small table blocks) and occupa- education in the United States. Jean Piaget's theo- tions," which wer' used by many kindfnarten ries were accepted by many. The federal govern- teachers after they were brought to the United ment funded Head Start (1965), followed by Fol- States by Margaretha Schurz for use in her school low Through, Parent Child Centers and Home in Wisconsin in 1855. The first English speaking Start. There has been "wide movement in history's kindergarten was a private school kindergarten be- view of itschildren. From a nonentity (which gun by Susan Blow in St. Louis in 1873. FacuLv permitted infanticide) to a miniature adult (which wives at the University of Chicago founded the permitted slavery and sweatshops) to current pro- first parent cooperative nursery school in the Unit- posals for a Children's Lobby in Washington" ed States in 1915. (Osborn, p. 71).
See page 319 for acknowledgment and suggestions for further reading.
23
t)r HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
Over the years various "parts" of the child have Of course, the concept of the ''Whole Child" has been emphasizedhis religious development, his been around for many years. Perhaps as we view character development, his physical, social, emo- the panorama of historical events we can place all tional, and intellectual development. Zig ler has areas of development intheir proper perspec- pointed out the dangers of emphasizing one facet tive and learn the true meaning of this concept of growth to the exclusion of total development. (Osbom, p. 71).
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Who were the important people who first presented the key ideas ;n early childhood education? 2. What contribution did prominent individuals and organizations make to the development of early educa- tion in the United States? 4. THE KINDERGARTEN IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE by S. Dianne Lawler and Jerold P. Bauch
The tide "Father of the Kindergarten" has been 1987). As kindergartens began to sr ead across the assignedtoFriedrich Wilhelm Froebel (Hewes nation, Connecticut and Vermont were the first 1985). Froebel '.ad experimented with occupations states to authorize early childhood education as an from fanner t' 'forester, and had studied subjects officie part of their public schools. from history to mineralogy. When he announced During the introductocy period (1856-1890), the his concept of the kindergarten in 1836, he viewed sojal purpose of kindergarten changed. At first it as second phase of a coordinated lifetime people sent their children to these classes because education from birth through adulthood. His ap- of the similarity to their early educational experi- proach to teaching young children was aimed at ence in their countries of origin. The Froebelian helping the child understand the complex world by kindergarten, developed by a dreamer to help the ;laying with concrete objects in an environment of young child understand the natural order of the exploration (Ransbury1932). He alsot ied to world, quickly became "Americanized," however. organize parent support groups and instituted Social reformers saw it as a way to help the less training programs for young women to prepare fortunate, probably because they intuitively recog- them to become "kindergartners" using the phi- nized the value 1 its humane creatment of young losophy and practice of the Froebelian method. children. Professional educators saw it as in effec- Froebelian kindergartens became the norm for ear- tive preparation for children to begin the formal ly education in the major cities of Europe. They learning process. It was viewed as au appropriate were patronized by both the common people and transition from the home atmosphere to the struc- royalty. tured classroom, although the early kindergartens seldom resembled the more formalized primary grade programs. KINDERGARTEN IN THE UNITED STATES By 1870, kindergartens were becoming instru- ments of social reform. The first"charity" or Between 1080 and 1900 over ten million Euro- "rescue" kindergartens were provided to children peans arrived in America. One of these new immi- of low-income parents, and they expanded rapidly. grants, Margaretha Schurz, a student of Froebel, In fact, wealthy women of the period applied their brought his kindergarten ideas with her to the volunteer spirit to the spread of the kindergarten United States. Her husband, Carl, was a revolu- as a philanthropic service to the poor. The number tionary political leader in Germany. With her of classes grew from about 400 in 1880 to 4,000 in sister, Mrs. Schurz had taught children in England, 1894 (Vandewalker 1908). using Froebelian methods. After moving to Water- In the early charity kindergartens,it was not town, Wisconsin, Mrs. Schurz opened the first possible to use the traditional play program and kindergarten in the United f_ates in1856.It individualized approach that Froebel had devel- served her own children and the children of her oped. Because these classrooms served what is now ne;ghbors. Classes were conducted in German, the called a day-care function, both infants and chil- native language of the teacher and most of the dren who would be eligible for today's elemmtary children. According to Snyder (1972), Schurz in- schools were enrolled. The teachers,originally troduced Bostonian Elizabeth Peabody to Froebel's taught to consider the unique needs of children, writings in1859. Peabody and her sister (the were faced with large groups of youngsters of widow of famous educr-nr Horace Mann) opened unknown age from low-income families and speak- the first English - language kindergarten in Boston ing a variety of languages. In fact, these classrooms in 1860. Henry Barnard, the first U.S. Commis- probably had much in common with some Head sioner of Education, had endorsed the Froebelian Start programs of the 1960s, where children from concept in 1854, and later urged that kindergarten varied backgrounds were taught under conditions be the entry grade for the public schools (Hewes that were less than ideal.
See page 319 for references.
25 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
AMERICAN KINDERGARTENS give way to the practical realities of the day, the MOVING AHEAD demographic changes in society, and the resulting changes in children's background knowledge and Froebel's ideas, then, did not transfer into the experiences prior to kindergarte,I entrance. public school system in their original form. "De- When in the summer of 1965 Project Head Start spite retention of the kindergarten name, many of enrolled about 560,000 children, another revolu- the public school classes bore little resemblance to tion in early childhood education began. Early the original play garden concept." (Hewes 1985, intervention was again viewed as a tool of social p. 13). Most public school kindergartens operated reformasthefive -year -olds of the poor were as cheaply as possible, including large enrollments, enrolled. The original Head Start curriculum was improvised facilities, and underqualified teachers. vague; teachers were guided by eclectic sugges- As Lazerson (1971) noted, kindergarten teachers tions;most classrooms were staffed by people continued to use Froebel's books for texts and without xtensive teacher training. The 1960s were inspiration, but they were no longer able to pro- also the period of wide-ranging experimentation; vide the informality and fun that had characterized "old" ideas were rejected in favor of variety. This the original model. Time and economy led to was especially true of models that were developed double shifts, where two groups of children were on university campuses for research purposes. This taught in half-day sessions by one teacher. This era also saw an expansion of the smorgasbord plan was the norm in many states, and it was not approach in which children were allowed and uncommon to expect the kindergarten teacher to encouraged to select activities of interest from a serve 60 or more children per day. broad array displayed as learning centers in the When installed as a regular part of the public kindergarten classroom. The philosophy appeared school program, kindergarten served five-year-olds to emphasize "child choice" and the assumption for the most part. As nursery schnols developed, that each child could select appropriately while and rapidly spread in the19204,,they served teachers served as "observant guides." children younger than five. However, these schools While the Head Start movement and other early were able to adopt and retain some of the F4,-;ebe- educati -xperimental programs were in the news, liaa approach because they were usually small, the we.- -stablished kindergartens in the public private or parochial, and less subject to the pres- and private schools went relatively unnoticed. In sure of mass education. some very stable communities, for example, it is likely that as many as three generations of childien from the same families attended kindergarten in THE 1950s TO THE 1980s the same room, were taught in much the same way, and, sometimes, even by the same teacher. In the mid-1950s, Emma Sheehy's book, The Sr The seemingly endlessalternatives of Head and 61 Go to School(1954), was used as a model Start, Home Start, Infant Intervention Programs, in child development and teacher training classes. and British Infant Schools appeared to carry over It was a practical guide for kindergarten and into the literature of the 1970s. Instructional objec- nursery school teachers and brought some of Froe- tives and skilllists were "in," and the term bel's original ideas into the modern context. It "accountability" was heardforthefirsttie asked teachers to provide children with a rich (Webster 1984). During this period, Bloom (1981) atmosphere in a room that could attracttheir advocated mastery learning as the key concept in interest.,-ehy recommended such ideas as con- education.Teachers were no longer considered ferences vn .1 parents, careful planning, teaching "observant guides," but were asked to articulate children how to learn, and providing a situation in specific skills that children would be learning dur- which children may "grow naturally"(Sheehy ing a kindergarten day, and, generally, throughout 1954, p.82). She suggested that the teacher's the kindergarten year. efforts should focus on observing, listening, help- ing, and most of all, guiding. Overall, the book emphasized cu.A.em for each child's whole being CURRENT ISSUES and uniqueness. Thus, the kindergarten philosophy had weathered the revolution of progressive educa- After weathering mot, than one hundred years tion and the brief interest in Montessori's meth- of educational change and reform, the stability of ods, retaining many of Froebel's ideas. In practice, the Froebelian r:nlosophy may be facing its last however, certain elements of the approach had to challenge during the current educational revolu-
26 The Kindergarten in Historical Perspective
don. As the"basic skills"curriculumin the ment. After examining differences between half- elementary schools is being systematically moved day, full-day, and alternate-day kindergarten pro- down into the kindergarten classroom, and public grams,Gullo,Bersani,Bayless,and Clements school programs for four-year-olds are being add- (1985) concluded that "it is crucial to reevallAte ed, the traditional kindergarten is being squeezed what an appropriate kindergarten experience is out of existence. Thu,, the pendulum of change the standards of the past no longer apply" (p. 21). has again performed its rhythmic swing and kin- While in agreement that accumulated evidence dergarten appears to represent only a downward suggests that there is much that young children extension of the primary desnot the unique learn prior to first grade, Spodek (1981) argued educationakexperience its inventor had intended. that there has been no unanimity on the issue of The eargr function of thkindergarten was to what, specifically,young children should learn provide children with their first formalized school during that tim-- period. Etheridge (1986) postulat- experience, using methods that matched their curi- ed that young children are quantitatively and osity and interests. "The new function of kinder- qualitatively different from adults. He further stat- garten,"accordingto Naron (1981),"requires ed: "When considering what is absolutely neces- more instructional time and better instructional sary for young children to learn, we do not con- tools than existed in traditional half-day kindergar- dude that any fact, concep, orskill is crucial. The ten settings" (p. 307). Naron also emphasized that facts, skills, and academ'.. content are only tools children who enter l ndergarten today are different which teachers may utl._ze to actively engage the from those of a decade ago--a change caused by development of the 'whole' child." (p. 25). Web- an increase in the number of children attending ber (1986) added that today's children consume preschool programs. And Davis (1980) recognized many experiences vicariously and lack the actual the alarming fact that kindergartenappears to be concrete realization of the experience itself. Web- taking on more and more of the characteristics of ber noted, too, that the children have changed, the first-grade dassroom. but the environment in which they live has also Bartolini and Wasem (1985) found a consensus changed. In this fragile environment, pressures for among current scholars in early childhood educa- early academic achievement can destroy the pur- tion that a major shift in kindergarten has occurred pose, value, and benefits of kindergarten for chil- over the past 15 tc, 20 years. The academic-based dren (Seefeldt 1985). curriculum is more prevalent than the original Froebelian developmental curriculum in which chil- dren were taught cognitive skills as a part of the IMPLICATIONS FOR THE FUTURE "whole" curriculum and were supported socially, OF THE KINDERGARTEN physlally, emotionally, and intellectually. As Spo- dek (1981) noted, the curriculum appears to have Washington (1988) cited five major trends that shifted from concern for continuity of children's can be expected by the 1990s: (1) larger popula. developmenttoconcernforcontinuity of tions of Black or Hispanic children, (2) the need achievement. for children to be prepared for future complexities Current concerns regarding shifts in kindergarten and uncertainties, (3) increased potential for polar- curriculum from developmentally appropriate prac- ization and conflict between age and ethnic groups tices to more academic content are present in the (i.e., the need for multicultural education), (4) literature.According toBartolini and Wasem instructional issues coining to the forefront (i.e., (1985), there is no substantive body of research developmentally appropriate education), and (5) that directly compares the academically oriented increasedconcernregarding the"quality"of kindergarten curriculum with one that is develop- teaching. mentally appropriate on studentoutcome mea- For over one hundred years kindergarten has sures. There is general agreement, however, that been an integral part of early childhood education the pressures of the academically oriented curricu- in the United States. While specialists in early lum are a major contributor to failure and frustra- childhood education (Cr..shank 1986; Etheridge tion among kindergarten children (Belgrad 1984; 1986; Seefeldt 1985; Spodek 1981) have empha- Federlein 1984; Seefeldt 1985, Spodek 1981; Web- sized its importance and goals, there is insufficient ber 1986; Werner 1984). In addition, Spodek research to describe its specific content, procedures, (1981) argued that available research does not andtrategies. Early childhood research is in its demonstrate the superiorityof an academically infancy; it should continue to grow and thrive with oriented curriculum in terms of long-term achieve- changing times and expressed concerns. One inch-
27 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES cator of the growing research interest in this area is early childhood education can be major contribu- The Early Childhood ResearchQuarterly.First tors to change or reform in kindergarten for the published in 1986, this journal prints empirical 905. David Elkind is a current advocate of examin- research conducted in kindergarten classrooms as ing children's reactions to educational practices. well as research concerning children younger than His newest publication,Miseducation(1987), high- five in preschool and day care settings. lights demographic changes, parentalreactions, Although the research concerning kindergarten and children's stress during preschool and kinder- teaching practices and curriculum trends is frag- garten education. Elkindx11 . OR, - -1 ,)previously argued mented and sparse, Lawler (1987) recently discov- that children are feeling "hurried" to learn ab- ered that kindergarten teachers, using direct in- stract concepts and skills during a period of their struction for reading readiness activities, utilized lifespan in which they are developing concrete "whole group or whole class" instruction as their realizations and accommodating new information. primary teaching and management strategy. Lawler Perhaps Elkind (1981), as well as others in the (1987) also determined that although instructional field of early childhood (Cruikshank 1986; Ether- patterns of kindergarten teachers in the study were idge 1986; Seefeldt 1985; Spodek 1981; Washing- identical to those of first-grade teachers during ton 1988; Webber 1986), is again advocating the reading and/or language arts lessons, the construct insightfulness of the "Father of the Kindergar- of the kindergarten day still included an average of ten," Froebel. It is neither possible nor desirable 45 to 75 minutes of free play and/or learning to return to the past. But it is both desirable and center time, when children may make choices, necessary to study changes taking place in the socially interact with one another, and engage in kindergarten in order to decide how the best ideas manipulation and discovery with a variety of mate- of the past can be integrated with the best prac- r:als and activities. tices of today and transformed into tlY.: best pro- Specific teacher training and further research in grams for the future.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Have the original ideas about the kindergarten been retained since Froebel? 2. What were the social purposes of the icindergarten during the last century? 3.Does the current kindergarten program fulfill some of the original goals and purposes? 4. How will changes in school curriculum and organization affect the kindergarten? 5.Is the modern kindergarten still a unique element of the child's learning experience? 6. What are the research findings about kindergarten? 7.Should early educators try to preserve the original flavor and purpose of the kindergarten?
28 30 Section Two: Policy Decisions About Present and Future Issues
Editor's Overview 29 5.Policy Options for Preschool Programs, by Lawrence J. Schweinhart, Jeffrey J. Koshel, and Anne Bridgman 30 6.Early Childhood Development Programs: A Public Investment Opportunity, by Lawrence J. Schweinhart and David P. Weikart 36 7.Quality: The Key to Successful Programs, by Daniel S. Cheevt.r, Jr., and Anne E. Ryder 44
EDITOR'S OVERVIEW
The decisions that teachers, administrators, par- When Schweinhart, Koshel, and Bridgman list ems, and the general public must make about the choices that "policy makers" must consider, early childhood education in the schools are sel- they do not mean that only legislators and educa- dom made without the influence from many tional leaders should consider these options; their sources. From the classroom to the Congress, the listis an action agenda for everyone with an decisions that guide, direct, and control the prac- interest in and a concern for young children. tice of good education should consider the welfare Schweinhart and Weikart are the leading propo- and needs of the child as a first priority. But these nents of improved policy decisions based on evi- decisions cannot be made in isolation, and the dence. In particular, their contribution explores sources of educational policy are very complex. For results and cost/ benefit ratios in favor of financial example, there is clear evidence that international investment in high-quality programs. Cheever and finance and local economics influence program Ryder continue the theme of quality in planning development and expansion.Politicalconsider- early education in the schools. These authors raise ations, population dynamics, the status of families, many policy ciuqtions that should be considered as and social issues all drive policy. And policy sets schools expand their Attention to young children. the direction and tone for programs, eventually Policy decisions that are made some distance influencing how and to what extent we willpre- from the school classroom are no less influential on pare our young for their future. the way we organize and provide education to Those professionals who help make the policies, young children. Since decisions at the building, translate them into guidelines, or are guided by system,stateor nationallevelallhave direct them are not without their own personal beliefs, bearing on the teaching and the taught, teacher value systems, and viewpoints. The contributors to and parent input is necessary. Policy is the way this section are no exceptions; they representa "they" either restrain or enable high-quality edu- range of arguments from statistical evidence to cation for children, and the elusive "they" ought impassioned zeal. But all are bound by one com- to be subject to the direct participation of the mon thread; they speak for improvement and high front line: the teachers and parents who live with quality in the way we educate our children. the children on a daily basis. 5. POLICY OPTIONS FOR PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS by Lawrence J. Schweinhart, Jeffrey J. Koshel, and Anne Bridgman
A host of new governors, state legislators, state measurable and long-term positive effects on chil- education leaders, and members of Congress as- dren's success in school and in life." sumed office in January [1987]. As was true of Governor Michael Castle of Delaware, who their recent predecessors,these new:omers will chair[cd] the Committee on Human Resources of probably find that they must take a position on the National Governors' Association, pledged that programs aimed at early childhood development his committee [would] focus in 1987 on early especially those that are designed for children from childhood development programs."Acrossthe low-income families. Since strong evidence exists board, we're shifting our focus to attack problems that such programs provide both short-term and early," he said. "We believe that, if we eliminate long-term gains for young participants, legislators problems early, young people will have a much and school administrators in almost every state will better chance to become productive citizens. The continue to deliberate during the coming year education component is the most important, of about how to establish or expand programs that course; it begins to teach children how to learn serve children under the age of 5. and, equally important, it provides an early oppor- Several facts illustrate the increasing activity and tunity to identify problems." financial commitment in this area. In 1984, for An editorial in the Chicago Tribune on 8 example, eight states appropriated approximately October 1985 stated, "A wealth of experimental $163 million to fund early childhood programs, projects proves that children from the most disad- z'-ned especially at children living in poverty. In vantaged homes will thrive academically and social- 1986, by contrast, 22 states spent $330 million for ly if they are stimulated early enough in special similar programs. These programs currently provide preschool programs." The writer concluded that some 150,000 famil;cs with early childhood educa- "in a few years, early learning programs will pay tion and d;.y care or with parent education.' for themselves mar., times over in the reduced The momentum for early childhood programs costs of school failures, delinquency, dependency, remains strong. State legislatures and other policy- and violent behavior."3 making bodies in the United States seem more As more and more federal,state, and local willing than ever to consider investing in high- policy makers begin to realize that a constituency quality early childhood programs. A growing con- motivated by solid research data supports stituency, which includes chief executive officers as early childhood programs, public funding for such well as welfare mothers, considers public spending programs should grow. But those who are responsi- for such programs worthwhile. ble for directing the debate and shaping the In its 1983 report, Investing in Our Children, programs must have continuing access to penincit the Committee for Economic Development noted, information from research and experience. As they "It would be hard to imagine that society could plan and implement new programs, governors, find a higher yield for a dollar of investment than state and national legislators, local policy makers, and educators must consider all the available op- that foundinpreschoolprogramsforat-risk children." 2 tions. The important questions that they must Mayor Edward Koch, in announcing an initia- answer include the following: tive to provide early childhood education for all 4- Which children should be served? year -olds in New York City, said he was "struck For what part of the day should early child- by the near unanimity among experts that, of all hood programs operate? the educational and social programs initiated in How much money should be invested in the last 20 years, there is one that holds more I.)grams? promise than any other, an intervention on which Through what structures should the money be there is solid and compelling research indicating its channeled?
See page 320 for acknowledgment and references.
30 32 Policy Options for Preschool Programs
WHICH CHILDREN SHOULD BE SERVED? should be aware of thefactthat poverty has proved a much better predictor of school failure Policy makers must determine, the age range and than any existing screening procedure. At the same characteristics of the children to be ser 'ed by early time, they should carefully consider the political childhood programs. They must also define the implications of the selection criteria they establish. program requirements, both for school districts and Programs to serve children who are "at risk of community agencies and for program participants school failure" may win more public acceptance and their families. than programs to serve children who are "living in Age range.Policy makers might begin their poverty." Perhaps the best optionisto target consideration of this issue by dividing early child- children who are at risk of school failure but to hood into two age groups: infants and toddlers give considerable weight to environmental factors (birth through age 2) and preschoolers (ages 3 and in identifying the children who fallinto this 4). Approximately half of the mothers of children category. in each of these two age groups are employes Program requirements.Legislators and school outside the home, and about two-thirds of the administrators must decide just what the early employed mothers work full-time. Consequently childhood program requires of school districts or the need for child care in each of the age groups is community agencies and of young children and roughly equivalent's their families. One of the questions to be ad- There are fewer goad child-care programs for dressed is, Should the program be voluntary or infants and toddlers than for preschoolers. But compulsory? Government involvement in areas re- there is also more evidence of lasting benefits for lated to children and families can be a sensitive preschoolers enrolled in such programs than for issue. Thus policy makers must carefully consider infants and toddlers.5 Lawmakers and administra- who is required to do what with respect to early tors would be wise, then, to commit funds first to childhood programs. programs for 4-year-olds from low-income families. Kindergarten programs in the public schools are The second priority should be expanding such the primary state-level efforts in early childhood programs toserve3-year-olds from low-income education, and the legislation attending such pro- families. grams illustrates the range of options available to Characteristics of the children to be served. policy makers. Some state laws have made kinder- Legislators and educators may decide to make an garten attendance compulsory; others have made early childhood program available to all children attendance voluntary. Many states have made kin- within the age group to be served. The principal dergarten universally available to 5-year-olds. Oth- disadvantage of thisdecisionis expense. New ers have said that demonstrated scholastic readiness funding of this magnitude is difficult to come by. is a condition for entry to first gr*Je. Moreover, the investment potential of early child- hood programs has been documented only for children from low-income families. Since the bene- fits of early childhood programs for children from middle- and upper-income families have not been FOR WHAT PART OF THE DAY? documented, it is more difficult to make a persua- sive case for public funding of programs for these Length of the school day is the primary policy youngsters. variable that determines whether or not early child- Policy makers might decide instead to provide hood programs meet families'child-care needs. early childhood programs for all children in the Policy makers have three options to consider: a age group but to pay program fees only fur low- part-day program (two to three hours in length), a income children atrisk of school failure. This program that matches the school day (five to six option conserves public funds while providing an hours in length), or a program that matches the opportunity for universal enrollment. workday (ei to 10 hours in length). If policy makers choose not to adopt either of Part-day programs. When they are offered at these options, they must establish specific criteria least four days a week, for approximately eight for participation in early childhood programs. Chil- months a year, high-quality preschool programs dren might be selected for enrollment because they have positive, long-term effects on participants.6 are living in poverty, because a screening procedure Chief among their immediate benefits are the facts has shown them to be at risk of school failure, or that such programs may spare children the fatigue because they meet both criteria.Policy makers of full-day programs and that they may be less
31 POLICY DECISIONS costly (because of fewer hours of teacher/child schedule for Aid to Families with Dependent Chil- contact). dren, the typical state spends only $1,300 per year However, part-day programs do not fully meet to support a child at home.9 parents' child-care needs. Moreover, in the public Since funds are limited, policy makers are faced schools, such programs may create special transpor- with a difficult choice. If they spend the available tation demands. Particularly in rural areas, part- funds on part-day programs aimed at developing day programs can also cause children to spend the intellectual and social skills of cconomically more time on a school buf, than in class. These disadvantaged children, they will be doing little to disadvantages can be addressed, of course. One meet the child-care needs of parents who work solutionisto organize satellite day-care homes full-time. But if they allocate the funds to pro- around a center that offers a part-day early child- grams that serve low-income children and that are hood program. This begins to solve children's geared to the workday, they run the risk that these transportation problems, as well as making the programs will omit essential developmental compo- training and networking needs of those who pro- nents and that they will fail to address the needs vide the day care easier to satisfy. of those children whose mothers do not work full- Programs geared to the school day. This is a time outside the home. convenient option for early childhood programs Legislators and school administrators migh, con- based in the public schools. Programs geared to sider a compromise: the establishment of high- the school day make preschoolers' transportation quality early childhood programs geared to the needs the same as those of other schoolchildren. workday just for those children whose mothers Such programs alsoreducefamilies'child-care work full-time outside the home but live in pover- needs; however, parents who are employed full- ty nonetheless. (In 1985, 732,000 mothers in the time willstill need after-school care for their United States with children under the age of 6 youngsters. were employed but earned too little to raise them One of the primary disadvantages of programs above the poverty level.10) This option meets the geared to the school day is that unless they are child-care needs of some parents and the develop- high-quality programs,responsivetochildren's mental needs of some disadvantaged children, needs and based on principles of child develop- while signaling a commitment by the state or local ment they can produce fatigue and behavioral government to addressing the increased incidence problems in young children. of poverty among children. As early childhood programs gearedtothe school day grow in popularity, it is important to caution those individuals who interpret recent re- HOW MUCH MONEY search findings as evidence that school-day-length SHOULD BE INVESTED? programs are superior to part-day programs in their effects on children's later success in school. A With regard to early childhood programs, per- recent study of Chicago kindergarten programs haps the thorniest issue that policy makers must showed that dass size is a better predictor of school address is the matter of funding. Most states prefer achievement than length of the school day. When to start with pilot projects at a few demonstration kindergarten cases contain more than 16 students, sites and to expand these efforts gradually. The according to that study, reducing dass size should level of funding forearly childhood programs be the primary concern of school officials. Only depends on a state's resources and its level of when kindergarten classes are smaller than 16 will commitment to early childhood education. Policy lengthening the school day pay off in later school makers implementing early childhood programs achievement.? should carefully consider personnel costs and the Programs geared to the workday. Such programs inevitable link between level of funding and quali- are dearly the best way of reducing transportation ty of program. problems and meeting families' child-care needs. Personnel costs. The cost of a fully implement- (Remember that some 54 percent of mothers with ed,statewide early childhood program can be children under the age of 6 are in the workforce.) determined by multiplying the average cost of the But early childhood programs geared to the program per child -- which is most of the per- workday are costly. When these programs are of child cost of the teaching staff by the total sufficient quality to meet children's developmental number of children served by the program. The needs, they can easily cost $3,500 to $4,500 annu- staff /child ratio depends largely on the size of the ally per child. By contrast, under its payment classes. Thus the size of the classesis a major
32 Policy Options for Preschool Programs
detennigant of both the cost and the quality of Developers of early childhood programs should early childhood programs. The National Day Care consider adopting staff/child ratios of 1:10 and Study has shown that dasses containingno more enrollment limits of 20 children per classroom; than 20 4-year-olds and staff/child ratiosno higher hiring teachers who hold academic degrees in early than 1:10 are associated with desirable classroom childhood development, competency-based Child behavior and improved cognitive performance." Development Associate (CDA) credentials, or their The National Day Care Study also found that equivalents; and using curriculum models, derived only one teacher characteristic predictsprogram from principles of child development, that have quality and effectiveness: the amount of job-relat- been evaluated and found to have positive intellec- ed training in early childhood education thata tual and social outcomes. They should also try to teacher has received. Yet teachers with such train- insure that their programs feature:(1) support ing continue to be paid less than their colleagues systems aimed at maintaining the curriculum mod- who have specialized in other areas of education. el, including inservice trai ding and evaluation of The average annual salary of Head Startstaff teachers;(2) collaboration between the teaching members in 1985 was $7,700, substantially lower staff and parents; and (3) sensitivity and respon- than the average starting salary of teachers in the siveness to children's health and nutrition needs public schools ($14,500) anda mere one-third of and to families'needs for child care or other the average annual salary of allpublic school services. teachers, which stood at $23,500.12 Policy makers can help to solve this problem in two ways. First, they can work on making early THROUGH WHAT STRUCTURES SHOULD childhood education a hierarchical profession that FUNDS BE CHANNELED? givts practitioners opportunities forcareer develop- As they develop early childhood programs,state ment Second, they can increase funding levels of officials and local school administrators will haveto programs, emphasizing their vast potential to pre- decide which agencies will receive the funds to vent later educational and social problems. carry out these programs. In making these deci- Funding and program quality. Most policy mak- sions, they should bear in mind the diverse needs ers who are familiar with the research on early of young children and their families for childcare childhood education know that it makes littlesense and early childhood education. Any public invest- to fund early childhood programs at levels insuffi- ment in early childhood programs should take this cient to provide the high quality that insures diversity into account. Public officials should also programeffectiveness.indeed,unlessprogram remember that itis not necessary for any single quality is carefully defined and maintained,an program to meet all the needs of all children. early childhood dassroom is just another place for Regardless of whether providers receive funds ? child to be. When funds are limited, it is better directly or parents receive funds and select pro- to provide high-quality programs to some chil- grams through a voucher system, the question dren than to provide inferiorprograms toall remains: Who should be authorized to receive preschoolers. funds to provide programs? The three types of If an early childhood program isto promote agencies that policy makers should considerare children's intellectual, social, and physical develop- public schools, such federally funded programsas ment, it must not only meet high standards of Head Start, and such other community agenciesas quality out also be administered bycompetent day-care centers or associations of day-care homes. specialists in child development whocan establish Policy makers should also consider the funding of an environment that supports active learning. This programs through open sponsorship, which allows premise is supported by a 15-year study, conducted funds to go to any of these agencies. by the High/Scope Educational Research Founda- Public schools.Developers of early childhood tion, which found evidence that those preschool programs might look at state-funded kindergartens programs in which children initiatetheir own as examples of programs sponsored by the public activitiesare most effective in preventing later schools. However, they should remember that pub- juvenile delinquency. Youngsters who participated lic school programs for 4-year-olds should be quite in child-directed preschoolprograms appeared to different from some of today's kindergartenpro- be better adjusted as teenagers; those who took grams. They shouldalso remember thatearly part in highly academic, largely teacher-cons iolled childhood programs in public schools will have the preschool programs reported more social and edu- very same advantages and disadvantages as other cational problems during early adolescence." public school programs.
33 3J POLICY DECISIONS
Early childhood programs funded through the Head Start is the natior's foremost publicly fund- public schools would be universally available, gov- ed program for meeting the child development erned by elected community representatives (the needs of low - income families, and it has a relative- school board members), and highly professional ly stable institutional structure. Designed to re- (since the public schools have certification stan- pond to a wide range of nccds, Head Start focuses dards for teachers and salary schedules that guaran- on education, nutrition, health care, social services, tee pay increments for extra training and experi- and parent involvement. ence). Moreover, the public schools have a vested One of the disadvantages of providing state interest in early childhood programs, because these funding for early childhood programs through programs give children better preparation for K-12 Head Start stems from the fact that state govern- schooling. ment has not previously played an important role The disadvantages of offering early childhood in that program. Head Start dollars travel from the programs through the public schools include a nation's capital, through regional offices, to local tradition of high student /staff ratios (at least 20:1 grantees and delegate agencies, which operate the in the public schools, though a ratio of 10:1 has programs. Therefore, policy makers are often unfa- been shown to be the most effective for preschool- miliar with the operations of Head Start in their ers) and the historictendencies 'of the public states. Moreover, Head Start teachers tend to be schools to exclude parents from the educational undermined; fewer than 10 percent of them hold process,to fail to meet the nccds of nonwhite four-year degrees in early childhood education, and ethnic groups, and to fail to meet the child-care only 18 percent have CDA credentials." needs of working parents. Those who opposc fund- Policy makers could probably ovecome some of ing early childhood programs through the public these disadvantages by earmarking the state funds schools also point out that the schools might adopt they give to Head Start for special p irposes such as a narrow focus on direct instruction in academic training, evaluation, or program expansion. Head skills, instead of a broad focus on child develop- Start currently serves only 24 percent of the 3- and ment, and that the schools might overlook (or even 4-year-olds who are living in poverty in the U.S." threaten) existingchild -careservicesinthe Community agencies. A third option would be community. to provide state funds for early childhood programs These concerns m:'st be innovatively addressed, to community agencies not associated with Head if the public schools are to serve a legitimate Start.Any child-care program licensed by the function in early child development. Smaller class- state'sdepartmentofsocialserviceswhether es. greater parental involvement, and stronger em- based in a center or in a homecould be eligible phasis on broad intellectual and social develop- for funding. The funds could be allocated through ment must characterize kindergarten and prekin- competitive programs or through site visits aimed dergarten programs in the public schools, if these at identifying those agencies that run the best programs are to yield results like those of exempla- programs. ry child development programs. This option has the advantage of enabling agen- Federally funded programs. Another option is to ciesin the p...vatesector that run good early use state money to supplement existing federally childhood programs to serve larger numbers of funded early childhood programs, such as Head children. One disadvantage, however, is that pri- Start and Chapter 1. States may already be doing vate agencies are less subject to public scrutiny and this to some extent, since most federal progrs as control. Moreover, a lack of sufficient public fund- require some matching funds from states or from ing in the past has deterred private agencies from local school districts or community agencies. serving low-income neighborhoods. Therefore, the Sources of federal grants for early childhood early childhood programs funded through private programs include special education funds, the So- agencies are not as accessible to low - income fam- cialServices Block Grant, the Child Care Food ilies as the early childhood programs in the public Program, and several employment - related grants schools. programs. Another source, the federal tax credit Open sponsorship. A fourth option is to provide for dependents (retained in the new federal tax funding for early childhood programs to public policy) has analogues in the income tax policies of schools, Head Start, and other community agencies some states. through open sponsorship. This approach helps to Providing additional funding to the Hcad Start minimize the battles over turf that inevitably occur programs within a state has several advantages. when funds are exclusively assigned to one type of
34 3 6 Policy Options for Preschool Programs agency. It also recognizes the fact that there are a grams are a sound investment because they prevent variety of existing program providers. Of course, a problems in high-risk children and thus save designated agency or department must stillbe society the cost of trying to correct these problems selected to distribute the funds impartially, at both later. For state and locallegislators and policy the state and the local levels. makers who are concerned about budgetary con- The number of young children living in poverty straints, this is perhaps the most compelling argu- in the United States is rapidly increasing. Simulta- ment in favor of funding high-quality early child- neously, federal spending on this population has hood programs. been cut back. Meanwhile, research has convinc- An assessment of the Perry Preschool Program, ingly demonstrated a connection between child- conducted by the High/Scope Educational Research hood poverty and school failure. Research has also Foundation, showed that a good one -year pre- demonstrated the existence of alink between school program for disadvantaged children returns school failure and a variety of social problems, to taxpayers six dollars for every dollar invested. including teenage pregnancy, drug and alcohol As they begin their new jobs or return to office, abuse, crime, and poverty among adults. Because governors, state legislators, state education leaders, such problems pose threats to the society, policy and members of Congress would be wise to consid- makers are very much aware of the need to reduce er carefully the research findings related to early children's risk of school failure. childhood education, as well as the viewpoints and Research has shown that good early childhood the experiences of specialists in that field.If a programs help to prevent school failure among dialogue begins at once, the programs that are children of the poor. Therefore, an increasing developed can reflect everything thatis known number of states and local governments are plan- about high-quality early childhood education. Such ning and implementing early childhood programs programs will benefit both our children aJad U.S. for children from low- income families. Such pro- society as a whole.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are the most recent trends and changes in early childhood education? 2. How are major policy decisions made? What sources of information do policymakers use? 3.Is early childhood education for all children or is it to be used to intervene only with children who have special needs or problems? 4. How should states plan and organize programs foryounger children in the schools? 5.is quality early education anexpenseorinvestment? 6. What are some of the options for providing universal early educa ..on in the United States? 7. What is the difference between early childhood (...Aucation asinterventionand asprevention?
35 6. EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS: A PUBLIC INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITY by Lawrence J. Schweinhart and David P. Weikart
The raising or young children is changing dra- about. $1 billion a year for Project Head Start and matically in our time. Parental roles are shifting as about $1 billion a year for various other education unprecedented numbers of mothers are joining the and supplemental care programs for young chil- work force.Single-parentfamilies and poverty dren ( Schweinhart 1985). Also, the federal depen- among children are both on the increase. Amid dent care tax credit leaves parents with about $2 these changes, early childhood development pro- billion a year to cover expenses of supplemental grams have emerged as a response to immediate care for young children. family needs, as well as a potential public invest- State, county, and municipal governments and ment that can improve the quality of life for the school boards have recently renewed their interest next generation of children. in public investment in early childhood programs Early childhood development programs, provid- priorto kindergarten.State funding for these ing education or supplemental care, have increased programs has grown to over a quarter-be In dol- dramatically in recent years. Between 1970 and lars annually. In the past two years, 19 stak....s have 1984, the percentage of duce- and four-year-olds initiated, maintained, or expanded their own in- enrolledinprogramsidentifiedas"nursery vestments in early childhood programsAlaska, schools" or "kindergartens" increased from 21 to California, Florida, Illinois, Louisiana, Maryland, 36 percent, serving 2.6 million of the nation's 7.2 Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mis- million three- and four-year-olds in 1984 (U.S. souri, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma, Pennsyl- Bureau of the Census 1985). The percentage of vania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, and families using supplemental childcarearrange- Washington. Large cities--such as Chicago, New ments, while difficult to estimate directly, is closely York, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C.are tied to the labor force participation rate of moth- making significant investments of their own in ers. Between 1950 and 1985, the percentage of early childhood programs. County and municipal mothers in the labor force with children under 18 funding is widespread, since school districts and increased from 14 to 62 percent, with similar rates localagencies,in the process of administering for mothers of three- and four-year-olds (U.S. federal and state funds, often contribute their own Bureau of the Census 1983 and unpublished up- funds. dates). Thus, 4.3 million three- and four-year-olds Early childhood programs are particularly valu- today require supplemental child care arrangements able for young children living in poverty. One of while their mothers and fathers are working. Nurs- every four children under six is poor (U.S. Bureau ery schools and kindergartens serve about one-third of the Census 1984). Early childhoou poverty is of these children, providing some or all of thf. rampant among minorities, extending to half of all supplemental care that they need. black children and two of every five Hispanic Public schools serve 85 percent of kindergartcn children. Figure1illustrates the growth in the children and 91 percent of students in grades 1-12 poverty rate from 1969-1983. This growth, over (U.S. Bureau of the Census 1985). In contrast, and above the general poverty rate, may be attrib- only one out of three nursery school enrollments is uted largely to the growth in single-parent fam- in a publicly funded program. The primary source ilies, resulting from the high divorce rate and the of public funding for programs for three- and four- growing rate of never-married mothers. year-olds is the federal government, which provides Early childhood poverty often leads to children's at least 85 percent of the total public funds for failure in school (e.g., see Education Commission west programs while spending only about 7 per- of the States 1984), which in turn often results in cent of the total public funds for elementary and their dropping out of high school (National Center secondary schools (National CentL for Education for Education Statistics 1983) And eventual socio- Statistics 1985, p. 36). Federal spending includes economic failure and poverty in adulthood. In this
See pages 320-21 for acknowledgment and references.
36 38 Early Childheod Development Programs
28 Children 26 Uncle, 6
24
22
20
18
16 Overall
14
12 10 ''''..rIk
Year'69'70'71 '72'73'74'75'7677'7879'80'81 '82'83'84
Under 6 (%) 15 171716 16171818 18 171820 22 23 25 24 Overall (%) 121313 12 11 11 12 12 12 11 12 13 14 15 15 14
Note: Figures for children under six and for 1984 are from unpublished data of the U.S. Bureau of the Census. Figures for the overall ooveity rate are from U.S. Bureau of the Census. Money Income and Poverty Status of Families and Personsin the United States: 1983, Current Population Reports, Series P-60, No. 145. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984, p. 20.
Fig. 1. U.S. Poverty Rates, 1969-1983, Overall and for Children under Age 6
country, continuing poverty from generation to of this new wave of experimental early childhood generation is not inevitable, but the connection programs for children from low-income families. remains strong. Two out of five children from the The designers of tnese experimental programs all poorest fifth of families remain in the poorest fifth employed curriculum approaches specifically geared as young adults; seven out of ten remain in the to the perceived needs of young children living in poorest two-fifths (Hill and Ponza 1983). Poverty poverty. They also used research methods to evalu- and school failure arealso correlated to some ate their programs and continued these evaluations extent with high rates of both juvenile delinquency for some years after children had completed the (Loeber and Dishion 1983) and teenagepregnancy programs. Thus, the fortunes of early childhood (Guttmacher Institute 1981). education for children from low-income families became linked to longitudinal research findings. As might be expected, many studies have ad- POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF EARLY dressed the short-term effects of early childhood CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS programs, while only a handful have been able to examine effectiveness ten years or more after pro- The 1960s saw a renaissance of interest in early gram completion. Yet, the weight of the evidence childhood education as a means of addressing the from carefully designed studies suggests that effec- consequencesofpovertyforchildren.Martin tive programs help children from low-income fam- Deutsch in New York, Susan Gray in Tennessee, ilies do better in school and avoid the later prob- and David Weikan in Michigan initiated the first lems that have their roots in school failure.
37 39 POLICY DECISIONS
Table 1 summarizes the findings of some of the High/Scope Foundation's Peery Preschool study, better-designed studies, most with random assign- indicates that good early childhood programs can ment of vubjectsto program and comparison lead to consistent improvement in poor children's groups. Each study compared two groups of chil- achievement throughout schooling, reduced rates dren from low-income families. One group was of delinquency and arrest and teenage pregnancy; placed in some type of early childhood program; an increased employment rate at age 19; and a the other group attended no program. These stud- decreased rate of welfare dependency at age 19. ies found that the early programs help improve To understand how early childhood experiences children's intellectual performance r; school be- can affect children throughout their lives, look at gins, though this advantage appears to be temno- life as a series of interactions between persons and rary. The programs also reduce the need for chil- settings, with performance and experience in one dren to be placed in special education programs or setting affecting access to the next setting, and so to repeat grade levels because they are unable to on. For example, successful performance in first do the work expected of them. Third, participation grade leads to second grade, while failure may lead in these programs leads to a lower high school to repetition of first grade. Success occurs not only dropout rate. Additional evidence, largely from the from year to year, but d-y to day, and even
Table 1 Documented Effects of Good Preschool Programs for Poor Children Finding Program ControlProbability Study Group Group of Error' Intellectual ability (IQ) at school entry Early Training 96 <.01 Perry Preschool 94 83 <.01 Harlem 96 91 <.01 Mother-Child Home 107 103 Special education placements Rome Head Start 11% 25% <.05 Early Training 3% 29% <.01 Perry Preschool 16% 28% <.05 New York Prekindergarten (age 9) 2% 5% <.01 Mother-Child Home (age 9) 14% 39% <.01 Retentions in grade Rome Head Start 51% 63% Early Training 53% 69% Perry Preschool 35% 40% Harlem 24% 45% <.01 New York P:e-Kindergarten 16% 21% <.05 Mother-Child Home 13% 19% High school dropouts Rome Head Start 50% 67% <.05 Early Training 22% 43% <.10 Perry Preschool 33% 51% <.05 Additional Perry Preschool findings Functional competence pos=4=7betterscore) 61% 38% <.05 mwollmenb 38% 21% .05 Menden. and smuts 31% 51% <.05 Teensy pep andes per 100 girls 64 117 <.10 111-yeessals 50% 32% <.05 19-1earellis:We 18% 32% <.05 Note: Adapted from John R.8errueteClement, Lawrence I. Schweinhmt, W.SWIM Barnett, Ann S. Epstein, and David P. Mikan.Changed Elves: The Effects ofthe PonyPreschool Program on Youths through Age 19. ( of the High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, 8.)Ypsilanti, H Press, 1964, pp. 2 and 102. 'Statistical likelihood that the difference between the groups could occu. by dunce; "<.01" means that a particular group difference could occur by chance less than 1 time out of 100.
38 40 Eady Childhood Development Programs
minute to minute. Early childhood experiences of return, equivalent to the real interest rate that stand at the gateway of schoolinga forma' cultur- the invcstmcnt cams. This rate was 8 percent for al system with clear norms of right and wrong the two -year program and over 11 percent for the activities. Good early childhood experienr -s help a one -year program. (The two -year program had t child to acquire an interest in learning, a willing- same effectsasthe one -year program, but its ness to try new things and to trust adults, a strong operational costs were about twice as much.,` sense of independence. They also help children Another way to represent the returns to taxpay- avoid negative behaviors such as misconduct, rejec- ers of the Perry Preschool program is to depict its tion of school and adults, and an inability to per-child profits in constant dollars over and above respond properly to adult requests. some reasonable standard of investment profitabili- In seeking to understand the long-term effects ty. Figure 2 presents the value of the program of early childhood development programs for at- investment in constant 1981 dollars discounted at 3 risk children, we proposed and tested a causal percent annually. The 3 percent discount rate is model of early childhood program effects over tinge equivalent to the long-term growth rate of the (Schweinhart and Weikart 1980, Berrueta-Clement U.S. economy. The major cost of the program was ctal.1984). The model builds on a simple the initial investment of about $5,000 per partici- framework that links short-, mid-, and long -term pant per proms -am year. Major benefits to taxpayers preschool effects: were reduced costs of about $5,000 per preschool 1. Poor children who attendgood early child- participant for special education programs, $3,000 hood development program are oetter prepared for for crime, and $16,000 for welfare assistance. Ad- school, intellectually and socially. ditional postsecondary education of presc:. NA par- 2. A better start in school helps children achieve ticipants added about $1,000 to costs. Participants greater school success, as demonstrated by a de- wcrc expected to pay $5,000 more in taxes because creased need for attending special education classes of increased lifetime earnings resulting from their or repeating a grade. improved educational attainment. 3. Greater school success leads to greater success Thus, total benefits to taxpayers amounted to in adolescence and adulthood, as demonstrated by about $28,000 per participant, nearly six times the lower rates of delinquency, teenage pregnancy, initial cost of the one-year program or three times welfare, and unemployment. the cost of the two-year program. The mum is The evidence for short-term effects of good early large enough that even a two-year program that childhood programs is abundant (e.g.,sec McKey was only half ascost - effectiveas the program ct al.1985, the final repo.. the Head Start studied wouldstillyieldapositive return on Synthesis Project). The evidence `or mid -term ef- invectinent at the 3 percent discount rate. fects comes largely from the Conscurn for Longi- tudinal Studies (Lazar ctal.198- Consortium 1983), a collection of follow-up stuc, of early '00' HO SHOULD K2. IN PUBLIC childhood programs that operated in the 1960s. PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS? The evidence for long -terryeffects comes from High/Scope's Perry Preschool study and a few In responding to the demonstrated potential of other studies. We anticipate more of this same good early childhood programs, policymakers -nd patternmany studies identifying short-term ef- administrators must decide whether topi ,..de fects,a Tn Iciest number of studies establishing these programs for all children or only for some *.d -tenn effects, and a few studiesindicating and, if only for some, which children shall be long-term effects. eligible. ha economic cost-benefit analysis was conducted Some educational leaders have advocated that wit., data from the HighiScope Perry Preschool publicly funded preschool programs should be study(Berructa-Clementctal.1984,Barnett made available to all four-year-olds. Serving every- 1985). Since the data from this study are consistent one of a certain Ilse has obvious appeal. The gc with other studies, the economic findings may well criterion is widoy accepted, and no one protests apply to some extent to other good early childhood that they have been unjustly or improperly exclud- programs for low - income children. ed. The public schools select this op -.an for older The analysis indicates that, strictly in financial student: almost exclusively. When they do serve terms, stg,:h programs can be an ,-client invest- specialpopulations,suchasthe handicapped, ment fortaxpayers. One way to represent the schools provide theservice lieu of another program's investment potential is its internal rate service received 'oy the rest of children.
39 i POLICY DECISIONS
Approximate Dollar Value (thousands) Benefit (thousands) 105 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
K-12 school cost savings 5
Added co lege cost 1
Crime reducti.r cavingsa 3
Welfare savings 16
Additional tax dollars paid by participants 5
Total benefit; to taxpayers 28
Program Cost (thousands) Benefit-Cost Ratio
One-year program 5 6 to 1
Two-year program 9 3 to 1
Note: Table entries are constant 1981 dollars, discounted at 3 percent annually. Adapted from John R. Berrueta-Clement, Lawienre J. Schweinhart, W. Steven Barnett, Ann S. Epstein, and David P. Weikart. Chanted Lives: Effects of the Perry Preschool Program on Youths through Age 19, Monographs of the High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, 8 (Ypsilanti, Mich.: High/Scope Press), 1984, p. 91 'Savings to citizens as taxpayers and as potential crime victims.
Fig. 2. Perry Preschool Program Per-Child Costs and Benefits to Taxpayers
Evidence from the Brookline Early Education percent foi. families with annual incomes above Project (-DEEP) in Massachusetts indicates that the $20,000. Parents' educational level also plays a school problems of middle-class children are less- role: the enrollment rate for three- and four-year- ened somewhat by experience in good early child- old children of elementary school dropouts was 23 hood programs. At the end of grade two,14 percent, but for children of college graduates it percent of BEEP participants exhibited inappropri- was 58 percent (National Center for Education ate classroom learning behaviors, as compared to Statistics 1982). 28 percent of a control group: 19 percent of BEEP A possible policy alternativeis to offer early participants had diffkulty in reading, as craipared childhood programs that are open to all children, to 32 percent of the control group (Pierson et al. but to provide funding only for low-income :hil 1984). These arc certainly significant, but not as dren at special risk of school failure. This option profound in magnitude or in economic effect as conserves public funds while maintaining universal the posi- impact of early childhood programs for enrollment opportunity. The prekindergarten pro- children riving in poverty. grams in Texas exercise a variation on this ap- Ironically, nursery school enrollment rates are proach, making state funds for four-year-olds uni- lower for children living in poverty than for more versally available, with districts required to provide affluent children. One national survey found that programs if they contain 15 or more four-year-olds the preprimary enrollment rate for three- and four- who az- either "unable to speak and comprehend year-olds was only 29 percent for families with the English language" or "from a family whose annual incomes below $10,006 but that it was 52 income...is at or below subsistence level" (Texas
40 42 Early Childhood Development Programs
House Bill 72, Section1). lum approach. If all children are not served or do not receive The High/Scope Educational Research Founda- funding, they must be selected for the programor tion has developedits own version of a child for funding by some criteria. These criteria general- development curriculum. The fundamental premise ly focus in some way on risk of school failure, for of the High /Scope curriculum (Hohmann et al. example, children living in poverty or those identi- 1979), which is based on Piaget's ideas, is that fied by a screening test as being at risk. Perhaps children are active learners who learn best from the best option is to use the poverty criterion activities that they plan and carry out themselves. supplemented by screening test information. The teachers arrange interest areas in the classroom However, screening tests should only be used if and maintain a daily routine that permits children they meet the psychometric criteria of reliability to plan and carry out their own activities. During and validity, particularly theability topredict these activities the teachers ask children questions accurately which daildren will later fail in school that entourage them to think. The teachers en- and which will succeed. One recent review of courage various key experiences that help children screening instruments recommends only four of the learn to place things in categories, rank things in many that are on the marketDenver Develop- order, predict consequences, and generally engage mental Screening Test, Early Screening Inventory, in thinking at their own levels of development. McCarthy Screening Test, and Minneapolis Pre- school Screening Instrument (Meisels 1986). Teachers who use the High /Scope curriculum must be committed to providing settings in which children learnactively and construct their own ONLY HIGH-QUALITY PROGRAMS knowledge. Their knowledge comes from personal ARE A GOOD INVESTMENT interaction with the world, from direct experience with real objects, and from the application of Unless program quality is carefully defined and logical thinking to this experience. The teacher's maintained, an early ,:hildhood program isjust role is to supply experiences with real objects and another place for a child tobe. There is no to help children think about them logically. In a intrinsic st:-.1ue in a young child's leaving home for sense, children are expected to learn by the scien- a few hours a day to join another adult and a tific method of observation and inference, at their group of children. If an early childhood program is own level of understanding, something that even to promote healthy child development, research very young children can do. and experience show that it must be conductedto Child progress in the curriculum isreviewed high standards of quality by competent child de- around a set of key experiences that include active velopment professionals who establishan environ- learning, using language, representing experiences ment that supports active learning by the child (see and ideas,classification,seriation, number con- Epstein etal.1985). To achievethisgoal,a cepts, spatial relations, and time. These categories program should have a child development curricu- help teachers organize their interaction with chil- lum, proper staffing, and adequate attentionto dren,justaschildren organizetheiractivities child and family needs. through the daily routine of the plan-do-review sequence. Those key experiences help the teacher to support and extend the child's self-designed A CHILD DEVELOPMENT CURRICULUM activities. They provide a way of thinking about curriculum that frees the teacher from schedules of Unlike a solely academic approach that doesnot teacher-imposed activities, as well as promoting the take full advantage of the potential for positive growth of rational thought in children. influence on lk.ng-term habits of social behavior,a Unlike many curriculum models, the High/ child development curriculum enhances social, in- Scope curriculum does not require any special tellectual, and physical development. Thereare materials; the only cost is that of equipping the many kinds of early childhood curriculum models classroom, as would be typical of any good nursery based on principles of child development, particu- school program. The High/Scope curriculum lends larly the notion that ,iiildren learn actively from itself to training and supervision and sharesits their surroundings. Roopnarine and Johnson (1986) emphasis on the child as active learner with historic have recently compiled a book of curriculum mod- early childhood methods like those of Froebel and els for young children, containing at least eight Montessori.Itdiffers from them in its use of variationsof thechildLievelopmentcurricu- cognitive-dc. -lopmental theory to place primary
41 POLICY DECISIONS emphasis on problem solving and independent program processes and effectiveness in the National thinking, instead of focusing primarily on social Day Care Study was amount of early childhood development and relationships. In social develop- training. No other teacher characteristic was found ment approaches, the child's active learning occurs to be related to effectivenessnot college degrees because the teacher stands out of the way and and not amount of experience, whether in teaching permits it to take place, not because the teacher or in ch"d care. encourages it to happen. In some Montessori pro- If teaching young children is to be a valued and grams, for example, teachers view themselves .1- stable function in our society, we must create a most as guests in the child's classroom environ- hierarchical profession that permits viable careers. ment.Usingthe High /Scope model,teachers Teaching assistants making iower wages shou'i see continuously gauge the child's developmental sta- the promise of salaries for master teachers that tus and present intellectual challenges to stretch permit them to supp,rt their families at a reason- awareness and understanding. able standard of living. If this is an issue for the Teachers or caregivers cannot maintain a child reaching profession in general, it is much more of development curriculum without a support system. an zssue for early childhood teachers. The average The administrators to whom they report are the annual salary of Head Stan staffitmbers in 1985 key individuals in providing that support, both MS $7,700, substantially below the average start- personally and institutionally. Above all,those ing public school salary of $14,500 and a mere administrators must be curriculum leaders who one-third of the average public school salary of understand and agree with program goals and who $23,546 (quoted by Hymes, 1986). While some of communicate these beliefs to staff and parents. this disparity is attributable to a greater use of Further, the evaluation techniques and inservice teaching assistants in Head ctart, much of it is due training provided must support and enhance the to an undervaluing of the early childhood teaching child development curriculum. Itisessential to snecial;-ation. This specialization has been accord- evaluate the progress of ch2dren and the success of ed very low stature because of society's failure to the program with observationO and testing tech- recognize the vest potential of early childhood niques that are sensitive to children's developmen- development programs, when properly implement- tal status and needs. Teaching staff should be able ed, to contribute to preventing educational ar i to use the feedback from evaluations in developing social problems. their teaching strategies. The program of inservice training provided to all the teaching staff should be dirertly applicable to the early childhood curric- CHILD AND FAMILY SERVICES ulum in use. As more and more staff are required for growing early childhood programs, a sound Third, a good relationship between teaching inservice training program in child development staff and parents In early childhood development and early childhood education is ab6alutely essen- programs iscrucial to program success.Parents tial to program quality. placing theii children in these programs retain primary responsibility for their children and have unique and profound psychological influence over STAFFING them. In terms of sheer contact time, most chil- dren spend the majority of their waking hours with A second characteristic t f quality programs per- their parents, even if their parents work full-time. tains to the number and qualifications :4 their Parents are beet viewed as partners or colleagues staff members. Smaller classroom group ezes were of early childhood teachers, with both parent and found to be associated with desirable classroom teacher having their own areas of responsibility and bet "ior and improved cognitive performance in expertise. The parent-teacher rdationship should the National Day Care Study conducted by Abt be built on munr! respect and a pooling of Associates in the 1970! (Ruopp et al. 1979). This knowledge about individual children and child large-scale study found the most favorable out- development principles. For example, if a parent comes for groups with fewer than 16 preschool-age- tells the teacher to teach a three-year-cld reading children enrolled, with positive outcomes extend- skills for which the child is not ready, the teacher ing to groups of up to 20 children enrolled; larger should explain to the parent why the child is not .,-,- oups had negative outcomes. Study findings also ready to learn those skills and identify for the led to a recommendation of two adults per group. parent the skills that the child can and will be The only teacher characteristic found to predict developing.
42 44 Early Childhood Development Programs
Maintaining a broad focus on the whole child The supplemental child care needs of familiesmust rather than a narrow focus on academics has long somehow be met, and the quality of these services been a rallying cry for early childhood educators. will have a significan, ...ffect an the childrenwe are The phrase has implications not only for classroom raising. curriculum but for support services needed by children and families. As the number of U.S. chile- en living in poverty increases,so does the NEW HOPE FOR YOUNG CHILDREN need for early childhood educators whoare sensi- AT RISK tive to children's health and nutrition needs andto their families' needs for various socialservices. High-quality early childhood programs offernew Head Start has proven that such needscan be met hope to children at risk. With the help of these in the context of early childhoodprograms. But programs, they can avoid to some extent the school even if the services are not integrated into the early failure that may otherwise plague their lives. Since childlso(Aprogramdeliverysritem,educators -:pool failure is at the root of many of our social should know how to gainaccess to them. problems, preventing it can benefitour society as Today the majority of families withyoung chil- well as the children involved. The research and dren need supplemental childcare services. Some experience of the past two decades has givenus the early childhood programs are designedto partially knowledge we need to make these programs work. meet the need by providing programs either part- All that we need is the political will to invest the day (2-3 hours) or full-school day (5-6 hours). necessary resources to serve all children at risk of Families needing full-time supplemental childcare school failure and the abiding commitment to do (typically 8-9 hours a day) must make additional the programs wellwith proper staffing, sufficient child care arrangements, which frequently call for attention to child and family needs, anda well- transportation by someone other than the parent. implemented child development ouriculum.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How has early childhood education expanded in rxent years? 2. What arc the reasons for expansion? Whatare the research results? 3. What economic benefits can come from high-quality early education? 4. What constitutes a quality program that might producethe economic and developmental benefits? 5. That is the relationship between child care and quality early childhood education?
43 7. QUALITY: THE KEY TO SUCCESSFUL PROGRAMS by Daniel S. Cheever, Jr.. and Anne E. Ryder
. . . Yes,after all the years of experiment and disap- tty 1990, almost half the American labor force pointment American society does know one sure way to will be women. lead poor children ow of a life .1 poverty. It has different namesProject Head Start, develop- 60 percent of the mothers of children aged mental day care, nursery schoolbut the idea is the three to five are currently employed. Jame: high quality preschool education. And it works. In 1983, almost one in four American chil- (New York Times, dren was poor, and that percentage is increasing. September 13, 1984) 45 percent of the children born in the 1980s will live in a single-parent household by age 18. 33 rercent of 111 marriages are r-.ow remar- riages, and one child in four is growing up in a S Appose your schooldistrictwas offered an blended family. educational priv.am proven to produce successful long-term results. Targeted at preschool children, These facts point to the need for an entirely new it wc,uld promote the development of intelligence, type of family support system in the near future. academic skills, competence, and positive self-con- Combined with the growing evidence of education- cept during the critical years of their development. al and financial benefits from high-quality early It would help them achieve greater school success, childhood programs, the argument for schools to reduce the need for special education or remedial develop such programsor to utilize programs services, and lessen retention in grade. developed by othersbecomes even more For disadvantaged children, it would promote persuasive. school success which, in turn, would lead to greater Although there SIC many types of ea-ly child- success in adolescence and adulthoodincluding hood progrnms, most high-quality programs share significantly lower rates of delinquency, teenage common characteristics. The National Association pregnancy, and welfare usage, and higher rates of for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) highschoolgraduationandlong-term defines a high-quality program as "one which employment. meets the needs of and promotes the physical, Sound too good to be true? A lot of people social, emotional, and cognitive development of seem to think so, which may be one reason why the children and adultsthe parents, staff, admin- successful models of quality early childhood pro- istrators who are invol "ed in the program. Each grams have not been adopted in many places. day of a child's life is viewed as leading toward the But the facts speak for themselves. A variety of growth and development of a healthy, intelligent, studiesincluding careful analyses of Head Start and contributing member of society." programs awl longitudinal studies of the effects of A similar broad definition of quality is included other early chit: hood education programsconfirm in the National Day Care Study by ABT Associates the educational advantages and cost- effectiveness of in 1979. This definition notes that the welfare of high-quality early childhood programs. And the children is central to quality. Custodial care is not message is beginning to attract national attention. sufficient; a good early childhood program must More than 20 states have passed legislation actively promote social, emotional, and cognitive either mandating or encouraging early childhood development. The ABT Study reported that the programs in the public schools as a matter of most important determinants of such a program public policy, and more are expected to follow suit were: soon. In the next few years, the schools' role will become even mote critical as dramatic changes in Group Size. The size of the group directly family life force them to take action. Consider affects the quality of care-giving, ana small groups these demographics: are best.
See, age 321 for acknowledgment.
46 Quality: The Key to Successful Programs Qualifications and Training of Staff. Although quality of early childhood programs. After all, formal education or years of experience arenot these children are still very young and we can essential, special training in child development and always help them catch up later. Their needs and care-givingisvitalif a professional staff isto potential difficulties are less obvious or demanding provide high-quality services. of immediate attention than those of older stu- Stability of Care. The establishment of a nurtur- dents. And young children do not speak out for ing, ongoing relationship between the child and themselves. the rare-giver is essential. But cutting quality in early childhood programs Aeilt-Child Ratio. The ratio of adults to chil- is a grave and expensive mistake. The importance dren and, corn. -pondingly, the opportunity for of primary learning is well established and good care-givers to interact with children, is important. early childhood programs can promote it. Indeed, Higher ratiosarenecessaryfn- children under many would argue that the care, nurture, and three. education of the young should bt our highest priority because they represent the future of out Quality early childhood education takes many society. forms, and quality programs may have different philosophies, goals, structures, and settings. There There are practical reasons to provide programs is no set formula. There are quality early childhood of high quality as well. As American families and programs for all ages of children, and some school the nature of the work force change dramatically, districts have special programs for the children of even cost-conscious corporations are starting to teenage parents or for the children of teachers and make available quality day care programs for the staff members. The issue is not so much theage or high percentage of parentsparticularly mothers parentage of the child as itis the needs of the who work. Corporate programs vary from the pro- family and the quality of the care. vision of on-site day care centers to IBM's extensive Children of different ages have unique needs national child care referral service, operated by that a quality program, through its environment Wheelock College's Work/Family Directions for and teaching staff, must address and serve. Infants, IBM employees across the country. fa: instance, need a quietly stimulating environ- Finally, there are clear economic benefits to ment, full of pleasant sounds, colors, and with a investing in quality early childhood programs, par- caring person who will hold, talk a% and nurture ticularlyfor disadvantaged students. The Perry them. Toddlers require opportunities for safeex- Preschool Project in Ypsilanti, Michigan, moni- ploration to discover all that is suddenly exciting tored and compared the life experience of two and inviting. Their teachers must appreciate their similar groups of poor black children over a 16-year curiosity and must lovingly, but firmly, establish period from the age of three. One group had appropriate behavioral limits.Preschoolers need participated in an exemplary preschool program, opportunities for socialization, creative el.pression, the other had not. At age 19, 59 percent of the cognitive development, and physicalactivity. group that had been enrolled in the preschool Teachers of preschoolers know that play is themost program were employed, compared to only 32 effective medium for active learning, and they help percent of children who were not enrolled. More the growing child become more self-assured and than two-thirds of the preschool group had gradu- independent. ated from high school, compared to only 32 per- Quality programs must also address the needs of cent of the others, and 38 percent of the preschool adults. Teachers need ongoing training with decent group had continued on to college or post-second- wages and benefits. The parents of young children ary schools. More than 60 percent of the preschool need frequent communication and collaboration group demonstrated above-average functional com- with the staff concerning the events of their chil- petence, compared to only 38 percent of the dren's lives. control group. While 31 percent of the preschool- An examination of quality in early childhood ers had,olice records at age 19, the comparable education would not be complete without address- figure w-,s 51 percent for the non-preschool group. ing the costs of such programming Quality child The teenage pregnancy rate among the preschool care is labor-intensive, requiring the energies of group was less than half of the non-preschool knowledgeable, committed, and positive people group. who deserve appropriate salaries. As school districts The Perry Preschool Project estimated that tax- compete for money with other important institu- payers eventually saved $3,100 on each student tions in out society, it is tempting to skimp on the who had been enrolled in the preschool program,
45
47 POLICY DECISIONS theresult of lower unemployment rates,fewer intensive development courses conducted by spe- brushes with thelaw, and fewer demands for cialists in early childhood. welfare and other social services. As schools face the challenge of designing quali- ty early childhood programs for young children, A CRITICAL DECISION principals frequentlyask,"What shouldbe taught?" Herein lies a trap, because that is the In determining how itsearly childhood staff wrong question. While it is tempting to think of shall be paid, a school system must decide whether preschool children only as smaller versions of their to provide compensation according to the district's older brothers and sisters, we know that these existing salary schedule for professionals or para- children are developmentally different in signifi- professionals, or to pay according to prevailing day cant ways. care rateswhich generally tend to be lower than a critical Particularly significantisthe fact that young those in most school systems. This is children's learning occurs primarily as a result of decision, one u.at will affect both the quality of direct experience rather than from mastery of ab- staff and the 1)gram's ultimate cost.In most stract concepts. The understanding of numbers and CMS, particularly if parents can pay part or all of enumeration,forexample, comes most readily the program costs to supplement public funds, from sorting and counting actual objects. Most there are many advantages to paying early child- young children have not yet developed the ability hood program staff cccording to existing salary to think abstractly, or to generalize from one set of schedules: it attracts better trained staff, upgrades experiences to others based upon the same under- the status and respect of the staff, avoids difficult lying principle. Learning occurs as the result of bargaining issues with unions or cmplo7ee associa- activity which, while it often resembles play, pro- tions, and contributes to the overall professional- vides the experience from which learning occurs. ization of this field. Before designing a program for young children, Most important, the early years -4-e when funda- a community -,eeds assessment is important. It is mental habits, skills, and attitudes .1ward learning crucial to know how many children in your com- can be promoted. For example, a program that munity are and are not getting the preschool includes opportunities for listening to stories, dic- services they need. A community service instru- tating stories to a teacher, and scribbling on paper ment is needed, to survey your population by will develop an enthusiasm for language and the phone, mail,or home delivery. Some of the foundation for learning specific reading and writ- importantissues to be addressedare:parents' ing skills. By contrast, a program which emphasizes preferences for type of program, ability and will- grammatical rules, drill and practice activities, and ingness to pay,location preference, and other which is not connected to actual experiences may programs in which preschool children are currently well doom the child to failure. enrolled. Often, parents of young children are There are three key questions that must be enthusiastic volunteers in helping to survey existing answered when staffing early education programs resources and develop a neecs assessment. in the public schools: How many adults are need- By preparing a good needs assessment, public ed? What qualifications should they have? How schools will have a more realistic sense of available much should they be paid? Let's consider them in programs, the number and location of children in that order. need or preschool services, and the potential de- In private preschool programs, there are general- mand fordifferent types of programs. At this ly at last two adults for every 20 children. Public point, the schoeis are ready to develop a feasibility schools, which are used to providing only one study, presenting program alternatives that can adult in a classroom, will need to be more flexible then be tested with both school officials and the about mee :ing staffing needs for younger children. conununiq. There are many planning models, and If there are two adults in a preschool classroom, each district must decide for itself the planning at least one should be a certified teacher. However, approach most suited to itstraditions,existing teachers certified at the elementary level often lack procedures, and resources. a critical requirement for teaching young children: In our experience a shared planning approach, a comprehensive knowledge of early childhood which involves all members of key constituencies in development. If certified early education teachers an advisory committee, is likely to be most success- are not utilized,it may be possible to provide ful.Presumably the advisory committee would appropriate training to elementary teachers through include interested parents as well as professional
46 as Quality: The Key to Successful Programs staff, school or central office personnel, representa- program. tives of communi.y agencies, and even elected In many communities, local schools have rela- officials if their ultimate support might be impor- tionships with colleges and universities that can tant. Such an advisory committee needs a strong make available the latest research to early child- chairperson as well as a clearly de_ined timetable hood education staff. Schools also have credibility with expected outcomes identified for each step in in their local community, as well as access to the planning process. The advisory committee must public resources and the mediaboth essential for take care to report regularly to whatever decision- the long-term health of an early childhood pro- making bodiessuch as the local school board, city gram. Finally, and most important for the child, council, or other funding sourcemay be called on early childhood programs in local schools provide a to provide financial or political support. logical progression for the young child from pre- school or nursery school to Undergarten and the ersly elementary grades. This opportunity allows THE REWARDS the schools, in turn, to consider the young child's long-term development. For years, early childhood pioneers have strug- To those who question why publicschools gled through a wilderness of indifference outside should promote early childhood programs now their immediate profession. By and large, neither either in alliance with existing programs in the schools nor other community agencies have shown community or on their ownwe can give these much interest in early childhood programs of high answers: quality for young children. Early childhood programs are good education, Now the picture is beginning to change dramat- and have proven they can promote the cognitive ically. It is time for schools to respond. We think a and social devek pment of the young child. convincing case can be made for the development Early childhood programs are cost-effective, par- of qualityearlychildhood programsinlocal ticularly for disadvantaged children, and lead to schools.Most schoolsalready haveadequately substantial long-term savings for society. equipped facilities which meet state and local Early childhood programs meet the new needs codes, often a serious problem for small, private created by dramatic changes in family life, changes programs. Many schools have well-trained profes- thatwill not disappear and thatrequire new sional staff who can provide the human resources services if we are to maintain or strengthen the necessary for an exemplary early childhood pro- stability of families. gram. Schools also have in place procedures for Finally, our youngest citizens have an equal hiring and supervising employees, providing bene- claim to the attention and resources of our society. fits, and other support necessary for a successfu' It is both fair and just to make them available.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.What are the essential issues in determining a quality early childhood program? 2. How does good early education contribute to the child and to society? 3. What are some of the decisions that must be made to plan and implement a quality program? 4.Can improved early education programs be justified from recent experience, research evidence, and social needs?
47 4:) Section Three: Issues, Trends, and Directions
Editor's Overview 50 8.Trends in E rly Childhood Education Part I: Demographics, by Va lora Washington 51 9.Trends in Early Childhood Education Part II: Instruction, by Valora Washington 56 10.Early Childhood Education: Issues and Trends, by Paula Jorde 60 11.Educating the Very Young: A Call for Clear Thinking, by David Elkind 65 £2.Preschool Children in the Public Schools: Good Investment? Or Bad? by Deborah Burnett Suother 71 13. Day Care and the Public SchoolsNatural Allies, Natural Enemies, by Bettye M. Caldwell 76 14.Let Children Start School When They're Ready! by Cynthia Parsons 81 5.It Depends on Your Aim, by Raymond S. Moore.: 32 16.In Defense of Early Childhood Education, by David Elkind 84 17.Synthesis of Research on School Readiness and Kindergarten Retention, by Lorrie A. Shepard and Mary Lee Smith 88 18.Uses and Abuses of Developmental Screening and School Readiness Testing, by Samuel J. Meisels 95 19.Educating Young Handicapped Children: What Can Early Childhood Education Contribute? by Anne H. Widerstrom 104
5j EDITOR'S OVERVIEW The present state of early childhood education nent and successful model for integrating educa- and its new relationships with the schools are tional day care into the public school framework. challenging.This section contains recommenda- Since the earlier entrance of children into the tions about what we should do, should not do, schools is one of the primary considerations of this and might consider doing to reconcile the needs of collection, the next group of chapters sample view- children with the intentions of the society through points on this issue. Parsons urges the administra- itsschools. These recommendations represent a tion to unhook from chronological age as the high level of optimism on the one hand, and are critical factor for beginning school. She finds con- intended toraise alarms on the other.If the siderable support from the most outspoken critic of schools are to be the central coordinating and early education in the following chapter, in which delivery system for early childhood education, the Moore proposes age eight as a good point for the issues raised here demand serious attention. If the child to enroll. He argues against organized early informed professional is to be supportive of excel- childhood education in favor of the idealized home lent new program ideas, some of the trends de- as the best setting for mutational opportunity. scribed here will have to be reversed. And if the Then, Elkind returns to make the case for the new directions are to make the first school years of defense of a reasoned and enlightened approach to the next generation optimal experiences, we had educating young children in school. better respond to the concerns that are represented The successful progress of children once they are in the following pages. enrolled in school programs is the issue for the We start with a two-part status report about our next two chapters. If, wide variety of younger child population by Washington. The first part sets children enter the scl...,:,will all be successful? the demographic trends as one way to view the big Shepard and Smith draw insight from the research picture; the second part deals with instruction. on readiness and retention in kindergarten. And Next, Jorde gives a broad overview of the field that the interplay between Meisels and the Gesell Insti- will leave the reader with questions about the tute about school readiness is presented in the purpose and the practice of early eduLation. Then, form of "point/counterpoint" arguments. Elkind's first piece challenges the reader to ponder The last chapter in this section raises questions a variety of considerations. about the way early childhood education programs The next two chapters raise questions and issues in the schools might effectively serve handicapped about the public schools, early education, and the and exceptional children. Widerstrom describes a child care function. Strother reviews practice, re- possible dichotomy between the way' early child- search, and expert opinion about preschool chil- hood teachers and special education teachers might dren in the schools. Caldwell describes a promi- view and provide the curriculum.
51 1
8. TRENDS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION PART I. DEMOGRAPHICS by Valora Washington
Demographic and technological changes inour DEMOGRAPHIC SHIFTS society are occurring with unprecedented speed. IN AMERICAN SOCIETY The ability of early childhood educators to antici- pate shifts in population, changes in the ecological Substantial demographic change is now occur- context of human development and ethnic or ring which will have a direct bearing on the field instructional tensions influences the continuing rel- of early childhood educationinthe American evance and effectiveness of our work. Indeed the population. A dramatic increase in the number of rapid pace of change highlights the imperativeto children to be served will occur in the next decade. understand the demographic and socialforces A larger proportion of these children will be from which have, and will continue to, influencere- lower- or working-class families, or members of search, theory and practice. nonwhite racial groups. As earlychildhoodeducatorsapproachthe 1990s, five trends can be expected: The Baby Boomlet Demographic shifts in population due to in- creases in the number of children, a large share of in the recent past, there was a significant de- whom will be Black or Hispanic; cline in the American birthrate. Between 1970 and Changes in the ecological context of child- 1978,the number of children under age14 hood, suggesting the need toprepare children to dropped over 13 percent from 54 million to 47 adapt to future complexities and uncertainties; million; the number of children under age five Increased potential for solarization andcon- decreased 101/2 percent, from about 17 million to flict between age or ethnic groups as thepropor- 15 million (U.S. Dept. of Health and Human tion of the young grows relative to the elderly, and Services, 1980). the proportion of children of colorriseswith By 1976, the Census Bureau had already antici- respect to that of white children; pated a reversal in birth statistics between 1980 and 2000. According tothatprojection,there Tension related to instructional issues, suchas would be 70,577,000 children under age 14 (a 40 the appropriate school age, length of the school percent increase) and 24,654,000 children under day, curriculum content and computeruse; and age five (a 51 percent increase) (U.S. Dept. of Increased concern about the quality of teach- Commerce, 1976). ing and the effectiveness of educational rgrams. In fact, the population under five years old grew three times faster than the general population from Each of these trends will have an impacton the 1980 to 1983 (Feistritzer,1985). Demographers decisions and innovations which characterize early now anticipate a 20 percent increase in the number childhood education in the next decade. In this of children under age 10 by the end of the 1980s [chapter] each of these trends and the challenges (AAAS, 1982). By 1990, there will be an estimated they present to early childhood educators will be 23.3 million preschool children in this country, 23 explored. Public policy implications of each trend pe.cent more than in 1980 (CDF, 1982). The see highlighted given the growing influence of number of Lhildren in each family, however, re- legislation in affecting the direction of early in- mains small with an average of 1.8 compared to struction and the allocations of fundsto support 3.9inthe1950s (Washington and Oyemade, professional practice. 1984).
See pages 321-22 for acknowledgment and references.
51 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS
School Enrollments Implications for Early Childhood Educators
The increase in the number of births will lead to These demographic shifts in the American popu- an unprecedented demand for nonparental, out-of- lation, headed by the increase in births, have the home care for young children.Nursery school potential to generate renewed interest and excite- enrollments jumped 83 percent from 1972 to 1983 ment in the field of early childhood education. (Feistritzer,1985). One-third of three- or four- Public attention to our field also brings the possi- year-olds were enrolled in school in 1983 compared bility of expanding financial support. Parents with to one in five in 1970 and one in 10 in 1965 moderate and high incomes have demonstrated (Feistritzer, 1985). Further, preschool enrollment is their willingness to invest in the early education of e..pected to approach seven million by 1949 (Ma- their children; an appropriate increase in the share cado and Myer, 1984). of public resources must be allocated for programs Over 9,000 elementary schools closed in the past which serve the poor, such as Head Start. Thus, decade (Mc Nett, 1983), but the Department of early educators can look realistically to the mid- Education accurately projected that elementary en- 1980s and beyond for a reversal of previous popu- rollments would climb in 1985 for the first time in lation trends which led to school closings and 15 years (Ornstein, 1982). Indeed, an NEA report mergers, staff dismissals, a shrinking job market, (1985) found that 1984 fall enrollment in U.S. and budget cuts (Omstein, 1982). elementary schools underwent a substantial increase Moreover, the expanding proportion of Black for the first time since the 1970-71 school year. and Hispanic children challenges early educators to While secondary scf cols continued their enroll- devote explicit attention to maximizing the cogni- ment declines,elementary enrollments grew to tive and social skills of children in ways compatible 23,716,623 pupils in 1984 from 23,200,897 pupils with cultural diversity. Decades of research have in 1983. Elementary enrollments should continue demonstrated clearly that early education can yield to increase through the early 1990s. impressive long-term benefits for poor Black chil- dren (Berrueta-Clement etal.,1984; Cole and Washington, in press).Priority attention to the needs of poor or minority childrenisfurther justifiedsinc,:. Black preschoolers are enrolled in Changes in the Racial Mix of Young Children full day programs at two to three times the rates for white preschoolers (CDF, 1985). It is impera- There will be increases in the number of young tive that all children are prepared to live, work and children and a corollary demand for early educa- play in a multicultural environment. tion services, but the children who will be served Also,itis clear that the expansion of early in the next 20 years will be markedly different childhood in the 1980s and 1990s will be followed from those produced during the post-World War II by another period of decline as the proportion of baby boom. The present baby boomlet has a women of childbearing age again decreases. Al- greater proportion of nonwhite and lower or work- though school enrollment declines and increases ing class children than the nation as a whole are fairly predictable, a major problem is now to (Omstein, 1982). There were 400,000 fewer white plan appropriately for growth and decline (McNett, children under five in 1984 than in 1970, which 1983). had the highest number in a decide, but there were 280,000 more Black children under five. The Census Bureau's 12 percent growth projection from Changes in Human Ecology 1985-2000 reflects increases of 23 percent among Blacks and 9 percent for whites (Feistritzer, 1985). The increasing number of children is occurring To illustrate the growing cohort of nonwhite at the same time as major changes in the ecology children, one can examine trends in school enroll- of childhood. Foremost among these ecological ment in the nation's 25 largest school districts. In changes is diversity in family lifestyles. For exam- 1950, one in 10 students in thcbc school systems ple, births to unmarried women have increased to was a minority child; in 1960, it was one in three; 11 percent of all births to white women and 55 in 1970,it was one in two (Omstein,1982). percent of allbirths to Black women. Twenty Today, minorities constitute the majority of school percentofallchildrenliveinfemale-headed enrollments in 23 out of 25 of the nation's largest households. Today, only 11 percent of American cities (McNett, 1983). families fit the traditional form of male worker
52
53 TrendsDemographics with a homewaker wife and two children. need to be considered in charting and accounting For the first time in history, more than half of for the when, how, and why of ch:l-1 development all children under age 18 have a working mother. and in p, :paring children for later life (Baltes and Moreover, mothers with young children are almost Brim, 1982). as likely to be employed full time as are mothers with older children. In 1950, only 12 percent of mothers with children under age six worked; by Implications for Early Childhood Educators 1982, 50 percent wac in the labor force. In 1974, 34 percent of mothers with children under age Karen Hartman (1977) used four approaches to three worked, compared to 46 ptreent in 1982. prepare her preschool pupils for increased complex- Among children under age one, one-third of the ities and future uncertainties: (1) to help children married mcdiers and 40 percent of single mothers develop the focusing skills necessary to deal with a are working (Washington and Oyemade, 1984). highly stimulating world, children were trained to Rapid changes in family life, parenting styles, focus on a task with few materials at a time; (2) to the role of women, and population shifts leadto a facilitate the development of decision-making skills clearer focus on the continuing nature of develop- before facing the many choices of the future, ment and the subsequent need to prepare children children were offend a carefully selected limited to adap,. to social change. This focus can be tied to supply of materials; (3) to foster independence, the current emphasis on a "life span" approachto children were helped to cope effectively with the human development; however, it contrasts sharply environment provided for them; and (4) to keep with the previous impetus for early learning based their curiosity and inner resources alive, children on a stringent focus of eae., childhood as a "criti- were offeredfirst-hand,rather thanvicarious, cal period" which irreversibly establishesa trajec- experiences. toleading to future success or failure for the Young children also need to receive the continu- child. ity of care and stability which facilitatestheir A life span perspective of early childhoodas- confidence in the future. Unfortunately, staffing sumes that equally important antecedents and pro- patterns in all types of child care settings often cesses of development may occur at later periods of mitigate against creating a totally continuous and the life course. As a consequence, it is clear that stable environment for children. Stability may be predictions about development from childhoodto particularly hard to achieve in day care because of later periods of lifeare always inconclusive or the very high rate of staff turnover. A further partial. Failing to fully predict adulthood from compilation is the length of the day in full day childhood is not necessarily a scientific debacle, group day care, which makes it inevitable that the but an importantlifespan assumption. Child children will be in the center longer than the development represents but one subset of "devel- teachers (Jones and Prescott, 1982). opmental" antecedents for later ontogeny (Baltes Nevertheless, as the ecological context of child- and Brim, 1982). hood changes,early education must be clearly From this perspective, early childhood educators relevant to the times. For example, given the have the challenge of preparing today's children expanding number of children from diverse family for tomorrow's world. Inherent in this challenge is situations, early childhood educators must more the broader question: What kind of people dowe explicitly plan programs to work with single or want i.the 21st century? In addressing thisques- adolescent parents, fathers and children who may tion, one must relinquish the notion that thereare be undergoing sums as a result of family dynamics "normal" modes of behavior that should beex- (Washington and Oyemade,1985).Indeed,if pected from children. child care and instruction cannot adapt to chang- Child development researchers have too often ing conditions and social forces, how can those proceeded as if the development of childrenoccurs settings expect to produce people who can? (Orn- in a stable or invariant culture. This assumption is stein, 1982). refuted by longitudinal studies andan increased An important aspect of ecological change relates appreciation of the significance of the culturalor to children's formation of their initial social pat- historical context surrounding child development terns, and their attitudes toward their own and (see Elder, 1979). Children develop in a changing other racial groups. Since these attitudes develop society and they themselves later becomeactive in preschool years (Washington, 1976), children contributors to social change. Thus, changes in the must be exposed early to the rich multiplicity of macro-ecologicalcontextof childdevelopment heritages that is America. Sadly, the actual imple-
53 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS mentation of multicrltural education is still only single and childless"nonfamily householders." beginning, in both elementary schools (Washing- Nearly half of all households added since 1980 ton, 1982) and in preschool programs (Washington have been nonfamily. About 64 percent of all and Oyemadc,1985).Thereisa serious and households today do not have children, compared immediate need for teaching and learning using with 54 percent 15 years ago (Feistritzer,1985). multiculn....-31 materials and methods augmented by a clea. theoretical understanding of ethnic differ- ences in learning styles and discontinuities between the home and school (Hale, 1982). Social Class Moreover, to further the instructional and pro- Further,&erearegrowingclass fessional goals of early chikihood educators, practi- disparities tioners and meatuti.:Is must receive more training ..-none people who do have children. The number in the ecology of developmental psychology. That of highly educated, high income parents is growing is, practitioners and researchers need to learn to and many of these parents are sending their chil- view and interact with the child considering the dren to private schools. Unless this trend stops, relationship between home, school, community children in public schools, by and large, will be and the broader society. In the past, this need has the offspring of single, uneducated, low income perhaps been most vivid to those early educators minority parents who are producing the most who have worked with diverse cultural groups; children today, proportionately (Feistritzer, 1985). Blacks, for example, were among the pioneer advo- cates and implementers of both kindergarter and nursery education in the United States (Cunning- Implications for Early Childhood Educators ham and Osborn, 1979). America,andearly-hildhood educationin America, are becoming more diverse, not more POTENTIAL POLARIZATION homogeneous (McNett, 1983). Questions arise as AND CONFLICT to whether nonfamily householders, parents send- ing their children to private schools, the elderly, ironically, wb",- increases in the child popula- childless couples, or the affluent will be willing to tion should heighten public attention to the needs supportearlyeducation for urban,minority of the young, the changing complack -.1 of children children. may limit public action for children as a result of Indeed, one may wonder whether it is a mere rad: Ibias.Indeed, demographic and ecological coincidence that the growing majorities of Black chang:-.4 hold the potential for polarization and and Hispanic children in urban schools coincides conflict based on age, ethnicity, family status and with mounting public dissatisfaction with schools social class. and the corollary demands for tuition tax credits and educational vouchers. Whereas educational Age and Ethnicity policy has heretofore attempted to resolve equity issues, it may become increasingly difficult to tax For example, the average age of the white the affluent to support the education of nonafflu- ent children. Analysis of social policies for children populatio.is growing older while that of the minority ,opulation is much younger. Since the clearly reveals the fact i..lat the nee-is of minority older generation will be mostly majority, and the children a.often obscured or ignored (Washing- younger generation mostly minority, the potential ton, 1585; Laosa, 1984). for increased conflict in priorities (such as day care If unmatched by adequate policy initiatives at the federal, state and local levels, public response vs. retirement` seems obvious ( McNett, 1983). to the expected demographic trends may perpetu- ate and harden division of American society among Family Status social class and racial or ethnic lines. There is an urgent need for flexible and creative education Moreover,demographicprojectionscreatea policies matched by cooperation among allseg- probabilitythatthe"childless haves"willbe ments of the population (McNett, 1983). called upon to pay for the education of the Personal and national self-interest may encour- "fertile have nots." The fastest growin; household zge the elderly and/or whites to make investments populations in this ration are people who are in early education for minority children. Clearly,
54 55 TrendsDemographics
the retirement income of today's workers will thenation'seconomic,political,andmilitary depend on the productive employment of the strength as the majority population ages (Mc Nett, minority youngsters. The growing ethnic popula- 1983). Therefore, ensuring a foundation for success tion:represent an underdeveloped nationalre- among poor minority children becomes an essential source that will become increasingly important to imperative for early educators.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.What are the major demographic trends that may influence early childhood education programs? 2. How will trends in population affect early education? 3.Will increased cultural diversity change the way early educationprograms will be planned and run? 4. How can we assure that tomorrow's programs will be responsive and appropriate fortomorrow's children?
55 9. TRENDS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION PART II: INSTRUCTION by Valora Washington
INSTRUCTION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD Full-Day Kindergarten Demographic realities will no doubt heighten Similarly, thereis rising debate over whether public and professional debate about the appropri- full-day kindergarten should be routinely available. ate types and levels of instruction for young chil- About 46 percent of Black five-year-olds, and 21 dren. While early instruction is sought for both percent of white five-year-olds, now attend full-day poor and affluent children,eachisbased on programs. Conversely, about 34 percent of Black, distinct philosophies and rationales. Early experi- and 65 percent of white five-year-olds attend part- ences for the poor have been sought to mitigate day programs (CDF, 1985). In the fall 1985 school the presumed deleterious effects of the home and year, an estimated 3.5 million American five-year- social environment (/filmy 1985; Zig ler and Valen- olds entered kindergarten, with more attending tine, 1979), schooling for today's affluent child full day than ever before (Morse, 1985). apparently seeks to extend and augment existing The rapid shift to full-day kindergarten is widely advantages. viewed as one of the most important recent devel- Part of the motivation for early enrollment is no opments in early education, although its impact doubt that "schooling" is an integral part of the and purpose are the subjects of fierce debate child care arrangement for working parents. Yet, (Mitt-nthal, 1982). Critics see the program more as many parents are also motivated by concern for an attempt to meet parental needs for day care. their children's futures.... Ames and Chase (1980) argue vigorouslythat children are not physically ready for the routine and academic pressure concomitant [with] full-day When Should Schooling Begin? kindergarten. Advocates of full-day kindergarten Of current interest is the issue of lowering the stress the mental and physical maturity and expo- public school entrance age to four, particularly for sure of today's young children. And one of the disadvantaged youth. Educators are divided on the few longitudinal studies of students attending full- question of whether three- and four-year-olds are day kindergarten suggests that the children do well ready to benefit from a y type of formal instruc- (Morse, 1985). tion. There is concern about the "hurried child" (Elkind, 1982) and fear that early education places Basic Education excessive demands on young children, inevitably causing frustration and failure. Rather, three- and Pressure for a back-to-basics curriculum is appar- four-year-olds are thought to thrive in the home ently growing (Nimnicht, 1981). Partly fueed by a where they receive the warmth and contiruity series of reports on the crisis in our educational which is the foundation for later learning. system, there is a new emphasis on drill, recitation, Nevertheless, a growing number of state legisla- homework, discipline, testing, traditional grading tures are ready to invest in public education for systems, and the elimination of social promotion four-year-olds (Bland, 1985). The South Carolina (Morrison,1984). Advocates of an academic ap- Education Improvement Act of 1984 supports pro- proach tc.early learning feel that itwill reduce grams for four-year-olds who have "predicted sig- educational costs, take advantage of the child's nificant icaiiness deficiencies." Both New York learning facility and eagerness to learn, and maxi- and Connecticut's Commissioners of Education mize the rapid intellectual growth that is occurring support starting school at the age of four. Texas in the preschool years. In this view, the failure to and Missouri have enacted legislation to provide providecognitivestimulation maycurtailthe programs for four-year-olds who are low income, child'sultimatelevelof achievement (Elkind, developmental delayed or have English deficien- 1970). cies. Elkind (1970) also notes that there is no prepon-
' pages 322-23 for acknowledgment and references
5o 5 7 TrendsInstructiot, derance of evidence that formal instruction is more mein to creats! an appropriate balance between efficient, more economical, more necessary or more intellectual, social- emotional, and physical growth. cognitively stimulating than the traditional pro- A further dilemma is how teachers can use chil- gram. Further, advocates of a "whole child" ap- dren's own interests and abilities to proinote a love proach are concerned that the back-to-basics move- of learning and to preserve their emerging confi- ment will make learning an unpleasant,dull, dence in themselves as learners while addressing monotonous, and rote task. There is also concern the back-to-basics concerns of the taxpayer. The that basic skills (reading, writing, and arithmetic) introduction of technologies such as computers in will become the curriculum with no time left for the early education curriculum serves to intensify social sciences,art, and music (Morrison, 1984). these debates. Hannan (1984) argues that "reason" constitutes Clearly, public policy will affect early education only a small part of the human being; from the in the coming years as legislators seek educational point of view of the child's development needs, reform and attempt to balance inequities. Yet, the the most important dynamics of life are emotional perceived benefits of public attention to early and social. childhood :duration must not obscure a host of instructional concerns. For example, Blank (1984) Computers in Early Education notes that while policymakers seem to quickly Part of the excitement for she back-to-basics grasp the potential economic impact of early inter- movement in early education is the potential creat- vention, they are less likely to allocate the cost per ed by the use of computers (Moorsund, 1981). child that has been necessary to achieve the desired Yet, despite the trend toward state-mandated com- results. Newly proposed initiatives in early educa- puter literacy (Barbour et al., 1984), there is not tion appear unlikely to replicate the comprehensive widespread use of computers in the primary grades models of nationally lauded programs for poor (Morrison,1984),althoughthissituation ,may children, including health care, nutrition, parent change rapidly. Two commonly recognized barriers involvement and social services as well as education to computer use in early education are the cost of components. And, the staff-child ratios of some hardware and the fact that many educators fear proposed programs for four-year-olds (1:22 in Tex- that the technology lends itself best to instructional as) are unacceptable. The provisions for children of programming based on behavioristic theory (see working parents for part-day programs and the Leeper, Witherspoon and Day, 1984; Berkman, criteria used to grant entry into four -year -old pro- 1972). Nevertheless, computers have been found to grams need to be examined (Blank, 1984). be an effective teaching tool in kindergarten and Early childhood educators have the training or first grades (School Tech News, 10S4). experience necessary to offer a professional and Major studies have found that predominantly long-term perspective in public policy related to white schools have tw.ce as many computers as children. Further,early childhood educators are minority schools. Also, computers in low income uniquely prepared to respond to current crises or predominantly minority schools tend to be used for fads in the ecological context of childhood. drill -and practice in basicskills; computers in Therefore, early educators must encourage mod- upper income/predeminantly white schools tend to eration and caution in private sector efforts to be I red for programming, problem solving and as develop "superbabies." It is important to bear in learning tools (Reingold,1985; McPhail,1985; mind that conflicting theories and concepts about children have arisen through time that are accepted Bracey,1985). Computer inequityisa serious problem that threatens to separate groups and and then rejected, reconsidered and reformulated communities by providing some children with as educators and parents search for the optimum more effective tools in the age of computer infor- techniques for working with young children (Ste- mation systems. vens and King, 1976).
Implications for Early Childhood Educators THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS There is growing concern that childhood is dis- OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION appearing and .:iat children are inert Asingly viewed There has been growing concern about the pro- as "pseudo adults" in terms of clothing, behavior, fessional status of early childhood educators. Many and academic expectations (Postman, 1982). The consumers view teaching young children as an instructional issues in early childhood challenge extension of mothering (Silen, 1985). According to teachers to use their know ledge of child develop- Silen (1985), this concern has led to a new aware-
57 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS
ness of the need to communicate to the public at visitors, and infant/toddler programs. In its 10th large (Caldwell, 1984) and a search for common anniversary year, the CDA now holds substantial nomenclature within the field (Hostetler and Klug- promise for revitalization; effective September 1, man, 1982; NAEYC, 1984). One objective of 1985, the National Association for the Education teacher professionalism is to upgrade existing con- of Young Children will assume the management, ditions for teachers thus benefiting t'te children, and future refinement of the CDA program (Phil- their families and society as a whole (Machado and lips,1985). Myers, 1984). Program Effectiveness Teacher Quality Although the recent spate of educational reform reports have focused on high schools, genuine and Between 1983 and 1986, at least 30 national permanent educational reform efforts must begin reports and 250 state reports on the status of at the preschool and elementary levels with a schooling have been issued (Pipho, 1985), ny ay of concentration of resources in those year[s] (Sava, which blame the decline in the quality of iineri- 1985). The long term benefits of preschool (e.g. can education on teachers or colleges of education Berrueta-Clement et d., 1984) and Kindergarten (Tucker and Mautz, 1984). Moreover, Joyce and (Woodruff, reported in Sava, 1985) provide im- Cliff (1984) observe that thefield of teacher pressive evidence on the wisdom of investing "re- education "is not just surrouncied by critics, it is form" efforts in the early years. inhabited by them" (p.5). The criticisms of Nevertheless, there is a tremendous gap between teacher education typically concern the quality of what is known and what is practiced in early prospective teachers and teacher training programs childhood education. This is largely due to the fact (Schlecty,1982; Atkin,1980; Joyce, Bush and thatchild development concepts,theories,re- McKibbin, 1981). starch, and methods have been developed inde- These concerns may be even more prominent pendently of educational practice (Elkind, 1981; about day care or early childhood education teach- Williams, 1984; Almy, 1982; Katz, 1977). This ers, most of whom do not have college degrees. lack of clear congruence between research and The low status of teachers of young children is pr..ctice is often cited as having kept early child- widely recognized (Lightfoot, 1978). Joffe (1977) hood education from achieving the status of a calls early education a weak aLd marginal profes- profession. sion lacking the necessary mandate for the services Reform in early childhood also must be related that it promises. Indeed, the demand for profes- clearlyto measures of effectiveness.Brookover sional recognition for early childhood educators (1985) defines an effective school program as one involves the development of increased conceptual in which essentiallyallstudents,regardlessof clarity among child care workers themselves as to family income or race, achieve at acceptable levels who they are and what they do (Caldwell, 1984; of mastery. Despite numerous problems involved Joffe, 1977). in doing definitive research on sch effects and Nevertheless, many observers (e.g., Ade, 1982; effective schools (Sizemore, 1985), researchers have Silen,1985; Katz,1977) continue to question now identified some of the correlates of school whether professionalism is the only legitimate, a effectiveness related to school ideology, organiza- realistic, or a desirable agenda for early childhood tional structure and instructional practices (Brook- educators. The concept of certifying a semi-skilled over, 1985; Iezotte and Bancroft, 1985). profession of child development associates (CDA) developed dut to the recognition that it would be expensive and impractical to employ Implications for Early Childhood Educators college-trainedteachersin most preschool pro- Withcit question, issues related to teacher or grams. However, the hope that the federal govern- program quality are capturing the public attention. ment would ultimately make the CDA a minimum However, because much of early education occurs requirement in staffing federally financed programs outside of the public school, issues related to the for young children ,_as never been realized. Never- training and qualification of teachers, program theless, over 17,000 child cr t workers have been certification, working conditions, child-staff certified through the CDA program. Sixty percent and prestige have been ignored. Indeed, while of the states now mention the CDA intheir teaching at every level has stressful dimensions, the licensing requirements. Indeed, CDA now provides impact of stress on the teacher of young children credentials for family day care providers, home has just begun to be examined (Hysor1982).
58 59 TrendsInstruction
Movement toward professional status may be issues in the field such2.3child care, licensing enhanced by more effective collaboration between requi.ements,, and staff qualifications. However, we research and practice in the field. It is also impor- can more clearly specify policy alternatives, devise tant to relate the growing body of early childhood criteria for vialyzing these alternatives, and pro- education information t, an ever-widening ecologi- vide concise analysis of the political, educational calcontext.Moreover,early childhood teacher and economic factors involved. The applicability of training and certification programs mustensure child development concepts and principles to social that teachers are prepared toinstruct poor or policy evaluation has been adequc tely demonstrat- minority youth. ed (Phillips, 1984' We must be willing to advance The low "minimum" standards among pre- a clear statement abou' Jr-Lact,cal and policy school or day care providers raise additional con- implications of the current state of the art in caziy cerns in view of the acute shortage of infant, childhood education. toddler and after-school care, and the increase in Trends related to demographic shifts, changing the number of teachers needed to meet demo- human ecology, ethnic polarization, eferly instruc- graphic projections. The urgent need for affordable tion, and teacher or program quality highlight the care may encourage unqualified entrepreneurs to need to anticipate and adapt toindeed, influ- render child care services. Unfortunately, the de- encesocial forces. Three themes emerge from this mand is so high that good programs cannot drive analysis of trends in early childhood education for inferior ones from the marketplace. As a profes- the 1990s: sion, early childhood educators must establish and the importance of increased involvement by enforce criteria through which every child will be early childhood educators in advocacy and policy reasons.bly assured of high cpiality, developmental activities,consistent with tradition in this field care, rather than custodial care. (May and Vinoskis, 1977; Ziegler and Valentine, 1979; Almy, 1975; Conclusion the need for fundamental ch.mge in the be- The coming decade challenges early childhood liefs and theories with respect to the distribution of educators to prepare to serve larger numbers of human ability and the role of racial minorities in children from diverse family backgrounds and eth- American society; snd nic groups. While the growing numbers of chil- the need for early educators to anticipate, dren should resch in increased attention to their plan for and work toward the implementation of welfare, it is uncertain whether the emerging racial instructional change. mix O. young children will influence negatively As long as society is dynamic and composed of a public commitment to devote a proportional share conglomeration of cultural andsocialgroups, of our nation's resources to theyoung. Americans will be forced to live with some dis- To date, there is scant recognition of the public agreement about the philosophy and goals of responsibility for the education and care of young education (Ornstein, 1982). The 1990s present a children except to ameliorate the conditions of window of opportunity which can advance public poverty. opinion, research, theory, and practice in early Neither parents nor early childhood professional:, education if we are prep_ed to address realistically have reached consensus positions on important the foreseeable trends.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Is there a disparity between the expectations of high-income and low-incomeparents about the purpose of early childhood education? 2. How does differential educational experience (e.g., full-dayvs. half-day program) relate to the concept of equal educational opportunity? 3.Will new educational programs for young children benarrow in focus, or will they be comprehensive like some of the models of the present? 4.Should the teachers of young children be fully qualified professionals,or is there justification for reduced or narrow training? 5. How will the diversity and mix of young children in tomorrow'sprograms affect public perception and pub- lic support for early childhood education?
59 GO 10. EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION: ISSUES AND TRENDS by Paula Jorde
Historically, the field of early childhood educa- rather narrow one, referring to the planned educa- tion has always been closely tied to changes in tional experiences of young children ages three society.Like a barometef-, early childhood pro- through five in group settings. Today, the term grams respond to changes in the social, political, early childhood education i.used to reflect a far and economic climates. Child care practices have more inclusive view of children and their educa- had to adapt to changing social values, beliefs, tional experience. Some go so far as to say that needs, and concerns as each generation gives way earlyeducationincludesvirtually"everything" to the next. Over the past decade, for example, we that happens tothe young child from birth have seen how the delivery of child care services through the initial years of formal schooling. This has been dramatically alterei co meet the needs of expanded view has evolved in large pan because of single parents, as well as d-1 career families, and two coinciding events. First, a wealth of research provide many more options for working parents has emerged over the past two decades, document- with infants, toddlers, and preschoolers. But early ing the foundational role of the earliest years in childhood education does more than merely re- achiev;ng full intellectual, social, emotional, and spond to societal changes, and may in fact serve as physical functioning, and the importance cf early an important agent of change. In the mid-1960s, childhood programs in the child's development.' to cite an example, compensatory education pro- Second, the changing structure of the American grams such as Head Stan were viewed by many as family has forced educators to accept a broader a panacea for social inequality, a way to int_ vene domain of responsibility.2 Early childhood teachers and break the cycle of poverty for disadvantaged have always talked about educating the "whole" children. Today, with the latest wave of school child, but today that concept takes on an even reform measures sweeping the country, we again more important meaning as we address the needs hear the familiar rhetoric about early childhood of children from single parent families, dual career education as a change agent. Many view early families, and families in crisis. Since the mental education as the most promising vehicle for pre- health of children is closely related to that of their venting poor academic performance by students parents,ithas been imperative that programs during their later school years. move from mere custodial cace to a far more In both responding to, and initiating changes, comprehensive one that provides support to par- early childhood education seems once again at the cans in their parenting role. forefront of America's consciousness. This [chapter] We thus see that the scope and the nature of will attempt to synthesize the most recent develop- early childhood education isbeing redefined to ments in this field and provide a framework for encompass infant, toddler, and preschool-age chil- understanding the key issues and trends that will dren attending programs that may be either half- be likely to dominate the attention of educators day or full-day, public or private, and of differing during the coming decade. The overview touches philosophical orientations. Early childhood educa- upon five themes of early childhood education: the tion is no longer conceived of as a set of curricular changing scope and nature of programs, the gov- experiences happening in the exclusive context of a ernmental tolein support and regulation, new group setting at a preschool, but as including all models for the delivery of services, quality as a those influences that affect a child's development centralconcern, and the professionalizationof at home as well and in other care arrangements in personnel. the community. The child as an organism has not changed, but our perception of his or her environ- ment certainly has. As its sphere of action and THE CHANGING SCOPE AND NATURE professional responsibility has expanded, the field OF EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAMS has taken on a distinctly multi-disciplinary ap- proach.Itnow encompasses theinterestsof, In years past, the definition of the fiela was a among others, education, psychology, sociology,
See pages 323-24 for acknowledgment 2nd references.
60 6t Issues and Trends
anthropology,nutrition,pediatrics,social work, in fiscal1980. Most of the present Administra- and family welfare. The changing scope and nature tion's child care initiatives focus on encouraging of early childhood education has important impli- the private sector and state and local governments cations for individuals thinking of entering the to replace the Federal role in funding. This shift field. No longer can early childhood educators view toward a decentralized funding policy has taken its their roi.. with the spine specificity as in years past. toll on individual programs, and the effects will They must now consider the child in the intersect- continue to be highly disruptive through the next ing contexts of family, school, and community.3 decade. Many centers relying on public subsidies will have to close their doors for lack of funding, and the technicalassistance once available for THE CHANGING ROLE OF GOVERNMENT beginning new programs and training staff has all IN FUNDING AND REGULATION but disappeared. Thisalso has had important ramifications for the quality of those programs Wha- we are witnessing here is clearly a return surviving budget curs.In addition,the Federal to local control. The early childhood movement is government is less l'kely than ever tc promulgate reluctantly being forced to become more self- national day care standards. Since it dropped ac- sufficient in meeting local needs by returning to its tion in revising and expanding the Federal Inter- traditional grass roots model for program develop- agency Day Care Regulations (FIDCR), there has ment and funding. In the 1960s, there was a been action taken in many states to deregulate day massive infusion of Federal dears as part of the care and disarm state licensing agencies altogether goals of the Great Society, but that underwriting of early education was shortlived.During the 1970s, three bills for expanded national child care THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW MODELS and family services were defeated, and the funding FOR THE DELIVERY OF SERVICES and commitment to early education slowly began to evaporate. Perhaps more fundamentally, the During the past few years we have seen an notion of social entitler :nt,i.e., the right by unprecedented demand fot child care created by virtue of societal membership to a minimum fam- the increasing number of females wir.o have joined ilysupport for childcare,was seriouslychal- the labor force. Simultaneously, the population of lenged. In the early childhood community, never- children of appropriate age to attend infant, tod- theless, the expectations for Federal involvement dler,and preschool programs has increased by and support were still strong, since it had learned nearly 20 percent. Both these trends are expected to depend on governmental assistance. Now, in the to continue during the next decade.9 This demand, 1980s, a new awareness has finally taken hold, and coupled with a shrinking Federal commitment to program adminirtrators have resigned themselves to subsidize child care, has spawned the development the probabiliry taat the kind of support for social of many new models for the delivery of child care programs seen in the 1960s will never happen services. The next decade willcontinue to be again. A universally available day care serviT for characterized by an increased need for child care all low income parents is now clearly unlikely given options. The following is a brief overview of some theprevailingsocial,political,and economic of the caregiving models that exist today. climates.s Employer-sponsored programs. Employer spon- Meanwhile, the needs of young children and sor-lip of child care is not a new phenomenon. their families for support and services persist. Exist- Indeed, during World War II when more than ing programs such as Head Start, Title XX, the three million married women entered the work Work Incentive Program (WIN), and Aid to Fam- force,child care became imperative and many ilies with Dependent Children (AFDC) day care defense plants provided such services. After the payments provide scattered government subsidy to war, however, most of these programs dosed, and low income families, but it has been estimated industry sponsorship of child care was limited to a that subsidized child care is a vailable for less than few scatteredindustries. During the1970s,in 4.i percent of those eligible.6 Child care funding response to the influx of women into the work his never been adequate, and itis still suffering force, business and labor began again to explore from Congressional approval of President Reagan's the feasibility of providing day care as a fringe request for a 21 percent reduction in the Federal benefit to employees.") In the last few years, suc'n block grant to states for social services in 1981.7 employer - supportedchildcareprograms have Funding for fiscal 1984 was $600 million less than grown significantly from only 100 programs in
6 0 2 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS
1978 to an estimated 1500 programs in operation dergym), or custodial care for young-children for a today." However, not all of these provide direct few hours each week (e.g., Mother's Day Out). services to children in on-site or near-site programs, Church-sponsored programs. It is estimated that since they encompass a broad range of options as much as 50 percent of the center-based care reflecting the differing characteristics of businesses, provided in this country is housed on religious labor force compositions, company goals, and fam- property." In1983,the National Council of ily needs, to include flexible personnel policies, Churches of Christ conducted a national study to information and referral programs, and voucher determine the extent and nature of church-based payments to parents. Proponents of employer-spon- child care. One striking finding was that local sored child care report that such policies directly churches are taking the initiative in providing child benefit the employer, as such programs pay good care without the support or urging of the nation i dividends on the investment in terms of increased hierarchy." Church involvement thus seems to be productivity, staff morale and loyalty, enhanced entirely a grass-__ its phenomenon, a response to public image, improved recruitment, and reduction an overwhelming community need. in turnover, absenteeism, and tardiness. Of course Programs sponsored by social service agencies. not all employers are impressed with the results, Numerous programs are sponsored by nonprofit and point out that many parents do not want to social service agencies such as the YMCA, YWCA, commute on publictransportation during rush Salvation Army, and Community Centers. Many of hour with their young children. They are also these are half-day enrichment programs for young concerned about the high start-up costs of provid- children, while others provide fu!l -day care for ing ser *--s, as well as the equity considerations for children of working parents. Funding generally employees who do not have children. comes from a variety of sources including Head Family day care. Over the past few years family Start, United Way, parent fees, and local founda- day care in private homes, referring to anyrange- tions. In years past, many of these relied heavily ment where up to eight children are cared for onComprehensive EmploymentTrainingAct under one roof, has gained a new respectability. (CETA) funding from the Federal government and Many pa.nits prefer this smaller, home-like envi- have now had to cut back services. ronment for infants, and it has indeed been esti- Programs s,,onsored by institutions of higher mated that well over half of all child care for education. Colleges and universities have for many children under the age of fiveis provided by years run laboratory (demonstration) preschools for family day care providers." Unfommitely, only a teacher training and -esearch, but the structure, fraction of these facilities are licensed, perhaps less funding, and clientele of these programs has grad- than 20 percent. ually changed over the past few years. Few colleges Public-sponsored programs.There areseveral now have the financial resources to subsidize lab different types here. Many schooldistricts,for schools, and many demonstration schools have example, provide comprehensive child care services closed. Others have had to find alternative sources to parents of children at risk (those with physical of funding by expanding hours and services and handicaps, of extremely young parents, and from opening enrollment beyond the children of faculty low-income families). Funding for these programs and students to include those from the immediate comes from a variety of sources including Title XX community. block grant monies, local taxes. AFDC reimburse- Private proprietary and corporate programs. The ments, and sliding-scalefeespaid by parents. increase in demand for child care has dramatically Several states are considering legislation to increase affected the private sector during the past decade, the public school's tolein serving young chil- including small, individual enterprises like Mary dren." Another type is offered at many of the Jane's Nurseii School, as well as large, corporate high schools or vocational training sites throughout chains suchas Daybridge Learning Centers or the country. These programs, most often half-day, Kinder Care. Most demographic analysts project a provide a due role of training high school age continuation of the growth in the private sector students in the principles of child development well into the 1990s." These programs run the and early childhood education, and of providing a gamut in philosophical orientations as well as the preschool experience for the young children en- kinds of services they provide. Some remain half- rolled in the program. Still another type is offered day nursery schools for preschool children, and under the auspices of local Dark districts. These others provide comprehensive full-day care for in- programs, usually low cost and part time, provide fants, toddlers, and preschoolers, as well as after- enrichment activities for young children (e.g., kin- school care for school-age children. These programs
62 63 issues and Trends
also,vary widely in the quality of services they enterprise system, and many church-sponsored pro- offer. There appears to be a general bias in the grams view licensing as a violation of the separa- public's belief that nonprofit programs have better tion of church and state qualified staff, pay their teachers more, and gener- One promising development with respect to the ally provide a higher quality of care. There are quality issue occurred in 1984, when the National indeed zany programs that have well-prepared Association for the Education of Young Children and -p staff to give excellent care for young (NAEYC) launched a nationwide voluntary accredi- children, even though some private proprietary tation system for early childhood programs." A set programs aresingularly motivated to maximize of guidelines developed for this new accreditation profits. system involves all aspects of a program, including information and referral progeams. These are staff-child interaction, curriculum, staff-parent in- also referred to as resource and referral programs teraction,staff qualifications, health and safety, and increasingly are seen as a viable way to make nutrition, and program evaluation. The procedure the delivery of child care services more efficient involves three steps: (1) The center director, staff, and effective. Such programs are generally run by and parents examine the program's operations to nonprofit community organizations or state and identify strengths and weaknesses. This self-study local social service agencies, and they gather and culminates in a descriptive report noting areas of disseminate information on enrollmenttrends, compliance and improvements that have been needed services in the community, different pro- made. (2) Validators make an on-site visit to the grams, and staff employment possibilities. Several program to verify the accuracy of the center's states have taken the initiative to appropriate seed report.(3) A commission reviews the program money for information and referral centers." report and makes a decishn. At this point, the NAEYC accreditation system isstill a voluntary procedure, but it holds considerable promise for ENSURING QUALITY upgrading program services and ensuring quality A CENTRAL CONCERN throughout the country. A final point needs to be madequality is Beyond the mere provision of child care for intricately linked to the content of the early child- parents, the concern of early childhood educators hood education curri,:ulum, but it does not equal extends to the quality of the services.'" With academics. Educators who sec the detrimental ef- cutbacks in financial support for enforcing and fects of excessive stress in young children placed in upgrading child care licensing standards, monitor- an academic pressure cooker are becoming increas- ing the quality of programs is becoming increasing- ingly concerned about those who view early learn- ly difficult. Although recent reports of child abuse ing in its narrow cognitive context.21 Most child in center-based programs have focused national development experts agree that the emphasis must attention on the issue, very little action has been be on developing -. broad-based competence in the taken to date to remedy the situation. The issue of young child, involving those capacities or processes, regulating and licensing early childhood centers is cognitive, social, emotional, and physical, which a complex one, however. The quality of child care determine effective functioning in a wide range of has typically been conceptualized as a continuum situations.Here, educating the public becomes with narm at one end and optimum child develop- imperative. ment at the other end. It is obvious that cramped space, inadequate heating, or negative teacher ac- tions would b- towards the harm end, but specify- THE PROFESSIONALIZATION ing the quality end isnot that easy." While OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATORS evaluation researchers often use different yardsticks to measure expected outcomes of early childhocd High quality programs are run by well-prepared, programs, most child care licensing practices are competent, and c'edicattd staff with a firm under- only concerned with enforcing minimal standards standing of hur tan development and learning. that usually have to do with the health and safety Studies conductec. in a variety of settings have of children. As center-based childcare has grown, repeatedly shown that the state quality is a critical so too have several interest groups that question determinant of overall program quality.22 Thus any the right of the state to set any standards at all. attempt to improve early childhood programs must Many center owners from the private sector consid- look at the professional qualification of both the er regulation and licensing a threat to the free classroom teacher and the program director. Unfor-
63 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS tunately,political and economicrealities work wishing to enroll in local colleges and universities. against the creation of a well-prepared child care Recent tightening of Federal student loan monies work force. Requirements for cenifi.ation are mini- has further aggravated the difficulty. mal, and current licensing standards do not require The professionalization of early childhood work- advanced academic work. Less than optimal work- ers will remain a central issue for the next decade. ing conditions and low occupational status work Some efforts are underway to help improve the against the recruitment of competent and dedicat- situation. On a national level,the Child Care ed personnel. There is little incentive for potential Employee Project and the Day Care Workers Con- workers to enter the field where, upon completion nection publish news' ALCM and offer information of a four-year college degre-, teachers can expect to about employee rights. These organizations also earn only slightly more than minimum wage. Any conduct workshops and pre side materials for pro- further schooling rarely makes a difference in com- gram directors on how to improve personnel poli- pensation. Moreover, the low pay is seldom bal- cies and upgrade working conditions. Many col- anced by a short work week or other benefits such leges of education are also focusing attention on as health coverage paid vacations, or retirement. the issue. At the author's institution, for example, Given this situation,itis not surprising that an Early Childhood Professional Development Pro- disillusionment is widespread among early child- ject l.,.3 recently been launched to give financial hood workers. Low morale, job stress, and burnout assistance for program directors to pursue studies in are not uncommon as many dedicated teachers and early childhood leadership and advocacy and to directors find themselves frustrated, and many sim- conduct in-service training for teachers and direc- ply leave their positions to look for more lucrative tors on a variety of early childhood topics. Some and less stressful jobs." Staff 11MOVCI in child care important strides are also being made at the state centers averages 30 to 40 percent a year, far greater level. The Illinois Association for r.he Education of than in other human service professions. Indeed, Young Children, far example, has just initiated the Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that child the Society of Early Childhood Professionals. The 1.0job care work is among the country's top Society's goals are to expand the public's awareness categories with the highest tumover.24 This pits a of the importance of early childhood education tremendous strain on programs that must search and give recognition to those who promote high out and retrain new staff, thus disrupting continu- quality work. ity and risking csanprourtises in quality. Opportuni- ties for further professional development are one Professionals in early childhood education talk effective way to retain the best and most capable about a kind of quiet revolution taking place in in the profession. In-service training for teachers their field. Welcome or not, recent social, political, and directors not only helps them expand their and economic developments have forced them to knowledge base and improve skills, but also has reexamine their functions and devise different ways the ancillary benefit of increasing commitment to through which to serve young children and their the profession.Despite the clearlink between caregiversbetter.Changes are apparent inthe quality child care and staff qualification, there scope and nature of programs, the funding ani appears to be virtually no government support for regulatory roles of the government, forms and funding the professional development of child care varieties of service delivery, means end manners of workers. What little money allocated to centers quality monitoring, and professionalization efforts subsidized by Title XX was totally eliminated by of personnel. Early childhood education is clearly the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981. in a state of flux, searching for greater legitimacy Most programs are not in a position to fill this and a sense of identity, and the next decade will void and to provide comprehensive in-service train- prove vital in determining just what that identity ing for their staff, or financial assistance to those will be.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Do social and family changes influence the scope and nature of early childhood programs in the schools? 2.Will the federal and state governments have a larger role in planning and funding programs? 3. How will an increased variety in program sponsorship influence program coordination, quality control, and delivery? 4. How will the preparation of teachers and other personnel respond to some of the current trends?
64 65 11. EDUCATING THE VERY YOUNG: A CALL FOR CLEAR THINKING by David Elkind
Education theorists from Plato to Maria Montes- tions about the educatior of young children. sori have recognized that the education of pre- Can early childhood education be more than school children is on a continuum with the formal custodial care? education provided by the schoolsand that, in- deed, there can be meaningful schools for pre- It seems to me that this question raises an school children. alificial dichotomy between education and child In our own day, there is a growing demand for care. At alllevels of education, thereis some out-of-home programs for preschool children. But degree of child care. Thisis true even at the this demand does rot grow out of a Platonic universitylevel, where the concept of in loco concern for the proper upbringing of the young or parentis was generally accepted until the revolu- even out of a Montessorian concern that young tions of the 1960s and seems to be reemerging children be given the kind of intellectual stimula- now. And the child-care functions of the public tion needed to nurture their budding mental abili- schools are increasing as more and more of them ties. Rathtr, the contemporary demand for out-of- provide before- and after-school programs for chil- home programs for young children derives first and dren of parents who work. And, of course, in boarding schools the child care responsibility of the foremost from parents' need for quality child carei, while they work and pursue careers. Theorists like schools is very large indeed. Plato and Montessori wanted professionals to rear young children because they felt it was too impor- tant a task to be left to parents. Today's parents PRESCHOOL PREP SCHOOL? want professionals to care for their young children because they do not have the time to do so So the issue is not education versus child care themselves. but rather what proportion of each of these two The difference is very important. For the theo- components should be provided at any particular rists, providing young children with a sound edu- level of schooling.It is certainly true, that pro- cation was justification for separating a young child grams for young children must, of necessity, in- from itsparents. For today's parents, however, volve more child care than must programs for work and career are the reasons they put young elementary school children, but the difference is childreninto out -of -home programs.Providing relative, not absolute. Teachers at the preschool children with early childhood education is often level must do more comforting, more limit setting, merely a rationalization for putting young children more crisis intervention than teachers at the higher in out-of-home programs. grade levels.But they arealso helping young Itis because today's parentsand to some ex- childrenacquirethe fundamentalconceptsof tent teachers and educational administratorsdo space, time, number, causality, relations, and na- not fully appredate the nature and value of early tureconcepts that form the essential data base for childhood tducltion tha, there is so much confu- all later learning. In addition, preschool teaches sion in the field today. In some respects, schools help children acquire the preacademic language are involved in early childhood education for the and socialskills,suchas paying attention and wrong reasons. They're responding to the demand taking turns, that formal education presupposes. of parents for quality child care facilities, rather Does an early start mean an early finish? than to convictions about the benefits of early Is education a race? In a race, it is certainly true childhood education. To help clarify the nature that an early start may give the competitor a better and value of early childhood education and its chance of winning. But education is not a race, place within the educationalenterprise,Iwill There is certainly not a starting pointnor is there address some of the most frequently asked ques- a finish line. A diploma does not signify that one
Set page 324 for acknowledgment, footnotes, and suggestions for further reading.
65
40 4 0 0 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS has won a race but'_..nlythat one has learned teaching the wrong things at too early an age enough to go on learning at a particular level. constitutes miseducation, putting children at risk Education, in the broadest sense,is an ongoing for short-term stress and long-term learning prob- adaptation to our soc;a1 and physical environment; lemsfor no purpose. !t ends only when we do. The idea of early childhood education as an early start that insures an early finish in an educa- THE DISADVANTAGED tional raceis,in part atleast, an unfortunate byproduct of the Head Start programs. Numerous Is preschool education crucial for disadvantaged studies, including one done in 1983 by the Con- children? sortium of Longitudinal Studies, show.at Heaa Start programs have provided much-needed health This question has to be answered in both the and education benefits for millions of disadvan- broad and narrow sense of crucial. In the broadest taged preschool children. There is no question as sense, healthy early childhood education is crucial to their value for the families they serve. Nonethe- for all children. All young children will benefit less, the choice of the phrase "Head Start" was from the opportunity and support for fully devel- unfortunate. "Head Start" does imply a race. And oping their intellectual, emotional, and social abil- notsurprisingly,whenmiddle-incomeparents ities. To the extent that disadvantaged children are heard that low-income children were being given a perhaps lesslikely to receive such education at "Head Start," they wanted a similar "Head Start" home or at school than are advantaged children, for their children. special efforts need to be made in order to insure But education is not a race. There is absolutely that disadvantaged children get off to a good start. no evidence 'hat a child who is taught to read at There is, however, a narrower sense in which the the age of three has any lasting advantage over a word '-rucial is used. Is early childhood education child who learns to read at age six or seven.* crucial for disadvantaged children to succeed aca- Indeed, the evidence 4.II points in the other direc- demically as students and occupationally as adults? tion. In the 1930s Carlton Washburn compared This is a more complex question, with social and classes of children who had been taught to read in political overtones. It harks back to some of the first grade with children who had been taught to motivations for introducing early childhood educa- read at ages seven and eight. He found that when tion into this country during the last half of the these young people reached adolescence,both 19th century. The fast early childhood programs groups read at comparable levels. But the late were for the children of immigrants, whose parents reading group were more interested, spontaneous had to work. It was hoped that these early child- readers than were the early reading group. hood programs would socialize children and keep Starting children in formal academics too -arly them from becoming delinquent teenagers. may, in fact, do more harm than good. Cross- Ifeel strongly that the schools,at whatever cultural data (described in Comparative Reading: level, should not be used to solve social problems Cross-National Studies of Behavior and Processes in that do not originate in the schools. My objection Reading and Writing, Macmillan, 1973) are quite to busing was not that I was in any way opposed convincing inthis regard.In Denmark, where to integration, but that I could not see how busing reading instruction follows a language experience was going to change adult attitudes.It seemed approach and formal instruction is delayed until unlikely to me thata child who went to an age seven, there is almost no illiteracy. In contrast, integrated school but who never sfw Blacks (or in France, where state-mandated formai instruction whites) in hior her home or community was in reading begins at age five., some 30 pe.ent of going to be any less prejudiced than a child the children experience reading problems. LIk.: dise attending, a nonintegrated school. Without parents the data from two studies (one by Berjamin Bloom making an attempt at integration, integration in and one by June Cox and others) and a recent the schools alone was bound to fail, at least as a Gallup survey of people who have attained emi- way of solving the problems of racial prejudice and nence make it very clear that the parents of gifted discrimination. chi' hen did not impose their learning priorities In the narrow sense of whether early childhood upcI their young offspring. Rather they followed education is crucial for resolving the problems of the child's lead, emphasizing play and a rich, poverty, unequal oppomity, cultural bias, mid simulating environment rather than formal in- racial prejudice in our country, the answer is quite struction.Education, then,isnot a race, and clearly no! Early childhood education should not
66
( 3 j Educating the Very Young
be expected any more than education in general to Young children are already equipped with the solve social problems whose roots and dynamisms skills they need to construct the concepts on which fie elsewhere. I dearly wish we could stop using to base the further skills they will acquire through education to ease our guilty consciences about the formal instruction. Teaching young children aca- social ills in our society. demic skills is miseducation, because it fails to take On the other hand, healthy early childhood account of the child's existing skills and the con- educationincombinationwithcomprehensive cepts the child must construct with them. health care, education, and job training for parents Young children do need to !earn some skills, would go far towards alleviating some of the social but not the formal reading and math skills that are problems of our society. more appropriately and effectively taught at later age levels Should the preschool program reproduce the PRESCHOOL CURRICULUM structure ofkindergarten? The answer to this question depends upon what What skills, if any, should a preschool teach? is meant by the "structure" of we kindergarten. In education, structure tends to be a very ambigu- A basic misunderstanding about the education ous word, used in many different ways by many of preschool children is that it should be involved different people. If a kindergarten is a true kinder- with teachingalbeit at a more elementary level garten, that is,if it provides a developmentally the skills that are taught in first grade. The error appropriatecurriculum,then such a program here is the assumption that young children are would, with some slight modifications, be appro- lacking in learning skills! This b not at all the priate for four-year-olds. An age-appropriate pro- case. In many ways, the four- and five-year old gram for young children takes account of their child is like the nine- or 10-year-old child who has specific males of learning and provides an environ- mastered reading and math and can now put these menta structurethat enables children to fully skills to use acquiring more information. exploit these learning modes. Young children have a variety of learning skills The learning of young children ismanipulative at their command. What they need is the opportu- andfundamental,as opposed to the learning of nity to exercise these skills, mt to learn new ones. oli . children rAnd adults, which is primarilysym- Consider the learning skills preschool children have bolicandderived.Young children learn through at their disposal. First of all, they candiscriminate direct interaction with persons, places, and things. large from small, black :rom white, soft from hard, They must learn firsthand about hot and cold, and so on. In addition, they canmatch to sample, sweet and sou .., green and red, square and round, thatis, given a picture of a boat they can select a up and down, and much more. This is manipula- similar boat from a group of pictures of different tive fundamental learning for which there really is objects. They can alsoclassifylike objectsput all no substitute. A congenitally blind person can be the brown beads in one pile and all the white ones told about red or green but can never really get a in another. And they can begin tosenateaccord- true idea of color. The blind person's learning of ing to size, indicating the smallest, next smallest, color is symbolic, by way of words, and derived and so on. What young children need are the from the experience of others, rather than funda- materials and the orportuuities touse these skills mental, constructed from the blind person's own to acquire a variety of concepts. experience. This is not to say that young children do not The young child's learning is alsopermeable have to learn anything in the way of math or rather thancompartmentalized,as itis in older languaat, but only that they have to learn math children and adults. The categories of reading, and language concepts that will then make it math, science, social studies, and art are really not possible to learn higher order math and language appropriate for young children, whose minds are skills. For example, through classifying and striat- nen organized according to adult categories. Partly ing many different materials, children eventually because their learningispermeable, and partly get to the point where they can construct a notion because what they are learning is at such an entry of a "unit," something thatisboth like and level, they are always learning in many different different from something else.** A true unit con- domains at once.Accordingly, young children cept is basic to performing all arithmetic open tions learr in "spreads" rather than in "steps." Chil- and hence to the attainment of all math skills. dr..n making soup, for example, are learning the
67 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS names of the vegetables (language), the shapes of PRESCHOOLERS AND CHOICE the vegetables (geometry), the weights of the in- gredients (math), and the effect of heating up the To what extent should preschool children choose contents (science)not to mention social coopera- the activities they will engage in? tioninmaking andenjoyingaconsumable product. The question of how much choice and responsi- Young children are also guided by what I have bility children should have for the curriculum is called the structural imperative, a need to find one that has to be asked at all levels of education. stimuli to exercise their emerging mental abilities. One of thecriticisms that the 1983 report A To illustrate, young children who are just acquiring Nation at lath icveled at high schools is that they quantitative skills spontaneously count any set of offer a "smorgasbord" curriculum that caters to things they can find. And some childrenabout the demands of students rather than the "core" one or three per 100have a structural imperative curriculum demanded by educational theory and for reading. They teach themselves to read and ask practice. adults for help when they need it. The issue of choice always has atleast two dimensions. One of these is the freedom of the Finally, play is an important learning mode that student to choose among edmitional offerings; the serves a somewhat different function among young other, the depth, variety, and appropriateness of children thsti it will at a later age. Young children the offerings. In a ;mail college, the student has have few ego defenses; they frequently lose self- of asserting, their compe- less freedom of choice than in a large university esteem. Play is a meat--. only because he or she has fewer options to choose tence and restoring their self-csteem. While young from. In the same w-y, good preschool programs children may I -am something academic from, say, provide children with more freedom than poor playing with dinosaurs, that learning is secondary to what they gain in self-confidence and self- ones, in part because they provide more education- esteem by being able to assert their competence al choices. The issue of choice is thus really no different at over those large creatures. In short, we must not attempt to transform a young child's play into a the preschool k"el than at other levels of educa- tion. There is a' ery definite core curriculum, a set lesson. of skills, concepts, and values that :is desirable The structure of an effective kindergarten class- for all children to acquire. There are also various room provides an environment conducive to the "elective" activities, which permit children to fol- full utilization of these modes of learning. Such a low their own inclinations. The core curriculum of classroom is organized into "interest" (not subject the preschool includes such skills as paying atten- matter) areas, where children can acquire funda- tion, following instructions, taking turns, and com- mental concepts through active manipulation. The pleting a task. With respect to knowledge, children teacher works with small groups of children and should know numbers and letters, the basic colors helps to guide their inquiry. Providing a balance and forms, and have a substantial passive vocabu- scale and then asking children to predict what lary and a good working active vocabulary by the happens when a nailis put in one cup and a time they leave pre.clic ol. They should also have a feather in another is an example of teach, r-guided beginning sense of weights and measures, know inquiry. basic plants and animals, and have had exposure to Group activities and a readily accc....ole play music, songs, and rhythmic activities. area are other components of healthy eatly child- The preschool teacher insures thatall young hood programs. k teacher-child ratio of not more childr.ta acquire this basic curriculum by encourag- than 1 to 15 is still another ingredient. All these ing all the children to participate at one time or components help the caild maximize fundariental another in activities where these basic skills and and manipulative learning, encourag:: permeabili- concepts are emphasi%ed. For example, a child who ty, provide nourishment for the structural impera- spends too much time in the block corner is tive, and support the child's dramatic play. encouraged to move to the reading and science If 2 kindergarten is designed and taught so as to area to give other children a Chan- - with the encourage the basic learning modes of the five- b!acks. In Ciis way, the child learns to take turns year-olds, it is easily adapted tc accommodate four- at the same time that he or she is directed to move year-olds, who share tf.e same learning modes but on to another curricular area. who may need a little more direction and a few So, as r._all levels of eclucatior, the preschool more limits than their oldet siblings. child's opportunities for choice are limited by the
68 f9 Educatir o the Very Young
curricular offerings and by the demands of thecore secondary education. There is, after all,a profes- curriculum. In a good preschool program, the child sion of cut- chile.. Sod education. At many univer- has considerable freedom in deciding when heor sities a Id colleges, students can receive degrees in she will pursue aparticular activity(curricular early childhood education. The Bank Street School area),but much less freedom in deciding what in New York City and the Eliot Pearson Depart- curricular areas are available for exploration. The ment of Child Study at Tufts near Boston are but what is determined by how the classroom isat- two of the best known centers for training early raimed and by how the teacher encourages children childhood educators. There is a professional organi- to move from one activity area to another. In zationthe National Association for 1-1.-e Education .hort, the way in which the preschool environment of Young Childrenwith a membership ofmore is prt,.;:zed limits the child's choices,as does the than 55,000, which offersjournals,newsletters, teacher, who insures that each child sample all the and accreditation procedures. activities available. Early childhood education is just thateduca- Does it really matter if a child attends preschool tionnot glorified babysitting. For early childhood before enter"ng kindergarten? education to function as 2 legitikate part of public education, however, means that profession-Is in One way to answer thisquestionisto ask public education must accept early childhood edu- whether it really matters if a child attends elemen- cation as a distinct educational discipline. This tary school before junior high or junior high before does not mean that public education should take high school. full responsibility for all three- and four-year-olds. The analogy is not as absurd as it firstappears. Since home schoolingismore feasibleat the Parents who areextraordinarily competent and younger age levels,parents should have more dedicated and who have both the time and the freedom in this regard. In my view public school- energy can provide the essentials of formal educa- ing for three- and four-year-olds shouldnot be tion to their children 3t home. It is true, ofcourse, mandatory. that the ;more advanced the schooling, the less able the home is to provide equivalent expertise, equip- ment, and facilities. A parent might come close to IS PRESCHOOL CRUCIAL? duplicating what anursery school offers much more easily than he or she could duplicate the On the other hand, with more and more two- offerings of, say, a high school. career ,fewer parents arc available to pro- If parents possess the competenceto provide vide the kind of home schooling that young chil- young children with a variety of learning experi- dren need to help them fully realize their abilities. ences, with exposure to other children and adults Public school programs, along with privately sup- (perhaps by means of neighborhood play groups), ported preschool programs, can provide an educa- along with opportunities for small and largemotor tional setting for children whose parentscannot play, then home schooling may sufficeto prepare provide it at home. Some 23 states already have children for kindergarten. But ifparents do not legislation pending to provide schooling for four- have the commitment, the time, the energy, and year-olds, so there is a growing recognition that the resources to provide young children withan early childhood education should become a legiti- environment that approaches that of the good early mate part of public education. childhood program, then it does matter whethera There are dangers here, however, and that is child attends a preschool. And itmatters for why some of us in early childhood education have exactly the same reason that it matters ifa parent been reluctant to advocate the. institutionalization keeps a child out of elementary school but does of education at this level. Early childhood educa- nothing educational at home. tion is little understood by officials at higher levels The issue thenis not whether preschoolis of education. Consequently, the danger is that it important, but rather to what extent home school- will be perceived as little more than a downward ing can duplicate what preschool hasto offer. extension of elementary education. This is already Should public schools get into the business of happening in preschool programs where testing, prekindergarten education? workbooks, and group drill are now imposed on four- and five-year-olds. What I have been trying to argue throughout Early childhood education must be taken on its this [chapter] is that early childhood education is own terms. We do not teach the high school p2rt of a continuum that includes elementary and curriculum at the junior high level or the junior
69 I 13 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS high curriculum at the elementary sch,--Ji level, so These overlap curriculum, teacher training, evalua- why in the world should we teach the elementary tion, and classroom management at upper levels of curriculum at the preschool level? schooling, but they are far from being idencical. Yes, early childhood education should become Early childhood I:13s been waiting in the wings part of public education, but on its own terms. of education for centuries. It is time for it to come Early childhood education has its own curriculum, on stage as a full-fledged member of the educa- i .sown programs of teachertraining,its own tional cast. The whole performance can only be methods of evaluation and classroom management. enhanced by its addition.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.What are :he disagreements about early childhood education programs? 2.Shot.. id ear!), education programs be based on a universal curriculum of goals and skills, or should programs that serve different populations diversify their purposes?
3.How should programs assure that the child has choice? 4.Is early childhood education in the schools going to become a "regular' part of the educational continuum?
5.What is special about early education in the schools? How can unique features be preserved and nurtured?
70 7I 12. PRESCHOOL CHILDREN IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS: GOOD INVESTMENT? OR BAD? by Deborah Burnett Strother
Early childhood education has become a hot (CED) h.s recommended that the federal govern- topic, with several forces working together to push ment fund broad-scale "prevention programs" for the issue onto the national agenda. For example, at-risk children from birth through age5.2 the excellence movement has brought more strin- Members of the House Select Committee on Chil- gent coursework requirements--and greater pres- dren, Youth, and Families have maintained that sures on children who were already at risk of schoo "better use of the public school would expand the failure.Meanwhile, as the world market grows number of safe, affordable child-care options avail- increasingly competitive, the public recognizes that able to parents."3 And the National Governors' American young people must be better educated Association recommended that states work with 4- and more adaptable. Some parents, hoping to rear and 5-year-old children from poor families "to academic superstars, are pushing their youngsters help them get ready for school and to decrease the to read and writeat a very early age. Many chances that they will drop out later."4 observers are concerned about the increasing num- ber of children who suffer the harmful effects of poverty. POLICY But the growing number of working mothers is Policy making in the field of early childhood perhaps the strongest force pushing early childhood education is in its infancy, and most states have education onto the national agenda. In 1984-85 little experience in setting up programs, according approximately 55 percent of women with children to Norton Grubb.' If the current push for early under the age of 15 were in the labor force, childhood education programs comes to stove, according to the U.SCensus Bureau. Nearly 25 most states will have the opportunity to create an percent of these working mothers enrolled their early childhood education policy from scratch. To children in organized child-care facilities, such as develop an effective policy, however, policy makers nursery schools and day-care centers.' must first agree on what constitutes effective pro- Inspired by these forces and by the highly gramming. In order to do this,accordingto publicized positive effects of some preschool pro- Grubb, they must concile such issuesas the grams, business leaders and legislators... have be- conflict between th,goals and methodology of gun to maintain that high-quality early education elementary educators and thorl of early childhood for all children is nut an expense, but a necessary educators. investment. As commission and task force reports, Grubb points out that most child-care centers congressional bills, and the mass media have be- and preschool programs rely on a Piagetian model, gun to deal with the growing need for child care, whereby children learn through their ma experi- the term child care itself has expanded to cover a mentation and initiative. Most elementary teachers, spectrum of meanings from preschool programs to by contrast, implicitly follow a behaviorist model, custodial care. whereby children learn through structured interac- Though the words they use may vary, legislators, tion with the teacher and are graded on their business leaders, and parents agree thata need performance. If preschool programs placed in exists for more daylong programs for preschoolers. the public schools, some educators and parents are There is little consensus, however, on such issues as cory rued that there programs will emphasize for- curriculum, funding, location of the programs, mal academic instruction for children as young as criteriafor admission,teacher preparation, and age 3. David Elkind has lied that formal learn- teacher certification. ing programs for the very young are "risks to the The CommitteeforEconomic Development child's motivation, intellectual growth, and self-
See pages 324-25 for acknowledgment and references.
71 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS esteem and could well do serious damage to the tors to take a more active role in helping to shape ,:hild's emerging personality."6 those laws. Evelyn Moore, executive director of the National Black Child Development Institute,questioned FUNDING whether public school programs for 4-yea-olds will adopt the methods and procedures of elementary The federal government currently provides near- education, which she feels have often operated to ly $2 billion in relief for families that have in- segregate black children and to label them as curred child-care expenses.? rut two-thirds of that nonachievers. The institute she directs has pub- sum goes to families with incomes above the lished criteria designed to insure that preschool median, and none goes to the large number of programs based in the public schools will meet the families who lack sufficient disposable income to needs of black children. take advantage of the tax credits that provide the Herbert Zimiles, senior research fellow with the relief. Institute for Social Research at the University of To reach such families, a variety of bills related Michigan, has warned against viewing preschool to preschool and child-care programs have been programs as a panacea for immensely complicated or arc about to besubmitted to Congress. There social problems that cannot be solved by educa- are bills to provide tax incentives for employers tion. Further, he believes that much of the value who develop child-care centers in the workplace, a of preschool education depends on how expertly it bill to cap the tax credit for child care (so that isimplemented, and he wonders whether the dollars now going to middle-income families can quality and value of preschool education can be be diverted to low-income families to help them maintained if it is implemented on a broad scale. pay for child care), and bills to provide adult He notes: education for parents with limited parenting skills Once regarded as a vitamin supplement painstakingly and to provide school-readiness training for their designed to serve as an enhancer of psychic growth, young children. Last fall the Alliance for Better whose dosage was carefully prescribed by experts for Childcare, a coalition of more than 80 national different clients in a restricted age range, early educa- billcallingfor$2.5 tion has begun to serve other purposes and has become, organizaions, proposed' so to speak, an over-the-counter medication, available billion, 85 percent of which would go to help low- without prescription. And now, in order to make it income families pay for child care. The remaining universally available, we are about to putitin the 15 percent would pay for such services as training, drinking water.' the dissemination of information, and referral ser- vices. Meanwhile, the Welfare Reform Bill has new Other educators are worried than researchers may child-care provisions designed to serve women en- be overpromising what early childhood programs rolled in job-training programs. can do. In a recent policy report, Carolyn Morado Legislators and business leaders who are pushing said that some reformers "look to early childhood the child-care initiatives cite research findings an programs as a solution for complex educationai and early childhood programs to support their position. social problems that have not been solved by other However, some educators areraising important means."'° Morado warned that such an approach questions about this practice. Last May, at a sym- may lead tounrealisticexpectationsfor some posium inaugurating a new early childhood educa- programs. tion research center in Memphis, several speakers In its own recent report, the Committee for expressed concern about the speed with which Economic DevelopmentcitedresearcherDavid legislation a being enacted, policy is being set, Weikart's claim, made in testimony to the Select and programs are being created using inadequate Committee on Children. Youth, and Families," or inappropriate research data. that every $1 spent on early prevention and inter- Jane Stallings, head of the Department of Cur- vention can save $4.75i.the costs of remedial riculum and Instruction at the University of Hou.,- education, welfare, and crime further down the ton, talked about the growing number of state- road.n Yet these figures Wae derived from Wei- mandated programs created without supporting kart's most recent follow-up study of 98 of the research. "We are being told what should be original 123 cl'idren with I.Q. test scores between taught with very little evidence [to back up these 60 and 90 who had been enrolled in a preschool assertions]," she said. "So much of the legislation program with a per-pupil expenditure of $6,187, a is aimed at raising achievement test scores. Are we figurenearly double thecostof HeadStart evaluating what we value?" Stallings urged educa- programs."
72 73 Preschool Children in the Public Schools
Exemplary programs Lost money. Many educa- prefer to use direct instruction, you'd better have a tors warn that it makes no sense to cite evidence research design in place in order to assess the regarding the educational benefits of suchpro- outcome." Weikart theorizes that child-initiated grams and then to enact legislation that provides learning gives children a greater sense of responsi- inadequate funding for new programs, which must bility because it encourages them to act on their limp along with low expenditures, high pupil/ own initiative, both physically and mentally. teacher ratios, low teacher salaries, and inadequate Despite the encomaging long-term benefits of teacher preparation. preschool reported by Weikart and others, some researchers maintain that generalizing from studies such as these is inappropriate because the research- THE RESEARCH ers followed small numbers of children (and some children dropped out of the studies along the Several studies conducted during thelast 20 way), because most of the children were economi- years suggest that high-quality early childhood cally disadvantaged, and because the programs in programs have a positive effect on children. Such which they participated had very high per-pupil programs as head Start, the Institute for Develop- expenditures." Those programs provided health mental St ajles at New York University, the Perry and socialservices,in addition to a preschool Preschool Program in Ypsilanti, Michigan, thepre- curriculurrand they often provided such services kindergarten program in New York State, and the to entire families, not just to program participants. Brookline Early Education Program in Massachu- The programs used curricula that adhered to prin- setts have succeeded in spurring the developmental ciples of child development, and they employed and cognitive growth of 3- and 4-years-olds. appropriate assessment procedures. The teachers Researchers found that during the early elementary were trained in early childhood development, and school years children who participated in the ex- they enjoyed strong administritive support. More- perimental preschool programs had brier grades, over, parents played an active role in the education had fewer failing grades, had fewer absences, and of their childrer were less of -n retained than nonparticipants. The Indeed, Zimiles has suggested that some of the participants had greater self-confidence and self- long-term effects found by Weikart and others may esteemand so did many of their parents. The reflect the degree of parental involvement in chil- participants had better-developed literacyskills, dren's education, not the quality of the program greater curiosity, and less need for special educa- per se. If some chadren in the group originally tion services. They were more likely than nonpar- selected for preschool later dropped out because ticipants to finish high school. They weremore their families were unwilling to bring them to employable, less dependent on public assistance, school, self-selection may have operated to elimi- and less likely to engage in criminal activity. nate those children whose families were least sup- One study comparing preschool curricula found portive. Zimiles points out that when samples are evidence that, over time, child-initiated learning self-selected (even in part), itis difficult to inter- can have a positive effect on social development. pret the meaning of research findings. Lawrence Schweinhart, David Weikart, and Mary Lamer compared three curricula, one of them relying on teacher-initiated learni, 1irect instruc- PUBLIC SCHOOL t;on) and two of them designed to foster child- EARLY CHILDHOOD STUDY initiated learning. They found that participants in the three programs did not differ significantly in How inv,Aved are the public sc'sools in preschool 1.Q. or in their achievement test scoresover time. education, and what are the characteristics of exist- However, when the researchers interviewed 79 per- ing programs? Researcherspiththe Center for cent of those same children at age 15, they found Children's Policy at the Bank Street College of fewer incidents of delinquent acts among the chil- Education and researchers with the Center for dren who had taken part in the two programs Research on Women at Wellesley College recently using methods designed to foster child-initiated investigated the involvement of public schoc,... in learning.t5 the development of early childhood programs that At the Memphis symposium, David Weikart are educationally and developmentally sound and called that study "a redflag on the playit responsive to the child-care needs of the families doesn't say direct instruction should not be used that use them. on young children. It does say that, if you do The researchers surveyed and analyzed state-level
73 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS policy and legislation related to preschool educa- mean class size and the mean teacher/pupil ratio tion and child care in all the states and the District are well within the limits established by high- of Columbi .They surveyed 2,800 U.S. school quality programs; no public school program had districts with prekindergarten programs, and they classeslarger than18 or a teac.11:1/pupilratio examined a small sample of early childhood pro- greater than 1:10. Teachers in some of the early grams in depth to see how these programs relate to childhood programs in the public schools receive the communities they serve. (They received infor- lower salaries than their counterparts in grades K- mation on 1,700 programs, and they explored 12 12: teachers in Head Start, child-care, and locally programs in detail.) funded programs receive the lowest salaries. The researchers found that 28 states and the Half of all the responding school districts in the District of Columbia support early childhood edu- Wellesley/Bank Street study reported thatpre- cation through one of three funding arrangements: school teachers must be certified in early childhc Id (1) pilot or statewide prekindergarten programs, education. Almost 75 percent of the districts re- (2) parent education programs (in lieu of direct quire that preschool teachers hold bachelor's de- service to prekindergarten-aged children), or (3) grees; two-thirds of the districts indicated, howev- introduction or expansion of the Head Start pro- er,that previous teaching experienceisnot a gram. According to Fern Marx, research director of criterion for hiring. Nonetheless, when they were the study at Wellesley, two-thirds of the state hired, slightly more than half of the preschool programs are intended to serve children at rL1, of teachers in these districts were certified in early school failure because they come from low-income childhood education and had already spent at least families or suffer such problems as limited profi- one year teaching children younger than 5. About ciency in English or lack of school readiness)* 20 percent of the paraprofessionals who were hired Of those states offering programs, half contract by those districts had both one year of training in directly with private agencies ails! half permit only early childhood education and at least one year of public schools to provide programs, either directly working with young children. Case studies from or through subcontracts with other agencies (pri- the Wellesley/Bank Streetproject showed that marily private nonprofit schools or Head Star.). strong leadership and active parent participation Marx finds the acceptance of multiple systems of arekeyingredientsof high-qualityprograms. delivering child care exciting, because it increases Ninety percent of the districts reported that their the likelihood that the needs of working parents early childhood programs offer parent/teacher con- and their childrenwillbe met. However, the ferences; about half said that they have parent absence in some states of coordination of planning. advisory councils or boards, and a similar number services, and funding at the local level has caused reported that their programs use parent volunteers. Head Start programs and state prekindergarten The researchers found great variety in teaching programs to compete increasingly for students, for methods and curricula among tne early childhood staff, and for space. programs they studied. In some programs, the According to Anne Mitchell,director of the children received breakfast and then spent the study at Bank Street College, the public school entire school day with a given teacher. They chose programs serve a wide variety of purposes.19 Thirty- their own activities, receiving help and companion- three percent serve special education students, 11 ship from the teacher when necessary. In other percent are Head Start programs, 15 percent are programs, the children ate breakfast with aides and prekinderganen programs funded by the state, 8 had one teacher for "school," another teacher for percent are locally funded _el 1 garter pro- "'day care"with little communication or coordi- grams, 9 percent are Chapter 11.., ...Kindergarten nation among tae different caretakers. Some pro- programs, 6.5 percent are child-care programs, 2 grams were dividedinto15-minute periods percent are child-care programs for teenage par- (marked by bells), during which the teachers di- ents, 3 percent are preschool programs operated by rected all activities. The children in these programs high school students, 3 percent are parent educa- were rarely (if ever) allowed to engage in open- tion programs, and 8 percent are magnet school or ended, creative activities. In some programs, the summer programs. teachers even determined which child would jump Eighty percent of the public school programs rope, work a puzzle, or climb on the climbing operate only during the school year, and 60 per- frame. Where skills-based curricula were in use, cent of them operate three hours or less per day. the children were often given written tests to assess (Child-care programs for the general public and their mastery of the skills being taught. Most of some Chapter 1 programs have longer hours.) The the programs studied had adequate materials and
74 .J Preschool Children in the Public Schools
supplies, but some of the more structuredpro- kind of outreach program willcoordinate and grams apparently did not make daily use of these monitor all the local facilities that provide daycare items. for children from birth to age 3 and will provide Between Promise and Practice (a book to be training and support few workers in those facilities. published in the [fall] of 1988 by the Bank Street A third kind of outreach program will provide College Center for Children's Policy) will describe information and make referrals for parents who in detail the schools that Mitchell and her col- have problems related to health, education, or leagues visited. Three technical reports, describing social services. the district survey, the state survey, and thecase Zig ler believes that child care, like education, studies, will be available this winter. should be a state-level responsibility. Herecom- mends that parents pay for child care (with fees A DUAL SYSTEM adjusted to their incomes) and that the federal government continue to subsidize the program Edward Zig ler, the first director of the Office of (much as it does now). Child Development and an early defender of the Zig ler would like to see the federal government Head Start program. now a professor of psychology support at least one pilot day-care center within at Yale University, suggests a new way to use the public school system in each state. He main- school buildings to deal with the child-cart issue." tains that we must work child care into the very We should "think of two major systems within the structure of the system,rathi-r than expect the school building," he says. private sector and the churches to take care of the "One system is the formal educational system problem. The public schools are ideal places for that we have today, and it won't change. This child-care centers, in Zig ler's view, because they systen will remain in the hands of educators, and are social institutions that are permanent, reliable, they will continue to try to improve itas best they arid dose to home. know how," Zig ler explains. The secondsystem, Zig ler and Mitchell both note that dose coordi- according to Zig ler, is the child-caresystem, com- nation between the day-care center and the host posed of a child-care center, outreach services, and elementary schoolis important. When thereis a referral system. continuity between the two programs, the young !n other words, each elementary school will participants will benefit. "You can run a terrific .....tain a center equipped to provide high-quality early childhood program," according to Mitchell, all-day child care to 3- and 4-year-olds whose "hut if you send the children from that program parents work outside the home. Five-year-olds will int., a rigid, highly structured elementary program attend kindergarten for half of each school day; that differs considerably in philosophy and ap- they will spend the remainder of the dayat home proach, it's bound to he a hard transition for (if a parent is there to oversee them)or at the them." child-care center (if both parents work outside the Zigler maintains that we have the knowledge to home). The child-carecenter will be available put this vision :ato effect immediatelyif only we before and after school to serve children between could gain ac ess to school buildings. 'The people the ages of 6 and 12. we are serving with day-care centers are not teach- Three kinds of outreach programs will also be ers and principals; they are American families," he available, Zig ler predicts, because "not al! fam- points out. "We can't allow battles to stand in the ilies'needs are going to be met in the school way of putting together alogical system that building." Onc kind of outreachprogram will combines two of the basic needs of children offer support services for new parents. A second education and child care."
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are the research bases for the CED and NGA proposals? 2. Can the expansion of school programs foryounger children Ind into child care services be justified? 3. Should the public schools become the main agency for all early childhood education? 4. Are there common elements of quality and excellence that shciild be includedin any early childhood educa- tion program?
75 13. DAY CARE AND THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS -NATURAL ALLIES, NATURAL ENEMIES by Bettye M. Caldwell
My personal interest in day care began about 20 Medical Center of the State University of New years ago at a time when any program of infant York and later with the College of Home Econom- stimulation ran against the ...ain of theoretical ics of Syracuse University. Although the resources ideas about pro_ er upbringing for young children. of two great universities were behind it, it operated To some extent this was true even if the mother essentially in isolation from the mainstream of was the "stimulator." It was especially true, how- either university. It also operated in isolation from ever, if anyone other than, the mother were the the public school system into which most of the agent of :simulation and enrichment. children graduated. Our concern (Caldwell and Richmond 1964) was While my professional concern centered on pre- primarily directed to young children of poverty school children, I was personally involved with the who were known to be growing up in somewhat Public schools, having a set of twins who entered chaotic family circumstances. As many of the kindergarten at precisely the time that our project mothers were minimally available to their children, was "discovered" nationally. Occasionally Iwould either physically or psychologically (Caldwell et al. be late picking them up from school, and Syracuse 1963), our interest was in developing an enrich- winters can be very cold. There I would find two ment program that would in some way supplement forlorn twins with icy hands and frozen cheeks. I theexperiencesavailabletochildrenintheir can remember reacting with horror to their not homes. Our is4 was to have teachers and other being alloweda:, wait inside to be picked up; specially train(caregivers work with the children when school was out, children were expected to go for a few hours each day and introduce them to home immediately. To me it seemtd the most various developmental events intended to excite logicalthing in the world to think that their andsiulate them. elementary school could have provided some sort The idea of bringing infants together in groups of extended day care. It struck me as rather ironic was totally unacceptable at that time. The common that while I was working hard in one part of th: fear was that even short-term separation of infants city to provide both care and education for other from their mothers would be tantamount to creat- people's children, no one was concerned about ing "institutions!tearing conditions. The delete- providing the care needed to supplement the edu- rious conseqi,c :es of growing up in institutional cation mine were receiving. care were constantly cited in the professional litera- Shortly thereafter I moved to Arkansas and took ture (see Bowlby 1952) aod publicized inthe with me something of an obsession about the need popular press. Our proposal to develop such a to develop childcare programs inthe public program in Syracuse, New York,:as turned down, school. This obsession was no longer based only on but we were offered a loophole. The Children's my perception of the need for such care as a Bureau was willing to consider our request provid- service to families but also on my awareness of the ed we used as subjects only those children who need to change the public conception of what day were already receiving some sort of substitute care care was or should be. Considered by many people and that we would not reduce in any way the daily as a service that provided only "care and protec- time they spent in contact with their own mothers. tion"for low-income children,child care was In short, we could conduct our own project with actually a comprehensive service that could and did children who were already in day care (see Caldwell provide education, access to medical care, and 197 i ). social services to large numbers of children from all Our center served childrenrom six months levels of society.It was my conviction that an through five yezrs of age.It was affiliated first alliance with public education would help to "le- with the Department of Pediatrics of the Upstate gitimize" child care and help it gain respectability
See page 325 for acknowledgment and references.
76 77 Day Care and the Public Schools
with parents, professionals, and policymakers. Like- their predecessors, and the former teachers have no wise, it was my hope that the provision of daycare opportunity to confirm or disconfirm their predic- in a public school setting would make the elemen- tions about future educational progress of individ- tary educational program more relevant to modern ual children. social realities. By having both an early childhood and at elementary program in the same building'th teachers from both segments serving on all com- NATURAL ALLIESTHE KRAMER MODEL mittees, attending all meetings, and sharing the same loungewe hoped to kindle aspiritof What developed from this obsessionwitha united effort directed toward common goals. Al- great deal of help from Little Rock School District though it took some time for this spirit to develop, officials, personnel from the University of Arkan- it unquestionably became an important feature of sas, an interested granting agency (the Children's the Kramer Model. Bureau, shortly thereafter subsumed into the newly created Office of Child Development), anda favor- able zeitgeistwas the Kramer Model. From 1969 EDUCATIONAL DAY CARE to 1978 the project operated essentially as de- scribed here. Some of the major components are The most important component of the Kramer still in operation, although with slight program- Model was the conversion the entire school to matic changes and major administrative changes. an "extended day school." That is,the school officially began at 6:45 A.M. and closed at 6:00 P.M. year round. The bells rang ac the same time as in all the other elementary schools within the EARLY CHILDHOOD-ELEMENTARY Little Rock School District, but the program oper- CONTINUITY ated for the full day. The extra hours and days were funded out of the program grant. Teachers at Continuity between early childhood and elemen- Kramer taught for the same number of hours and tary educational programs should be as normal and totaldays asall other teachers in the system routine as continuity between 2nd and 3rd grades (although they did have the option of applying for In most educational settings, however, this is defi- summer and holiday work for extra pay). nitely not the case. In fact there is often a change Extra hours were covered by part -time and split- in auspice (from private to public, or fromone time staff, or, for the early childhood segment, by type of public funding, such as Head Start, to staggering beginning and ending hours so that another); in location and size (from private home, least one certified teacher was on duty at all hours. church, or small-group center to large school); in In a situation like this it is easy to let "natural" educational philosophy and curriculum (from much preferences work themselves out instead of con- free choice to a high degree of structure and adult forming to statewide work hours. That is, there control); and in training background of theperson- were always one or two early risers who preferred nel. Not infrequently there is distrust on the part to begin work at 7:00 and there was always at least of early childhood personnel of elementaryperson- one person who preferred to begin work at 9:30 nel, and vice versa. Early childhood teachers often and stay later in the afternoon. accuse elementary teachers of being concerned with When day care in the public schools is dis- subjects rather than children and of neglecting the cussed,concernusuallyislimitedtochildren "whole child"; elementary teachers sometimesas- roughly in the age range of five or six to ten years. sume and imply that their kindergarten colleagues (Where kindergartens last only a half day, most "just play" with the children and do not "really working parents keep their children in a child care teach" them anything. program until they reach 1st grade.) While this in If the transition is from anything other thana itself is beneficial, it does not provide the range of public school kindergarten, thereis seldom any coverage that ir..any peents need. That is, a work- exchange of records. School personnel do not ap- ing mother may have children aged seven, four, pear to be particularly interested in knowing much ar.d two, all of whom need day care. Inmany about previous educational experiences, and rarely communities that can mean three child care ar- do they send reports to teachers who previously rangements (one school-age setting, oi:e preschool, worked with the children. Thus the new teachers and one infancy program) rather than one. The receive no benefits from the insights gained by elegance of Ow Kramer extended care arrangement
77 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS was that it accommodated children from 6 months were far more likely to be perceived as "our" to 12 years of age in the same physical !ocation. children, and they contributed to eliminating some The convenience of this arrangement for working of these exclusionary references. mothers is truly remarkableand quite rare. Everything possible was done to help the stu- Traditional starting and ending times for public dents"think developmentally."Forexample, school scheduks, and dates for opening in the fall teachers had to spend some time with a class in and closing in the spring, are entirely anachronistic each quadrant of the programinfancy,early in today's world. The times and dates we now childhood, primary (grades 1-3), and intermediate have were not arbitrarily set; they were chosen to (grades 4-6). Obviously, they spent the greatest allow the schools to dovetail with the social reali- amount of time in the quadrant in which they ties of the children and families they served. The expected or hoped to teach. Exchange times for hcurs allowed children to complete chores before teachers were also arranged so that intermediate and after school, and the dates corresponded to teachers occasionally taught for a morning in an times when the children would be needed to help infancy or early childhood classroom, and vice in the fields.Itis unfortunate that we are so versa.After such exchanges elementary teachers bound to custom that we have lost sight of the fact were rarely heard to complain that the early child- that the custom originally corresponded to demo- hood teachers "had it easy" or early childhood graphic realities. Once we fully understand today's teacher.t:,criticize elementary teachers for not demographicrealities,the question of whether understanding and loving the children enough. schools should provide day care will become totally obsolete. NATURAL ENEMIES
PUBLIC SCHOOL-UNIVERSITY When people ask me what we learned at Kra- COLLABORATION mer, I usually tell them we learned that it isn't easy. Such an arrangement makes so much sense Other major features of the Kramer Model in- both socially and educationally that one could clude having a university professor run the school logically wonder why schools are organized any and serve as its principal; establishing an advisory other way. And yet the two domains of child care board to oversee school operation consisting of and education are also natural enemies. university and community personnel, in addition to representatives of the Little Rock School District; and establishing special work arrangements for CONCEPTUAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL Kramer teachers involving both extra requirements DIFFERENCES (take a certain inservice course of work and the late-du shift) and special privileges (having an The fist basis for the adversarial relationship aide in the classroom) not available to other teach- between day care and education relates to the ers in the system. Although many of the special concepts out of which each service pattern has arrangements required for Kramer went far beyond grown and,if you will,to the way in which the day care situation, the same flexibility may proponents of each service want the field to be well be necessaryif a public school day care identified. Having developed largely from a social program is to be anything more than an appen- service orientation, day care has been known as a dage to the existing operation without any curricu- service that provides "care and protection" for lar or developmental relevance. children.Schools, on the other hand, provide One clear but often overlooked benefit of this "education." Such sharp dichotomies represent a university-pubik school alliance was the constant misundertanding of both services, for it is literally presence in the school of student teachers and a impossible to care for and protect young children few doctoral candidates. Not only did their pres- without educating them, and vice versa. The do- ence confer status on the Kramer teachers, but main of education already includes many services their excitement about the Kramer philosophy was that might seem to fit more comfortably under the contagious. For example, it was not uncommon for rubric of care and protection: school nurses, health a5th grade teacherto complain to an early programs, nutrition programs, hot lunches, vision childhood teacher',atamess "your" children and hearing screening, requirements for immuniza- made at the water fountain caused "our" children tion, and so on. Likewise, during a large part of to slip down. To the students, all the children the day, every high-quality day care program will
78 y Care and the Public Schools
provide educational experiences that are similar if childhood personnel. not identical to school "teaching programs" for The important point here is that the two fields, children of comparable age. Thus it is foolishto each of which had reason to doubt that it was held try to distinguish between the services in terms of in esteem by the general public, took a stance shibboleths such as care versus education. In order against one another rather than forming what for either service to be relevant to the needs of should have been a natural alliance.It was as children and families, both components must be though each sought to bolster its own self-esteem present. by asserting its independence from and superiority Another conceptualdistinctionalready men- to the other. tioned is that day care is believed to be largely for "poor children from problem families," whereas public education is for "all children." Thereare MUTUAL NEEDTHE BONDING AGENT now more families with young children whose mothers work outside the home than there are The demographic realities of modern life have families in which the mother is available fuiltime made this separatism and exclusivity on the part of as a caregiver. And because all families supplement both day care and public education entirely obso- parental care with some extra-family child care,we lete. Both fields have undergone travail, and both recognize that the nature of the family situatAi no are dealing with increasingly sophisticated consum- longer dc-fines day careif, indeed, itever did. ers who legitimately advocate education that fits There are more commonalities between the fields modem urban rather than outdated rural patterns than there are differences. of family living, and day care that acceptsits responsibility to provide developmentally appropri- ate education to young children. BOTH INSTITUTIONS Representatives of both domains must learn to HELD IN LOW ESTEEM fmd strengths and assetsin one another. The biggest problems many people in the child care A second reason for the animosity that we field face are low salaries and poor working condi- sometimes find between representatives of public tions. Teachers certified in early childhood who education and day care is that, unfortunately, both work in public schools make, on the average, institutions are often held in low esteem. The $5,000 more per year (often for fewer hours and current clamor for "educational reform" clearly days) than certified teachers who work in child implies that somehow public education has care. Likewise, the public schools are having to try "failed." Likewise, day care has been denounced to withstand the major inroads in their clientele by by consetv-Itives as "weakening the family" and by private schools. It is fascinating to note that the liberals as being a "wasteland" of poor quality in new private academies springing up all over the which children's lives could be ruined. Leaders of country are not overlooking the profit potential the day care movement have often bristledat associ, cd with the provision of child care. Almost suggestions that an alliance between the field and without exception, such schools are providing ex- education would be beneficial. A typically hostile tended day care and summer programs. Unless objection might be, "The schools have already public schools offer comparable services, they can- ruined the older kids; let's not help them do the not hope to hold a major share of the market. same thing with the little ones." Natural resistance And, though we might not want to admit it, to such a union was increased by media reports of marketing is as important for public education as it a national surplus of elementary and secondary is for other products and services. teachers and by the suggestion that such teachers The inroads into support for public education could be diverted into the burgeoning day care made by this increasing network of private schools fieldifitwere part of public education and have weakened the infrastructure of our education- thereby comparably lucrative for teachers.Early al system. Likewise, allegations of sexual abuse and childhood and day care personnel were legitimately concerns about maintenance of healthful conditions offended at the implication that no special training in childcarecenters have generated Increased was necessary to work with young children. Howev- concern about the quality and benefit of such er, such an attitude on the part of professional programs. One might be tempted to suggest that educators was no different from that oftenex- attempts to unite the two domains are too late; pressed by the general public and givenas a reason the general public now secs both services as inade- for failing to provide higher salariesfor early quate and flawed.
79 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS
But, of course, it is never too late to develop a conveniently than any other pattern of service,I service program that is in harmony with patterns of predict that the two domains will move ever closer human need. Because a blending of day care and to one another. The resultant merger willbe education can meet the needs of children for symbiotic for the two fields and beneficialto developmental guidance and the needs of parents children, to their parents, and to society. for effective supervision of their children more
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.How can a public school serve the day care needs of the local community? 2.What are the advantages to young children of continuity of care and ducation from infancy through ele- mentary school? 3.Where did the Kramer School find additional personnel? 4.Is there a conceptual difference between caring for young children and educating young children? 5.What are the arguments against the Kramer School model?
80 81 14. LET CHILDREN START SCHOOL WHEN THEY'RE READY! by Cynthia Parsons
There's not a single, solitary pedagogical justifi- must wait until the following September to start cation for asking children to wait until the end of school, while children born in October must start August or the first of September to start their schoolamonth or morebeforetheirsixth formal schooling. C' ildren shou )c enrolled as birthdays. soon as they are able to learn what the school has Then why have we established a single starting to teach. Nor is it educationally sound to require date for all first-gradersone related to birthdate teachers to teach groups of youngsters who have but not necessarily to academic readiness? I suspect nothing in common except for the fact that they that this practice ste--Is from primitive accounting are all starting school on the same day. practices of 80 to 100 years ago. State aid back in These practices certainly do not serve middle- or those days was based on the number of pupils in upper-class parents, who have to provide other school on any given day. Some states even figured kinds of educational options until their children aid by half-days of attendance. Clearly, requiring are allowed to enter school--knowing all the while all pupils to start school on the same day made the that their children are marking time instead of accountant's job easier. progressing naturally with mastery of the basics. Nor does it do the U.S. school system any good to I have more difficulty answering the next ques- claim that it meets individual needs, when clearly tion I must pose: Why have sound scholars and it ignores such needs right from the start. sensitive parents allowed such a stupid practice to continue all Meanwhile, numerous studies have shown that these years?I do not pretend to the best educational approach for the children of understand why teachers, administrators, 10 even the poor is to begin formal schooling as early as professors of education have agreed to be ruled by possible. To focus on birthdates, and thus to the calendar, since this forces them to ignore all ignore the educational needs of such children, is the I: lowledge researchers have amassed about in- dividual criminal. differencesinchildren's development. Just as they walk on their own when they are Yet, although accounting practices have improved ready, children should begin first grade when they dramatically, the single starting date remains in are ready. Any given child should attend school placeflying in the face of every round principle of early childhood education. full-time when three parties agree that the time is right: the child, his or her parents, and the school Let me restate my position once again. Any officials. Moreover, before any child attends school given child should attend school full-time when full-time, he or she should attend part-timehalf three parties agn e that the time is right: the child, days once or twice a week, perhaps. This would his or her parents, and the school officials. allow the child to adjust to school; it would also This approach would allow primary teachers to enable the parents and school officials to deter- manage family-style classrooms, in which experi- mine whether or_at the child is ready for full- enced students would help the newcomers learn time attendance. social and academic skills. Right from the start, Conceivably, the parents, the school psycholo- youngsters who are not "natural" learners would gist,the first-grade teacher, and the principal get the individual attention they need. Teachers might agree that Tommy or Suzy is ready for full- would quickly figure out how each child learns time attendancebut Tommy or Suzy might dis- best and would plan instructional approaches to agree. Conversely, a child might plead to remain match those individual needs. Teachers who know in the classroom full-time,but the parents or how to individualizt instruction would probably be school officials might argue against this option thrilled to work in a setting governed by individual because they see the child as lacking maturity or needs, not by the calendar. enthusiasm for school. Can you think of any justification for continuing rending solutions to such disagreements makes to mandate a single,early-fall starting date for sense, educationally. But it makes no sense whatso- school? "We've always done it that way" will no ever to argue that chiliren who turn 6 in February longer suffice.
See page 325 for acknowledgment.
81 R2
AM& DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.Is the child's chronological agt. the determining f. tor in school enrollment? 2. Do schools have any flexibili-v for initial school entry?
13. IT DEPENDS ON YOUR AIM by Raymond S. Moore
Cynthia Parsons is on target when she insists he or she should be allowed to develop physically that "children should be enrolled as soon as they and to explore personal fantasies and intuitions are able to learn what the school has to teach." until somewhere between ages 8 and12. Our But I question the accuracy of her aim, unless she Stroford team could find no state in which r -dy can tell us when youngsters are really ready for the school entrance laws were founded on replicable constraint., of formal schooling. research.' Except for highly specialized clinical ser- When she fees on "primitive accounting prac vices, even handicapped children are best taught in tices of 80 to 100 years ago," she picks off John their homes prior to the age of 8 or 10. Dewey, who, in 1898, insisted that age 8 is "early William Rohwer, a faculty member at the Uni- enough for an 'ling more than an incidental -, ersity of California, Berkeley, has noted, "Allof attentim to visual and written language form."' the learning necessary for success ir high school 'he also scores a hit on Arnold Gesell, perhap. cite can be accomplished in only two or three years of best-known children'sphysicianinthe United formal skill study." Sur' study, he ands, "could States who urged his readers not to institutionalize mean academic success r millions of school chil- childre too early.2 dren who are doomed to failure un-'the tradi- Parst.as aims straight when s 1CCUSCFmost tion- :education system. "s educators of ignoring "111 the knowledge resca,ch- Torsten Husen, a professor at the Institute of ers have amassed about individual differences in Internat. onal Lducation of the University of Stock- children's development." But she shouldn't find holm, agrees ssith Rohwer. Report:1g on data from this flaw surprisinct,. Few educators pay more than 12 countries, Husen el:pressed alarm at "the strong lip service to inconvenient facts gleaned from the negative correlation between entry age ... and atti- work of historians or educational researchers. ttn'e towards school." 6 For example, literacy reached its zenith prior to David Elkind, an authority on P;,get who i.ach- the 20th century. In that earlier time, American es at Tufts University, has calltd atten) an to "a children attended small common schools for only a negzave correlation between met .al growth and few weeks each year, with attendance beginning at formal instruction. "7 Elkind added that, to maxi- some point between the ages 8and U. The mize mental growth, "one could legitimately ar- remainder of their education took place at home. gue that formal sc. ooling ought to be delayed And reviews by '.he Lewitt Research Foundation of rather than introduced early." He suggests that we more than8,000studies have failed to torn tir any are fostering "burnout" by rushing youngsters into replicable research suggesting that normal children school too early. should 5c schooled before age 8.3 E, en Benjamin Bloom° and Glen Nimnicht ° Whether the focus is on achievement, on hchav- early advocates of compensatory early childhood itl, on sociability, or on such other aspects of a education, admit that the home is the best educa- child's development as the brain, the senses, cog- tional setting. The principal study supporting early nition, coordination, or socialization, available evi- childhood education, the Perry Preschool Project, dence overwhelmingty suggests that,unless, the has for years focused more attention04the home child is handicapped or acutely deprived (a condi- (through weekly home visits) thanlas the typical tion not necessarily linked to socioeconomic status), carry childhood c 1ucation program.'°
Ser k.^ge A25 for acknowledgmer.' and references.
82 It Depends on Your Aim A variety of studies in the United States and home at an early ag, -re in greater daager than abroad confirm the fact that most children benefit many children who are beaten at home.14 And educationally from one-to-one interactions with Martin Engel, then hcad of the National Demon- warm, responsive adultsregardless of whether or stration Center for Early Childhood Education, in not those adults have teaching credentials or col- Washington, D.C., declares that childrensense lege degrees." Not surprisingly, Harold McCurdy's rejection when they are schooled early." Indeed, stud7, sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution, early schooling may be the most pervasive form of found that geniu., derives from those situations in child abuse in the Eigh which children (1) spend a great deal of time with We all zalk about parental involvement. But are loving parents and other adults, (2) spendvery we more interested in the welfare of children or in little rime with their peers, and (3) have the maintaining the status quo? How much more freedom to work out theirown fantasies under involved can parents be than when they participate these conditions.12 McCurdy concluded that our in the home-schooling renaissance, which causes public school system is a "vast experimer t" that children to average 30 percent above the national tends to "suppress occurrence of genius." mean on standardized tests and to demonstrate The studies oc Uric Bronfenbrenner, a professor above-avetne behavior and socilhility?16 Such par- at Cornell Univerity, suggest that, at least until ents have included national leaders from George grade 5 or 6, children who spendmore time with Washington to Sandra Day O'Connor, from Benja- their peers than with their parents become peer. min Franklin to George Washington Carver. The dependent.13 To the extent that children younger home-schooling movement today numbers among than 10 rely on age-mates for their values, they its participar s scholarsatthe nation's leading lose their sense of self-worth, their optimism, their universitiesand even Tamara McKinney,the respect for parents, and even their trust in peers. world's top woman skier. Bronfenbrenner warns of "the age-segregated, and It seems Parsons would shoot straighter thereby often amoral or antisocikl, world in which with our children she left them at home a little our children live and grow." He adds, "Central longer History has much to teachus. It warns that among the institutions which. ..have encouraged state control of the familythe real issue here these socially disruptive developments Inve been presages collapse of the society, which is precisely Our schools." what some sociologistspredictforthe United States." His. ry, research, and common sense all Meanwhile, John Bowlby, a sp,cialist on early counsel is to avoid institutionalizing young chil- childhood with the World Heaith Organization, dren. Stronger families mean stronger schools, and contends that children who AC pushedout of the that should be our aim.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Should enrollment for all children be delayed until theyare seven or eight years of av? 2.What are Moore's real arguments against early childhood education? 3.Are the criticisms of early school entrance justified? 4. What are some alternatives to late enrollment that will respondto Moore's cTicerns?
83 16. IN DEFENSE OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION by David El kind
Young children think and learn in different These are the questions I wish to address here. ways than older children and adults. Traditional Basically, my reply to each of them is "No." early childhood education has always taken account Young children today are 1,1 more and no less of these differences. It recognizes that young chil- intellectually competent that Lacy were 50 or 100 dren learn best through the active exploration and years ago. This does not mean that we should not manipulation of concre=e materials. Young chil- educate young chi'.dren, but that we should do so dren are not yet ready for formal education, in- in ways that are appropriate to their unique modes volving as it does the inculcation of symbolic rules. of thinking and learning. Before young children can enter the symbolic world, they need to conceptualize the concrete TECHNOLOGY AND world which the symbols represent. MENTAL DEVELOPMENT Unfortunately,this familiar approach to tht teaching of young children is in danger of being Does early exposure to a technology accelerate forgottenintoday'seducational climate.Early mental development, or at least increase the com- childhood education is becoming institutionalized petence of children so exposed? and is now subject to a host of social, economic, In response to the first half of the question, and political pressures from which it was so long thereisno evidence that early exposure toa immune. The fundamental differences between the technology in any way accelerates mental develop- modes of thinking of young children and those of ment. The overall effect of technology on human older children and adults...end to be ignored. nature is to extend and amplify, but not alter our When some administrators argue,for example, biological capacities. Machines extend and amplify that children should begin kindergarten at Age the strength of our muscles, telephones extend and four, they overlook the fact that even in kindergar- amplify our hearing, telescopes and microscopes ten many children have trouble with symbols and extend and amplify our vision, and computers symbolic rules. If formal learning is difficult for extend and amplify both our short-term and long- five -year it is even more so for four-year-olds. term memory. Of course,it might be argued that young What has to be emphrsized is that such exten- children today, thanks to television, computers, sions and amplifications do not change our biologi- electronic toys, and the like, are more intellectually cal potential.Eyeglasses do not alter the visual advanced thanwere.childreninprevious system any more than a hearing aid alters the generations. auditory system. In the same way, a computer does Modern technologyas accelerated the mental not alter our ability to remember any more thl.r. development of children, has it not? using an exercise machine gives us bigger muscles. Doesn't the new research on children's thinking Indeed, it could be argued that technology has and learning demonstrate that young children are contributed to the dechne of some of those sensory ready and eager learners who are more capable and motor capacities thatarcnot required to the than we have been willing to admit? same extent as they might be in a nontechnological Don't the results of early intervention programs, society. Exercise, for example, is now an optional such as head Start, demonstrate the effectiveness leisure-time activity rather than something that of early formal instruction? occurs naturally in the course of daily living. Isn'tit a fact that more children than ever Now for the second part of the question.If before come to kindergarten after a couple or years technology does not improve our sensory or motor of attendance at a nurse school or day care renter capacities, dr -sn't it improve our brains and make (or some combination of the two) where they have us more sophisticated and knowledgeable thanif already been exposed to the traditional kindeigar- we did not have the technology? Consider the ten c itricultun? Don't we have to make the kin- wonders that children can see on TV: different dergarten curriculum more formal to accommodate countries, different life-styles, exotic animals, un- these children? derwater and epace exploration. This must have
See pages 325-26 for acknowledgment and references.
84 R5 In Defense of Early Childhood Education
some impact on their knowledge and mental abili- We need to acknowledge that much of modern ty evenifitdoesn't improvetheir visionor technology requires mental abilities that most peo- hearing, isn't that so? ple do not acquire until at least late childhood. To be sure, there is a point here. Children today Having the technology available does notnecessar- do indeed have access to more information than ily help the child useit. While many mature was true for any pasgeneration of their age. But adults learn to use con-;luters in very little time, knowledge about a subjectis not the same as even when they have had little prior exposure, knowledge of that subject. And the question really young children, who may be quite familiar with boils down to whether knowledge about leads computers both at home and school, cannot really automatically to knowledge ofa subject. An analo- access these computers until they reach a level of gy might be found in how children read. Learning mental ability that allows them to operate on the to decode written symbols (knowledge about) does basis of symbolic rules. no: automatically lead to comprehension (knowl- The idea that early acquaintance witha technol- edge of) of the material decoded. The difference is ogy is critical to competence in that technology can important, because comprehension is muchmore be shown to be fallacious on other grounds. For central to intelligence. example, neither Steven Jobs, the founder of Ap- The data do not support theargument that ple Computer, nor Mitch Kapor. whowrote the increased comprehension is a product of increased best-selling Lotus 1-2-3 software program,grew up recognitionor acquaintance.For example,the with computers or software, andyet both are commendable and widely watched programs "Sesa- leaders in their fields. Earlyexposure to a technol- me Street" and "Electric Company" have been on ogy is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition theair for about 20 years.D. '1g that same for proficiencyin using or in advancing that period verbal SAT scores dropped JAne 400 points! technology. At the same time, TV has made children and In summary, the idea that the earlyexposure to adolescents much more knowledgeable about drugs a technology accelerates mental ability is not sup- and sex than were previous generations. But this ported by thefacts.Nor isthere any factual increased recognition has not decreased substance support for the idea that children who grow up abuse and sexualactivity.Quite the contrary. with a particular technology are necessarilymore Substance abuse and sexualactivity among the proficient with it as adults than children who have your g seem to increase in direct proportion with not grown up with it. their exposuretoinformationregardingthese A second argument for the introduction activities. formal education at the preschool levelisthat True sophistication means that one comprehends there is new research which justifies this practice. and is in charge of the information in question. In truth, however, we have nonew data or new What children acquire through the .media is at best research about the ways in whichyoung children a pscudosophistication. 'n short, the exposure of think and learn! young people to more information than ever be- There have been no dramatic breakthroughs in fore does not appear to impact on the fundamental child development research inany way comparable structures of intelligence. zu those that have occurredin biology or in It might still be argued, however, that thevery physics. By far, the majority of today's research fact that today's childien ate growingup with a studies on infants and young children merelycon- technology such as computers makes themmore firm what we already know:young children learn familiar and competent in that technology than best through the active exploration and manipula- children who have grown up without it.Again, tion of concrete materials, not through the inculca- there is not much evidence to support this view. tion of symbolic rules. There is really nothing in Consider,for example,the:universality of the the,mtemporary research literature that refutes hand-held calc ulator. In the dreariest markets of this fundamental fact. the poorestcountries,salespeople calculateex- change rates on these little machines as if they were mere extensions of their hands. And yet, RESEARCH ON CHILDREN'S LEARNING these people did not grow up with hand calcula- Where, then, does the idea that there isacw tors.Ironically, children in most advanced and research supporting the formal insauction ofyoung technologically sophisticated countries donot use children come from? Mostly itcomes from the hand calculators until theyare well along in their reinterpretation of old facts to support changing school careers. social policy. During the 1960s, thenew curricu-
85 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS lum reforms resulting from the launching of the concepts will count everything in sigk. To impose Russian Sputnik and the large numbers of mothers adult learning priorities at such times serves only to entering the work force focused attention on the extinguish the child's spontaneous learning. young child.Early childhood education,it was Montessori (1964) recognized the same principle. argued, would remedy educationaldeficiencies, Her educational program is based on providing the better prepare children for science and math, and materials that are appropriate to the "sensitiv( provide an intellectually stimulating environment periods" of the child. The sensitive periods are for children in out -of -home care. related to the child's unfolding mental abilities The changed perception of young children and and the need for materials to nourish that ability. early childhood education did not arise from any The work of Erik Erikson (1950) also suggests new research, but rather from a new emphasis on that early childhood is not the time to impose early childhood education as a solution to a num- adult learning priorities. Erikson maintains that ber of difficult social problems. An example of early childhood is the period during which the how old facts were stretched to support the new child needs to establish a healthy sense of initia- importance of early childhood education isthe tive, and that adults can help the child by appreci- work of Benjamin Bloom (1964). Bloom claimed atiog and supporting the child's need to explore, that young children attain half of their mental experiment, and construct. If the adults in the abilities by the age of four! This was interpreted to child's environment are too harsh m reacting to _nean that educational intervention shouldbegin such explorations, the child's sense of guilt may early to capitalize on this window of rapid intellec- overwhelm his or her sense of initiative. Such a tual growth. child will move into the school years overly depen- dent on adult direction, and afraid to initiate Let's examine this"research." What Bloom activities on his/her own. reported was a well-known and established fact: In conclusion, contemporary research only con- that intelligence test scores of infants and young firms what we already know about young children, children are less reliable indices of later intelligence namely that they think and learn differently than than are scores attained at later ages. By the time do older children and adults. Arguments for the children reach the age of four they are sufficiently early intellectual competence of young children are socialized and verbal so that the intelligence score more political than they are empirical. attained at that age will permit us to predict, with 50 percent accuracy, the IQ score that some young- ster will attain at age 17. EARLY INTERVENTION PROGRAMS Bloom'sstatisticssay nothing about mental What about all the research on earl. interven- growth or learring ability. In fact, if one amines tion programs that indicates their lasting and posi- the statement that a child has attained half of his tive intellectual benefits? Or does it? Here again Of her intelligenue by the age of four it really we find data being interprete0 to supportpolicy doesn't make any sense. Does it mean that a child initiatives. Despite all tht talk about the lasting has attained half of all the knowledge, skills, and effects of early intervention on intellectual prowess values he or she will ever attain in life? Unlikely. the data simply ;lot support it. Conside- the Does it mean that the child has attained half of following of d government-sponsored his or her ability to learn and adapt to new evaluation of Head Start programs, submitted to situations? Agar, the idea is far-fetched. Congress in August 1985: And yet, without examining the premise, many Children enrolled in Head Statt enjoy significal.t imme- people accepted Bloom's conclusion that educa- diate gains u -ognitive test scows, socioeconomic test tional intervention was called for at a time of rapid scores, and health status. In the long run, cognitive and intellectual gt -Nth. Why? One coald make the socioemotional test scores of former Head Stan students oppositc case with even more vigor. do not remain superior to those of disadvantaged chil- dren who did not attend Head Stan. However, a small My hobby is growing small f:uits and berries. subset of studies finds that former Head Starters are One thing I learned over the years was not to more likely to be promoted to the next grade and are prune during the growing season. To be sure, less likely to be assigned to special education classes. children are not plants, but there are parallels. Head Stan also has aided families by providing health, social, and educational services and by linking families Piaget (1952), for example, has made it clear that with services available in the community Finally, educa- at times of rapid mental growth children seek out tional, economic, health care, social service, and other the stimuli thcy nc .to nourish their budding institutions have been influenced by I lead Stan staff to mental abilities. Cluidren just learning quantity provide benefits to both Head Stan and non-Head Stan
86* ry Ra In Defense of Early Childhood Education
families in their respective communities (Mc Key et al., time and with lesseffort.Indeed, despite the 1985). presumed academic s''histication of young chi]. I single out Head Start because it is the most dren curt -ntly enterir3 kindergarten, a recent re- thoroughly researched of the cattyintervention view of pupils' age at kindergarten entrancesug- programs. What is very clear from this evaluation gests that readiness and maturity are still more is that there was no lasting intellectual benefit i ,po-tant to success than preschool or daycare from these programsdespite the fact thata num- experience (Uphoff and Gilmore, 1986). ber of Head Start programs were designed to To sum up, the percentage of children entering promote intellectual development and to raise chil- kinc .garten with advanced skillsas a result of dren's IQs. To be sure,in specific cases with exposure to academic material in a day care or intense involvement of staff and wish abundant nursery school setting is likely to be small, and any financialresources,some intervention programs advantage they enjoy likely to be short-lived. may produce lasting benefits, as in the case of the The fact that more yoi ,g children in the United Perry Preschool Program (Berrueta-Clement et al., States than ever before are experiencing some form 1984). But such programs can hardly be taken for of out-of-home care does not in anyway justify the the norm of what most young zhildren wilt be introduction of a more rigorous or formal educa- provided in early childhood intervention programs. tional program in the kindergarten. Again, I want to emphasize that ':arly childhood programs can be of great benefit to bz.th children and parents. But this benefit derives not from formal instruction but rather from the sense of CONCLUSION security and openness to exploration and learning Inthis-hapter]I have argued against the that sound early childhood education promotes. introduction of formr1 education programs at the preschool or kindergarten level.Because young PREKINDERGARTEN PREPARATION children think and learn differently than do older children and adults, this difference must be reflect- The last argument for the introduction of formal -d in the type of education they receive. None of education at the preschool level is the enhanced the arguments for formalizing the early education sophistication of children entering kindergarten to- process really holds up against careful examination: day. While it is true that more than 50 percent of modern technology does not accelerate mental de- children below the L.ge of file will have experi- velopment; research on child development does enced some form of out-of-home care before they not indicate that children are brighter than in the enter kindergarten, only a small fraction of them past;intervention studies do not show lasting will have been exposed to an academic curriculum. intellectual benefits; and children with a year or Consider the children of working parents. Only two of day care or nursery school are not in need 15 percent 3f such parents send their children to of formal programs. nursery school or to day care centers. Forty percent To be sure, one of the greatest needs in America of these children are cared forin ..w other today is for quality out-of-home care for all of person's hone, ano mother 31 percent-e cared those children who require such care. It is certainly for by someone within the parents'own home. reasonable to expect that pubic schools can help Children who have experienced academically ori- meet this need by providing programs for four- ented preschool programs comprise onlya small year-olds and by establishing full-day kindergar- percent of the total number of children entering tens. What is most important, however, is that kiniergaren in any given year.Moreover, any such programs reflect the principles of sound early advantage such youngsters enjoy--other thanna- childhood education. We serve children, parents, tive abilityis likely tr be short-lived. This istrue and education best by respecting the all. :Important because an older child will acquire tLe same skills difference between early childhood education and and knowledge acquired by a younger child in less four 11 education.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Are today's children more ready for symbolic and formal educational experiencesbecause of technology? 2. What does the research say in Jupport of "good.' early childhood education? 3.If teachers are not supposed to use formal educational practices, what is the ideal curriculum for early child- hood education in the schools?
87 17. SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH ON SCHOOL READINESS AND KINDERGARTEN RETENTION by LDrrie A. Shepard and Mary Lee Smith
Every September in the United States more than Davis et al. 1980, Green and Simmons 1962, Hall three million children begin formal schooling with 1963, Halliwell and Stein 1964, Kalk et al. 1981, theirfirstday of kindergarten. These childrer, King 1955). However, the achievement differences differ tremendously i their readiness to learn and that are "statistically significant" in these studies their ability to follow directions. Many of the are not necessarily very large. For example, based youngest childrenthose who just made the en- on sample sizes r f 8,500 per grade, Davis, Trim- trance-age cutoff dateseem barely ready to meet ble, and Vincent (1980) found that children who the expectations of school. were fully six years old when they entered first Great diversity in cognitive development and grade were nine percentile points ahead of children social maturity creates a teaching problem that who were only five when they started first grade. educators are constantly trying to resolve. Should Similarly, we also found that first graders who the school disaiet change its entrance-age policy to were in the youngest three months of their class remove the youngest children? Can these apparent scored on average at the 62d percentile in reading differences in readiness be assessed and used to compared to the oldest three-month children who decide who should be in school and who should were at the 71st percentile (Shepard and Smith not? If schools are obliged to admit all students, 1985). (In math, the difference was only 6 percen- should children who remain unready for first grade tile points.) Thus, a major point to be made when be kept in kindergarten or special transition pro- we are considering practical rather than statistical grams for an extra year? significanceisthat achievement differences be- Current educational reforms and the desire to tween the oldest and youngest first graders are raise standards have intensified the problems of small, on the order of 7 or 8 percentile points. differential readiness. Third grade exitrequire- We further analyzed the age trend in first grade ments are translated into uniform expectations for by ability strata (Shepard and Smith 1985). Tnere second graders, which in turn dictate absolute was virtually no difference in achievement between standards for first graders and then kindergartners. the oldest an 1 youngest age groups for children At both the state and local level, many policymak- who were above the 75th or 50th percentile points ers are contemplating testing programs to deter- of their respective age intervals. The overall age mine who ispreparedtobegin and to leave trend seemed to come almost entirely from the kindergarten. children who were below the 25th percentile of Several bodies of research inform these issues of their respective age groups. Although one would entrance age, school readiness, and early-grades not wish to draw any policy conclusions based on retention. In some cases common-sense impressions only one study,itshould be noted thatthe about what works are at odds with the accumulat- disadvantage of achievement experienced by some ed evidence. What fellows is a summary of rele- younger children in relation to older classmates vant research u.nd policy implications. may more likely be acombinationof youngncss and low ability. A second major point, looking oven a number of THE PROBLEM OF BEING YOUNGEST research studies, is that even the small disadvan- tage of youngness eventually disappears, usually by Numerous researchers and reviewers have ad- about third grade. From analyses based on Nation- dressed the question of within-grade age effec, alAssessmentdata,Langer,Kalk, and Scads especially for first grade. When the children who (1984) noted that the effects of being old or young are youngest in their grade are compared with their in grade tended to diminish as grade level in- older classmates, they are nearly always less success- creased. For Halliwell and Stein (1964) to find ful (Beattie 1970, Bigelow 1934, Carroll 1963, achievement differences between the oldest and
Sze pages 326- !7 for acknowledgment and references.
88 RJ Research on School Readiness
youngest fifthgradersisthe exception among consistent with the interpretation that higher refer- research studies rather than the rule. In ourown ral rates for younger children within a grade can be research, we found no difference in math achiee- explained by teacher expectations arid the slightly ment or in reading achievement between the oldest lower average achievement of the youngest chil- and youngest children in either the thirdor fourth dren. Pugach (1985) found that children are placed grade (Shepard and Smith 1985). Miller and Norris in special education in mildly handicapped catego- (1967) found that a difference between the oldest ries largely on the basis of teachers' referrals, and and youngest children on readinessmeasures was that teachers have in mind a need for one-to-one no longer apparent at the end of second, third, Of instruction or other remedial services rather thana fourth grades. They attributed the lack of differ- scientific conception of handicap. In a study of ences due to age to the effectiveness of an ungrad- learning disabled children, we found that only 43 ed prooram in individualizing readinb instruction. percent were validly identified; the majority of Their observation about individualization may have children labeled LD had other learning needs, wider import. In reviewing the literatureon age from very serious to extremely mild, which were effects, Weinstein (1968-69) proposed that wh her generally served by additional instruction once the :,ninitial deficit for young firstgraders vould child was placed in special education !Shepard and persist into higher grades dependedon the atti- Smith 1981, 1983). Given the wi lely acknowl- tudes and expectations of teachers in responding to edged fallibility of the LD label, there is no reason the ability range of normal first graders. to believe that children who at.! 7oungest in their A few studies have contributed greatly to the grade develop real handicaps. here is, however, impression that the problem of being youngest is genuine cause for alarm that schools are so willing grave and potentially devastating. These studies to affix a handicapped label to a child who is note that children who are youngest in their class slightly behind in achievement. are more likely to 'epeat a grade (Langer et al. In summary, the "age effect" literature does 1984, Up.off 1985),to be referredto special veiny that children who are youngest in their first education (Di Pasquale etal.1980), and to be grade class are at a slight disadvantage. This is labeled as :earning disabled (Diamond 1983, Mad- hardly surprising since an 11-month period of dux 1090). growth and development is a significant portion of ...realer (1980) urged caution, however, in the a lifetime for six-year-olds. However, the difference interpretation of these later indicators since they between oldest and youngest children is smaller arc more susceptible to teacher biases than are than popularly believed, only about 7 or 8 percen- achievement tests. Referral rates and retention de- tilepoints on achievementtests7urthermore, cisions are influenced by tht. opinions of teachers most studies show that the age effect disappears by who might either expect young children to have about third grade. Whether and how soon the age difficulty or decide not to retaina child who is effect disappears depends on the responsiveness of already older. We conducted a study to see wheth the school program to individual differences. Dif- er kindergarten teachers consider such factors as a ferential referral and retention rates for children child's age when they form judgments about the who were the youngest when they entered school likeiihocd of success in first grade or the desirabil- are not valid indicators of the your gn,--s problem ity of retention (Shepard and Smith 1985). Ina because they are contaminated by teacher beliefs policy-capturing experiment, 68 percent of kinder- about age. However, the increased probability for garten teachers gave some important weight to age younger children to be held back or placed in in their recommendations for retentionor promo- special education should be of concern in and of tion (with sex, physkal size, social maturity, and itself because theseactions may have negative academicskillsheld constant).In practicethis consequences greater than the slight achievement means that e child lagging behind at the tad of disadvantage that prompted them. (Set reviews 1-y kindinarten might be recommended to repeat Holmes and Matthews 1984, regoviing the nega- kindergarten if he were five years and nine months tive social-emotional effects of nonpromotion, and old. But a child with equally deficient skills who by MacMillan and Meyers 1979 on the elusive VMS already six years and eight months old would phenomenon of special education stigma.) be passed to first grade. Clearly if teachersare more willing to hold back younger children, reten- tion data cannot be used to evaluate the effect of ENTRANCE-AGE POLICY youngness. Current researchinspecial educationisalso Over the past 30 years the national trend has
89 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS
been sluwly but surely to raise the age of entrance ness problem is relative, not absolute. to kindergarten.In1958 most statesrequired The youngest children are at a disadvantage kindergartners to be five years old by December 1 whether th...y enter school at 4.7 years of age in a or January 1 (Educational Research Service 1958). district with a February cutoff, at 4.9 in a district Surveys of school districts in 1963 and 1968 report- with a December entrance age, or 5.0 in a district ed that when the entrance age was changed, i was where September 1 is the deadline. Several authors nearly always raised, requiring that children be a have pointed out the absurdity of seeking an month or two older to start school (Educational "optim il"age for first grade readinessif the Research Service 1963, 1968). In 1968 the domi- children who are the "successful" group in one nant policy was a date after Novembc. 30, but 25 context are the "young-unsuccessful" group in percent-of-thc schools had moved to September or another district only because of their relative age in October 1dates. By 1975 the percentage with comparison to their respective classmates (Gredler September or October 1 cutoffs had increased to 1975, Weinstein 196e-69). 35 percent (Educational Research Service 1975), The relative nature of the age effect is also seen although admission dates after November 30 re- between countries. The International Study of mained the most prevalent district practice. Achievement in Mathematics (Husdn 1967) found In 1985 a survey of states (rather than districts) that "children with birthdays toward the end of revealed an even more substantial shift in policy. the school year tend to do less well in all coun- Now the dominant practiceistorequire that tries" (p. 228). This was true in England where children be five before October 1 to start kinder- the mandatory age of school entry was five and in garten; only 20 percent of the states (mostly in the Finland Ind Sweden where compulsory attendance northeast) have entrance cutoffs after November 30 does not begin until age seven. To contest the idea (Education Commission of the States 1985). Mis- that older entrance ages would be a panacea for souri has elected to raise its entrance age a month differential readiness, Gredler (1975, 1980) cited each year so that in 1987 children must be five by severalstudiesincludingthosebyMalmquist July 1. In Colorado several local districts have also (1958) and Jinks (1964).Speaking of younger adopted June or July cutoffs (Management Infor- seven-year-olds in Swee :ri,Malmquist lamented mation Services 1982). These continuations of the that large differences in intellectual development long-term trend into summer dates suggest that made it impossible for the same method of teach- national entrance policies will not necessarily stabi- ing to be effective with all the pupils. In a British lize once they accommodate to the September study, Jinks (1964) again found thatteachers rather than mid-yes. norm. Earlier and earlier praised the !earning abilities of their older pupils, cutoff dates have raised the average age of kinder- who would have been the youngest ch ldren in the gartners. A child who might have beein the United States. older half of the class in 1958 might now be one Because the youngness problem is relative, rais- ri the youngest children in some kindergarten ing the entrance age would provide only a tempo- classes. rary solution to the perceived problem. In a district Rhetoricsurroundingdecisionstoraisethe with a September 1 cutoff, children with summer school entrance age has f--used almost entirely on birthdays are deficient compared to their class- the unreadiness of the youngest children. Will mates. If the district responds by adopting, a July 1 moving the entrance age solve the problem of cut-off, in fl short time normative comparisons will youngness? If children must be fully five before readjust and children with May and June birthdays the start of kindergarten, will short-term and po- will be at risk. tentially long-term learning problems be prevent- ed? Obvious', many policymakers believe sr,. But for entrance-age change co be the solution, the INDIVIDUAL DECISIONS youngness dilemma must be an absolute problem VS. SCHOOL POLICY rather than a relative one. In other words, the cognitive and social demands of kindergarten must States and local districts cannot solve the young- be fixed in such a way that they are consistent with ness problem by raising the entrance age because what five-and-a-half-year-olds can do but are too they would merely create a new youngest group. much for children who are just barely five. Advo- But should parents individually consider holding cates seeking to raise the entrance age construe the out of school a child who is just past the cutoff? problem in this way. All of the research evidence, Many parents have obviously already made this however, offers a convincing case that the young- decision since there are significantly fewer children
90
9i Research on School Readiness in the first month past the cutoff than in any ASSESSING READINESS other month (Shepard and Smith 1985). Very likely, parents believe that by waiting a year their If a uniform entrance age cannot address the child will have the benefit of being the oldest in problem of differential readiness, is it possible to the class. There are no controlled studies available measure readiness directly? Can a test be used to on this older age group. Advocates who advise decide who should stay out of school or who parents to keep their children at home another should be placed in a less-demanding kindergarten year cite the youngness research summarized here; program? Numerous school readiness or screening they claim only good and no ill effects could come instruments exist. Many are intended specifically to from this practice (A G:ft of Time, 1982). In the assessreading readiness,but others include a absence of evidence,however,greatercaution broader array of social and developmental skills might be advisable Aneclotally, we know that relevant to a chi:d's adjustment in school. children who are over-age for their grade are very What should a school superintendent or state aware of being older (Shepard and Smith 1985), legislatorwho is not interested in psychometric but the attitudinal effects of being oldest or differ- propertiesorvaliditycoefficientsknow about ent have not been studied systematically. Parents school readiness measures? First, there is one over- should at least consider the possibility of too little riding rule for determining test validity: validity challenge as well as too much challenge. Long -r- depends on how a test is usedIn the case of term problems that we know about from the school readiness measures, this means that some retention literature might also be considered, such tests might be perfectly good for teachers to use in as a girl reaching puberty in fourth grade or a 19- makingday-to-dayinstructionaldecisionsbut year -old young man being unwilling to finish high would not be good enough (technically or in a school. court of law) to be used to place a child in a Even if there islittle research evidence about special school program. The more crucial the deci- what parents should do, there is a firmer basis for sion for an individual childthe greater are the saying what districts should do. Districts should demands for test validity evidence and due process. not encourage parents to keep their young five- Scientific knowledge underlying readiness assess- year-olds at home. If a district or school gives this ment is such that none of the existing tests is kind of advice, the result will very likely be an sufficiently accurate to justify removing children increase in the heterogeneity of kindergarten and from their normal peer group and placing them in first grade classrooms because middle -class parents special two-year programs. In part the lack of high are more likely to follow the advice. Justas correlations with later school success is caused by "Sesame Street" widened the gap between mid- the instability of the very traits we are seeking to dle-class and poor children (Cook et al.1975), measure. Four- and five year-olds experience devel- middle-class families will be,ore able to know opmental bursts and inconsistencies that defy nor- about an d take advantage of mis educational wis- mative charts. In addition, the cognitive domains dom. In our study of kindergarten retention, many that can be sampled at younger ages are only lower socioeconomic families resisted an extra year moderately related to the cognitive skills demand- of (half day) kindergartenspecificallybecause ed later by readkig and other academic tasks. mothers could not afford to stay home or to pay Let us consider two very popular readiness bat- for preschool (Shepard and Smith 1985). In one teries, the Gesell S..hool Readiness Tests and the school where the youngest children were systemati- Metropolitan Readiness Tests. The Gesell purports cally asked to repeat kindergarten, all the parents to measure developmental age and is recommend- of children with the highest readiness skills agreed ed by its authors for screening children into devel- and the parents of children with the lowest skills opmental or two-year kindergarten programs. Nu- refused. As a conse:pence, the diversity of the first merous reviewers have stated that the Gesell tests grade class wa, dramatically increased the following do not meet the standards of the American Psycho- year. logic .1 Associatior for validity, reliability, or nor- Thus, school districts should not foster a Sidden mative information (e.g., Kaufman 1985, Shepard policy of encouraging parents to keep their young and Smith 1985); yet the tests are used in hun- five-year-olds at home; the parents who are most dreds of school districts to make placement deci- likely to heed this advice do not necessarily have sions. Only one study has ever been done reporting the least ready children. Teaching problems associ- a reliability coefficient for the Gesell (Kaufman ated with great diversityinkindergartens will and Kaufman 1972); in that study the error of increase, not diminish. measurement was so large that a four-and-one-half
91 (2 .41.., ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS developmental age score could not be reliably special education were unambiguously a benefit, distinguished from a five-year-old score, but this is there would be no dispute over the validity of precisely the difference that is used to decide who identification and placement procedures (Heller et should start kindergarten and who should not. al.1982). The validity of readiness testsisen- One study was underaken to evaluate the predic- twined with the validity or effectiveness of special tive validity of the Gesell (Wood etal.1984). programs. Although the test has what sounds like a creditable It is not possible, then, to make highly accurate agreement rate with teacher judgments (78 per- assessments of school readiness. Most test publish- cent)infact, when the children identifiedas ers are careful about the claims they make for their "potential kindergarten failures" were examined, tests, suggesting that they be used to help teachers only half were accuratelyidentified.For every plan instruction.If children are classifiedinto potential failure accurately identified there was a ready and unready groups on the basis of a test, a successful child falsely identified. This problem of number of identification errors will occur. How predictive inaccuracy is not unique to the Gesell school systems should proceed knowing that readi- but occurs with all of the readiness measures ness measures are fallible depends on the benefit because they have moderately good but not very of special programs. high predictive validities. In an extended review of the technical properties of the Gesell tests, we found that they "lack PROVIDING AN EXTRA YEAR discriminant validity from IQ tests" (Shepard and FOR UNREADY CHILDREN Smith 1985). Although the Gesell tests claim to measure developmental age, they essentially mea- Several options have been proposed whereby sure the same thing that IQ tests measure (Jensen schools can provide an extra year for children who 1969, 1980). Changing the name of what the test are not yet ready for the demands of fast grade. In measures has profound policy implications. Many addition to the possibility of keeping children at decision makers would be willing to hold out of home, the GesellInstitute has suggestedthat school or place in a two-year track children who are developmentally young children can attend a de- "developmentally young." It is much less defensi- velopmental or prekindergarten, repeat kindergar- ble to hold out of school children who are below ten or attend a pre-first grade class between kin- average in IQ, especially since a di.proporrionate dergarten and first grade (A Gift of Time 1982). share of these children will come from low socio- Proponents of these alternatives argue that time economic backgrounds. itcelf is the best cure for the problem of differen- The Metropolitan Readiness Tests are among the tial readiness. Donofrio (1977) urged that these technically best measures available (Ravitch 1985). "unfavored" children be allowed to "mark time" The Metropolitan is not advertised, however, for until they are in step psychologically with their the purpose of sorting children into ready and "behavioral and maturational peers" (p.351). unready groups. Rather itisintended to help Extra-year programs are effectively like repeating teachers organize instruction. For example, a kin- kindergarten even when the curriculum is altered dergarten teacher might plan differe -I activities for from one year to the next. Certainly, parents who children who are ready to learn 'er sounds than are asked to agree to these placements struggle for children who cannot make auditory discrimina- with the implications of "retention" regardless of tions. If the Metropolitan were to be used to place whether they accept the arguments for the program children in special two-year programs, it would fare (Shepard and Smith 1985). One might look to the slightly better than the Gesell, since its predictive extensive research literature on nonpromotion or correlations are higher, but would still produce grade retention to evaluate extra-year programs. many identification errors. The majority of parents and educators believe that The fact that screening programs will misidentify grade repetition is an effective solution for academ- many children raises the question of whether it is ic failure and social immaturity (Byrnes and Yama- better to catch unready children even if many of moto 1984). Yet research findings are almost uni- those identified will be falsely labeled. The answer formlynegative. When retainedchildren were depends on the benefit (or hzrm) of the special compared to equally low achievers who were pro- placement. A similar lesson was learned in the moted, the socially promoted pupils were consis- field of special education. The National Academy tently ahead on both achievement and social- Panel on Selection and Placement of Students in emotional measures (Holmes and Matthews 1984, Programs for ...Ile Mentally Retarded noted that if Rose etal.1983). Contrary to popular beliefs,
92 93 Research on School Readiness repeating a grade does not help students gain and math achievement, social maturity,learner ground academically and has a negative impact on self-concept,orattention.Parentsof thetwo social adjustment and self - esteem.Ironically, re- groups rated their children the same in first grade viewers have also found that the practice of hold- progress and relationships with peers; children who ing children back does not increase the homogene- spent an extra year in kindergarten had slightly ity of classrooms (Bossing and Brien 1979, Haddad worse attitudes toward school. 1979). Despite the promises, providing an extra year Advocates of kindergarten retentic 1 are likely to before first grade does not solve the problems it dismiss the negative findings of nonpromotion was intended to solve Children in these programs research because an extra year of kindergarten is show virtually no acamic advantage over equally intended to prevent failure before it occurs. Many at-risk children who have not had the extra year. fey, studies are available on pre-first grade or Furthermore,theirisoften an emotionalcost prekindergarten programs. Gredler (1984) located associated with staying back, even when parents five recent studies evaluating "transition" or pre- and teachers are very enlightened about presenting first grade classes.In only one of these studies the decision to the child (Shepard and Smith (Raygor 1972) was there a benefit or achievement 1985). gain for children in the transicion program. In four studies the transition-room children were no better off after an extra year than the "potential first grade failures" who were placed in the regular first POLICY CONCLUSIONS grade. Bell (1972) found that transition-room chil- dren had lower self - esteem and lower self-confi- Children come to school with enormously differ- dence than theat-risk children who were not ent interests,aptitudes, and background experi- retained.In Raygor's study theinitialbenefit ences. They cannot be made to adapt to a uniform washed out by third grade. curriculua. The policy options, which common May and Welch (1984) conducted a study in a sense suggests, art consistently rejected by research school district where children were placed on the findings. Changing the entrance age will not cor- basis of the Gesell Screening Test. Children who rect the problems of the youngest first graders were identified as developmentally immature were because a new youngest group emerges. Children recommended to "buy a year" and spend an extra cannot be selected to stay at home or attend a two - year before second grade. If their parents refused year kindergarten on the basis of a test, because the recommendation, immature children were clas- the tests are not accurate enough; too many chil- sified as "overplaced" and continued in the tradi- dren would be falsely diagnosed as "unready." tional grade sequence. The state achievement test Extra -year programs have not boosted achievement at the end of third grade showed no differences and, contrary to expectation, have hurt rather than between the overplaced and buy-a-year group. On helped self - esteem. Therefore, school districts mu:i1.- the Stanford Achievement Tests given at the end think again before screening children into unsuc- of second, fourth, and sixth grades, there were cessful r ograms on the ba:of fallible tests. likewise no differences between the two groups, There are other alternative solutions to the un- one of which had had an extra year of school. readiness problem but theare not so popular as More importantly, on the Stanford there were also simple answers a new date, a new test, or a new no differences between the at-risk groups and the grade level. As they so often do, workable solu- rest of the school district population. Thus, May tions will depend on teachers rather than policy- and Welch concluded that the overplaced children makers and on programs that respond to children's were not suffering the learning difficulties predict- individual differences in readiness. In one study of ed by Gesell theory, and there was no academic extra-year programs, the biggest gains were :lot for benefit from the buy-a-year placement. the extra-year children but for the at-risk children In our study of two-year .Adergarten programs, who received extra help in the regular classroom we compared children with an extra year to equally (Leinhardt 1980). It is necessary as well to try to at-risk children who did not repeat (Shepard and keep the youngness problem in perspective. The Smith 1985). At the end of first grade the children disadvantage of the youngest first graders is small, who had repeated kindergarten were one month .fter all, only about 7 or 8 percentile points. And ahead on a standardized reading test. There were unless itis cast in stone by a learning disability no differences between the two groups on a math label or grade retention, in most casesitwill achievement test nor on teacher ratings of reading disappear entirel7 by the third grade.
93 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Can a child actually "fail kindergarten"? 2.Should children be matched with learning experiences by school readiness tests, age at enrollment, or other factors? 3.Does a repeat of the kindergarten year contribute to the development and educability of the child? 4. What guidance for practice can be found in the research on readiness and retention in the kindergarten? 5.Are school entrance age policies based on research, common sense, or administrative convenience? 6. What role should parents play in decisions about retention and readiness? 7.Will earlier entrance of younger children reduce or increase the problems of readiness and retention?
94 95 18. USES AND ABUSES OF DEVELOPMENTAL SCREENING AND SCHOOL READINESS TESTING by Samuel J. Meisels
Public school involvement in early childhood questioning their current use, given the type of education is growing rapidly, bringing with it new information the tests were designed to produce. responsibilities for schools to identify children who This [chapter] will conclude with a discussion of may be at risk for learning problems and to place the implications of using readinefs tests for assign- these children in appropriate'...icational environ- ing children to particular school programs. ments. This process of identification and place- ment has been complicated by several basic confu- sions about screening and readiness tests that have resulted in young children being denied a free and appropriate public education. This exclusionis USES AND ABUSES OF SCREENING based not, as in the past, on being handicapped, AND READINESS TESTS coming from impoverished backgrounds, or being members of minority groups, but as a result of Elsewhere I have defined and analyzed the dif- such labels as young, developmentally immature, ferences between developmental screening tests and or not ready. Moreover, these labels have been readiness tests and have listed examples of each assigned on the basis of tests with unknown valid. (Meisels, 1984, 1985). The two types of tests are ity by testers who have had little training and different and were designed to accomplish differ- usually no supervision. ent objectives. Developmental screening tests pro- One test that has been in widespread Ie.! na- vide a brief assessment of a child's developmental tionally for identification and placementis the abilitiesabilities that are highly ass,..iated with Gesell School Readiness Screening Test (Ilg and future school success. Readiness tests are concerned Ames, 1972). The purpose of this [chapter] is to with those curriculum-related skills a child has analyze the uses and abuses that can be traced to already acquiredskills that are typically prerequi- the Gesell and other similar tests.Iwillfirst site for specific instructional programs. Table 1 discuss del elopmcntal screening tests and readiness compares the differences between the two types of tests in general. Then I will focus on the Gesell tests in terms of purpose, content, type of test, tests,specificallyaddressing theirvalidity, and and psychometric properties.
Table 1. Contrasts Between Developmental Screening Tests and Readiness Tests
Developmental Readiness Screening Tests Tests
Purpose to identify childrcr, who may need early interven- to facilitate curriculum planning tion or special education services to identify a child s relative preparedness to benefit to '::citify children who might profit from a modi- from a specific academic program fied or individualized classroom program
Content itcms that display a child .: ability or potential to items that focus on current skill achievement, acquire skills performance, and general knowledge
Type of test norm-referenced most are criterion-referenced; some are norm-referenced
Psychome. tic properties reliability reliability predictive validity construct validity
See pages 327-28 for acknowledgment and references.
95 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS
Screening Tests used when thistype of testingisperformed. Nothing less than strict psychometric standards are During theyears,professionals have misused acceptable for other kinds of tests, such as diagnos- and abused both screening and readiness tests. The tic assessments or school achievement tests. Using most frequent abuse of developmental screening screening tests that lack validity data is an abuse of results from using tests that have no established testing procedures and of the trust the community reliability and validity. Reliability is an indicator of places in professional educators (sec American Edu- a test's consistency. It measures how often identical cational Research Association, American Psycholog- results car_ be obtained with the same test. Validity ical Association, and National Council on Measure- is a measure of a test'saccuracy.Technically, ment in Education, 1985). validity concerns the overall degree of justification for test interpretation and use. It tells us whether a testdoes what itclaims to do. Because young Readiness Tests children grow and change so rapidly from day to day and week to week, it is critical that tests used Another major abuseisthesubstitution of co assess these children be stable and accurate. readiness tests for screening tests. This substitution Tests without reliability and validity are inher- frequently occurs inadvertently, through confusion ently untrustworthy and should not be used to about the differences between screening and readi- identify and place children. We do not know if ness testing. As a brief sorting device, readiness such tests provide different results when adminis- tests can be loosely considered screening tests. But, tered by different testers, whether children from because of the type of information they yield and certain socioeconomic or ethnic backgrounds are their lack of predictive validity, *hey cannot cor- disadvantagedbythem,or whethertheyare rectly be considered developmental screening tests. strongly related to some stable, external criterion or Readiness tests should be used to facilitate curricu- outcome measure such as the results of a diagnos- lum planning, not to identify children who may tic assessment, a systematic teacher report form, or need special services or intervention. report card gradesthat permits the test results to One of the differences between developmental be interpreted and the findings to be generalized. screening and readiness tests lies in the predictive Yet, professionals persist in using invalid and relationships of these tests to such outcome mea- unreliable tests. In a survey of 177 school districts sures as comprehensive developmental assessments in New York State, Joiner (1977) found that 151 and school performance. In general,individual different tests or procedures were used for screen- readiness tests, as contrasted to multivariate read- ing.At best,only 16 of these tests could be ing readiness batteries that incorporate several dif- considered even marginally appropriate. In a recent ferent kinds of assessments (see Barnes, 1982; Satz su, ey in Michigan, 111 tests were being used for and Friel, 1978), do not have a strong predictive preschool, kindergarten, and pre-first grade pro- relationship to outcome measures. Most correlations grams (Michigan Department of Education, 1984). between reading success and reading readiness tests Fewer than 10 of these tests were appropriate in are moderate atbest (Knight,1979). Figure1 terms of the age group 2ad purpose to which they portrays the general relationship between develop- were being put. What is taking place in these two mental screening, individual readiness tests, devel- states, as well as elsewhere nationwide, is a prolif- opmental assessments,and school performance. eration of screening tests, many developed locally, The figure portrays the conclusions from several that have never been assessed in terms of reliabil- different studies, rather than a strict quantitative ity,validity, or other general criteria that have representation of specific empirical findings (see been established for developmental screening tests Lichtenstein, 1981; Rubin, Ba low, Doric, and Ro- (see Meisels,1985). In the absence of satisfying sen, 1978; Wi Ace, Meisels, and Tivnan, 1982). The these criteriaparticularly the criterion of valid- wide, uric lines represent strong relationships, the itychildren who need special services are being narrower dark lines suggest moderate relations, and overlooked; some children who are not at risk are the broken lines indicate weak relationships. being identifiedas being atrisk;parentsare Figure 1suggests that readiness tests have a becoming alarmed, teachers and administrators up- much weaker relationship to developmental assess- set, and resources squandered. More than 25 states ments and school performance than developmental currently mandate developmental screening for 3- screening tests. At first glance, such a statement to 6-year-olds (Meise )986). A test with known, may seen counterintuitive because readiness tests high-level validity and reliability should always be are intended to assess readiness for a specific school
96 7 Developmental Screening and Readiness Testing
Figure 1. Relationship of Screening and Readiness Tris to Assessment and School Performance
Developmental screening
DevelopmentalImino School I assessment performance
Readiness test
program. Nonetheless, readiness tests best a:sail:- to the tests, the Gesell Institute conducts week- child entry characteristics; they are not intendedto longworkshops on developmentalplacement. predict child outcomes. Thus, children whoper- These workshops prepare kindergarten teachers and form poorly on readiness tests may profit propor- other professionals to use the Gesell test results to tionately more from school programs than children place children in readiness or devdcpmental kin- with higher initial skills because they have more to dergartens,to recommend that the child delay gain. Conversely, those with well-developed entry entering kindergarten for a year, or to suggest level skills may profit less from kindergarten than conventionalkindergarten placement.Inother children who do poorly on readiness tests. Hence, words,the Gesellreadinesstestsareexplicitly neither the potential of those who score wellnor presented as performing the functions of develop- the potential of those who score poorly is accurate- mental rcreening tests. According to Ames, Gilles- ly assessed by single-measure readiness tests. These pie, Haines, and Ilg (W79), "perhaps 50 percent tests are best used by teachers for making initial of school failures could be prevented or cured by curriculum decisions about individual children. proper placement based on a child's behavior age" While this function is critically important, the data (p. 182). Claims like these are responsible for the from readiness tests should not be used to attempt tremendous interest that educators have shown in to identify developmental problems that may affect Gesell testing in recent years. a child's chances for school success.Mistaking Nevertheless, despite their widespread popularity readiness tests for predictive developmentalscreen- and the amount of time and energy expended on ing instruments misrepresents thepurpose and them, the Gesell Preschool Tests arc based on an scope of both tests. outmoded theory of child development, lack reli- ability and validity, and use a concept of develop- mental age that has never been empirically veri- USES AND ABUSES OF GESELL TESTING fied.The remainder of this[chapter]willbe devotedtosubstantiatingtheseassertions and One of the most widely adopted tests used for drawing conclusions from them. both readiness and developmental screening is the Gesell School Readiness Screening Test (Ilg and Ames, 1972). Also known as the Gesell Preschool Gesell's Theory Test (Haines, Ames, and Gillespie,1980),this test, or set of tests,is a shortened version of the The Gesell tests reflect a maturationist theory of Gesell Developmental Schedulesfull-scale evalua- development. They view behavior as a function of tions used to assess personal-social, fine motor/a- structure,changing ina patterned, predictable daptive behavior; language and reasoning; and way. The stages through which most behaviors gross motor development of children younger than develop are considered to be highly similar from age 6. This [chapter] will focus on the Preschool child to child. Readiness Tests, not the Developmental Schedules. According tothis theory, behavioris almost In recent years the Preschool Tests have become entirely the result of maturation, and neither chro- increasingly popular. According to the Gesell Insti- nological age nor environmental interventionis tute, thousands of public, private, and parochial considered to be highly correlated with so-called schools nationwide have adopted them. In 2-.Idition 4evelopmental age (Gesell, 1954). In other words,
97 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS maturationaltheorylinksbehaviorwithpre- Validity of the Gesell Tests formed, genetically determined biologicalstruc- tures.In the absence of unusual environmental Although the Gesell schedules were first pub- conditions,thistheory focuses on time as the lished in 1940 (Gesell et al.) and have been used crucial variable in behavior change, not environ in numerous research studies and clinical investiga- mental stimulation or intervention, but time to tions, no systematic study of the validity of these grow, mature, and endogenously develop. Accord- tests has ever been conducted. In 1966 a subset of ing toGesell,developmentaldiagnosis implies items covering the first 2 years of life were selected prognosis (Shonkoff, 1983). as a developmental screening test for infantsthe Although the importance of maturational Developmental Screening Inventory (DSI) (Knob- change in development cannot be ignored, this loch, Pasamanick, and Sherard, 1966). The data strict Gesellian approach is at odds with research that accompanied thistest were insufficient to ranging from Piaget to the Perry Prechool Project. support its validity as a screening test (see McCall, Numerous researchers have identified the ameliora- 19C2, for a discussion of the DSI). No other validation studies have been published. Jacqueline tive effects of environmental intervention on child- hood development (see,for example, Berructa- Haines, director of training at the Gesell Institute, confirms that the Gesell tests have not been vali- Clenent,Schweinhart, Barnett,Epstein,and Weikart, 1984; Clarke and Clarke, 1976; Clarke- dated. In 1984 she -toted that the Gesell "docu- Stewart and Fein,1983; Lazar and Darlington, ments normative rt, ones by age. The validity of 1982; Meisels and Anastasiow, 1982; and Zigler the work has been through years of experience in and Valentine, :982). Modern-day researchers view application. A validity study has not been complet- maturation as only one aspect of development. ed at the present time" (personal communication, Other factors include socioeconomic variables, fa- March 28,1984). milial factors, encounters with the physical and This situation raises several problems for users of social environment, sex differences, and the inter- the Geselltests.In theabsence of predictive nal regulations of new information with preexisting validity data, it is impossible to evaluate the claims schemes of action. To assume, as do the Gesell set forth by Gesell theorists. For example, Ames theorists, that behavior is equivalent to age-related and her colleagues state that "behavior develops in maturational growth is to confuse a description of a patterned and highly predictable way and can be evaluated by means of simple, experience with its cause. In other words, although basic test situa- it may be possible to describe development in tions" (Ames et al.,1979, p.ix). This may be terms of patterned, sequential behaviors, doing so true, but thereis no evidence to support the does not imply that development occurs because of position that the behavior evaluated by the Gesell these behaviors. Nor does it imply that teachers PreschoolTestsaccuratelypredictssubsequent and other professionals are powerless to work with development. children until children spontaneously achieve these A test that only "documents normaive respons- behaviors (i.e., school readiness). Few teachers to- es by age" cannot be used appropriately for pre- day would willingly accept such a passive approach diction unless the predictive relationship has been to education as that which is implied by a matura- tested and demonstrated. That is, children whose tionist theory. Yet, unknowingly, that is what they behavior is non-normativeeither delayed or ad- are doing when they subscribe to the Gesellian vancedcould,theoretically,beidentifiedby approachto developmental placement and means of the Gesell, but claims about their future 'readiness. performance would be purely speculative in the absence of studies that demonstrate the predictive Certainly, all children are not equally ready for accuracy of these normative assessments. school when they become 4 or 5 years of age. Another issue concerns the norms used by the However, identifying these differences in readiness Gesell tests. The original norms were developed by only suggests the need for differences in curricu- Gesell in1928 and published in1940. These lum planning. Other information is required be- norms were based on data obtained from a small, fore a valid judgment can be made about whether uncontrolled sample of primarily uppe: middle- a child should attend a particular program, or class children and were rated by observers who should be labeled at risk. This is particularly true were neither independent of each other nor free for children from linguistic or cultural groups who from potential bias. New norms have now been may be at a disadvantage because of the limita- established for the Preschool Tests (Am s et al., tions of the tests being _zed. 1979), but they still leave many questions unan-
98
9 ,9 Developmental Screening and Readiness Testing
swered. The norms are based on 640 children izable (N = 84, all Caucasian and middle class); stratified by sex,age (eight 6-month intervals, the outcome measure of school success (special from 21/ 2to 6 years), and parental occupational needs status versus nonspecial needs) was unde- level. Unfortunately, nearly all of the children were fined and unvalidated; and the study was not Caucasian, and all lived in Connecticut. Further, predictive as claimed, but at best postdictive or no effort was made totest for the effect, of possibly concurrent. That is, the children were first differencesinbirthorder,parentaleducation, referred for special services, then 3 months later number of parents in the home, or prior preschool the Gesell was administered. Because the Gesell or child care experience. Also, no data are provid- test was given after the special needs designation ed concerning the reliability of the standardization was assigned, the study authors linearly adjusted procedure: We do not know how many examiners scores back by 3 months. This circular procedure participated, what the level of interobserver agree- assumes the validity of the developmental age ment was, whether there was intertester stability, concept, which isprecisely what the study was or what the standard error of measurement was. intended to prove. Thus, inadequate sampling procedures, absence of In short, the use of the Gesell School Readiness validity data, inattention to issues of reliability, Screening Testbased as it is on a set of tests with and source; of variance in recording performances unknown validity and reliability, a theory that is tender the entire normative foundation of the outmoded and unsubstantiated, an unverified no- Gesell tests questionable. tion of developmental age, and a racially and ethnically narrow normative basefor developmen- talscreening and class placement isempirically Developmental Age and School Placement unjustified and professionally suspect. The Gesell tests can be used effectively as school readiness One of the foremost uses of the Gesell tests is tests for initial curriculum planning for individual developmental placement. Ames tt al. (1979) note children, but there currentlyis no evidence to that "of all the possible uses of the Gesell Behav- support more extensive application. ior battery, its use in relation to determining the most favorable time for starting school or for subsequent promotion of students may turn out to IMPLICATIONS FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD be one of its most substantial contributions" (p. AND KINDERGARTEN EDUCATORS 184). According to Gesell theorists, the purpose of Testing inearly childhood and kindergarten Gesell testing is to make examiners aware of age- should only be used to make better and more related behaviors. Children's responses then show appropriate services available to the largest number the level, or developmental age, at which they are of children. There are several kinds of tests that, if functioning. "Regardless of either birthday age or used as designed and intended, CS11 assist profes- Intelligence Quotient, in most instances a child sionals in making appropriate decisions for young does best in school if started and subsequently children. Children who need special services can be promoted on the basis of developmental age" identified by developmental screening and assess- (Ames et al.,1979, p. 6) ment. Children in need of modified classroom Clearly, the validity of the concept of develop- programming or individualized attention in pre- mental age hinges on the mechanism for establish- school or kindergarten can be identified by readi- ing this age. Because the mechanism is the Gesell ness tests and, to a certain extent, by developmen- Preschool Testsnonstandardized tests excerpted talscreeninginventories.Teststhatexclude from the full-scale Gesell Developmental Sched- children from public education services or that ulesthe notion of developmental age is highly delay their access to the educational mainstream, suspect. however, are antithetical to legal and constitutional Only one published study examines the predic- rights to free education and equal protection. In tive validity of developmental age by comparing addition, such tests and practices are incompatible results of kindergarten-age children on the Gesell with the belief systems,theoretical perspectives, School Readiness Screening Test with school success and bestpracticesof most early childhood (Wood, Powell, and Knight,1984). The study educators. claims that developmental age provides a useful The use of exclusionary tests suggests that chil- predictive measure of later school performance. dren should conform to school programs, rather Unfortunately, the study had major problems; the than schools adjusting to the needs of children. study population was small and not highly general- Nowhere is this reversal of the child-centered tradi-
99 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS
tion more evident than in the Gesellian practice of school failure and learning problems (Diamond, that recommends a year's delayed school entrance 1983; Gredler, 1978; Maddux, Stacy, and Scott, for children who are not ready for kindergarten. 1981). Changing the standard of school readiness Ames and her colleagues claim that "if a 5-year- or the entry age cutoff only changes the composi- old child is still behaving like a 4- or 41/2-year-old, tic:: of the group that is youngest or least ready he will in all likelihood not be ready for the work it does not eliminate it. of kindergarten, regardless of what the law allows" Many of these practices seem to result from (Ames et al., 1979, p. 6). This approach is unjusti- pressures placed on kindergarten teachers to imple- fied because it is based on the assumption that the ment academically oriented programs in order to Gesell tests are valid predictors of school perfor- prepare children for the heavy academic emphasis mance - -an assumption that has not been proven. seen in most first through third grades. The devel- Also unproven is the assumption that all not ready opmen al readiness movement, as well as the wide- or developmentally immature childrendevelop spread popularity of the Gesell tests, can be seen, simihrly and cannot benefit from kindergarten, in part, as well-meaning responses to these pres- even if their peers who are ready can. The reality sures, in which some children are excluded from of individual differences is that even in classrooms kindergarten or enrolled in kindergarten for 2 years where all the children have been certified as ready, in order to reduce the likelihood of subsequent some will be more ready than others. failure. Proponents of the developmental readiness con- cept frequently recommend that children who are But this situation should cause grave professional immature or not ready be enrolled in developmen- concern. It signifies that schools are placing such tal kindergartens instead of having to enter school institutional needs as obtaining higher achievement late.These programs,also known asreadiness test scores and adopting more academically orient- kindergartens, usually precede a regular year of ed early elementary curricula ahead of children's kindergarten. needs. To the extent that these priorities deny Readiness kindergartens are a fast-growing phe- slowly developing or at-risk children access to pub- nomenon. In Michigan alone 161 school districts lic school programs, they are incompatible with offered such programs during the 1983-84 school child development research, contemporary social year, with 67 more districts slated to add them in policy, and exemplary early childhood practice. the 1984-85 school year. These programsmost of Rather than label children, schools should devote which (65%) have existed for less than 5 years their resources to helping teachers fashion individ- served 5,700 students from 1983 to 1984 at a cost ually responsive curricula that embrace a wide of $3,430,000 (Michigan Department of Education, range of childhood abilities and readiness levels. 1984). The National Association for the Education of All developmental kindergartens do not sub- Young Children's Position Statement on Devekp- scribe to a Gesellian philosophy. Indeed, most of mentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood them are highly eclectic in approach, but they Programs Serving Children Birth Thmugh Age 8 nevertheless share the same kinds of problems as (NAEYC, 1986) notes that high quality, develop- Gesell-oriented programs. Specifically, these types mentally appropriate programs typically include of programs have not been systematically studied children with a range of developmental levels in a or evaluated. Among the questions that need single classroom. The statement further notes that further exploration are the following: On what "It is the responsibility of the educational system basis are children placed in these programs? Are to adjust to the developmental needs and levels of minority or poor children overrepresented in them? the childrenitserves;children should not be Are parents accorded due process in placement? expected to adapt to an inappropriate system" (p. What impact do these programs have on children's 16). Nor, it might be added, should children or long-term development? their parents expect not to be served at all because In practice, many developmental kindergartens children'sskilllevels do not conform to some contain a disproportionate number of younger chil- external, preestablished norm or because they are drenthose with birth dates late in the year. But being tested with an inappropriate instrument. In the research evidence does not support this type of such situations, the schools and professionals who age grouping. Other factors in addition to simple advocate these positions are demonstrating a failure immaturity play important roles in the explanation of readiness, not the children.
100 1 0 1 D:velopmental Screening and Readiness Testing
Editor's Note.: When Di. Meisels's [chapter]was accepted for publication by Young Children, the Gesell Institute was invited to respondThese are the Institute's remarks:
THE GESELL INSTITUTE RESPONDS
As a pioneer in the field of child development being of equal concern to human developmentas and a leading architect in applying developmental intelligence. To define school readinessas having understanding to the classroom, the Gesell Insti- only to do with intelligence, or as having onlyto tute accepts its responsibilities as a leader in to- do with achievement, or as having only to do with day's movement toward a developmentally sound, being given previous learning experiences, contra- theoretically consistent use of knowledgeconcern- dicts longstanding research and experience. ing children's growth applied to school readiness. The Gesell assessments are used by schools to Through extensive clinical observation, Arnold gain fuller developmental understanding of the Gesell and his colleagues developed innovative child.If an assessment reveals that a childis observationaltechniques and establishednorms developmentally youngforkindergartenplace- that remain the reference point for pediatric mile- ment, for example, educational settings more con- stones, child development stages, and school readi- sistent with that child's development can becon- ness screening tests today (1925, 1940). When the sidered.Racher thanexcludingachild from original norms were compared to current samples kindergarten,the information provided by the in the 1970s controlled for age,sex, and socioeco- assessment assures that responsit.'-: recommenda- nomic background, the stability of thenorms over tions for placement can be made so that the child time were reconfirmed (Ames, Gillesp,.,Haines, can be included in an appropriate kind of kinder- and Ilg,1979; Knobloch, 1980). garten program at an appropriate time and pace. Dr. Gesell was not merely a student of human The Gesell assessments do not label children as at behavior, but was interested in applying scientific risk, handicapped, or remedial. Rather, they tell knowledge to the creation of social environments how the child is functioning on the developmental conducive to maximizing the mental health and path of normalcy. Children whose developmental education, of children (1930). Through their work rate is far from that path on the Gesell assessment with children in the public schools, Drs. Ilg and can be further evaluated. Ames helped to accomplish this.Drs.Ilg and Gesell readiness assessments have been predictive Ames recognized that many childrenwere not of school success. A longitudinal study by Ames succeeding in school because they didnot have the and Ilg (1964) established a positive relationship maturity to effectively undertake the taskspresent- between predictions for kindergarten readiness and ed. They refined the clinical procedures used in school performance in the 6th grade. That the their clinic so that the child's maturity level could assessments measure primarily maturity and not be determined by trained educational professionals intelligence oixperience (Kaufman, 1971), is evi- in schools. This resulted in the development of the dence of the impact maturity has on school readi- GesellSchoolReadinessScreening,theGesell ness. Kaufman also reported that although test School Readiness, and the Gesell Preschool interpretation was qualitative in nature, examiners Assessments. interpreted the records similarly (interrater reliabil- These assessments are designed toassess a child's ity was .87). Most recently Wood (Wood, Powell, developmental functioning, using tasksmost close- and Knight, 1984) found that developmentalage ly associated with maturationally relatedaspects of was a more effective predictor of success or failure school readiness. School readiness,as defined by in kindergarten than chronologicalage. Gesell In- the Gesell Institute,is the capacity to simulta- stitute is aware that many researchers want further neously learn and cope with school environment. statistical information to judge the usefulness of School success is defined as the abilityto learn and the assessments. This is presently one ofour major have enough energy left over to bea competent, thrusts. Additional statistical data pertaining to the growing human being in all areas of living. The Gesell assessment will soon be available. Gesell approach takes into account a child'semo- A growing body of convincing evidence about tional, social, physical, and adaptive capacitiesas the effective use of the Gesell instruments comes
See page 328 for references.
101 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS from schools. In diverse communities throughout Louisiana, Avondale Schools in Michigan, and Ox- the country, schools are pursing their own studies ford Central Schools in New York have all reported of the assessments and concept of developmen- positive results. tal placement. These studies are confirming the Respecting the process of maturity, the process predictive ability of the assessments. Such variables of development as it unfolds, and the individual as achievement, school adjustment, discipline pat- pace of each child is what the Gesell philosophy terns, parental and teacher satisfaction, child self- entails. The GesellSchool Readiness Screening concept, retention rates, and the need for special Test, as a reflection of this philosophy, is a valu- services have all shown positive changes with use of able tool for recognizing the forces of maturity in theGesellScreeningTestanddevelopmental out individual students and thus is aneffective placement. Schools as diverse as Broward County means toenhance developmentally appropriate Schools in Florida,St. Charles Parish Schools in education.
Editor's Note: The following are Dr. Meisels's comments on the Gesell Institute's response:
BUT DR. MEISELS IS NOT CONVINCED
Knowing of my concernsabout theGesell ability, the correlation reflects these extremes rath- School Readiness Test, a colleague recently asked er than the performance of the majority of children me whether my doubts would be relieved by a tested. systematic validity study that supported the Gesell Second, they suggest that Kaufman (1971) con- Institute's claims.I replied that a carefully de- firmed that the tests measure maturitynot intelli- signed research study would f rminate many of my gence or experience. However, Kaufman reports concerns. However, past experience casts doubt on that the factor structure of the Readiness Tests the likelihood that such validity data can or will suggests that the tests measure intelligence and ever appear. experience as well as maturity. Moreover, Shepard The Gesell Institute has promised statistical data and Smith (1985) have shown that the Gesell tests for generations, as they do yet again. But all they lack discriminate validity from IQ tests. Naglieri provide are difficult-to-prove assertions about "the (1985) also notes that the test items on the Pre- forces of maturity"assertions based on faith in school Test "arc very similar and in some cases Dr. Gesell's admittedly pioneering efforts.Itis identical to those found m current IQ tests.... time to move beyond the faith of the 1930s to the The major difference between the Gesell and cur- reason of the 1980s. rent intelligence tests appears to be the lack of In their published response, the Institute restates emphasis on the psychometric properties of the its central claim that "Gesell readiness assessments scale" (p. 608). have been predictive of school success" (Gesell Third, the Institute cites the study by Wood, Institute, 1987, p. 101). The burden of proof is on Powell, and Knight (1984) as evidence of predic- the Institute to support this key assertion, but the tivevalidity.Alrea criticizedin my original burden proves too heavy and the evidence too article, the results presented in their study have weak. been further analyzed by Shepard and Smith First, they cite Ames and Ilg (1964) as establish- (1986). They note that only one half of the ing a positive relationship between predictions of children identified as potential school failures by kindergarten readiness and school performance in the School Readiness Test were accurately identi- the 6th grade. Yet this relationship is reported fied. Shepard and Smith note that for every poten- only in terms of correlations, thereby making im- tialfailure accurately identified by thetest,a possible an analysis of the proportions of accurate successful child was falselyidentified. In other and inaccurate predictions. Furthermore, because words, the study by Wood, Powell, and Knight the highest level of agreement between predictors documents the predictive inaccuracy of the Gesell. and outcomes was for children at the extremes of As the use of the Gesell tests proliferates, the
See page 328 for references.
102 Developmental Screening and Readiness Testing
problems associated with false predictions and false of emphasis on psychometric attributes of the scale identifications continue to grow. Children are said leads to a potential for misuse or misinterpreta- to be overplaced, developmentally young, or sim- tion" (Naglicr:, 1985, p. 608). "The test develop- ply not re dy, wh..' in fact the tests used to make ers offer no set of cutoff scores that might be these judgments arc invalid, their norms unrepre- useful in making decisions about the placements, sentative, and their claims unsubstantiated. Re- nor do they provide evidence that students who are views of the Gesell Preschool and School Readiness placed according to scores on the test really benefit A ests have repeatedly demonstrated the limitations over the long term from such placement" (Brad- of the tests, concluding that the authors "ignore ley,1985, p. 609). their responsibilitiesas testmakers and do not The time has come for faith to give way to report the type of information that is mandated as reason. The claims made for the Gesell should be essentialby American PsychologicalAssociation modified, and its use as u placement and screening guidelinr:s" (Kaufman, 1985, p. 607). "The lack instrument correspondingly curtailed.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How have screening and readiness testing been used in placing children in appropriate programs? 2.Do the present instruments actually measure the critical factors of readiness? 3.What are the specific purposes of developmental screening and readiness tests? 4.Are the Gesell assessments used appropriately toensure proper placement and education of young children? 5.Does the empirical research support Meisels or the Gesell Institute?
103 1 I _a_ i it 19. EDUCATING YOUNG HANDICAPPED CHILDREN: WHAT CAN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION CONTRIBUTE? by Anne H. Widerstrom
The education of children below age 5 tradition- children (Baer and Wolf, 1968; Bereiter,1972; ally has been the responsibility of teachers with an Bushell, 1973; Risley, 1969), they have been more educa- mal philosophy very different from that of widely adopted in elementary and secondary spe- manyspecialeducators.Mostearlychildhood cial education classes (Haring and Lovitt,1967; teachers come from an educationalperspective Kazdin and Bootzin, 1972). strongly biased toward organizing the curriculum The advent of public school early childhood to allow children to develop normally and at their special education programs during the last decade, own pace.This child development )erspective, therefore, produces an inevitable conflict between emanating from such respected institutions as the two very different educational philosophies.It is Gesell Institute and the Bank Street College of the intent of this [chapter] to demonstrate that this Education, has its roots in the traditional nursery conflict need not necessarily be a bad thing and school and kindergarten, reaching back to Froebel that, on the contrary, early childhood education in Germany and to Peabody and Hill in the has something important to contribute to the field United States (Hildebrand, 1981). Because handi- of special education. capped children of preschool age previously were not the legal responsibility of the public schools and, hence, considered ineligible for educational THE PROBLEM services, they were rarely included in ary public educational programs. Most services provided to Consider the following scenario, which was re- these childt n were medical or therapeutic rather cently observed by the author in a classroom for than educational in nature (Bronfenbrenner, 1961; young handicapped children. The settingisa Safford, 1978). language lessonfor a group of five language- On the other hand, special education teachers delayed 4-year-olds. They are seated around the have generally viewed their major responsibility to teacher who holds several pairs of picture cards be the remediation of skill deficits in children who illustrating opposite concepts such as big and little, are not developing normally on their own. This hot and cold, inside and outside. goal of helping the de yed child to "catch up" has encouraged the development of highly direc- Teacher: Point to the picture that shows the big boy, tive teaching methods in this field. In addition, Robert. (Robert points) special eduction has a strongly clinical tradition Robert: Big. due to its close associations with speech pathology, Teacher That's right. Good, Robert. He's a big boy. Now occupational and physical therapy, and remedial this picture shows a little mouse, right? What is reading. This imparts to the pedagogy ao emphasis the mouse? on drill and teaching of specific skills which is not Group: Quiet. generally found among early childhood euacators. Teacher: That's right. MOMOVCr, special education has been strongly in- The mouse is ouiet. fluenced by practitioners of behavioral psychology Teacher: Now look at this picture of the monkey. What (Axelrod, 1977; Ramp and Hopkins, 1971) whose word would we use to describe the chattering approach to teaching and learning is individualistic money? What do you think, Duane? (not necessarilyindividualized),specific-skillfo- Duane. Loud? cused and adult-directed. Rote-learning, for exam- Teacher: Laud? Well, I suppose we might say the monkey ple, is emphasized rather than "discovery" learn- isloud. But can you thirk of another word? ing. While behavior analysis procedures have been (Various suggestions are made and rejected.) used in some preschool programs for disadvantaged Wanda: Noisy.
See pages 328-29 for acknowledgment and references 104 1n5 Educating Young Handicapped Children
Teacher: Yes, Wanda, that's right. Noisy The monkey is children must, for example, sometimes teach skills noisy. That's the word I was looking for. to children that the children may be reluctant or unable to learn on their own. Activities therefore This scenario will be familiar toanyone who cannot always be of the children's own choosing. It spends much time in special education settings, for is nevertheless true that this emphasis on learning similar lessons are taught every day inmost class- specific skills, which derives from the special edu- rooms. In this case, the teacher managed to (1) cation teacher's view of the child as a collection of maintain controlof the ran:mon in her own deficits needing to be cortected, results in a highly hands, (2) elicit what she considered to be correct teacher-directed curriculum not only in the indi- information, (3) limit children's responsesto on-- vidual therapy getting, where it may be appropri- word utterances and (4) stifle any sort of initiative ate, but also in group activities, where it tends to or independent thinking on the part of the chil- be detrimental. dren. If we were to question her about her intent, The dual considerations of child initiative in she would probably be aware of 1 and 2 and quite learning and control of the classroom environment unaware of 3 and 4. are areas in which traditional early childhood prac- There would appear to be two reasons why that tices can have a beneficial influence on special special education teacher kept such tight control of education. In the following section suggestions are the lesson. First, she believed thata tightly con- made for modifying special educationpractices trolled,fast-paced lessor could most successfully both at the training level and in the instructional teach the concepts she was presenting, and itgave setting to conform with some proven goodprac- her a situation in which progress would beaccu- tices in early childhood special education. It is the rately assessed. Second, the teacher feltmore com- author's belief that such practices should not be fortable in complete control of her charges for the limited to mainstreamed programs or to the mildly purpose of good management. Let us examine each handicapped,but that moderate and severely of these considerations from the point of view of handicapped preschoolers can also benefit from less anearly childhood educator.Here,the reader directive methods. should be cautioned that we will be speaking somewhat in generalities. Teachers of young nonhandicapped childrenare likely to view their role as that of facilitator. Their TEACHING STRATEGIES IN EARLY knowledge of child development, the influence of CHILDHOOD SPECIAL EDUCATION such theoreticians as Piaget, Montessori and Gesell, and a belief in a child-centered curriculumcom- The Value of Group Activities bine to make them sensitive to the child'scommu- nications (Kamii and Radin, 1970; Evans, 1975). In the special education classroom the focus They believe for the most part in responding rather tends to be on one child at a time, ever when the than initiating, in following the child's lead and children are in a group. Consider the following elaborating on topics in which the childexpresses example: an interest. They do not difect activities so much A group of eight moderately delayed childrenare as participate in them with the child, making having a lesson in motor development. The room is suggestions but rarely issuing commands, listening arranged with gross motor equipment: several automo- rather than talking, accepting all of the child's biletiresto crawl through,a small trampolineto contributions as valuable and worthwhile. When it bounce on, a large ball to be rolled on. The physical therapist takes each child in turn and puts him/her comes to discipline or management, an issue often through the motor sequence. The other seven sit on the overlooked by theoreticians, early childhood teach- sidelines awaiting their turns. erswillusually statethat they encounter few management problems if children are engaged in Although considered a "group" activity,this activities of their own choosing and appropriateto lesson is organized like individual therapy. There is their developmental needs. little opportunity for the children to interact with Those of us who a.e involved in the education each other or to learn from each other. That is of handicapped children know that methods used because each child waits for a turn to interact with with nonhandicapped children are not uniformly the therapist; the activity is structured so that the exportable to special education classes. If thatwere children aswellas the adult view the motor true, special education techniques would Ent have sequence directed by the therapistasthe only needed to be developed. Teachers of handicapped event of any importance taking place. Even mildly
' 105 A't) ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS handicapped youngsters in special education sec- Many special educators, in their zeal to narrow tings are so accustomed to interacting only with an the developmental gap through direct teaching of adult that they do not initiate many interactions skills, consider time spent in spontanea_s play to with each other. In fact, such interactions are often be time that could be better spent working on frowned upon by adults in the interest of good specificdeficits.Fr_e-play! essions may not be classroom control. scheduled into the preschool handicapped child's The advantages of group activities, a mainstay of day for this reason. Nevertheless, evidence from the early childhood teacher, arc: (1) children are research is clear tha- all children, handicapped or less closely supervised and so can take more initia- not, benefit developmentally from opportunities to tive in experimenting, exploring, satisfying curios- play spontaneously (Home and Phillco, 1976; Syl- ity through their activity;(2) children tend to va, Bruner and Genova, 1976; Vygotsky, 1976; interact more with each other and not so exclusive- Widerstrom 1983). It is not necessary for play to ly with an adult. During peer interactions they be a group experience, although informal play generally have more opportunities to initiate con- situations do provide more opportunities for chil- versations or jointactivitiesrather than simrly dren to interact with each other than do teacher- respond to dir:ctions. directed situations. Play can be an individual expe- Much literature support^ the idea that children rience and still provide much benefit: the chance gain from infoirnally interac .g together. Ferret- to experiment with tovs or other objects, to prac- Clermont (1980), for exampliround that children tice problem-solving abilities and, Most important, develop their ability to think logically when they to perform an activity for its own sake, for the exchange ideas with their peers in small groups. sheer pleasure of it, without worrying about attain- Examining wrong ideas together helps them to ing or failing to attain a goal. construct the correct solution.In a well-known Clearly, one important contribution that early experiment, Inhelder, Sinclair and Bovet (1974) childhood education might make to special educa- demonstrated that children construct higher-level tion is a renewed awareness of the benefits to logic by being questioned, and not by being young children of spontaneous play. Programs for corrected or taught correct answers by adults. These preschool handicapped childrenshouldinclude studies confirmed Piaget's (1963) idea that social some time each day for tee play, with the teacher interaction among children is necessary for their following the child's lead as much as possible. development of logic. hamii (1982), one of Pia- Many young children whose huidicaps fall within get's major American interpreters, has stated the the mild to r Aerate range are capable of initiat- belief that "children of all ages would develop ing and carrying through independently their own more rapidly ... in their general abilities to think play activitiesthough they may need encourage- logically, if teachers would stop correcting work- ment from an adult, especially at first, since they sheets and would instead encourage youngsters to are accustomed to being directed. More severely exchange ideas honestly and to argue among them- impaired youngsters may not initiate play very selves" (p.250). well, or have the sensory or motor abilities to engage in typical play activities.In fact, some educators believe that such children need to be The Importance of Play taught to play (Feitelson and Ross, 1973); Saltz, Dixon and Johnson, 1977). There is evidence to Play has traditionally been considered an impor- suggest that this can be done effectively, and that tant part of the curriculum of preschool programs. intellectualdevelopmentincreasesasaresult This is because play is thought to promote devel- (Mindes,1982;Mogford,1977;Widerstrom, opment in all the growth areas: intellectual, social, 1983).Itshouldnotbeoverlookedinthe language and motor. (For a review of the literature curriculum. on the value of play for handicapped children, see Widerstrom, 1983.) Spontaneous play is encour- aged in traditional nursery school programs, for Teacher-Child Talk example, simply by allowing some time in the schedule each day for free play. Early childhood Itisprobably true thatallteachers,unless t :achers generally do not believe that they must specifically trained, talk too much. Research studies teach children to play, but rather that the learn- (Amidon and Flanders,1971) have shown that ings to be gained from play accrue indirectly from from kindergarten through graduate school teachers the experience. of all grade levels talk more than all their pupils
106
1 n 7 Educating Young Handicapped Children
combined, and that only 3 to 9 percent of teach- (c) Se/ftdk. In this activity the teacher talks out ers' talk reacts to or makes use of an idea expressed his or her own participation during parallel play by a student.Preschool teachers do not seem with the child (in which teacher and childare exempt from these data. engaged in the same activity). An especially effec- Amidon and Flanders (1971) reported that older tive technique for use with nonverbal children. it students (8th grade) performed better on written teaches the child topic/comment relationships. A achievement tests in ciassrooms with teachers iden- variation of self-talk is parallel talk, in which the tified as "indirect"; that is, those who accepted or adult talks out the child's participation in the used students' feelings. "Direct" teachersthose activity. The advantage of these two techniques is who gave many directions,criticized,expressed that they allow the adult to focus attention at the their own ideas or gave out factual information child's own level of ability and interest. Some were not as effective in helping students to per- examples of parallel talk from Weiss (1981) at form well on achievement tests.These studies, increasing levels of complexity follow: though not entirely appropriate in a discussion of Car's going. preschool,neverthelessprovideanimportant cThe car's going. guideline for all teachers:less teacher talk and The car goes along the road. more child initiation and participation apparently The car you've got is broken. make for better learning. In summary, the INREAL system offers teachers An effective program for training special educa- a method for responding to children other than tion teachers to better communicate withyoung children by listening rather than talking and by directing them as more traditional special educa- tion methods dictate.Itisphilosophically very reacting to communicative efforts initiated by the compatible with the indirect teaching methods childis the INter-REactive Learning (INREAL) used by early childhood educators. method (Weiss, 1981). In this model,new learn- ings are taught by building upon what the child already knows. The method has a strong develop- The Comfort Index mental base, for each child's level of communica- tive competence is considered in designing teach- Evidence suggests that many teachers are overly ing strategics. The child's communicative initiatives concerned about classroom control. Teachers' need become the basis for teacher-child interaction. to control creates problems that are shared by all The r 3st important aspect of the INREAL mod- teachers. Nevertheless, early childhood teachers are el is its reactive element. The adult must react to probably more comfortable than their special edu- the child's suggestions, comments or activities rath- cation counterparts in less structured settings. Be- er than direct the child. The method encourages cause their background in normal child develop- the adult to respond rather than initiate, a difficult ment tells them that children can learn much in role for many teachets. an atmosphere that allows freedom of movement, In the paragraphs below the INREAL techniques spontaneous initiation of activities and informed for effective teacher talk are described. conversations, they generally try to create a class- (a) Silent Observation Understanding Listening room environment that is open and nondircctivc. (S.O.U.L.).Itis interesting that INRFAL's first The special education teacher, accustomed to rule for teachers issilence. According to Weiss direct teaching situations, feels less comfortable in (1981), the use of S.O.U.L. allows the specialist an environment where he or she lacks complete time to tune into a situation before talking with control of classroom activity. Creating a classroom the child. At the same time it allows the childto climate where the child is allowed more initiative express his or her interests without adult domina- might be worthy of teachers'consideration. In tion.S.O.U.L. permits the teacher to establish order to do this successfully, however, the special rapport and create an empathetic relationship. education teacher must feel comfortable in situa- (b) Mirroring. The teacher responds to thenon- tions where less control is exercised over children's verbal child's movements, gestures or facial expres- behavior. This means that occasionally things will sions by mirroring those movements as a means of happen that are unexpected and for which the establishing joint reference. Sometimes the child teacher is unprepated. It mans that the teacher mirrors the adult's movements, thus completing must recognize the benefits to children's learning the communk -in cycle. This technique is useful of a less teacher-contraed environment and that in teaching the child turntaking in conversations, the trade -off for mote childinitiativeis some for example. increase in unacceptable child behavior.
107 ISSUES, TRENDS, AND DIRECTIONS
A convenient way of viewing this dichotomy is their interactions with pupils. Fcurth, they could by means of the comfort/control index. This index adapt to a less controls...: classroom atmosphere simply illustrates the fact that a direct relationship and learn to be comfortable with a lesser amount exists between levels of comfort and control on the of control. part of most teachers. A high level of control usuallyresults in a high comfort level for the teacher. If a more open classroom environment is CONCLUSION truly to be created, the teacher must learn to be k ,mfortable with a lower degree of classroom con- As population trends contribute to an increased trol. An important aim of the practicum experi- number of young children under age 5, there will ence during training, therefore, m,st be to ascer- be an even greater need for teachers of young tain the student teacher's comfort/ control levels children in coming years. With continuing ad- and to provide experiences and feedback that work vances in medical teehn 'ogy, we can expect great- toward lowering the level of control while, main- er 1.1mbers or children born with handicaps to taining a high comfort level. Such activities as self- require special education scivices. Itis important observation through videotaping, teaching experi- now for all educators of young children to pause ences with increasingly larger groups of children, for serious consideration of the kinds of programs and observations in regular early childhood educa- we intend to provide for these youngsters.It is tional settings are suggested means for working time to give thought to the unique characteristics toward lowered control levels. of preschool children which make their educational It is the author's experience that this is a slow needs LJ very different from the needs of older and tedious process. A teacher who is committed children, whether handicapped or not. It is useful to achieving a hi'her comfort level with lowered for early childhood special education teachers to control must work constantly to maintain awareness take time out to reflect about what they are doing of too much teacher control in the classroom. in their classrooms. Finally, it is necessary for those Ordinarily the goal is achieved only after much of us committed to early childhood special educa- practice combined with feedback from colleagues. tion to ensure that decision-makers in our field- - In summary, it is suggested that there are four i.e.,lawmakers, statL departments of education r -eas in which special educators can adapt effective personnel, public school administrators and par- strategies from early childhood educators.First, entsrealize the unique educational needs of the they could include in the curriculum group activi- young c-;Id and understand that young handi- tiesthat fester peer interactions.Second, they capped children often have more in common with could include more opportunities for free play as a their nonhandicapped peers than they have with regular part of the curriculum. Third, they could older special needs children. Their school curricu- practice being more indirect and more reactive in lum should reflect this fact.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.What is the fundamental difference between a remedial approach and a developmental approach? 2.Should public school programs for four-year-old "at-risk" students use models from special education or traditional early education? 3.Which strategies and approaches from the early education of handicapped or delayed children should be in- tegrated into early education for all children? 4.Should special education teachers be assigned t., ..:.ach younger exceptional children in the schools? S. How can early education and special education strategies be integrated to meet the needs of all children in any classroom?
108
1(13 Section Four: Preschool Programs
Editor's C -erview 110 20.Public Education for Preschoolers, by Diane Scott Jones and Lynne Baker-Ward 111 21.Should Four-Year-Olds Be in School? by Edward F. Zigler 115 22.Public Schools and Four-Year-Olds: A Teacher's View, by Mary Hatwood Futrell 119 23. Quatiq Four-Year-Old Programs in Public Schools, Position Statement of the Southern Association on Children Under Six... 112 24. Here Come the Four-Year-Olds! by Diane Dismuke 124 25.Prekindergarten Programs for Four-Year-Olds: State Involvement in Preschool Education, by Carolyn Morado 127 26.Safeguards: Guidelines for Establishing Programs for Four-Year-Olds in the Public Schools, by The National Black Child Development Institute.. 130 27.Public School for Four-Year-Olds, by James L. Hymes, Jr. 131 28.Full Day or Half-Day Kindergarten? by Dianne Rothenberg 133 29.Kindergarten in America: Five Major Trends, by Sandra Longfellow Robinson 135 30.Kindergarten Programs and P 'ctices, Educational Research Service Staff Report 136 31. NAEYC Position Statement on Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Primary Grades, Serving Five- Through Eight-Year-Olds 140
i_u EDITOR'S OVERVIEW This section needs an immediate disclaimer: create a productive and effective learning environ- contemporary discussion of young children should ment for four-year-old Black children. And, since notuse chronological age as a line of demarcation. it is clear that the American educational system is Since children grow in what some have called a in the process of adding one more "grade" to the "seamless" continuum, birth dates have relatively educational ladder, Hymes says, "of course" four- little to do with major decisions about their educa- year-olds should go to school. tion. However, the preft organization of schools Next we turnto an "old"partof public clearly depends on age distinctions, and the writers schooling in the United States: the kindergarten. have responded to these distinctions fororganiza- With the distinction of being the only grade with tionalpurposes. In particular, virtually all school a special and descriptive name, its programs that programs in the United States make provision for serve five-year-olds have been around for more five-year-old children: most have kindergartens. than one hundred years. The first chapter, by The first major change in the population to be Rothenberg, provides a balanced view of full-day served in recent times has to do with children who and half-day kindergartens. Then, Robinson dis- areyounger than five.This section is therefore cusses five trends shaping the kindergarten derived about children and programs divided by one year: from her national research. This is followed by a the fours and the fives. report on two national surveys by the Educational To begin,Scott-Jones and Baker-Ward raise Research Service. questionsabout"preschoolers"inthepublic There is a considerable degree of uncertainty schools in relation to parents, children, and child about how early education programs for four- and development. Zig ler presentsa conditional en- five-year-oldchildren should be organized and dorsement, expecting schools to broaden their per- &riveted, as well as variation in views about the spective and range of services to better meet the purpose and function of these programs. Most of needs of the four-year-olds and their families. the new programs for four-year-olds authorized by Futrell's concern is that a lifelong learning frame- the statesserve children who are educationally work be adopted, and that children begin that disadvantaged or "at risk" of reduced school suc- journey at age four. The position statement by the cess. These programs usually operate as interven- Southern Association on Children Under Sixis tion models. The kindergarten is being changed representative of the collective professional view- from below by these new prekindergarten classes point; certain quality elements must be considered and from above by pressure for academic perfor- as four-year-olds move into public school pro- mance and bask skills acquisition. The final chap- grams. Dismuke samples some of the schools that ter concentrates on the developmental needs of all are enrolling younger children, repeating some of children in this age range. The NAEYC position the qualities that will most likely make the pro- statement, representing a broad consensus of the grams resporsive to the needs of the children and profession, makes clear distinctions between educa- their families. Morado summarizes characteristics of tional practice that is developmentally appropriate public school programs for four-year-olds sponsored for young children and practice that is not appro- by various states. Then, the National Black Child priate. These guidelines can be the core for pro- DevelopmentInstitute (NBCDI) suggeststen gram planning and evaluation of present early guidelines to ensure that public school programs childhood education in the schools.
111 20 PUBLIC EDUCATION FOR PRESCHOOLERS by Diane Scott-Jones and Lynne 3aker-Ward
An issue receiving current attention is whether to provide personnel and facilities (National School formal programs for preschool children should be Boards Association, 1986). Some type of subsidized made part of the public school system. Working child careisessential to the survival of those parents need adequate care for child :en younger families at or near the poverty level. Scan- (1984) than school-age, and educators ask whether 3- and ponders the contradiction in present govern net, tal 4-year-olds need or would benefit from formal policy, which requires that tax-supported ethic:. don schooling. These two needs, that of working par- and supervision be available for most of the work ents for satisfactory care arrangements for their day but only for children age 5 or 6 to 18 years. young children and the developmental/educational Public school programs, however, may not be able needs of 3- and 4-year-olds, are pivotal in deter- to handle the needs of working parents if the mining the desirability of publicpreschool programs are limited to the length of the typical educaition. school day. In addition, more than one-third of women with infants under twelve months are working (Kle0, 1985). These mothers also are in WILL PUBLIC EDUCATION FOR need of care for their children, and public school PRESCHOOLERS MEET THE NEEDS programs for preschoolers will not meet this need. OF WORKING MOTHERS?
In the past, most women entered the labor force IS EARLIER SCHOOLING BETTER when their children reached the age of compulsory FOR ALL CHILDREN? school attendance;the school as an institution assumed a large part of child care and supervision The discussion of public education for 3- and 4- as well as education and socialization (Kamerman year -olds vacillates between programs for all chil- and Kahn, 1981). Today, however, many women dren and programs only for poor, typically minor- with younger children work outside the home. ity children, or others considered at risk. With the Informal arrangements are not widely available former view, it is expected that preschool will give because the grandmothers, aunts, and neighbors all children the competitive edge they will need who care for children are likely to be working later to succeed. In comparisons of American and themselves. Kamerman and Kahn (1981) point out Japaneseeducation,researchers have concluded that the United States lags behind other industrial- that differences in favor of Japanese children arise ized countries in the formulation of explicit policy in early school experiences. American kindergarten for the care of young children of working mothers. children lag behind in mathematics. Although the Our federal day care policy is still in the "state of authors do not explicitly advocate earlier schooling suspended animation" (Levine, 1978, p. 126). A for American children, they point out the impor- substantial number of children are left unattended tance of early academic education (Stevenson, Lee, during their parents' working hours (Marx, 1985). and Stigler,1986). Adolescent parents who are trying to complete Supporting the latter view, Zigler argues against high school have unmet child care needs (Blank formal public preschool programs for all children, and Morgan, 1985). Affordable, high-quality care stating that "whenever the family situation permits isnot readily availablefor many single-parent it, the best place for a preschool child is at home" families and dual-earner families. Possibilities for (1985, p. 9). Most family situations, however, do handling the cost of programs for these groups not permit the child to remain at home. According include sliding pay scales for parents, public funds to Kamerman and Kahn (1981), adequate alternate for parents who cannot afford to pay, and funds care for preschool children is no longer a debatable from parents' employers. School districts, particu- need; it is only for children under three years that larly those with declining enrollments, may be able substantial questions are raised regarding the ap- iee pages 329-30 for acknowledgment and references.
111 PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS propriate parental pattern of work and child care. workingmothers(Washingtonand Dyemade, Yet, Zig ler (1985) asserts that public funds for 1985). preschool should be invested where they would be Concern has been expressed by the National most cost effectivein programs for poor, handi- Black Child Development Institute (NBCDI) re- capped, or bilingual children. Some states have garding the wisdom of establishing programs for moved in that direction. Recently enacted legisla- preschool children in the public schools. The main tion in South Carolina permits the state to reim- objection is that public schools have not done an burse local school districts for half the cost of admirable job of educating Black children. Because programs for 4-year-olds predicted to have academ- the public school system is judged to have failed ic deficiencies; Texas recently required school dis- older Black children, it may not "develop the skills tricts to provide programs for 4-year-olds who are and techniques necessary to nurture Black children non-English-speaking or from low-income families attheir most fragile and formativestage" (Blank and Morgan, 1985). (NBCDI, 1985, p. 3). NBCDI asserts that current proposals for public preschool programs are driven Early Intervention for Poor Children by expediency and do not give sufficient attention to child development or to the community needs, Evidence suggests that early education programs family needs, and cultural values that affect devel- for low-income Black children have lasting positive opment. NBCDI discusses a number of public effects on school achievement. Lazar and Darling- school practices, such as reliance on standardized ton (1982) analyzed follow-up data for children 9 teffor placement, that would be even worse for to 19 years who had attended one of 11 experi- preschool Black children than for school-age Black mental r- quasi-experimental programs. More than children. 90 percent of the participants were low-income Delivery systems other than the public schools, Black children. Typically, children were enrol'..--1 at such as churches, community organizations, private age 3 years and older for a period of two years or centers, and family day caic homes, may be effec- lessin curricula emphasizing cognitive develop- tive, according to NBCDI. Some Black-owned and ment. Compared to control groups, program chil- operated centers currently provide excellent pre- dren were significantly less likely to be placed in school education for Black and other minority special education classes or to be retained in grade. children. Harper and Dawkins (1985) describe one Program children scored significantly higher on exemplary center of this type that has provided intelligence tests and, in some cases, achievement service for 22 years with a relatively stable staff. tests. They were more likely to 1 press positive These authors discuss the responsibility of Black achievement attitudes. Lazar and Darlington con- educators for developing private multicultural pre- cluded that a variety of good early education schools as alternatives to public preschools. In a programs lead to measurable educational benefits later publication, NBCDI (1986) outlines criteria for poor Black children. According to these au- that public preschool programs must meet if they thors, such programs should be expanded at the are to be appropriate for Black children. The national, state, or local level. criteria range from effective parent involvement to The major public program for preschool children specific training for preschool teachers to regular is Head Start, which includes comprehensive ser- external review by community members and child vices as well as an educational component. Head development experts. Start is designed to serve poor children, but the A weakness of programs limited to poor and majority of enrolled children are minority; 42 minority children, according to Zig lel (1985),is percent are Black, 20 percent Hispanic, 4 percent that these groups become segregated from other American Indian, 1 percent Asian, and 33 percent children. In fact, that segregation is already occur- white. The enrollment of Blacks and Hispanics is ring. Although approximately tqual proportions twice 25 high as their proportion of the poverty (36%) of Black and white children are enrolled in population, whereas white enrollment is one-half some preschool program (Grant and Snyder, 1983), their proportion of the poverty population (Wash- 70 percent of white but only 33 percent of Black ington, 1985). Only a small percentage of eligible children areinprivate programs.Statistics on children (13%) are actually enrolled, however. In differential enrollment in public and private pro- 198,, the number of eligible children increased by grams are vividly brought to life in Lubek's (1985) one-third, whereas the programs were level-funded study of a Black Head Start center and a white (Hodgkinson, 1985). In addition, Head Start hours preschool. Although less than a mile apart physi- need to be expanded in order to meet the needs of cally, the two centers were far apart from one
112 113 Public Education for Preschoolers another in use of time, use of space, materials, ditures for welfare, remedial education, and pris- activities, and patterns of interactions. The impli- ons (National School Boards Association,1986). cation is not that one setting is necessarily "bet- Hodgkinson (1985) asserts that an expanded Head ter" than the other. A decision must be made, Start system would lead to savings in future ser- however, regarding the wisdom of institutionaliz- vices such as prisons and drug control centers. Early ing segregated and potentially unequal preschool experience, however, can rarely be separated from education. continuing experience; to do so would require the Levine (1978) emphasized the importance of demonstration that the early period was somehow "normalizing" day caremaking it available to all discontinuous from the period before and after- families without any stigma of welfare, deviance, ward (Clarke, 1984). Early experience is important or pathology. Public schools have been the major but not as an "inoculation" against subsequent normalizing institution for children in our society difficulties. Both early and continuing experiences and will probably play some role in a national day are important in children's development. care policy, but, Levine asserts, the school should An appropriate view of early experience is im- not necessarily be the prime sponsor of day care portant in evaluating the effects of preschool edu- making itavailable to all families without any cational programs. If early experience is considered stigma of welfare,deviance, or pathology. An critical and the importance of all the life-span is advocate of diversity in the solution to the daycare not acknowledged, programs may promise too problem, Levine (1978) describes programs in oper- much and be unable to deliver. Although exagger- ation in five different school systems around the ating the role of early experience may expedite the country. Included are school-district-operated cen- passage of much needed legislation for programs ters with teachers paid the same salary as their for young children, resources may be diverted from public school colleagues; high-school-based centers other programs that serve older children. In the for the cJ-1dren of teen parents run jointly by 'the long run, children's developmental and education- school district and a private day Luc agency; and al needs throughout childhood and adolescence school-affiliated family day care programs. may not oe met. Zig ler (1985) suggests that schools could provide Although a follow-up study of 19 -year -olds who universal, but not compulsory, day care. He envi- attended an exemplary preschool program found sions a community school providing not only high- positive outcomes (Berrueta-Clemcnt, Schweinhart, quality day care but also comprehensive services to Barnett, Epstein, and Weikart, 1984), preschool families. The day care program would be staffed education alone cannot be expected to remedy the by licensed child development associates and would complex, multi-faceted problems that occur later in emphasize play and socialization rather than cogni- children'slives.Further, programs being estab- tive development. Hobbs et al. (1984) also express lished in public schools may not incorporate im- the view that child care should be available to all portant, and expensive, features of the experimen- families through the public school system, which tal programs. In Texas, for example, programs for would be responsible for implementing the mix of four-year-olds will have a staff-child ratio of 1:22 school, community, and private programs best suit- (Blank and Morgan, 1985). Proposed fedes :1 regu- ed for the local community. Like Levine (1978), lations (which have never been adopted) stipulate a Hobbs et al. emphasize the role of the public ratio of 1:8 with a maximum group size of 16 school system as the most "regular" socializing (Scan,1984).Preschool education willnot be agency reaching the largest number of families viewed as successful if it promises too much for too without the stigma of the welfare bureaucracy. little. The notion that the first years of a child's life are "critical" and that positive experiences during this time inoculate the child against later Critical Periods/Early Experience harmful influences leadstounrealistically high expectations for preschool education. Early experi- A difficulty in the move toward preschool edu- ence is important, but it must be followed by later cation is that educators and parents may see these positive experiences for children to develop their few additional years of educationas a panacea for potential. many problems that arise later in children's educa- tional centers. From a 1984 conference on daycare and public schools came the recommendation that FUTURE DIRECTIONS state reform efL,rts provide evidence that funds In spite of lack of agreement regarding public used for preschool education result in lower expen- education for preschoolers, a number of states and
1 1 4 113 PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS school districts are moving in that direction. In ing parents through the public school system; North Carolina, where a higher percentageof Missouri recently instituted a requiremci._ that all mothers of preschoolers work than in any other itslocal school districtshire child development state, a feasibility study concluded that the devel- specialists for programs addressed to pareiii.of opmental needs of children and the needs of newborns and toddlers (Fiske, 1986). This strategy working parents remit in public school responsibil- addresses the educational and developmental needs ity for prekindergArten programs (Kandy, 1985). of young children but not parents' needs for Strong objections, however, were reported from alternate care during working hours. private day-care providers. Others expressed reser- In the debate on public schooling for three- and vations regarding the possible negative impact of four-year-olds, values must be expressly identified. structured programs and pressure for achievement It appears that values in several related areas are on young children. not crystallized: the need for and value of women's The Early Childhood Education Commission in employment outside the home, the responsibility New York City recently recommended that public of society for the well-being of young children, preschool programs be made available to all 4-year- and different standards for the care of poor minor- olds. Other states have allocated funds for pilot ity children and families than for their middle-class programs (National Black Child Development In- counterparts. Our changing and uncertain values stitute, 1985). The National School Boards Associa- regarding appropriate care of young children will tion states in its report, Day Care in the Public impede progress.Effectivepolicy probably will Schools (1986), that school-based programs will require consensus on some issues and flexibility to become standard in many schooldistricts. The allow for diversity of values on other issues. In report on education from the National Governors' summary, public education for preschoolers is an Association Meeting (Time for Results, 1986) rec- idea with some merit but with a need for clarifica- ommends greater access to early childhood educa- tion. Before it is begun on a large scale, we must tion for low-income children, kindergarten for all clearly specify the objectives and inherent values of 5-year-olds, and developmental programs forS- such programsfor youngchildrenandtheir and 4-year-olds. Some states are focusing on train- families.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Will public school programs for younger children serve important social purposes? 2.Are the needs of low income and minority children being met by current preschool programs? 3.Should future programs for young children model the cultural and socioeconomic diversity of the nation? 4.Will the addition of programs for younger children in the schools contribute to optimum development for all the children to be served?
114 1 1 5 21. SHOULD FOUR-YEAR-OLDS BE IN SCHOOL? by Edward F. Zig ler
A momentum is developing in our nation be- dergarten program, and the Brookline Early Educa- hind a movement toward universal preschool edu- tion Programhave succeeded in spurring the de- cation for four-year-olds. New York City, forex- velopmental and cognitive growth of low-income ample, has not only made all-day kindergarten three- and four-year-oid children. But to apply the mandatory, but has established a commission to results from these programs toallchildrenis create a public school program for all four-year- inappropriate for two reasons: First, the benefits of olds by September 1986a move praised in a New these programs were obtained only for economical- York Times editorial as "A Model for the Na- ly disadvantaged children, whose needs differ from tion." So many positive voices have been heard those of the middle-class children who constitute endorsing preschool education for four-year-olds the bulk of our school population. Second, these that it is easy to agree with Gordon Ambach, the intervention programs differ from standard school New York State Commissioner for Education, who fare in a number of important ways, providing stated recently that it was not possibleto find primary health and social services for both the anyone to uphold the negative side of the issue. schoolchild and the family as a whole. In fact, there are some negative voices, and they These arc vital differences, since many tb'orists are beginning to be heard. Herbert Zimiles, a believe that preschool programs are most successful leading thinker in the field of early childhood when parents participate, and that the basic, non- education, recently argued that the movement to- educational needs of children and families must be ward universal preschool education is characterized met before schooling can have any effect. mem by enthusiasm than thought. In Connecticut Public preschool education shares few of these a study committee appointed by the commissioner noneducational services and concerns, nor can they of education has concluded that "underno cir- become the primary focus of the education estab- cumstances do we believe it appropriate for all lishment. It is an open question whether universal four-year-olds to be involved ina 'kindergarien- preschool programs will result in the kind of type' program within the public school." In this benefits produced by the intervention programs [chapter], I will add my voice to those whoargue benefits that may well be a consequence of services that universal schooling for four-year-olds requires having very little to do with formal education. In more thought than it has so far been accorded. fact, it was precisely those differences which I have The current impetus for earlier schooling has outlined here that led many of us who were two sources. The first is the concern generated by involved in the organization of the Head Start the recent proliferation of negative evaluations of intervention program to oppose President Carter's our public secondary schools. The 1983 report, A proposal to move the program into theiiewly Nation at Risk, detailing the failures of secondary formed Department of Education, and in the end schooling in America, was soon followed by similar prevented its inclusion. studies that emphasized the need for higheraca- demic standards, more attention to basics,more rigor in teaching, and longer school days andyears. THE CASE FOR INTERVENTION Few of these reports proposed earlier :choolingas a solution. Preschool interventior may be particularly effec- A second source of the momentum toward uni- tive for the most economically disadvantaged chil- versal preschool education is the inappropriategen- dren, a view supported by New York State's 1982 eralization of the effects of a few excellent remedi- evaluation of its experimental preschool program. al programs for the economically disadvantaged. The New York study indicatedthat the only Several notable preschool interventionprograms cognitive gains that lasted beyond the preschool including Head Start,the Ypsilanti-based Perry period were among children whose mothers were of Preschool Program, the New York State pre-kin- the lowest educational index.
See page 330 for acknowledgment and suggested reading.
115 PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS
This fact has not escaped educational decision parents place on early education. I believe, howev- makers. Almost all the states that now provide er,that they have misread this demand. What school-sponsored programs for four-year-olds limit many parents are expressing is less a burning desire enrollmenttothedisadvantaged:low-income, for preschool education than their need for afford- handicapped, and in some cases non-English-speak- able, high-quality day care. Fifty-nine percent of ing youngsters. A large body of evidence indicates the mothers of three- and four-year-olds now that there islittle, if anything, to be gained by employed outside their homes. Although many of exposing middle-class children to preschool educa- these mothers have enrolled their children in child tion. For example, the only advantage that Swift care programs that provide organized educational (1964) could find as a result of preschool education activities, not even the all-day kindergarten pro- was a minimal degree of enhanced social develop- grams are able to fill adequately the day care needs ment atschoolentrance,with nonparticipants of families with both parents working outside the reaming the same level of social adjustment in less home. Because even after-school programs at pre- than two years. Other researchers have found that sent tend to adjourn two hours before most work- extensive intervention programs for four-year-olds ing days end, the day care problem has not been benefited lower-class children, but had no effect solved but only moved back for a few hours. This on other youngsters. token improvement could lead some parents to American schools, already under great financial take fewer precautions for their children during pressures, must make the most efficient use possi- this relatively short timeincreasing rather than ble of limited economic resources. As a long-time reducing the danger to children. advocate of cost benefit analyses for all types of Since day care can b: prohibitively expensive, it social programs, I feel that we can make the most is not surprising that many families would prefer effective use of limited funds by investing them in to shift the cost to the public school system. The intervention programs that target children in three Perry Preschool Project was estimated by its origi- overlapping groups:the economically disadvan- nators to cost approximately $1,500 per year per taged, the handicapped, and the bilingual. Provid- child in 1963. Given the number of three- and ing such programs toallfour-year-olds would four-year-olds in the nation today, and adjusting spread education budgets too thin. A universal the 1963 figures for inflation, the total cost of a extension of preschool would not only have little universal program would be many billions of dol- effect on the more advantaged mainstream chil- lars per year. Although some advocates of universal dren, but would actually diminish our capacity to preschool education continue to behave as though help those who could benefit most from early these vast sums will magically appear, fiscal reality remedial care. demands that we target populations who can most There is, however, one potential advantage to benefit, and provide programs best suited to their universal preschool education. A weakness of Head particular needs. Start and similar programs is their built-in eco- We must alsolistento those families who nomic segregation of children. Poor children go to neither need nor want their young children placed Head Start, 'while more affluent children go else- in preschool. The compulsory aspect of many of where. Universal preschool could better integrate the proposed early education plans has angered childrenacross socioeconomic lines,and would many parents and set them in opposition to school introduce equity into early childhood programs. officialsa poor beginning to the positive home/ While this might waste funding for preschool school relationship that is vital to the educational education on children who C.) not need it, univer- process. Decision makers must be sensitive to the sal preschool would guarantee itsavailability to individual needs of children and parents and rec- children who do: Unfortunately, while we would ognize that, whenever the family situation permits be well-advised to promote the integration of it, the best place for a preschool child is often at children from diversesocialand ethnicback- home. grounds, the cost of doing so through universal In fact,recent studies have shown that the preschooleducationoutweighsitspotential conversations children carry on at home may be the benefits. richest source of linguistic and cognitive enrich- ment for children from all but the most deprived backgrounds. Because parent and child share a EDUCATION ORDAY CARE? common afe and frame of reference, they can Educators in several states point to the pressure explore events and ideas in intimate, individualistic for all-day kindergarten as evidence of the value conversations with great personal meaning.
116 1 1 7 Should Four-Year-Olds Be in School?
This is not to ignore the fact that homemay be THE EASY WAY OUT a place of abuse or neglect, a welfare hotel, or a confusing and insecure environment without ade- This is not the first time that universal preschool quate resources.For childrenin these circum- education has been proposed. Wilson Riles, then stances,daycaremay bethebestavailable California State Superintendent of Schools, advo- alternative. cated early childhood educationten years ago. Then, as now, the arguments in favor of preschool A TIME FOR CHILDHOOD education were that it would reduce school failure, lower dropout rates, increase testscores, and pro- I concur with David Elkind(1981)and others duce a generation of more competent high school that we are driving our young childrentoo hard, graduates. My interpretation of the evidencethe and thereby depriving them of theirmost precious same as that finally reached by the State of commoditytheir childhood. The image of the Californiais that preschool education wouldnot four-year-old tru idling off to school in designer achieve these results. jeans, miniature briefcase in hand,may seem cute, I'm not simply saying that universal preschool but going from cradle to school denies children the would be a waste of time andmoney. There is a freedom to develop at theirown pace. Children are danger in asserting that the solutionto poor school growing up too fast today, and prematurely plac- and later-life performance of the disadvantaged ing four-year-olds and five-year-olds into full-day will be solved by a year of preschool education. To preschool education programs will only compound repeat, we may be on the verge of falling into the this problem. overoptimistic trap that ensnared us in the mid- Those who argue in favor of universal preschool sixties,when expectations were raisedthat an education ignore evidence which indicates that eight-week summer program could solve all the early schooling is inappropriate formany four-year- problems of the poor. If we wishto improve the olds, and may even be harmfulto their develop- lives of the economically disadvantagedwe must ment. Marie Winn notes in Children Without abandon short-term"solutions" and work for Childhood that premature schoolingcan replace much deeper social reforms. The tokennature of valuable play time, to the injury of the child's relying on educational innovations aloneto solve development. This is especiallytrue with the pre- the problems of poor children has been noted by sent cognitive thrust in education, where there is historian Marvin Lazerson(1970): danger of overemphasizing formal and overlystruc- tured academics. The stewardship ofvery young children requires a distinct form ofcare, suited to Too often discussions of educational reformappear to the rapid developmental changes and high depen- be a means of avoiding more complex and politically dangerous issues... education is ... cheaper than new dency of these children, nota scaled-down school housing and new jobs. We are left with greater school curriculum. responsibility while the social problems which have the At the same time we must remember that while greatest effect on schooling are largely ignored. The early childhood is an important and sensitive peri- schoolsin this case, preschoolare asked to dotoo od, it is not uniquely so. In the much, and given too little support to accomplish what 1960swe believed they are asked. (p. 84) early childhood was a magic period during which minimal intervention efforts would have maximal, indelible effects on children. In thecurrent push We simply cannot inoculate children in one year toward early formal educationwe can see the of preschool against the ravages ofa life of depri- unfortunate recurrence of this idea. vation. Even champions of early childhood educa- Every age of a child is a magic period. Wemust tion warn us not to expect too much when doing be just as concerned for the six-year-old, theten- toolittle.Senator DanielP. Moynihan(1984) year-old, and the 16-year -old as we are for the notes that exaggerated reports of success in the four-year-old. The proposed New York planis field of early childhood education lead inevitably especially troubling in that it includesa suggestion to near-nihilism when these extravagant hopes are to add a year of education at the beginning of unfulfilled: "From finding out thatnot everything formal schooling, andto drop a year at the end of works, we rush to the judgment that nothing high school. Adolescence is itselfa sensitive and works or can be made to work." fluid period in the life of the child.We must Moynihan's point that researchisthreatened guard against shortchangingone age group in our when results are exaggerated is well taken. And efforts to help another. just as the credibility of researcherscan be dam-
117 PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS aged, so too can the credibility of educators if they day care component. Certification of CDAs is insist on promising more than they can possibly based not on educational attainment alone, but on deliver. proven competence in meeting all the needsof young children. A recent study found that the one background characteristic of teachers that could be A REALISTIC "OLUTION related to program quality was early childhood trainingnot years of schooling or number of Educators must realize that they cannot reform degrees. the world or change the basic nature of children. Of course, in-school day careis going to be The real questionis how to provide the best costly, and the funding issue will have to be experience during the day for a four-year-old, addressed. Federal support might be expected to specifically for a child who cannot remain at home subsidize costs for economically disadvantaged chil- with a reliable, competent caregiver. Parents do dren. Cost containment wotJd also be enhanced by not need children who read at age four, but they making use of existing school facilities. do need affordable, good-quality child care. The Finally, in considering the needs of three- and most cost-effective way to provide universally avail- four-year-olds, let us not neglect the needs of five- ablenot compulsorycare would be to work with year-olds.Ibelieve that a full day of formal the school. schooling is too much even for these children. I am advocating a return to the concept of the Instead, I would propose a half-day kindergarten community school as a local center for all the social program to be followed by a half day of in-school services of the local neighborhood. Such a school day care for those who need it. The extra cost would, in addition to other programs, providc full- could be borne by parents on a sliding-fee basis, day, high-quality chud care for four- and even with financial assistance available to needy fam- three-year-old children in the existing school facili- ilies. Licensed teachers would teach in the morn- ties. Although such programs would include devel- ing, and certified CDAs would care for the chil- opmentally appropriate educational components, dren in the afternoon. Again, let me emphasize they would be primarily places for recreation and that the day care cicmcnt should be strictly volun- socializationthe real business of preschoolers. tary; no parent who wanted his or herchild at In-school day care could also easily accommodate home after school ends at noon would be denied. older children after school is dismissed. One inves- In short, we must ask ourselves what would we tigator summarizes the need in this way: "We be buying for our children in universal preschool must ... align the goals of programs for infants, education programs, and at what cost? I strongly preschoolers, and early elementary school -aged pu- believe that a family-oriented, multiservice com- pils so that such programs become components of munity school could best meet the varied needs of an integrated, consistent plan foreducating young preschoolers and theirfamilies by providing a children" (Weinberg, 1979, p. 915). number of services from which families could select Such a program, although operating on school to suit their needs. Such servicescould include grounds, should not be staffed solely by teachers. comprehensive intervention programs, health and Instead I propose that we staff school -based day nutrition components, high-quality and affordable care programs with teachers ser'ing in asupervisory day care, and educational opportunities, to name capacity, and certified Child Development Asso- only a few possibilities. ciates (CDA)now used in our nation's Head Our four-year-olds do have a place in school, Start projectas direct caregivers for the program's but it is not at a school desk.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Is there sufficient justification for adding one more grade to the public school program in theUnited Statesfree and available public schooling for four -year -old children? 2. Why should the schools intervene? 3.Should there be a distinction between public school education and public school day care? 4.Does the public and the profession expect too much from public early education? 5. How should the education of younger children in the schoolsdiffer from the present kindergarten/primary curriculum?
118 1 1 p 22. PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND FOUR-YEAR OLDS: A TEACHER'S VIEW by Mary Hatwood Futrell
The process by which we determine national of learning, but as a place of refuge. priorities and initiate social reforms has changed I cannot accept a line of reasoning that takes us dramatically during the past decade. Today, more so far down the path toward parent-teacher and and more frequently, demographics dictate deci- home-school antagonism. If we are to equip to- sions.I make this observation, not in order to day's preschoolers for the information-based society discredit demographics, but to put forth the mod- that will challenge their emotional and intellectual est claim that demography is no substitute for capacities, we need to create a culture of coopera- philosophy. As we reflect on the issue of public tion that unites parents and teachers in a common schooling for four-year-olds, we must be more than cause. students of statistics. We must be students of both I believe without reservation that the time has learning theory and cognitive development, andwe come to make public schooling available to our must be visionaries. This philosophical dimension four-year-old population. But an adequate ratio- has been pushed to the rear of the debateon cally nale for four-year-old schooling ought to rest on a childhood education, and that,Ibelieve,is an philosophical examination of the mission of educa- unfortunate trend. tion, not on demographic data used to predict the We know that between1950and1985,the demise of the family. And it should be rooted in a percentage of mothers working outside the house- research-based understanding of e - way young hold increased from 14 percent to62percent. We children grow, develop, and learntit See page 330 for acknowledgment. 119 PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS willingness, at last, to break free from the notion be put to rest? Not at all. The conclusion that is that chronology is destiny. They signal a willing- warranted is that we need to ensure developmen- ness to do away with arbitrary barriers based solely tally appropriate activities for four-year-o1.1s. Elkind on age. They signal the beginning of the end for himself has made this point succinctly: "Given the , well-established fact that young children learn dif- ferently, the conclusion that educators must draw is a straightforward one: The education of young IS SCHOOLING APPROPRIATE children must be in keeping with their unique FOR FOUR-YEAR-OLDS? modes of learning." In other words, we should be But victims of ageism remain. And the most doing with four-year-olds precisely what we should victimized population consists of pre-five-year-olds. be doing with all students: We should base in- American education excludes the very young from struction, not on the chronological age of the school on the assumption thatat age fiveall student, but on an assessment of each students' children suddenly and simultaneously undergo a stage of development. Our students should not be magical transformation. Does research confirm this judged by their birth certificates. And pedagogy assumption? No. Do psychological studies support shoulc not bow to chronology. this assumption? No. Do studies of affective and Age does not define learning needs. That is the cognitive development tell us that all children, at point that psychologists Sandra Starr and Richard precisely the same time, achieve readiness for the A. Weinberg tried to drive home when they first formal steps toward lifelong learning? Abso- argued that nutrition is the appropriate model or lutely not. metaphor for the learning process: "It is important There is clearly no educational reason to deny to feed children appropriately, not only in infancy younger children an opportunity to take those fast and the preschool years, but also in later school few steps toward lifelong learning. But this does and adolescent years to ensure that they reach their not mean that four-year-olds are ready for academ- full potential." ic instruction in the traditional basics. Instructional programs for four-year-olds cannot be modeled on programs for kindergartners. EDUCATIONAL NEEDS The research-basedwarningsagainstrushing OF FOUR-YEAR-OLDS four-year-olds into instructional activities deserve serious attention. In far too many preschool cen- What educationalnutrientsareessentialfor ters, noted Samual G. Sava of the Nationalassoci- four-year-olds?Playisforemast among them. ation of Elementary School Principals ai. 1 David Structured playplay that enlivens the imagina- Elkind, president of the National Association for tion and exercises the intellectis the indispens- the Education of Young People, children are asked able prerequiste for the development of the critical to walk before they can crawl, to run before they thinking skills fundamental to academic achieve- can walk. The result, according to Elkind,is a ment. That fact by itself suggests the content of a child deprived of childhood, deprived of the rlay- "curriculum" for four-year-olds. Such a curriculum fulness that spurs the mind toward the inquisitive- would not introduce them to grammatical structure ness thatis the root of critical thinking. Sava or try to make them computer literate. It would agreed. We are, he contended, "losing the devel- instead begin to help them develop theskills opmental potential of early childhood education in necessary for successful learning. The aim of the a misplacedeffortto mass-produce little curriculum would be to ease the child's transition Einstein." into school. Other voices of caution have echoed Sava and This continuity is essential. If we want to en- Elkind. Psychologist Edward F.Zig ler,the first hance the school experience for kindergartners and director of the U.S. Office of Child Development, first-grade students, noted Bettye M. Caldwell of argued that "early schooling is inappropriate for the University of Arkansas, "the trarnition be- many four-year-olds, and may even be harmful to tween early childhood and elementary education their development." And Marie Winn, author of progims should be as normal and routine as Children Without Childhood, contended that pre- continuity between 2nd and 3rd grades." mature schooling can rplace valuable play time, Today, the lack of collegial exchange between with resulting injury to the child's development. early childhood education instructors and elemen- Should we conclude from these arguments that tary teachers makes that continuity impossible. schooling for four-year olds is an idea that should Seldom is there even a sharing of records between 120 121 Public Schools and Four-Year-Olds early childhood and elementary programs. Without suited to the developmental needs of four-year- this continuity, Caldwell pointed out, "thenew olds. teachers (at the elementary level) receive no bene- There arc, of course, many Erodes that will need fits from the insights gained by their predecessors to be fought before all parents can have the option (at the early childhood level), and the tOrmer of sending their four-year-olds to early childhood teachers have no opportunity to corm or discon- programs in public schools. Financing the option firm their prediction about future educational pro- of schooling for four-year-olds would be costly, but gress of individual children." Having four-year- not financing it could prove more costly. The case olds in public schools could go a long way to can be made, based on studies conducted by the helping remedy this situation. The beneficiaries High/Scope Educational Research Foundation and would be the children. other researchers, that budget dollars placed in In 1984, a special task force of National Educa- quality preschool programs help children succeed tion Association (NEA) members spelled out the in later life and actually save society money by NEA vision of a new school environment in An reducing social expenditures for prisons, welfare, Open Letter to America on Schools, Students, and and unemployment. Tomorrow. Schools, the Open Letter maintained, Battles will also have to be waged over who must be places that (a) discard arbitrary, age-based staffs school-based early childhood programs. Early determinations of appropriate instruction; (b) en- childhood professionals and teachers will have to courage students to be active participants in learn- unite and insist that these programs be staffed by ing; (c) involve parents in their children's educa- professionals who are fully trained and prepared to tion; (d) coordinate community resources to meet cope with thespecialneeds of preschool the health and social services needs of their stu- youngsters. dents; and (c) promote theideal of lifelong These battles, I believe, are well worth the effort learning. they will take to win. Social realities have created a These are the same elements that early child- demand for school-based early childhood care. Let hood education experts oftenciteasbasicto us meet that demand and treat it as An opportuni- successful preschool programs. These elements, ina ty to start tmisforming our schools into the true very realsense, provide a common agenda for lifelong centers of learning they ought to be. public school teachers and early childhood profes- Chronology is not destiny. The calendar need not sionals, and that common agenda would ensure be a tyrantnot in our lives and not in our the development of a preschool program uniquely children's lives. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Will public schooling for four-year-old children make the educational experience fr,r the child betteror worse? 2.Have the issues and developmental needs of younger children been seriously considered in the planning of early eckcation programs? 3. What cautions should be observed when new programs are planned and implemented? 4.Is there sufficient professional consensus and research data to designan excellent learning experience for all younger children in the schools? 121 b '.' ri -a. 4., 23. QUALITY FOUR-YEAR-OLD PROGRAMS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS Position Statement of the Southern Association on Children Under Six The number of four-year-olds enrolled in early Given the developmental characteristics of the childhood development progr.....is has almost dou- four-year-old and the needed learning opportuni- bled in the last ten years (Schweinhart,1985). ties, the Bo ird of Directors of the Southern Associ- Although government funding for Head Start pro- ation on O. ildrep Under Six proposes the follow- vides for fewer than percent of the 1.5 million ing standards: eligible children, the public schools of fourteen states now provide some degree of funding for programs for four-year-olds. Such actionisthe result of the recognition of the identified benefits ADOPT QUALITY STANDARDS ofearlyeducationforallsegmentsofthe population. Theadministratororbuildingprincipal Pressure for additional program availability con- should have a minimum of nine semester hours of tinues to grow. The demand is based on: early education courses with a focus on dev-. mental characteristics of young children and appro- Increased awareness on the part of parents priate programming. and policymakers of the long -term value of early The teacher must hold a valid early childhood education. Parents' needs for child care services (more certificate; training must have induded work with pre - kindergartenchildren;thetraining should than 50 percent of mothers of preschool aged meet the criteria of the NAEYC guidelines adopt- children in work force). ed as NCATE Standards for programs in four-year The desire of non-employed mothers for their institutions. children to have access to preschool programs (32 The child must be age four by the same date percent enrollment increase). identifying eligibility for entrance in kindergarten. The adult-child ratio should be 1-7, not to Carefully designed programs areexcellentre- exceed 1-10; enrollment that exceeds ten requires sources for fostering the development of four-year- the assignment of an additional responsible adult old children. However, as public school policymak- with training in early childhood education/child ers recognize the need and rapidly increase the development. provision of pre-kindergarten education, priority The session for the child should not be less must be given to the establishment of programs for than one-half day. four-year-olds which: The daily schedule must be flexible, include a Are based on the knowledge of and resp-ose balance of free-choice and teacher-initiated large to child development research. and small group activities, and reflect the develop- Employ only those who areprofessionally mental needs of the whole child. trained to guide the growth and development of The early childhood curriculum must be de- young children. signed specifically for four-year-olds and must be Focus on the specific needs and characteristics appropriate fortheirdevelopmentalleveland of four-year-olds and their families. interests. The learning environment must be arranged It is imperative that public school early child. in interest centers that provide for individual and hood programs be appropriately and uniquely de- group learning experiences. signed for the young children they will serve. The Materials, equipment, and supplies appropri- characteristics and appropriate experiences for such ate for a developmental curriculum must be avail- programs are stated as follows: able in sufficient quantities. See pages 330-31 for acknowledgment and references. 122 123 Quality Four-Year-Old Programs The classroom must be equipped with mov- The use of standardized skill tests rather than able furniture of correct size, have a water supply observations and informal evaluations to assess the available and restroom facilities to accommodate needs of the young child. four-year-old children. The outside play area must be accessible for flexible use; be properly equipped for climbing, riding and gross motor activities; and designed for the safety of the child including fencing. THE ROLE FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS Minimum space requirements should be based IN ADVANCING APPROPRIATE on fifty square feet per child inside and one EXPERIENCES FOR FOUR-YEAR-OLDS hundred square feet per child outside. The program must include a parent compo- The public school system has certain characteris- nent: education, dassroom visitation, and regular tics that can be ,f great advantage in the provision conferencestosupportthechild'seducational of needed high quality programs for it 'a s. Public experience. school programs can complement existing programs A proce-s must be establishedto provide in the private sector as well as those funded for communication among the early childhood pro- targeted populations. Parents need viable options grams in the school; four-year-olds, kindergarten compatible with the needs of the family group; all and primary grades. programs should insure effective choices. Appropriate developmentalevaluation and Four-year-old programs in public schools can observations must be conducted periodicallyto offer an extended support system to the child, the provide information foreffectiveplanning for parent and other school age children in the family. meeting the individual needs of children. They can provide an earlier opportunity to initiate a cooperative and beneficial relationship with the home. Many schools can accommodate a group of QUALITY PROGRAMS SHOULD AVOID: young children with existing space; for some, additional res..- es can be made available. Pro- The reassignment of upper elementary teach- :Trams coordith ..J by state departments of educa- ers who have no specializedtraining in early tion can set high standards through established childhood education. regulations, implementation guidelines, curriculum The elimif.satn.:, of play and the opportunity directions, Ind continual opportunities for the de- for child selected activities. velopment of staff. The use of watered down first grade curricu- Excellence in the education of four-year-old chil- lum that indu.'es forml readiness activities, work- dren in the public school systems of America is an books, and ditto sheets. available opportunity and an obtainable goal; how- The placement of children in desks or rows of ever, the priorities must focus on actual knowledge chairs that inhibit an active learning environment. of the real needs of the young child as stated in The accommodation of young childrenin this position statement. The achievements of such facilities such as dassroom, playground, cafeteria, programs can be measured in the growth and andbathroomsthataredesignedforolder development of more positive, cooperative, produc- children. tive and successful human beings. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What essential qualities should guide the programs for four-year-olds in the schools? 2.Are the standards proposed by SI,CUS necessary and sufficient to assure high quality? 3. What is the reseuch '.ase for these standards? 1 :4 123 24. HERE COME THE FOUR-YEAR-OLDS! by Diane Dismuke At South Mountain Middle School in Allen- In Pomona, California, 600 infants to 13-year- town, Pennsylvania, a four-year-old practi mak- olds are enrolled in eight children'scenters run by ing the 'K' sound. Ir. a classroom building adja- the unified school district. They attend approved cent to the Haddon Avenue Elementary Sch:,o1 in hours between 6 a.m. and 6 p.m. each week day Los Angeles, California, two- and thre,--year-olds because their parents work or are training for jabs, listen intently as their teacher explains personal or because social workers have identified these kids hygiene. as being at risk for physical abuse if they stay At Glebe Elementary School in Arlington, Vir- home. ginia, three-, four-, and five-year-oldsarc involved Association member Bill Ewing, Pomonas ad- in "practical life" Montessori activities. ministrator of child development program,notes Scenes like these are not yet common-place, but that the centers are open to any child, by because neither are they rare, as more and more school fees are on a sliding scale, the centers aremost districts respond to changing public needs bycreat- advantageous to lower-income families. ing new early childhood education programsand Pomona's program is more than a babysitting expanding those already in place. service. With youngsters through age 4, thepro- Some 3,000 of the nation's 15,000 school dis- gramseekstoadvancedevelopmentthrough tricts now reportedly sponsor early childhoodpro- "learning experiences." The curriculumdevel- grams. The goals of these programs vary. Some oped by High/Scope, a nonprofit educationalre- aim only to provide quality child care. Others deal searchfoundationheadquarteredinYpsilanti, with youngsters' learning problems earlyon. Still Michiganallows children to choose theirown others focus on teaching academic readiness. daily activities within predetermined guidelines. The teachers involved arc almost all certificated, The Pomona program is so popular that it hasa with degrees in early childhood education, special waiting list of almost 1,000. The ratio of children education, and elementary education. to adults is set by state law at 4 to 1 for infants NEA has long supported early childhood educa- and 8 to 1 for children up to age 4. Those adults tion that gives children effective preparation for must include one certified teacher for every 24 kindergartenas lone as ;rained, certified teachers youngsters beyond infancy. and aides lead the youngsters. Early Childhood All but two of the Pomona centersare located Education and Kindergarten, an NEA resolution on elementary school grounds. One serves infants adopted by vote of the Representative Assembly in and toddlers whose parents are still public school 1975 and lastrevisedin198[8],urges federal students themselves and works with theyoung legislation to help promote and fund these efforts. parents to teach them proper child care. Another Currently,the NEA Executive Committee is accepts mildly illchildren who have a doctor's preparing a report for the 1988 Representative approvala real boon for working parents. Assembly on the feasibility of establishing neigh- Two other centersone open seven days a week borhooddaycareasanadjuncttopublic from 6:30 a.m. to 5 p.m., the otheropen Monday education. through Friday from 6:30 a.m to midnight Support for early childhood programs run by the provide a safe place for parentsto leave their public schools is growing on all fronts. Arecent children when they seriously needto get away for a study sponsored by the Committee for Economic few hours. Children in all the centersare checked Developmenta nonprofit organization whose regularly by school nurse practitioners. trustees are mostly business executivescalled for Pomona's children's center program started in more federal dollars for "proven programs" such 1969, but it can trace its roots back to 1943 when as Head Start and remedial reading and math Congress passed the Lanham Act, establishing fed- programs. The study clearly demonstrated the val- erally funded child care for mothers working in ue of these programs for disadvantaged youngsters. defense industries. Wien California implemented See page 331 for acknowledgment. 124 1°5x.,_ Here Come the Four-Year-Olds! the Lanham Act, it placed the administration of a been identifiedaslikelycandidates for future statewide child care program under the state de- special education services. Most of them COialt from partment of education. lowci sc,cioeconomic backgrounds or from families Ths Los Angeles unified school district sponsors with cultural or linguistic differences. a program similar to Pomona's, in operation since Like most early childhood efforts, five-year-old the 1940s. Project HAPPY works hard to involve parents Martha Bayer is chair of the Children's Center and to make them proud of their children's class- Committee of United TeachersLos Angeles. Bayer, room experiences. who teaches at the Haddon Avenue Center, at- "Many of the parents feel insecureeven em- tended the program herself as a child. barrassedby what they perceive as their own or "I'm here because J believe in its benefits," she their children's inadequacies," explains Association says. member Sue McNeil, a Project HAPPY teacher Los Angeles' 90 children's centers each serve an since 1984 and one of the program's developers. average of 130 youngsters aged 2 to 12, from 6 "When they feel motivated by their children's a.m. 6 p.m. every weekday. School-age children successes, we know we're making real progress." attend before and after regular classes. Charlene Bembridge, whose three-year-old son "Each center has a waiting list of about 200," Kenyatta Carter entered the program in Septem- says Bayer. "We give preference to children who ber, notes the progress he's made in just a few are non-English-proficient, handicapped, or recom- months. mended by protective services." "Kenyatta is vet) active," Bembridge explains, Los Angeles has its own curriculumFounda- "but the combinatic n of structured days and indi- tions for Leaining--that develops each child's lan- vidual attention he receives from Project HAPPY guage skills and mathematical concepts through has changed his attitude. He now tries very har: to interdiscitlinary techniques like puzzles, manipula- behave better." tives, and tape recordings. The youngsters are Most of McNeil's students lack proper motor checked periodically by a nurse, a dentist, and an coordination or language proficiency. On a typical audiometrist. day, some children cut out sketches (being careful Since the Pomona and Los Angeles programs to follow the heavy lines drawn to guide them), exist primarily to provide child care, can they be others practice following directions in sequence, considered education? David Elkind, president of and still others learn social behaviors like taking the National Associationfor the Education of turns and responding in sentences to a questit.n. Young Children and a Tufts University professor, McNeil keeps track of her students when they go asserts that all levels of education contain some on to elementary school. "When they're successful degree of child care. there, it means Project HAPPY is successful," she "The issue is not education vs. child care but explains. rather the proportion of the two components pro- The program's benefits aren't limited to partici- vided at any particular level of schooling," Elkind pants and their families. Child development stu- notes. Teachers of young children help them "ac- dents at the middle school that houses Project quire the fundamental concepts of space, time, HAPPY work with the younger student.. to gain number, causality, relations, and nature-concepts firsthand knowledge of what makes them thrive that form the essential data base foralllater and learn. learning." And this acquisition goes hand-in-hand InArliiAln,Virginia,a16-year-old public with learning pre-academic language and social Montessori program enrolls some 320 three- to skills, such as paying attention and taking turns, five-year-olds,giving preference to non-English- that are presupposed by formal education. speaking, minority, and low-income youngsters. Some 23 states now have legislation pending to The 16 three-hour daily classes are offered in four provide school for four-year-olds, adds Elkinda different elementary schools. Each class averages 20 sure sign of the growing recognition that early students. Parents of three- and four-year-olds pay a childhood education should become a legitimate sliding tuition fee, while five-year-olds attend the part of public education. program instead of traditional kindergarten. Chil- In Allentown, Pennsylvania, mildly handicapped dren stay with a single teacher until they enter first three- to five-year-olds attend Project HAPPY (an grade. acronym for Helping Achieve Potential of Pre- "Because of this stability, we have greater flexi- school Youngsters) classes for two-and-a half hours bilityin meeting a child's individual needs," each day, four days a week. The children have explains Daena Kluegel,a Montessori teacher at 125 a' PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS Arlington's Glebe Elementary School. "We can As they si .ead, NEA President Mary Hatwood really get to know the needs of each childand let Futrell cautions, educators must be careful not to new childrenlearn from those already in the overlook quality. program." "Early childhood professionals and teachers will The Montessori teaching method, named for the have to unite and insist that these programs be L alian physician who developed it earlyin.this staffed by professionals fully trained and prepared century, emphasizes individual learning. Each child to cope with the special needs of the very young," concentrates on a particular skill when he or she is Futrell noted in a recent article for American mnst ready. The teacher acts mainly as a facilitator, Psychologist, a journal of the American Psychologi- giving the children hands-on materialslike sand- cal Association. Futrell is an enthusiastic supporter paper letters and metal geometric shapesto help of early childhood enrichment programs. them learn. Arlington mother Katherine Carey credits the "We should be doing with four-year-olds pre- program with enhancing the lives of her four cisely what we should be doing with all students," childrensome learningdisableda 4others she advises. "We should base instruction not on gifted. the chronological age of the student, but on an "The method reinforced their strengths at an assessment of each student's stage of development. early age," she explains. "It recognizes a child as Our students should not be judged by their birth an individual and teaches socialization skills at the certificates. same time." "Chronology is not destiny," Futrell concludes. Early childhood education programs are obvious- "The calendar need not be a tyrant. Not in our ly not only here to stay, but to grow and multiply. lives. Not in our children's lives." DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How have different locations met the need for providing public school programs for children younger than five? 2. What are the NBCDI guidelines for public school early education programs? 3.Will the public schools eventually provide universal programs for children younger than four years of age? 126 127 25. PREKINDERGARTEN PROGRAMS FOR FOUR-YEAR-OLDS: STATE INVOLVEMENT IN PRESCHOOL EDUCATION by Carolyn Morado In 15 states across the country, state depart- programs and provides limited funding. States that ments of education, community service and com- sponsored prekindergarten programs through spe- munity education agencies operate prekindergarten cial legislation during the 1985-86 school year programs, and several states are moving in this included New York, Maryland, Louisiana, South direction. The programs are relatively new and Caroiina,Florida,Oklahoma, California,Ohio, signal the states' growing interest and commitment Texas,Illinois,Michigan,and Massachusetts. to early %.4ucation. Most of the state-sponsored Washington has passed special legislation for pre- programs are targeted for 4-year-old children and kindergarten programs that are scheduled to begin the majority are operated by state departments of this fall. Texas is the only state requiring school education. districts to provide compensatory prekindergarten While interest in state-sponsored preschool edu- programs. cation is growing, the number of children involved remains relatively small. No ...ate offers preschool for all its 4-year-olds. The diversity in programs is FUNDING considerable. Current state practice either allows interested school districts to offer programs for 4- Programs at- funded thrc ugh regular state aid year -olds or sets criteria for the involvement of 4- to school districts or through budget appropriations year -olds in state-sponsored programs. In some forprekindergarten programs. New Jersey and states, .erekindergarten programs are more similar Pennsylvania fund prekindergarten programs to the state's kinderprtctr; in other states, pro- through general education funds, and payments to grams more closely resemble privately sponsored districts are the same for both kindergarten and progi ams. prekindergarten programs. Total funding of pre- Informed debate on the issue of state-sponsored kindergarten programsisdifficulttocalculate, prekindergarten programs must take into account however, as prekindergarten children are included the wide variation in preschool programs, defmi- with all other district students under the state aid tions of children eligible to participate, funding, formula, and state funding of prekindergarten does and program standards.This [chapter]surveys not appear as a separate budget item at either the some of the practices regarding these issues in district or state level. state-sponsored prekindergarten programs for 4- In contrast,other stateslimit their funding year -olds. through budget appropriations for programs. In these states, state funding is readily identified, and per pupil expenditures for prekindergarten pro- LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY grams can be calculated when the number of children to be served is specified. Typically, state State-sponsored prekindergarten programs are ei- support is less than $1,000 annually per child for ther provided for in the permissive language of a part-day programs but may be as much as $2,700 state's school code or provided by special legislative per child. provision. In New Jersey and Pennsylvania, permis- States may require that participating school dis- sive language in each state's general school code tricts contribute to program funding. For example, allows school districts to provide prekindergarten New York requires local school districts to contrib- programs for 4-year-olds as well as kindergarten ute 11 percent of the total budget in cash. Ohio programs for 5-year-olds. requires participating school districts to use local The majority of state-sponsored prekindergarten funding-o provide staff.Michigan limits state programs, however, come from special legislation funding to 70 percent of the total program operat- that establishes definitions and standards for the ing costs. See page 331 for acknowledgment. Is') 127 -IL. (.0 PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS CHARACTERISTICS Teacher Qualifications OF STATE-SPONSORED PROGRAMS Some type of early childhood certificationit Most kindergarten programs are part-day pro- required for teachers in the majority of the pro- grams (3 or fewer hours per day), although several grams. While states may prefer or recommend states indicate a preference for full-day programs or early childhood certification for kindergarten teach- have a long-range goal to move toward full-day ers, few require such specialized training. Most programs for 4-year-olds. prekindergarten programs, however, require spe- Programs that operate on the basis of the gener- cialized training beyond what is typically required al school code provisions are required to meet for kindergarten in the states. kindergarten standards for teacher certification and student attendance, but no special regulations ap- ply. These programs may differ markedly from SELECTING CHILDREN privately sponsored programs for 4-year-olds. FOR STATE-SPONSORED PROGRAMS Special regulations for prekindergarten programs have been developed by all states that fund pro- Most state-sponsored prekindergarten programs grams through special legislative initiatives, and enroll 4-year-olds, although several states offer Imo- regulationstypically address staff qualifications, grams to both 3- and 4-year-olds. In several states, maximum class size, and staff/child ratio!. Regula- age is the only criterion for eligibility. States that tions may allow for fewer than 100 school days of specify additional eligibility criteria typically specify attendance, and space and facility requirements criteria intended to target children who may be at may be outlined. Regulations typicaily specify cri- risk for school failure. teria that are similar or identical to requirements New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, and Ohio that apply to the state's privately sponsored child base eligibility solely on age. But access to pro- care centers, preschools, and nursery schools. grams can vary greatly, depending on selective participation of school districts, efforts to ensure geographical balance across the state, and even the . Class Size location of programs within participating school districts. Maryland and Massachusetts base sradent A maximum dass size of 20 children is typically eligibility on age, but each state restricts, wholly or specified by states. Class size specifications range, in part, the areas or school districts in which however, from a low of 15 children per class to a programs may be offered. high of 25 children. Louisiana,SouthCarolina,California, New York, Maine, Florida, Texas, and Illinois target their prekindergarten programs for children desig- Staff/Child Ratio nated to be vulnerable or at risk for school failure; one half of Michigan's programs are similarly tar- The staff/child ratio in several states is 1:10. geted. States use two approaches to identify vul- This pattern is typical when class size is specified at nerable children: Environmental or other risk con- 20 and both a teacher and teacher aide are as- ditions are used to identify potential candidates for signed to each class. States which require oh.? that school failure, or states screen children and select a teacher be assigned to prekindergarten dasses those children with apparent deficiencies. may operate programs with staff/child ratios of States select vulnerable or at-risk children by 1:20 or higher. using demographic and family characteristics that tend to be associated with school failure. Maryland targets its programs for low-achieving school dis- Comprehensive Services tricts by using third grade achievement data to determine eligible school di!--icts; all 4-year-olds in Four statesCalifornia, New York, Maine, and participating districts are eligible without further Washingtonrequire programs to provide compre- screening. Massachusetts has specified that three hensive services similar to those provided by Head quarters of its programs must be located in low- Startforprekindergarten programparticipants. income residential areas. New York, California, (Head Start provides health services, opportunities Maine, Texas, and Washington base program eligi- for parent involvement, and social services to fam- bility on family income but use varying definitions ilies as well as an education program.) of low income ranging from the federal Head Start 128 1 29 Prekindegarten Programs for Four-Year-Olds standard of 100 percent of poverty level to family contract with agencies outside the public schools to income below a specified percentage of the state provide prekindergarten programs. Ohio legislation median income. Children with limited English provides for grants to county school boards to proficiency are eligible for programs in Texas and establish information and referral services to coor- Florida. dinate services for families. South Carolina, Louisiana, and Illinois define The role of state education agencies in preschool their programs as compensatory programs. All chil- education is evolving, and there is by no means a dren who participate in programs in these states single approach to programming for 4-year-olds in must be individually assessed to establish that the public schools. State programs reflect a diversi- readiness deficiencies exist. ty of educational concerns such as limited availabil- ity of federal funds for early childhood programs despite increased public interest and support, and COORDINATING STATE-SPONSORED a growing concern for children who appear to be at PROGRAMS WITH OTHER risk for school failure as they enter school. Public EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAMS school involvement in early childhood education may offer unique opportunities for the growth of There appears to be growing sensitivity to the services to young children, or public school in- effects state-sponsored prekindergarten programs volvement may simply duplicate or replace existing may have or+ programs that already exist under community and other programs. As the role of federal or private sponsorship. South Carolina has state education agencies evolves, important consid- organized an Interagency Coordinating Council, erations related to programming forall young and U. me states are interested in developing inter- children should continue to hold our attention and agency collaboration or possibilities for agencies shape state involvement in education: appropriate outside the public school system to be involved standards, equity and equal access, meeting com- with prekindergarten programs. South Carolina, munity needs, and continuity and coordination of Illinois, anc Michigan allow schooldistrictsto services for young children. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How are the states responding to prekindergarten in the public schools? 2. Are public preschool programs available to all children? 3. What are the common qualities of programs for four ...tar-olds in the states? 4.Will programs for prekindergarten children be planned for selectgroups of children with special needs or those who are at risk for educational problems? 5. How will states coordinate public, private, and parochial preschool programs? _ro o 129 26. SAFEGUARDS: GUIDELINES FOR ESTABLISHING PROGRAMS FOR FOUR-YEAR-OLDS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS by The National Black Child Development Institute As public schools become a major provider of recognize and commend individuals in various sec- early childhood education and care, we can expect tions of the country who struggle daily f or high large numbers of Black childrento use these quality programs for Black children, but they must programs for at least three reasons. First, most be joined by many others to create the 'rational public schools that have begun early education imperative required to change a still its iequate programs already have large enrollments of Black educational achievement record. children because the focus has been on "at risk" For as we look at the progress of the public children, a large majority of whom are Black. school system relative to Black children, the statis- Second, 67 percent of all Black mothers work in tics are alarming. Today, 40 percent of minority the labor pool; as this percentage increases, the youth arc functionally illiterate. Black children are need for child care becomes greater. Third, many twice as likely to be suspended from school or to Black parents want their children to have an suffercorporal punishment.Eighty percent of educational advantage which they feel will result those suspended from public schools are Black from the children's participation in early education boys. Dr. Ma Hilliard, Professor of Urban Educa- programs. For economic reasons, their choices will tionatGeorgiaStateUniversityand former be public school programs where services tend to NBCDI Board Member, notes, "There are more be free or on a sliding scale. Black children placed in Educable Mentally Retard- The National Black Child Development Institute ed [EMR] programs than Whites nationwide." (NBCDI) has a record of support for the public Black children make up 40 percent of EMR stu- schools and their teachers. As advocates for Black dents, although they are only slightly more than children, such support is mandatorybecause it is 10 percent of the population. here that the vast majority of Black Audents will The problems faced by the public education be found long into the 21st Century. Still, as the systems must be scrutinized from many different public school systems add to their responsibilities viewpoints if viable solutions are to be found. the needs of yet another constituentthe very School systems need help, and advocates for chil- young, it is incumbent upon us to address some dren must assist by providing necessary support. concerns to wl :ch this trend has given rise. These The ten safeguards detailed herein offer clear and concerns emerge from past public policy in general direct suggestions for ways of ensuring that early and from trends in education which have drastical- education programs in the public schools create a ly affected the lives of countless Black children. In learning environment for Black children which is many of our nation's cities, Blacks have inherited productive, effective and long lasting in positive the failures of public policy:decrepit housing, outcomes. inadequate public se "ices, and empty municipal coffers. In urban public schools across this nation, Blacks THE TEN SAFEGUARDS stani to inherit institutions and programs taxed beyond their limits. Rural and city schools alike are The First Safeguard. Public school-based pro- alreadystruggling undertheweightoftheir grams for Black, preschool-age children should charge: to do more with less money. incorporate an effective parent education program. We are not without sympathy for problems The Second Safeguard. Public school-based early faced by many of our nation's public schools: childhood programs should involve parents in the underfinancing, shortages of new teachers, and the dethions about the curriculum and policy. public's perception of the schools as the panacea The Third Safeguard. The staff of early child- for all unresolved social problems ranging from hood education programs should include teachers juvenile delinquency to teenage pregnancy. We who come from the community served by the See page 331 for acknowledgment and references. 130 131 Safeguards program and who are racially and ethnically repre- /y childhood programs should participate in federal sentative of the children served. and state programs which guarantee adequate nu- The FourthSafeguard.Teachersin public trition to children. school-based programs should be required to have The Eighth Safeguard. Administrators of public specifictraining in preschool education and/or school-based programs for preschoolers should en- ongoing, inservice training provided by qualified sure that children veering the programs have staff. access to appropriate health care. The Fifth Safeguard. Curriculum for preschool- age children in the public schools should be cultur- The Ninth Safeguard. In assessing children of ally sensitive and appropriate to the child's age preschool age, the administrators of pmv-riC school- and level of development. based early childhood programs should not limit The Sixth Safeguard. Public schools which house their assessment to, a, base their program planning programs for very young children should meet the solely on, standardized tests. same health and safety standards which apply to The Tenth Safeguard. Public school-based early independent preschools and center-based child care childhood pmgrams should be subject to a regular, programs. external review by community members and early The Seventh Safeguard. Public school-based ear- childhood development experts. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.What are some special considerations to assure high quality in four-year-old programs for minority group children? 2.Should minority group children have early learning experiences that differ in quality and/or qt,antity Lom programs for children of the majority? 3.Are there universal program qualities or safeguards that assure an excellent experience for all children? 27. PUBLIC SCHOOL FOR FOUR-YEAR-OLDS by James L. Hymes, Jr. It's 0out time. America has had private schools affordto reach out for opportunities for their for 4-year-olds since 1922! Several states through children. Other 4s were "special" because their the yearsWisconsin, Pc,nsylvania, Alaska, Okla- families were poor.ItIstime now for public homahave supported some public schools for 4s. schools [to] open to all4s, not to "special" And "special" 4s have benefited from massive childrenopen to 4s simply because they are 4, public programs of schooling as far back as the open to all whose parents want them to attend. Emergency Nursery Schools of the depression years, it's about time, but it is a bad time. Unfortu- and in Head Start, New York State's Experimental nately the climate couldn't be worse for starting up Prekindergarten, and California's Preschool Pro- a new program for young children. gram. America has loads of know-how about 4- The recent years have made many Americans year -olds and the kind of schooling that fits them. feel that taxes are to be avoided like the plague. (Many other countries in the western world do Spending for the private good has been touted as too.) fine; spending for the public good (except for the The lack in the past: Almost all 4s who went to military) has been considered bad. In such a mood school really were "special" children. Some were thereisthe danger that America might want "special" because their families had money and bargain-basement 4-year-old classes, and might be were caring and conscientious; those parents could unwilling to pay what it costs to get good ones. See page 331 for acknowledgment. 132 131 PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS Recent years have also made many Americans there are now some well-trained teachers of young uptight about education. Report after report has children, but we must expand their number. warned that "history will not be kind to idlers." This is the time, right now, for 4-year teacher With such sounds all around many adults have education institutions to develop major fields of become scared. They end up pushing their chil- study focusing specifically on the young child. My dren and grasping anxiously for successes in tangi- preference: Ma: ,rs that concentrate on the under 6 ble, measurable areas. There is grave danger of a years. Six year of life is a big span, and the first 6 shortage of sympathy for the humanistic, sensitive, are difficult, crucial years, a worthy field of study. patient, tolerant approaches that 4s need. But I would gladly settle for majors covering the There is also the danger that public schools for traditionalearlychildhoodperiodfrombirth 4s may suddenly become the in thing. America has through year 8 (although learning both the rigidi- a tendency to let ideas lie dormant for years and ties of the primary school and the informality of then $'iddenly embrace them. New programs spurt under 6 groups is a formidable task). What none ahead, far outdistancing the resources to make of us should settle forisso-called training or them good. This has been Head Start's fate. It was orientation that is simply an added course or two. big at birth, but from the start never had adequate A second lesson is to recognize that trained money for enough well-trained staff. The result: teachers are wasted unless they have supports that Head Start is rarely top- flight. This has been the free them to use their skills. story of our kindergartens. They mushroomed in Teachers need right class size. With 4-year-olds, the 1970s and 80s, expanding far faster than solid- 16 ought to be tops. kindergarten teachertraining.Theresult:Too many kindergartens are disaster areas where work- Teachers of 4s need salaries equal to those of books have become the teachers. other public school teachers. But no time is perfect. We can have good With 4s,teachersneed anaide,paidor public schools for 4s. We are not obligated to mess volunteer. up the idea. The trick is to learn from our past. Teachers need a time schedule that makes it The big lessonisto recognizethat trained possiblefor them to talk often with parents. teachersspecialists in working with young chil- Without common understandings between home drenare the key. We should be wary of setting and school, good teaching goes down the drain. up more classes for 4s than we can staff with Teachers need principals and supervisors who adequately paid, able specialists. In every state will respect their training and skill as specialists. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are the basic reasons for adding four-year-old children to the public schools? 2. What are the potential problems of universal public school programs for youn a children? 3. How can program designers establish standards for staffing, sciicuuling, program operation, andparent involvement? 28. FULL-DAY OR HALF-DAY KINDERGARTEN? by Dianne Rothenberg According to educator Barry Herman (1984) and Renewed interest in academic preparation for others, the majority of 5-year-olds in the United later school success. Even in families without both States today already are more accustomed to being parents working outside the home, there is great away from home much of the day, more aware of interestin the contribution of early childhood the world around them, and more likely to spend programs (including full-day kindergarten) to later a large part of the day with peers than were school success. children of previous generations. These factors, plus the demonstrated ability of children to cope SCHOOLS AND FULL-DAY with a longer day away from home, have created a KINDERGARTEN demand in many communities for full-day kinder- garten programs. School systems have become interested in alter- This [chapter] examines how changing family native scheduling for kindergarten partly because of the reasons listed above and partly for reason,' patterns have affected the full-day/half-day kinder- related to finances and school space availability. garten issue, discussing why schools are currently Some of these reasons concern considering alternative scheduling and describing the advantages and disadvantages of each type of State school funding formulas. Some states pro- program. vide more state aid for all-day students, although seldom enough to completely pay the extra costs of full-day kindergarten programs. Other states allow CHANGES IN FAMILY PATTERNS only half-day aid; in these states, funding formulas Among the changes occurring in American soci- would have to change in order for schools to ety that make full-day kindergarten attractive to benefitfinanciallyfromall-daykindergarten attendance. families are An increase in the number of working parents. Busing and other transportation costs. Eliminat- As reported by the National Center for Education ing the need for noon bus trips and crossing guards saves the school system money. Statistics (Grant and Snyder 1983), the number of mothers of children under 6 who work outside the Availability of classroom space and teachers. As home increased 34 percent from 1970 to 1980. The school enrollment declines, some districts find that National Commission on Working Women (1983) they haveextra classroom space and qualified reports that, in 1984, 48 percent of children under teachers available to offer full-day kindergarten. 6 had mothers in the labor force. In addition,school districts are interested in An increase in the number of children who have responding to parents' requests for full-day kir.der- garten. In New York City, for example, parents had preschool or day care experience. Since the io were offered the option of full-day kindergar- mid-19,0s, the majority of children have had some -n responded overwhelmingly in favor of the plan kind of preschool experience, either in Head Start, day care, private preschools, or early childhood ("Woes Plague New York's All-Day Kindergar- programs in the public schools. These early group tens" 1983). experiences hays provided children's first encoun- ters with daily organized instructional and social ADVANTAGES OF FULL-DAY PROGRAMS activities before kindergarten (Herman 1984). Herman (1984) describes in detail the advan- An increase in the influence of television and tages of full-day kindergarten. He and others be- family mobility on children. These two factors have lieve full-day programs provide a relaxed, unhur- produced 5-year-olds who are more knowledgeable ried school day with more ti_ le for a variety of about their world and who are apparently more experiences, greater opportunity for screening and ready for a full-day school experience than the assessment to detect and deal with potential learn- children of previous generations. ing problems, and more occasions for good quality See pages 331-32 for acknowledgment and references. 133 PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS interaction between adults and students. ADVANTAC7_,3 OF HALF-DAY PROGRAMS While the long-term gfects of full-day kinder- garten are yet to be determined, Thomas Stinard's Many educators still prefer half-day, everyday (1982) review of 10 research studies comparing kindergarten. They argue that a half-day program half-day and full-day kindergarten indicates that can provide high quality educational and social students taking part in full-day programs demon- experience for young children while orienting them strate strong academic advantages as much as a acequately to school. year after the kindergarten experience.Stinard Specifically,half-day programs are viewed as found that full-day students performed at leastas providingcontinuity and systematicexperience well as half-day students in every study (and better with less probability of stress than full-day pro- in many studies) with no significantadverse grams. Proponents of the half-day approach believe effects. that, given the 5-year-old's attention span, level of A recent longitudinal study of full-day kinder- interest, and home ties, a half day offers ample gartenintheEvansville-Vanderburgh,Ohio, time in school and allows more time for the young School District indicates that fourth graders main- child to play and interact with adults and other zacd the academic advantage gained during full- children in leg. structured home or child care set- day kindergarten (Humphrey 1983). tings (Finkelst, 1983). Despite often-expressed fears that full-day kin- dergartners would experience fatigue and stress, school districts that have taken care to plana developmentally appropriate, nonacademic curricu- DISADVANTAGES OF HALF-DAY lum with carefully paced activities have reported PROGRAMS few problems (Evans and Marken 1983; Stinard 1982). Disadvantages of half-day programsinclude midday disruption for children who move from DISADVANTAGES OF FULL-DAY one program to another and, if busing is not PROGRAMS provided by the school, difficulty for parents in making transportation arrangements. Even if bus- Critics of full-day kindergarten point out that ing is provided and the child spends the other half such programs are expensive because they require day at home, schools may find providing the extra additional teaching staff and aides to maintain an trip expensive. In addition, the half-day kinder- acceptable child-adult ratio. These costs may or gartner may have little opportunity to benefit from may not be offset by transportation savings and, in activities such as assemblies or field trips. some cases, additional state aid. Other requirements of full-daykindergarten, including more classroom space, may be difficult CONCLUSION to satisfy in districts where kindergarten or primary grade enrollment is increasing and/or where school While both full-day and half-day programs have buildings have been sold. advantages and disadvantages, it is worth noting In addition to citing added expense and space that length of the school day is only one dimen- requirements as problems, those in disagreement sion of the kindergarten experience. Other impor- claim that full-day programs may become too tant issues include the nature of the kindergarten academic, concentrating on basic skills before chil- curriculum and the quality of teaching. In general, dren are ready for them. In addition, theyare research suggests that, as long as the curriculum is concerned that half of the day's programming in developmentally appropriate and intellectually an all-day kindergarten setting may become merely stimulating, either type of scheduling can provide child care. an adequate introduction to school. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Is half a day half as good as a full day of kindergvten? 2. Why do some schools offer full-day programs and some half-day programs? 3.Should financing or educational impact influence the decision about kindergarten scheduling? 4. Can one teacher work effectively with two groups of children during thesame day? 5. What is the best schedule for the nation's kindergartens? 134 13 5 29. KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICA: FIVE MAJOR TRENDS by Sandra Longfellow Robinson On three occasions in the past 12 years, I have areas:funding,teachereducation,population asked public school officials to describe kindergar- served, length of day, major focus of the curricu- ten opportunities in their states. A comparison of lum, and compulsory nature of programs. Many the data from these three surveyscollected in state officials said that data in one or more of 1974, 1981, and 1986reveals five major trends in these categories was either unknown or unavailable the education of 5-year-olds.* to them. Decisions about birthdate deadlines for First, more children are being offered the oppor- entrance to kindergarten, length of the school day, tunity to attend public kindergarten. In 1974 only and major focus of the curriculum were frequently 23 states offered programs to more than 90 percent mentioned as local district prerogatives. of the eligible population. By 1981, 41 states met this criterion, and in 1986, 46 statestwice as Third, more 5-year-olds are an' -.ding school for many as in 1974- - provided kindergarten for nearly more hours rah day in the 1980s than in the allchildren. Only Mississippi, New Hampshire, 1970s. While the majority of states report that Oregon, and Vermont reported that they provide half-day programs (from two to four hours) are free public kindergarten for less than 90 percent of most common, thereare indications that the the eligible population. length of the school day is being extended. First, However, recent changes indicate that even in more state officials emphasize that a range of from some of these states more and more children will -wo to three hours is a minimum requirement. be given access to kindergarten. A recent legislative Second, in 1974 only Hawaii provided a four-to package in Mississippi mandates programs for all six-hour day for kindergartners;in1986 eight districts by the 1986-87 school year. In Oregon, states (Alabama, Hawaii, North Carolina, North state officials estimate that the state provides kin- Dakota, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, and Tennes- dergarten service for 62 percent of eligible children see) did soFinally, in lt'36, 14 states (up from and that private providers serve 13 percent. Ap- eight in 1974) reported a range of from 21/2- to proximately 25 r-rcent of that state's 5-year-olds six-hour programs when local districts supplement- attend no kindergarten. Since 1974 New Hamp- ed state funds to provide more than the minimal shire has provided kindergarten to approximately requirements. one-third of eligible youngsters. In neighboring The fourth trend in the education of 5-year-olds Vermont, 77 percent of 5-year-olds are offered free is the tendency of states to hire teachers with more public kindergarten, but by 1 July 1988 all districts years of education. In 1974 six state officials re- mu.provide kindergarten opportunities. ported that a percentage of kindergarten teachers The second trend in the education of 5-year-olds held an associate's degree or less; in 1981 that in the United States is two-faceted: there is more number had fallen to four; in 1986 only Indiana local funding of kindergarten and more local con- reported that some kindergarten teachers had an trol of kindergarten programs. Most state depart- associate's degree or less. Information in this cate- ment officials report approximate percentages of gory seems to be difficult to obtain, because a services funded locally.In 1981 only 10 states large number of r-spondents do not answer this reported that local funding exceeded 25 percent of item. Thus we should not infer that only one state the total. By 1986 local funds represented signifi- hires teachers with less than a bachelor's degree. cant contributions in 14 states. In fact, six states Twenty-eight states did indicate that the minimum (Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, requirement for kindergarten teachers was a bache- Oregon, and Vermont) reported that a majority of lor's degree. In 11 states, more than 20 percent of the funding for kindergarten is provided by local kindergarten teachers had earned master's degrees. A remarkable percent ige of kindergarten teachers The increase in local control of kindergarten hold master's degrees in Indiana (83%), New programs is suggested by the fact that only 19 of Mexico (80%), Kentucky (74%), Georgia (60%), 50 state officials were able to provide definite Oregon (55%), Missouri (45%), and South Caroli- answers to questions in all six of the following na (41%). See page 332 for acknowledgment and footnote. 135 I:: 6 PRESCHO M. PROGRAMS The final trend in kindergarten education is one Carolina, South Dakota, and Virginia. New Mexico thatreflectsboth the changing nature of our vill join this list in 1987. In some states, parents society and the inc.reasino emphasis on early educa- can elect to keep children at home or send them to tion: the requirement that children begin school at private centers by signing waivers. Despite these age 5. In 1982 only Florida made kindergarten options, the message is clea.r: early childhood edu- attendance compulsory. Four yearslater,seven cation is viewed as important enough to change states requited children to attend kindergarten: the traditional age for entering school. Delaware,Florida,Kentucky,Louisiana,South E SCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How have the states developed and funded kindergarten programs? 2. Which states have added kindergartens recently? Why? 3. What are the promising trends in teacher preparation? 4.Should kindergarten attendance be compulsory? 30. KINDERGARTEN PROGRAMS AND PRACTICES Educational Research Service Staff Report Attention focused on kindergarten programs has HALF-DAY VS. FULL-DAY SCHEDULES in; ensified in recent years, wit'a factors both inside and outside education contributing to the in- The predominant patternforkindergarten creased interest. Discussions about the pros and schedules is still half-day, with 49.1 percent of the cons of half-day vs. full-day progr. ms, the most teachers teaching both morning and afternoon ses- effective approach to the teaching of reading, and sions, 12.1 percent a morning session only, and 3.1 the appropriate goals for kindergarten involve percent an after ,non session only. Just over one- ems and other citizens as well as professit. .21 fourth (27.7 perccat.) of the responding teachers educators. Schools must now cope with the educa- work with pupils who attend a full-day every day, tional and developmental needs of students with while 7.4 percent work with pupils on a full-day, and without day care or formal preschool experi- alternate day schedule. ence. And in addition to these societal pressures, According to the principals, rural districts are research continues to stress the impact of early more likely than those in other types of communi- childhood education on later achievement. ties to have some type of full -day schedule, with Studies of kindergarten programs were conduct- 49.3 p-...ent feporting either a full-day, every day ed by the National Education Association in 1925, orfull-day,alternateday arrangement. When 1961, and Since current information was asked whether any change in scheduling was con- dearly needed, the Educational El.arch Service templated in their schools. 93.0 percent of the conducted a sn'4y of kindergarten programs and principalsindicatedthat presentschedule practices- in April 1985. Nationwide samples of wou!.i be maintained. both kindergarten teachers and elementary school In general, teachers tend to prefer the type of principals were contacted, with 1,228 principals schedule under which they are currently working. and 1,082 teachers responding. The results of the However, given the choice, there would be some two surveys are reported in the new ERS report shift toward full-day schedules. Of the half -day Kinds;vrten Programs and Practices in Public teachers, 58.5 percent would prefer to continue Schools (1986). Important highlights are summa this schedule while 77.1 percent of the full-day rized here. teachrs selected the full-day option. See page 332 for acknowledgment. 136 137 Kindergarten Programs and Practices and a specific sequence for each activity, although Preference for Teaching Schedules the "academic" program teachers are more likely to do so. Current Schedule Half- Full- Organization of the Daily Schedule Preference Total Day Day Focus of Half-day, every day 45.2% 58.5% 21.6% Program Full-day, every day 45.7 34.8 65.6 Total Acad. Prep. Full-day, alternate day 6.8 4.3 11.3 No response 2.2 1.4 1.3 Definite iime allotments and sequence for each activity 60.6% 68.8% 59.0% Activities in regular THE KINDERGARTEN ENVIRONMENT sequence; no definite time allotments 35.9 29.3 38.0 Full-day teachers report an average class size of Pupils move from one 24 pupils, with half-day teachers reporting an activity to another with average of 23 pupils in the morning sessions and no regular sequence/time 22 in the afternoon sessions. allotments 2.8 1.6 2.5 About four of every ten pupils, an average of 41 No response 0.7 0.3 0.4 percent of each class, have had a full year of day care, preschool, or nursery school experience before Teachers were provided with alistof nine kindergarten. A higher proportion (51 percent) of subjectareas and asked whether students were pupils living in the Northeast have attended school organized into small groups or taught as a class. before kindergarten, while 35 percent of those in Reading is the subject most likely to be presented Southeastern states have done so. Teachers in both insmall groups, with almost two-thirds (65.7 the Central and Western regions report averages of percent) of the teachers selecting this option. Music 41 percent. is the subject most likely to be presented to the Almost half (48.0 percent) of the teachers report class as a whole. Subject areas are ranked here on the availability of a paid teacher aide, although the the basis of the percentage of kindergarten teachers persoa might work part time. More of the full-day statingthat presentation of relatedmaterialis teachers (57.1 percent) than the half-day teachers made to small groups of students rather than to (43.1 percent) are assisted by a paid teacher aide. the dass as a whole. Of kindergarten teachers overall, 42.4 percent had neither a paid teacher aide, community or parent Subjects Presented to Small Groups volunteers, nor a student teacher during the 1984- 85 school year. Top. Percent Reading 65.7 THE KINDERGARTEN PROGRAiv; Mathematics 46.0 About six of every ten teachers (62.9 percent) Language Arts 39.5 Art 30.4 characterize the focus of their kindergarten pro- Science 23.5 gram as "preparation with a focus on academic Social Studies 17.3 readiness and social preparation for later school Health 13.6 ing," while another 29.0 percent state that the Physical Education 13.3 focus in their program extends beyond readiness to Music 6.7 particular academic skills and achievement. Child development ral,..t than academic achievement is the primary focus of 5.2 percent of the kindergar- LEARNING GOALS ten programs studied, while only 0.6 percent of Kindergarten teachers were asked about the de- the teachers classify their program as compensatory. gree of priority that they personally believe should Both teachers who classifytheir kindergarten be placed on particular learning goals for kinder- programs as "academic" and those who character- garten pupils. although teachers in both "academ- ize them as "preparation" report that their daily ic" and "preparation" programs consider language schedules include both definite time allotments development as the most critical goal, there is 137 PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS some variation between the two groups as to their PARENTS OF KINDERGARTEN PUPILS tendencies to classify other goals as having "high priority."Inparticular,the goal of academic Principals were asked about the types of activi- achievewent is considered a high priority by 59.2 ties used to involve parents in the kindergarten percent of respondents teaching in "academic" program. Parent/teacher conferences were reported programs, while only 36.1 percent of the respon- as the most likely vehicle for encouraging parental dents in "preparation" programs classify the goal involvement, with home visits used by one-fifth of this way. On the other hand, teachers in "prepara- the schools. tion" programs are mche concerned than teachers in the "academic" group with development of health/safety habits, physical/motor coordination, Activities Used to Involve Parents and personality. The "high priority" percentages are presented below for kindergarten teachers in Activity Percent general as well as those in "academic" and "prep- aration" programs. Parent/teacher conference 96.4 Parent /teacher association meeting 79.5 Pre - registration programs 75.3 Parents' newsletter 71.4 "High Priority" Learning Goals Classroom observation 65.7 Focus of "Back to School" night 49.3 Program "Parent as Aide" program 41.5 Home visits 20.0 Total Acad. Prep. Language development .. 92.8% 91.1% 93.7% Social development 89.2 79.6 93.5 Principals were also asked about the methods Emotional development . 82.9 74.8 86.5 used to evaluate student progress or growth in Self-discipline 80.5 79.9 81.6 Development of work/ written reports to parents, with respon)ents per- study habits 67.7 72.6 67.4 mitted to select more than one method. Used most Physical coordination/ often is a checklist of progress toward learning motor development .. 67.1 60.2 70.5 objectives (77.1 percent), followed by anecdotal Development of health/ comments (42.1 percent), ungraded--satisfactory or safety habits 58.6 49.4 63.1 unsatisfactory (36.6 percent), lam: grades (10.2 Personality development 54.3 45.5 58.6 Academic achievement.. 41.0 59.2 36.1 percent), and percentage grades (0.7 percent). Artistic expression 39.5 34.1 40.4 Almost two-thirds (63.9 pc-cent) of the princi- pals report that the results of teacher-parent con- ferences are taken into account when making pro- The two groups of teachers also differ in their motion decisions at the end of the year. This opinions about the appropriate approach to teach- factor, though, is considered less significant than ingreading/readingreadinessinkindergarten. either the teacher evaluation or the student's gen- About the same proportion of each group concurs eral performance in kindergarten. that "reading skills should be taught if readiness/ ability is shown, but not stressed for other pupils" PROBLEMS OF KINDERGARTEN ( "academic" :63.1 percent; "preparation" :61.4 TEACHERS percent). But 17.5 percent of teachers in "academ- ic" programs-and only 4.0 percent of the "prep- Kindergarten teachers were asked about factors aration" group--feel that r'ding skills should be that keep them from teaching kindergarten as they taught to all kindergarten pupils. Almost a third would like to teach it. Ranked first on the list is (32.0 percent) of the "preparation" group agree "lack of time for individual instruction and guid- that "all students should be prepared for reading, ance," which 57.9 percent of the teachers consider with the teaching of reading to begin in first a major problem. This is followed by "too many grade"; only15.6 percent of the "academic" students per class," and "too much paperwork/ group select this option. None of the "academic" lack of planning time." Full-day teachers were group and only 0.3 percent of the "preparation" more concerned than their half-day counterparts group feel that both preparation for reading and about the problem of too many students per class the teaching of reading skills should be excluded and too much paperwork/lack of planning time, from the kindergarten curriculum. with the reverse true for'limited time for enrich- 138 1.19 Kindergarten Programs and Practices ment activities" and "lack of time for individual In addition to these data, other topics in the instruction/ guidance." Listedherearethefive ERS survey include use of a reading/readiness factors receiving the highest"major problem" series, use of equipment in the classro...m, screen- percentages. ing and admission practices, freqaency of standard- ized testing, retention and advancement policies, Major Problems of Kindergarten Teachers financial aid, ani administration of programs. The fullsurveyreport,Kindergarten Programs and Teaching P-actices in Public Schools,... provides a contem- Schedule porary account of current kindergarten programs Half- Full- and practices in the public schools. Total Day Day Lack of time for indi- vidual instruction/ guidance 57.9% 60.9% 52.6% Too many students per class 52.3 49.6 57.6 Too much pap:rwork/ lack of planning time 39.1 36.9 43.4 Limited time for enrich- ment activities 38.9 46.0 25.8 Lack of ttacher aides. 34.4 35.9 31.8 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS I.What are the typical patterns for kindergartens in the United States? 2. What do teachers report as the purpose of the kindergarten? 3. What is taught and how are the programs organized? 4. How are parents involved in the oliion's kindergartens? 5. What are thr typical problems faced by kindergarten teachers? 139 31. NAEYC POSITION STATEMENT ON DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE IN THE PRIMARY GRADES, SERVING FIVE- THROUGH EIGHT-YEAR-OLDS The current trend toward critical examination of ment. However, ensuring developmentally appro- our nation's educational system has recently in- priate practice in primary education requires the cluded concerns about the quality of education efforts of the entire group of educators who are provided in elementary schools (Bennett,1986; responsible for planning and implementing curric- Office of Educational Research and Improvement, ulumteachers, curriculum supervisors, principals, 1986). Concerns have been raisedbecause,in and superintendents. At the same time, ensuring response to calls for "Lack to basics" and im- developmentally appropriate practice is the profes- proved standardized test scores, many elementary sional obligation of each individual educator. No schools have narrowed the curriculum and adopted professional should abdicate this responsibility in instructional approaches that are incompatible with the absence of mutual understanding and support current knowledge about how young children learn of colleagues or supervisors. This position rate- and develop. Specifically, rote learning of academic ment is intended to support the current appropri- skills is often emphasized rather then active, expe- ate practices of many primary-grade programs and riential learning in a meaningful context. As a to help guide the decisions of administrators so result, many children are being taught academic that developmentally appropriate practices for pri- skills but are not learning to apply those skills in mary-age children become more widely accepted, context and are not developing more complex supported, and followed. thinking skills like conceptualizing and problem Curriculum derives from severalsources:the solving (Bennett, 1986). child, the content, and the society. The curriculum The National Association for the Education of in early childhood programs is typically a balance Young Children (NAEYC), the nation's largest of child-centered and content-centered curriculum. organization of early childhood educators, defines For example, good preschools present rich content early childhood as the years from birth through age in a curriculum thatisalmost entirely child- 8. NAEYC believes that one index of the quality centered. As children progress into the primary of primary education is the extent to which the grades, the emphasis on content gradually expands curriculum and instructional me.hods are develop- as determined by the school, the local community, mentally appropriate for children 5 through 8 years and thesociety. The challenge for curriculum of age. The purpose of this position statement is to planners and teachers is to ensure that the content describe both developmentally appropriate and in- of the curriculum is taught so as to take optimum appropriate practices in the primary grades. This advantage of the child's natural abilities, interests, position statement reflects the most current knowl- and enthusiasm for learning. edge of teaching and learning as derived from theory, research, and practice. This statement is DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING intended for use by teachers, parents, school ad- IN PRIMARY-AGE CHILDREN ministrators, policymakers, and others who make decisionsabout primary grade educational programs. Integrated Development and Learning In order to provide developmentally appropriate BACKGROUND INFORMATION primary education, it is essential to understand he development that typically occurs during this pTti- Classrooms serving primary-age children are typi- od of life and to understand how 5- through 8- cally part of larger institutions and complex educa- year -old children learn. We can then derive princi- tional systems with many levels of administration plesofappropriatepracticeforprimary-age and supervision. Classroom teachers may have little children. One of the most important premises of control over the curriculum Of policies they imple- human development is that all domains of devel- See pages 332-33 for acknowledgment and references. 140 141 NYAEC Position Statement opmentphysical, social, emotional, and cogni- such a classroom, children learn reading as they tiveare integrated. Development in one dimen- discover information about science; they learn writ- sion influences and is influenced by development ing as they work together on interesting projects. in other dimensions. This premise is violated when Such classroomsalsoprovide opportunitiesfor schools place a great emphasis on the cognitive spontaneous play,recognizingthat primary-age domain while minimizing other aspects of chil- children continue to learn inallareas through dren's development. Because development cannot unstructured playeither aloneor with other be neatly separated into parts, failure to attend to children. all aspects of an individual child's development is often the root cause of a child's failure in school. For example, when a child lacks social skills and is Physical Development neglected or rejected by peers, her or his ability to work cooperatively in a school setting is impaired. During the primary years, children's physical As interest lags, the child's learning may also be growth tends to slow down as compared to the impaired, and she or he may become truant or extremely rapid physical growth that occurred dur- eventually drop out (Burton, 1987). The relevamt ing the first 5 years of life. Children gain greater principle of instruction is that teachers of young control over their bodies and are able to sit and children must always be cognizant of "the whole attend for longer periods of time. However, prin.:a- child." ry-age children are far from mature physically and Children's learning. IV,: development, is inte- need to be active. Primary-grade children are more grated during the early years. One of the major fatigued by long periods of sitting than by run- pressures on elementary teachers has always been ning, jumping, or bicycling.Physical actionis the need to "cover the curriculum." Frequently, essential for these children to refine their develop- they have tried to do so by tightly scheduling ing skills, like batting a ball, skipping rope, or discrete tune segments for each subject. This ap- balancing on a beam. Ecpressing their newly ac- proach ignores the fact that young children do not quired physical power and control also enhances need to distinguish learning by subject area. For their self-esteem. example, they extend their knowledge of reading Physical activity is vital for children's cognitive and writL4g when they work on social studies growth as well. When presented with an abstract projects; they learn mathematical concepts through concept, children need pli, sical actions to hell music and physical education (Van Deusen-Henkel them grasp the concept in much the same way that and Argondizza, 1987). The relevant principle of adults need vivid examples and illustrationsto instruction u that thmughout the primary grades grasp unfamiliar concepts. But unlike adults, pri- the curriculum should be integrated (Katz and mary-age children are almost totally dependent on Chard, in press). first-hand experiences.Therefore, an important principle of practice for primary -age children is Integration of curriculumisaccomplished in several ways. The curriculum may be planned that they should be engaged in active, rather than around themes that are selected by the children or passive, activities (Katz and Chard, in press). For by the teacher based on the children's interests. example, children should manipulate real objects For example, children may be interested in the and learn through hands-on, direct experiences ocean because they live near it. Children may work rather than be expected tosit and listenfor on projects related to the ocean during which they extended periods of time. do reading, writing, math, science, social studies, art, and music. Such projects involve sustained, Cognitive Development cooperative effort and involvement over several days and perhaps weeks. The learning patterns of primary-age children Integrated curriculum may also be facilitated by are greatly affected by the gradual shift from providing learning areas in which children clan preoperational to concrete operational thought, a and select their activities. For example, the class- major dimension of cognitive development during room may indude ".I fully-equipped publishing these years (Piaget,1952; Piaget and Inhelder, center,. complete with materials for writing, illus- 1969). Between 6 and 9 years of age, children trating, typing, and binding student-made books; begin to acquire the mental ability to think .rout a science area with animals and plants for observa- and solve problems in their heads because they can tion, and books to study; and other similar areas" then manipulate objects symbolicallyno longer (Van Deusea-Henkel and Argondizza, 1987). In always Iring to touch or move them. This is a 141 PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS major cognitive achievement for children that ex- projects that "provide rich content for conversa- tends their ability to solve problems. Despite this tion" and that teachers facilitate discussion among change in approach to cognitive tasks, however, children by making comments and soliciting chil- primary-age children are still not capable of think- dren's opinions an? ideas (Katz and Chard, in ing and problem solving in the same way as press). adults. While they can symbolically or mentally manipulate objects,it will be some time before they can mentally manipulate symbolsto,for Social-Emotional and Moral Development example,solve mathematical problems suchAs ad-!-nds or to grasp algebra. For this Children of primary-grade-age are becoming in- reason, primary-age children still need real things tensely interested in peers. Establishing productive, to think about. Accordingly, while children can positive social and working relationships with other use symbol:: such as words and numbers to repre- children dose to their age provides the foundation sent objects and relations, they still need concrete for developing a sense of social competence. Recent reference points. Therefore, a principle of practice research provides powerful evidence that children for primary-age children u that the curriculum who fail to develop minimal social competence and provide many developmentally appropriate materi- are rejected or neglected by their peers are at als for children to explore and think about and significant risk to drop out of school, to become opportunities for interaction and communication delinquent, and to experience mental health prob- with other children and adults.Similarly,the lems in adulthood (Asher, Hymel, and Renshaw, content of the curriculum must be relevant, engag- 1984; Asher, kenshaw, and Hymel, 1982; Cowen, ing, and meaningful to the children themselves Pederson, Babigian, Izzo, and Trost, 1973; Gron- (Katz and Chard, in press). lund and Holmlund, 1985; Parker and Asher, 1986). Research also demonstrates that adult inter- Young children construct their own knowledge vention and coaching can help children develop from experience. In schools employing appropriatc practices, young children are provided with many better peer relationships (Asher and Williams, 1987; Burton,1987). The relevant principle of challenging opportunities to use and develop the practice is that teachers recognize the importance thinking skills they bring with them and to identi- of developing positive peer group relationships and fy and solve problems thatinterest them.In provide opportunities and support for cooperative addition, appropriate schools recognize that some small group projects that not only develop cogni- thinking skills, such as understanding mathemati- tive ability but promote peer interaction. cal place value and "borrowing" in subtraction, The ability to work and relate effectively with are beyond the cognitive capacity of children who peers is only one dimension of the major social- are developing concrete operational thinking and so do not introduce these skills to most children emotional developmental task of the early school until they are 8 or 9 years of age (Kamii, 1985). 'rears the development of a sense of competence. Erikson (1963) describes this major developmental Children in the stage cf concrete operations challenge as the child's struggle between develop- typically :.Pain other skillsthat have important ing a sense of industry or feelings of inferiority. To implications for schooling (Elkind, 1981). Among develop this sense of industry or a sense of compe- thee is the ability to take another person's point of tence, primary-age children need to acquire the view, which vastly expands the child's communica- knowledge and skills recognized by our culture as tionskills.Primary-age children can engage in important, foremost among which are the abilities interactive conversations with adults as well as with to read and write and to calculate numerically. If other children and can use the power of verbal children do not succeed in acquiring the compe- communication, including joking and teasing. Re- tence needed to function in the world, they devel- search demonstrates that engaging in conversation op a sense of inferiority or inadequacy that may strengthens children'sabilities to communicate, seriously inhibit future performance. The urge to express themselves, and reason(Nelson,1985; master theskills of esteemed adults and older Wells, 1983; Wilkinson, 1984). Research also indi- children is as powerful as the urge to stand and cates that adults can help prolong and expand walk isfor1-year-olds. Yet when expectations children'sconversationsby making appropriate exceed children': capabilities and children are pres- comments (Blank, 1985). Therefore, relevant prin- sured to acquire kills too far beyond their ability, ciples of practice are that primary-age children be their motivarion to learn as well as their self- proviaed opportunities to work in small gruups on esteem may be impaired. A major cause of nega- 142 143 NYAEC Position Statement Live self-image for children this age is failureto INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES succeed in school, for instance failingto learn to AND APPROVJATE PRACTICES read "on schedule" or being assignedto the lowest ability math group. Knowledge of age-appropriate expectationsis At about age 6, most children begin to internal- one dimension of developmentallyappropriate ize moral rules of behavior and thus acquirea practice, but equally important is knowledge of conscience. Children's behavior often shows that what isindividually appropriate for the specific they find difficult to live with and by their new children in a classroom. Although universal and self-monitoring and that they need adults' assis- predictable sequences of human development ap- tance. Teachers and parents need to help children pear to exist, a major premise of developmentally accept their conscience and achieve self-control. In appropriate practice is that each child is unique appropriate dassrooms, teachers use positive guid- and has an individual pattern and timing of ance techniques, such as modeling and logical growth, as well as individual personality, learning consequences, to help children learn appropriate style, and family backts-ound. Children's sense of behavior,rather than punishing,criticizing,or self-worth derives in part from their experi- comparing children. In addition, teachers involve ences within the family. When children enter children in establishing and enforcing the few, school,their self-esteem comes to indude the basic rules necessary for congenial group living. school's opinion of their family. When children Sensitive teachers ask children what they think of sense that teachers respect and value their families, their work or behavior. The teacher pointsout how and respect the particular culturalpatterns by pleased the child must feel whena goal is accom- which their family lives, their own sense of self- plished. If achievement islacking, the teacher esteem and competence is enhanced. It is develop- empathizes with a child's feelings and solicits her mentally appropriate to view parents as integral or his ideas as to how to improve the situation. partnersintheeducationalpr 'cos.Teachers Children at this age. .1!so begin to makemore she'ald communicate frequently and respectfully accurate judgments about what is true and false with parents and wel ome them into the class- and to rigidly apply their newfound understanding room. Teachers need to recognize that cultural of rules (Elkind, 1981). Their newly formedcon- variety is the American norm and that children's sciences are often excessively strict. For example, abilities are most easily demonstrated through fa- they may treat every little mistake as a major miliar cultural forms (Hilliard,1986). crime, deserving of terrible punishment. Adults Enormous variance exists in the timing of indi- help children assess mistakes realistically and find vidual development thatis within the normal ways of correcting them. Children's developing range.Developmentally appropriateschools are consciences especially insist on fairness and adher- flexible in their expectations about when and how ence to rules. They closely observe adult infractions children will acquire certain competencies. Recog- so it is very helpful for adults to be fair and obey nition of individual differences dictatesthata rules. Sensitive teachers appeal to children'srespect variety of teaching methods be used (Durkin, for fairness and rules when itcomes totheir 1980; Katz and Chard, in press). Because chil- interactions with others or when it is necessaryto dren's backgrounds, experiences, socialization, and deny their requests, for example, "If I allowyou learning styles are so different, any one method is to do that, I would be unfair to the others and likely to succeed with some children and fail with you couldn'ttrustthat, some other time,I others. The principle of practice is that the youn- wouldn't also be unfair to you" (Furman, 1980, ger the children and the more diverse their back- 1987a, 1987b). grounds, the wider the variety of teaching methods Despite their increased independence and devel- and materials required (Durkin, 1980; Katz and oping consciences, 5-, 6-, 7-, and even 8-year-old Chard,inpress;Katz,Raths,and Torres, children still need supervision and the support of undated). trusted adults. As a result, children in thisage Developmentally appropriate schools are also group should not be expected to supervise them- flexible in how they group children. Rigid adher- selves in school or after school for extended periods ence to chronological age/grade groupings or abili- of time. Teachers and parents provide opportuni- ty groupings is inappropriate. For this reason, some ties for children to develop independence and schools provide ungraded primary or several alter- assume responsibility but should not expect prima- natives such as 2- or 3-year combination dassrooms ry-age children to display adultlevels of self- of 5-, 6-, and 7-year-olds or 6-, 7-, and 8-year- control. olds. Some schools recognize that many 8-year-olds 143 14 . PRESCHOOL PROGRAMS are developmentally more like 9- and 10-year-ohis dispositions toward learning and school that could and others more like 6- or 7-year-olds. Such corn last a lifetime (Elkind,1,187;Gottfried,1983; bination classrooms or rngraded primary schools Katz, 1985; Katz and Chard, in press). Disposi- provide a vehide for preserving heterogeneous tions arc "relatively enduring habits of mind and groups while also providing more time for children action,or tendencies to respond to events or to develop at their own pace and acquire early situations,"forexample,curiosity,humor,or literacy and mathematical skills. helpfulness (Katz and Chard, in press). Longitudi- nal research ina'icotes that curriculum and teaching Most children have individual, rusonal interests and needs just as adults do. Most children are methods should be designed so that children not motivated to learn by an ...ntense desire to make only acquire knowledge and skills, but they also acquire the disposition or inclination to use them. sense out of their world and to achieve the compe- tencies desired by the culture. Children are learn- Compelling evidence exists asserting that overem- ing all the time although they may not be learning phasis on mastery of narrowly defined reading and arithmetic skills and excessive drill and practice of the prescribed curriculum presented by the teacher skills that have been mastered threaten children's (Flkind, 1981). For example, some children learn quickly that they are not smart (in the eyes of their dispositions to use the skills they have acquired teacher) or that their ideas are unimportant; other (Dweck, 1986; Katz and Chard, in press- Schwein- children learn that they are not effective group hart, Weikart, and Lamer, 1986; Walbek 1984). members. The learning that takes place in the It is as important for children to acquire the desire to read during the primary grades as it is for them primary grades far exceeds the knowledge and skills designated in the written curriculum. Research to acquire the mechanics of reading. Similarly, it is (Covington, 1984; Stipek, 1984) shows that unless as important for children to want to apply math to they have a physical disability or illness or have solve problems as itis for them to know their been abused, preschool and kindergarten children math facts. are optimistic about their own powers and arrive at The primary grades hold the potential for start- school confident that they will achieve. They are ing children on a course of lifelong learning. Whether schools achieve this potential for children developing and acquiring skills so rapidly that they is largely dependent on the degree to which teach- naturally assume that what they cannot do today will be possible tomorrow (Hills, 1986). As chil- ers adopt principles of developmentally appropriate dren ,et older, they begin to understand the limits practice. The principles of practice described here of their own abilities and they also become more have historical roots that include Dewey's progres- aware of social comparison. In the normal course of sive education (Biber, Murphy, Woodcock, and Black, 1942; Dewey, 1899), and the open educa- development, children compare themselves to oth- ers favorably and unfavorably. This information tion movement of the 1960s (Barth, 1972; Weber, becomes part of their self-concept and can affect 1971). Although the principles are similar in many their motivation for activity. For example, children i istances to principles espoused by both those learn whether they are better at science or art or movements, this position statement does not advo- baseball and such learning influences life decisions. cate a return to practices of the pail but rather Unfortunately, when schools unduly rely on com- builds on previous experience and reflects the knowledge acquired inhe interim. Theory and petition and comparison among children,they hasten the process of children's own social compar- research regarding effective curriculum and instruc- tion have increased enormously in recent years and ison, lessen children's optimism about their own have contributed to our greater understanding of abilities and school in general, and stifle motiva- tion to learn (Hills, 1986). the teaching /learning process. This position state- ment reflects the most current knowledge of teach- During the early years, children are not only ing and learning as derived from theory, research, learning knowledge and skills, they are acquiring and practice. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Why is it necessary for a major professional organization to establish guidelines about appropriate practices in early childhood and the primary grades? 2. Do these recommended practices or standards restrict the innovative teacher or program? 3. What are the central principles of developmentally appropriate education? 4. Will these guidelines reduce or prevent poor quality or incorrect teaching of children in schools? 144 1 4 5 Section Five: The Curriculum for Young Children in School Editor's Overview 146 32.Joint Statement on Literacy Development and Pre-First Grade, prepared Fy the Early Childhood and Literacy Development Committee of the International Reading Association for ASCD, IRA, NAEYC, NALSP, NCTE 147 33.Writing in Kindergarten and First Grade, by Mary Renck Jalongo and Sally Zeigler 149 34. How Should Reading Be Taugnt in Kindergarten? by Patricia M. Cunningham 156 35."Success"ful Reading Instruction, by Carol J. George 157 36.Hispanic Books/Libros Hispanicos, by Isabel Schon 159 37.Learning Mathematics and Science Through Play, by Michael L. Henniger 162 38.Mont -ssori: Right or Wrong About Number Concepts? by Jerold P. Bauch and Huei-hsin Joyce Hsu 166 39.Theoretical Framework for Preschool Science Experiences, by Robert F. Smith 169 40.Music in the Early Childhood Curriculum, by Manny Brand and David E. Femie 174 41.Appreciate the Drawing and Dictating of Young Children, by Anne Haas Dyson 178 42.Encouraging Positive Social Interaction Among Young Children, by Dwight L. Rogers and Dorene Doerr Ross 187 43.Teaching with Less Talking: Learning Centers in the Kindergk.-m, by Barbara ICitnes Myers and Karen Maurer 192 44.Influences from the Past: Play in the Early Childhood Curriculum, by Margie L. Hardy :_id Laurie J. Greene 198 45.Leading Primary Education Toward Excellence: Beyond Worksheets and Drill, by Constance Kamii 201 17 i.' -&- `, t; EDITOR'S OVERVIEW One of the themes that appears in many of the reading methods in the kindergarten, and George chapters in this book is the integrated curriculum. explains one example of using many materials to Several authors have argued for reducing the artifi- help children read. Then, Schon provides a multi- cial divisions among content areas. But many spe- cultural dimension with a list of Spanish books for cialists in the field of early childhood education both Hispanic and non-Hispanic children. find it convenient to think about what the child will learn as separate categories of information and Just as there are many ways to help children skills. The ideal curriculum for young children in with their language development, so there are the schools is an integrated whole. The viewpoints different viewpoints about the learning of science, mathematics, and other content areas. In the next that follow in this section are individual pieces of group of chapters, Henniger shows how and what that whole; they use the traditional divisions of the instructional program for identity. children Itztn about science and mathematics as the y play. His focus is not on the factual content The complete answers to the questions "What but on the more generic aspects of learning, like should be taught and how will children learn?" curiosity and motivation. Bauch and Hsu compare are not intended to appear in these pages. Rather, the intention is to illustrate the rich diversity of the 80-year-old methodology of Maria Montessori theory and opinion about theearly childhood with more recent theory and research on how children actually acquire number concepts. Smith curriculum in the schools. The ideal pattern for gives the reader a well-documented framework for dealing with this diversity is to seek consensus on use in thinking about and planning science experi- broad guidelines, support them from research, 2.nd ences for young children. Brand and Femie do the thenencouragecreativityandexperimentation among all teachers. same for music as an often-neglected program element. And Dyson shows how children use draw- Although the acquisition of language begins at ing, talk, and dictation to communicate their ideas birth and never stops,the prodigioustask of communicating meaning takes place at a high rate to themselves and others. during the first years of school. The fast group of The final group of chapters re, ..,cent examples authors discuss literacy as the general goal and of different ways to accomplish the general goals of then concentrate on writing and reading. After a early education in the schools. One of the general long period of argument and difference of opinion goals is good socialinteraction;suggestions for about early literacy development, a coalition of fostering this goal are provided by Rogers and important professional organizations has sought Ross. Myers and Maurer choose the learning center and found consensus. It is presented in the posi- pattern for organizing the curriculum. Hardy and tion statement of the Early Childhood and Literacy Greene return us to the importance of play in the DevelopmentCommitteeof theInternational total development of the child. And Kamii, pro- Reading Association. Jalongo and Zeigler give vidingthejustification from Piagetiantheory, structure and ideas for helping children in kinder- makes it clear that there are correct and dead), garten and first grade to write. Cunningham offers incorrect ways to organize learning during the first a succinct answer to the general question about years of schooling. 32. JOINT STATEMENT ON LITERACY DEVELOPMENT AND PRE-FIRST GRADE prepared by the Early Childhood and Literacy Development Comm;.tcee of the International Reading Association for ASCD, IRA, NAEYC, NAESP, NCTE OBJECTIVES FOR A PRE-FIRST GRADE CONCERNS READING PROGRAM 1. Many pre -first grade children are subjected to Literacy learning begins in infancy. Reading and rigid, formal pre-reading programs with inappro- writing experiences at school should permit chil- priate expectations and experiences for their levels dren to build upon their already existing knowl- of development. edge of oral and written language. Learning should 2. Little attention is given to individual devel- take place ina supportive environment where opment or individual learning styles. children can build a positive attitude toward them- 3. The pressures of accelerated programs do not selves and toward language and literacy. For opti- allow children to be risk-takers as they experiment mal learning, teachers should involve childrenac- with language and internalized concepts about how tively in many meaningful, functional language language operates. experiences, including speaking, listening, writing 4. Too much attention is focused upon isolated and reading. Teachers of young children should be skill development or abstract parts of the reading prepared in w$. is that acknowledge differences in process, rather than upon the integration of oral language and cultural backgrounds and emphasize language, writing and listening with reading. reading as an integral part of the language arts as 5. Too little attention is placed upon reading wellasof the total curriculum. for pleasure; therefore, children often do not asso, ciate reading with enjoyment. 6. Decisions related to reading programs are often based on political and economic consider- WHAT YOUNG CHILDREN KNOW ABOUT ations rather than on knowledge of how young ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE BEFORE children learn. THEY COME TO SCHOOL 7. The pressure to achieve high scores on stan- dardized tests that frequently are not appropriate 1 Children have had many experiences from for the kindergarten child has resulted in changes which t:.cy are building their ideas about the in the content of programs. Program content often functions and uses of oral language and written does not attend to the child's social, emotional language. and intellectual development. Consequently, inap- 2. Children have a command of language, have propriateactivitiesthatdeny curiosity,critical internalized many of its rules, and have conceptu- thinking and creative expression occur all too fre- alized processes for learning and using language. quently. Such activities foster negative attitudes 3. Many childrencandifferentiatebetween toward communication skill activities. drawing and writing. 8. As a result of declining enrollments and 4. Many childrenare reading environmental reduction in staff, individuals who have little or no print, such as road signs, grocery labels, and fast knowledge of early childhood education are some- food signs. times assignedtoteach young children.Such 5. Many children associate books with reading. teachers often select inappropriate methodologies. 6. Children's knowledge about language and 9. Teacheis of pre-first graders who are conduct- communication systems is influencedbytheir social ing individualized programs without depending and cultural backgrounds. upon commercial readers and workbooks need to 7. Many children expect that reading and writ- articulate for punts and other members of the ing will be sense-making activities. public what they are doing and why. See page 333 for acknowledgment. 147 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN RECOMMENDATIONS 8. Present a model for students to emulate. In the classroom, teachers should use language appro- 1. Build instruction on what the child already priately, listen and respond to children's talk, and knows about oral language, reading and writing. engage in their own reading and writing. Focus on meaningful experiences and meaningful 9. Take time regularly to read to children from languageratherthan merely on isolatedskill a wide variety of poetry, fiction and non-fiction. development. 10. Provide time regularly for children's inde- 2. Respect the language the child brings to pendent reading and writing. school, and useit as a base for language and 11. Foster children'F. affective and cognitive de- literacy activities. velopment by providing opportunities to communi- 3. Ensue feelings of success for all children, cate what they know, think and feel. helping them see themselves as people who can 12. Use evaluative procedures that are develop- enjoy exploring oral and written language. mentally and culturally appropriate for the chil- 4. Provide reading experiences as an integrated dren being assessed. The selection of evaluative part of the broader communication process, which measures should be based on the objectives of the includes speaking, listening and writing, as well as instructional program and should consider each other communication systems such as art, math child's total development and its effect on reading and music. performance. 5. Encourage children's first attempts at writ- 13. Make parents aware of the reasons for a ing without concern for the proper formation of total language program at school and provide them letters or correct conventional spelling. with ideas for activities to carry out at home. 6. Encourage risk-taking infirst attempts at 14. Alert parents to the limitations of formal reading and writing and accept what appear to be assessments and standardized tests of pre-first grad- errorsas part of children's natural patterns of ers' reading and writing skills. growth and development. 15. Encourage children to be active participants 7. Use materials for instruction that are famil- in the learning process rather than passive recipi- iar, such as well-known stories, because they pro- ents of knowledge. by using activities that allow videthechildwithasenseof control and for experimentation with talking, listening, writing confidence. and reading. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are the main components of a good reading program for children before first grade? 2. Why do the guidelines include beginning with oral language? 3. Why do the recommendations not include traditional reading topics such as phonetics, word attack skills, and syntax? 148 1 4 u 33. WRITING IN KINDERGARTEN AND FIRST GRADE by Mary Renck Jalongo and Sally Zeigler When a kindergarten teacher instructed her stu- WHY EARLY WRITING? dents to print their names on their papers, one 5- year -old asked, "But what if I can't remember Young children are fascinated by words. Anyone how to make my name?" The teacher thought for who doubts that this is true should consider for a a moment and suggested, "Look on the front of moment an infant's delight at discovering "Bye - your crayon box, Angel. Your name is printed Bye" or the toddler's preoccupation with the pow- there and you can just copy it." The kindergartner er of "No!" Donald Graves (1983), a leading brightened arid to work diligently, with her authority on effective writing instruction, contends tongue turned up at the corner of her lips as a that: visible sign of intensive effort. After the teacher Children want to write.... They want to write the collected the girl's paper, she was surprised to sec first day they attend school. This is no accident. Before these words: "Angel Crayola Brown the Great they went to school, they marked up walls, pavements, American Crayon." newspapers, with crayons, chalk, pens, or pencils. The This situar'on illustrates two important points child's marks say "I am." "No, you aren't," say most school approaches to the about early writing: that young children will write teaching of writing. We ignore the child's urge to show if given the opportunity and that children's early what he knows.... Then we say, "They don't want to writing should be linked with their experience, write. How can we motivate them?" (p. 3) imagination and art. To do otherwise makes writ- ing a meaningless exercise. When educators are convinced that young chil- Children's writing, particularly young children's dren can be taught to write in developmentally writing, has been the focus of considerable atten- appropriate ways, then literacy programs in pre- tion in recent years (Schickendanz,1986). The school and 1st grade will flourish (Early Childhood recommendations of writing research are clear, yet andLiteracyDevelopmentCommittee,1985). only a small percentage of kindergarten and 1st- There areatleastthree important reasons for grade classrooms have implemented a writing pro- encouraging the writing efforts of young children: gram. Some reasons why thisis so include the following: 1. To Know Your Students Better 1. Much of the theory and research is in direct conflict with the traditions, curricula, methods and Writing is a form of self-expression. If you allow materials in use. children a period of time to talk, followed by time 2. Few teachers are adequately prepared to initi- to draw and write each day, their concerns, inter- ate a writing pr..,:ram with 5- and 6 -year -olds; thus ests and ideas will be represented in their work. they feelintimidated and perceive the risk of When a child draws a picture for you it is not failure to be great. unlike those comments often heard on the play- 3. Many educators and parents assume that be- ground: "Watch this. Look at me, teacher. I know cause young children cannot write perfectly, they how to do thiscan you?" Both in play outdoors should not write at all. and in play with words, the childisseeking 4. Administrative and community support for attention and appro.al through a display of com- early writing programs is often insufficient. petence. Here is what one kindergarten teacher This [chapter] will take a very practical approach who implemented an early writing project had to to initial writing instruction in kindergarten and say: 1st grade. Each of the issues outlined above will be In a busy classroom, writing was often the only time discussed in the process. I spent with one child alone. Looking into her face, See page333 for acknowledgment and references. 149 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN admiring her writwg, being there to listen and to help "I'm tired of doing this busy work, teacher. But I allowed rue to get to know each child. At writing. at will ty to do what you ask." Contrast this re- sharing, and at story time, they came to know meas a person who loved their writing and reading and books. sponse from young children with the results of (Von Reyn, 1985, pp. 34-35) Clay's (1975) research. She found that children often made lists of numbers, letters or woros that Role models are an important influence on early they knew without any prompting from adults. literacy. In observational studies of young children, This child behavior was called "spontaneously tak- adults who were engaged in writing behaviors such ing inventory" of knowledge (Clay, 1975; 'Temple as writing a check, making a grocery list or writing and Gillet,1984). Far too often, there islittle a letter were often the stimulus for children's early opportunity for children to take stock of their attempts to write (Calkins, 1980). Through exam- growth in literacy. At he end of the week, make ple, parents and teachers cm make the difficult ita proitice to review allthe work you have task of becoming literate seem like a worthwhile assigned to children. option to children. Before this can occur, adults Ask yourself How many authentic opportunities must value those wavy lines a young child describes for self-expression exist? Do most children com- as'a letter I wrote" more than the child's ability plete their work? What isthe quality of their to co:or "in the lines" (Atkins, 1984). Actually work? Do I encourage children's early attempts at those squiggles and lines, unusual designs and writing? arrangements, or invented letters and reversed let- ters are as fundamental to written language as the sounds a baby makes before learning spoken lan- 3. To Increase Teacher Motivation guage. When a baby makes sounds, adults respond to itas conversation; when a preschooler makes It would be difficult to imagine a teacher who marks on paper. we should respond toitas .ould view the job of correc:ing mounds of dittos writing. and workbook iy.tpers as anything but drudgery. As yourself How well do I know each of my These papers hold no surprises, just right or wrong students? Does the classroom create an environ- answers, neat or messy work. When children's ment for literacy, one that is full o: experiences original work is being reviewed, just the reverse is with the language arts? f' rn I modeling the liter ,cy trc.e.The firstthing you notice about young behaviors I want to see in young children? children's drawings is that no one other than a child could have possibly done them. If adults try to draw or write like children, their forgeries are 2. To Increase Student Motivation easy to detect b _cause me freshness and vitality of children's work is so difficult to replicate. Even an A mother who was concerned about her 5-year- artist as celebrated as Picasso realized this. When old son's schoolwork started to chart his progress he was asked why his best work was done in later by keeping a folder for the papers he did in each years he replied, "Once I drew like Raphael, but it subject. Within a few weeks, ti"Iders were filled has taken me a whole lifetime to learn to draw like with papers. Several dittos hap- ... repeated two children." or even three times. Often the purple copies were If teachers are cast in the role of imposing an blurry or faded. Instructions were sometimes hard inflexible curriculum on young children, then the to follow. On ont page, the wrong answer was to very things that prompted m,y teachers to go lx crossed out whi.e on another, the correct answer into education ar,ubverted. Most of us became WAS marked with an X. Even labeling items cor- edlitators of young children because we wanted to rectly was sometimes difficult. On one workbook Flay a significantrolein promoting children's page for initial consonants, the nictured object was development; we were intrigued by their thoughts, supposed to be a "tree "; on another, it had to be words and actions. Far too much of what teachers specifi- .".y named as a "pine" in order to be do today has pulled us away from those purposes correct. (jalongo,1986). An early writing program puts If a task is confusing, repetitive or boring, some teachers back in touch with what motivated them of the best students will do it badly to get it over to became early childhood educators in tne fast with.If a taskisinteresting,appropriate and place--an appreciation for children. challenging, most children will try to complete it. Ask yourself: When was the last time I enjoyed Messy worksomething that teachers often cc.rt- reviewing children's work? Does this curriculum plain aboutmay be the child's way of saying, reflect my personal philosophy of teaching? How 150 151 .1111111111M1 Writing in Kindergarten and First Grade can I rid my classroom of "busy work" and get pen better. Encourage children to experiment. back in touch withthechild'sthought and Remember that the kindergarten teacher's role imagination? isto"Listen thoughtfully tochildren,extend children's language about ideas and feelings, ask questions that encourage insights and highlight THE IC_IDERGARTEN contradictions, and promote and value creative, VrraITING PROGRAM divergent responses of 211 children (Moyer, Egert- son and Isenberg,1987).Circulate around the Practical issues in putting an early writing pro- room aschildren complete their writings and gram into practice include: introducing writing, drawings. monitoring progress and assessing program out- We found that especially during the first few comes.Suggestionsandproceduralguidelines weeks of kindergarten, labels (Figures 1 and 2) and follow. captions that were dictated by the child and then written by the teacher were a way to get the less confident child started (Figures 3, 4a, 4b, and 5). Introducing the Writing Activity Although purists of the process approach to writing might take issue with this strategy, it was a useful Begin by encouraging children to share ideas, mechanism for helping certain students "break thoughts, feelings and experiences (not toys or into print." While some children were writing other possessions). Both research on early literacy independently,"sounding out" the words and and daily experience with children verify the "pri- using invented sp-llings (Figures 6a and 6b), oth- macy of oral language." Stewig (1980) even states ers were using simple captions (Figure7). The itin the form of an equation 1>C >P. This particulars of learning to write vary considerably "formula" means that at any given point in the from child to child. The important thing is that sequence of language development, the child's young children are learning to communicate (Cal- ability to merely imitate language sounds tends to kins, 1983; Calkins, 1986; Lamme, 1984). be greater than his or her ability to comprehend language. Likewise, the ability to understand what others say tends to be greater than the ability r Monitoring Children's Progress actually produce language. Opportunities for chil- dren to prsc:tice spoken language, then, are the The children's "writing" can be anything that logical precursor of writing. resembles print:scribbles,inventedletters,real The transition frem class discussion to writing letters, or combinations of shapes, letters or nu- and drawing can be approached in several ways: merals. Any of these should be accepted by the Make a statement such as,"It sounds as teacher. though we have lots of things to draw and write The children's work will vary considerably. Some about. Now I will give you some paper so that you children, like Scott, will create a detailed story cr. draw and write." Promote the concept of a (Figure 8). After reading about this1st-grader's picture accompanied by writing, even if the writing trip to Dinosaur World, some teachers will imme- is a squiggle or a collection of letters. Remember diately point out that it contains errors. A better that children come to school believing they can way of looking atitisto consider how much write. To a child, writingis making marks on diagnostic information a teacher can obtain from paper. If necessary, the teacher can demonstrate this writing sample. It certainly reve 'Is more about using an overhead projector or chart (Pumas, thisboy's knowledge of language. than circled 1985). answers on a worksheet. Clearly, he knows that Distribute large pieces of paper to the chil- writing islinear, that there are spaces between dren. Recycled computer paper (torn into separate words, and that stories have a beginning, middle sheets) enables children to have an ample supply and end. Scott confidently uses phonetic spelling of writing paper. Next, allow the students to select to tac' difficult words like triceratops and kw,- a writing utensil from among many alternatives tosau. as. He has learned to use a period at the end pencils, crayons, chalk, ball-point pens, markers, of the sentence, so skill in punctuation is emerg- even typewriters and word processors if available. ing. Generally s; Acing, children become aware of Although itis often assumed that large pencils their error., and seek correction hout much adult without erasers are the best writing implement, interventic:n. Soon they will asking, "Is this some children can control a watercolor marker or how you spe" ?" or saying things like, "I 151 imarwur Figure 2 Figure 1 Figure 3 Figure Alb Figure Ala 152 153 .rndians rids in a came lb 9g1. 41sth. Each Indtla has a horse 4. rids. Figure 5 Figures 6a & 6b Figure 8 Figure 7 153 ME CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN wrote this before I knew about ing" (Bissex, participate in establishing these guidelines, they 1980). Emphasizing errors has the same effect on a will be more likely to understand and follow them. child as it does on an adult. If you have just If the wordconferenceisused right away to prepared a cake for the first time and it is basically describe teacher-child interaction, children will un- good, having a pastry chef critiqueitsflavor, derstand and use the terminology correctly. texture, color and appearance will only discourage After children have produced severalstories, you from baking. When so many things are right, they can choose their favorites to publish. The why bombard a beginner with minor flaws? child author then shares his or her book by sitting Maintaining an attitude of "play with words" on a special story chair, reading the book aloud throughout an early writing program is important. and showirg the pictures to the group. At this For many 5- and 6-year-olds, "There is ni plan- point, the teacher's role is t ) be master of ceremo- ning, and there is no goal ... writing, like play, is nies and member of the audience. The audience present tense" (Calkins, 1980, p. 209). rive- and applauds when the stoL is compleu: and the child 6-year-olds should be encouraged to play with rakes the book home The program continues in language for some of the same reasons they are this way with children becoming increasingly inde- encouraged to us: clay and paints. If we push pendent writers and readers (Bromley, 1985). Note young children towrite"correctly" and draw that speaking and listening skills of all the children representationally, their enthusiasm and originality are being developed as well. Teachers can use suffer. Al too soon, the young artist's fresh inter- children's literature, group stories, field trips or pr-tationt, of trees and birds become overgrown mood music to stimulate other types of writing. lollipops and capital V's. An emphasis on doing Over the couhe of the school year, the children's things one "right" way (the adult's way) has the writings and drawings produce an impressive docu- same adverse effects on writers. Then the proud, mentation of their growth in literacy. confident child who believed he or she could write and draw most anything refuses to try with com- Program Outcomes ments such as, "I don't know how" or "It might not look right."Ideally,the writing program The writing program described here was one should build children's confidence and compe- teacher's init: al effort to become a decision-maker, tence, not only in writing but also in speaking, to achieve greater professional autonomy and to listening and reading. revise the curriculum based upon knowledge of child development. Colleagues, administrators and parents were impressed, both by the quality and Procedural Guidelines quantity of the children's work. The children were enthusiastic about writing too. Perhaps the best Writing should be an integral part of each day. endorsement of the program Caine from the chil- If finding the time is a problem, try dispensing' dren themselves after an unexpected change in the with any nonessential work and replacing it with daily schedule. The class was in the mid!* of writing as often as possible. After the first writing writing when the teacher announced that it was session, write down a few simple rules. If children time for recess. After an audible groan from the Conferencing Guidelines For Children for Teaches 1.Talk quietly. 1.Kneel beside the child rather than towering above him or her. 2.Don't interrupt someone 2.Remember that it is the child's story. Rather than giv- else's conferenc ing too many suggestions, tell a child who is still thinking that you will come back later. 3.Raise your hand to let the 3.Encourage children to selfevaluate rather than be- teacher know you want a coming overly dependent upon the teacher's conference. assessment. 154 Writing in Kindergarten and First Grade children,the teacher said, "You will have to are not frosting at all, but the fountainhead of human deciderecess or writing?" "Writing!" the class experience? (pp. 149-150) replied. if Angel had been in this class, she too could have learned to write. Unfortunately for her, literacy is basic, not because it is connected with she was in a classroom where the riven for simple, the traditional "three R's," but because it has art correct answers had overruled teacners' and stu- and imagination at its source. If children are to dents' creativity. Rollo May (1975) contends that become literate ir. the fullest sense of the word, being creative takes courage. He also views creativ- then the connections among each child's mai- ity as the ultimate basic: ence, imagination, art and curriculum must be In out day of dedication to facts and hard-headed fully forged. A writing prot,ram in kindergarten objectivity, we have disparaged imagination. .. art and and 1st grade is one important way of combining imagination are often taken as the "frosting" of life these essential elements and promoting the young rather than the solid food. What if imagination and an child's development. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Why have so few teachers used writing programs in early childhood education? 2. What is the role of writing in the development of self-expression? 3. How does drawing relate to a beginning writing program? 4. Why are teachers' listening skills important while helping children become creative writers? 155 34. HOW SHOULD READING BE TAUGHT IN KINDERGARTEN? by Patricia M. Cunningham The issue of reading instruction's place in kin- literacy, shows that children who come from homes dergarten classrooms sparks immediate and often in whirl reading and writing are promoted and emotional response from supervisors, administra- valued begin reading before they come to school. tors, teachers, and parents. Those wno are against In addition to being read to, these children have reading in kindergarten argue that most five-year- "pretend reading" experiences with favorite books olds are not ready for it and that the primary in which they figure out how reading works, learn responsibility of kindergartens is to develop social, to track print, and grasp some important words. physical, conceptual, and language al ilities. The They also have picked up many words such as advocates point out that many childreare ready, "McDonald's" and "Pepsi" from the logo print especially those who have attended preschool pro- in their environment. The other distinguishing grams that teach sonic traditional kindergarten characteristic of children who come to school ready skills. to read is that they usually have experimented with A common compromise is to begin instruction writing by copying words and inventing spellings. with children who are ready and no push the The research appears clear that young children others. This seemingly simple solution is difficult if chose home experiences immerse them in reading not impossible to carry out in practice. First, the and writing become successful school readers (Teale decision as to which kindergarten children are nd Sulzby 1986). prepared is a complex one. Many children who can Reading should be taught in kindergarten in a indeed begin reading are unable to complete the way that closely mirrors the natural reading and traditional workbook and skill sheet assignments writing experiences fortunate children have before that are part and parcel of most beginning pro- entering school. In classrooms in which shared grams. They often have six-year-oldbrains but reading of big books, language experience, writing five-year-old attention spans. Second, once parents with invented spellings, and word banks are a large realize that their child is not in a reading group, part of daily instruction, the decision of which they exert tremendous pressure on teachersto children are ready and which are not does not have begin instruction prematurely. Third, carrying out to be made. Children who come to school lacking reading instuction with children who are ready readiness develop it by being immersed in reading leaves teachers little time and energy for planning and writing. Those who come to class ready or and conducting crucial readiness activities ft); the actually reading continue their growth as they learn other students. large numbers of words and letter-sound associa- A more appropriate question than, Should read- tions through shared reading and writing experi- ing be taught in kindergarten?is, How should ences. For an excellent discussion of kindergarten reading be taught in kindergarten? A whole body activities that follows this approach and further of research under the umbrella term, emergent readings on this topic, see Mason and Au (1986). DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How do the differences among children influence how to approach reading in the kindergarten? 2.Is there a common-sense approach to reading with young children in kindergarten? 3. What is the influence of the home on reading readiness? See pages 333-34 for acknowledgment and references. 156 157 35. "SUCCESS"FUL READING INSTRUCTION by Carol J. George Nothing succeeds like success, or so we've been LANGUAGE EXERCISES told. This is apparently .rue in three kindergarten, three first grade, and two second grade classesat In the Success program, reading and writing go 7'..-tce Terrace School, a K-2 school for children of hand in hand, one reinforcing the other. Each day military personnel stationed at Fort Jackson, South children are involved in the creation of some type Carolin-. These children, who are of many differ- of written composition. Language comes from the ent races, abilities, and backgrounds, are taught child's experiences and is used to foster writing using the Success in heading and Writingpro- skills while reinforcing those is reading. In the gram, one of the few eclectic approaches to teach- primary grades children begin the year writing ing reading. The Success program, developed by short sentences or paragrphs. By the end of the Anne Adams and others at Duke University in the year, they are composing stories of four to five late'70s,stems from the belief that children paragraphs. Concepts are taught when they are should be taught to read and write using the needed and in a meaningful context. materials they will rely on later in life. iteading and writing go hand in hand in the program, and children have the opportunity to do both duringa MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESS daily two-hour period. The Success program relies heavily on the children's use of language and the There are tight distinctive characteristics of the establishment of a good experiential background Success in Reading and Writing program. before any reading or writing instructionever 1. There is no predetermined sequence of skills, starts. although skills are emphasized in all modules. The This is the program's sixth year at Pierce Terrace timing for teaching certain skills is often generated and results have indeed been satisfying. Basedon within the momentto extend pupils' social, psy- scores on the Metropolitan Achintment Test given chological, and mental perspective at the optimal in September and May each year, classmeans have point in the learning process. risen from 1.9 to 4.0 in one second grade ciass, and from 2.0 to 4.2 in another. On the Compre- 2. Sight words arc not taught from isolated hensive Test of Basic Skills, children in Success lists, but as they appear in a sentence or paragraph lasses have repeatedly placed at the 70thto 80th and in a meaningful context. percentile in language And reading. 3. Verbal communication plays an important Particularly impressive in these classes have been role in children's understanding. Word meanings the performances of children who speak Enlishas -e taught as they are volunteered by students in a second language. Some of these students, who their own phrases or sentences. could not score at the beginning of theyear, 4. Students' vocabulary is displayed on a chart, scored at 2.5 and 4.2 at the end. Theprogram is a key clement of the Success program and an excellert in meeting the needs of all children, but identifiable feature of a Success classroom. most important, in developing in them a positive 5. Students begin with words they already know self-concept and the desire to learn. and proceed to learn words volunteered by others in the classroom or found somewhere in print. This WORKBOOK ACTIVITIES freedom to learn to read and write an unlimited and uncontrolled vocabulary is another feature of In the Success program, 90 pc...centof the the program. child's allotted reading timeis spent in actual 6. Students get off to a successful start because reading and writing. Because many activities found they are not afraid of failure. in workbooks are of dubious value in learningto 7. Small groups are formed from time to time, read (Anderson 1985), workbooks arenot used. but never on the basis of ability Inds, and are See page 334 for acknowledgment and references. THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN maintained only until predetermined objectives are challenging and rewarding experience for students. realized. Administrators find the Success program cost 8. Students' positive self-concepts develop from effective. No workbooks, ditto masters, vocabulary successful endeavors in reading and writing. charts,or basal readers are required since the materials needed in the program are readily avail- By the end of the primary grades students have able. Subscriptions to several magazines and the been exposed to a wide variety of printed materials daily newspaper and a well-stocked library fill the and have composed various types of written com- bill for supplies. Monies previously spent on read- munication. Most important, they have been given ing kits and materials can be used more effectively the opportunity to feel good about themselves in other area.. because they have been successful. Success in Reading and Writing gives every child Success is a strong program for teachers as well. the opportunity to succeed every day.Itis an It capitalizes on their expertise and ingenuity by exciting and challenging prob.= for both teacher asking them to develop a skeletal outline into a and student. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are the best sources and materials for helping young children become successful readers? 2. How does a suc,.....s-oriented reading program affect the achievement of the children? 3. What are the critical elements of success for a kinderganen/primary grade reading program? 158 -i.1 r-' . "d 36. HISPANIC BOOKS/LIBROS HISPANICOS by Isabel Schon Hispanic childre., in the United States need to country, over the ocean, over snow-capped moun- be exposed to a wide variety of booksin English tains, and on a tree. The striking illustrations will and Spanishthat they can understand and enjoy attract children's attention. if they are to become lifelong readers. Enoubh has been written recently about the importance of Aprendiendo las figuras. [Learning Shapes]. Illus- enjoying books with even the youngest children if trated by Carlo A. Michelini. 1985. Madrid: Edaf. we want them to learn to love reading that the fact 24 pp. ISBN 84-7640-004-7. will not be documented yet again in this [chapter]. Sturdy board pages,spiralbinding,cutouts, Much has also been written over the years about colorful illustrations, and a rhyming text encourage the importance of including multicultural materials chin: hen to touch and become acquainted with the and experiences in every early childhood program principalshapesthatsurroundthem:circles, to teach about diversity. Incorporating into your squares, and triangles. This toy book will take lots program materials and experiences about a culture of touching by eager little hands. and language specific to one of the children in your dass can boost that child's self-esteem. La alacena [The Cupboard] (ISBN 968-39 -0050- This [chapter] is essentially [an] annotated bib- X); El amigo [The Friend] (ISBN 968-39-0049-6); liograph[y]... alist of good recently published El bebe [The Baby] (ISBN 968-39-0051-8); La books in Spanish for young children. Through coka [The Blanket] (ISBN 968-39-0048-8); El resources such as these,readers in the United conejo [The Rabbit] (ISBN 968-39-0046-1); La States can understand and appreciate the beauty escuela [The School] (ISBN 968-39-0J47-X); El and variety of Hispanic culture and language. perro The Dog] (ISBN 968-39-0045-3) written and illustrated by John Bumingharn. (Serie Pre- Escolar Bilingue). 1984. Mexico City: Editorial Pa- GOOD CHILDREN'S BOOKS IN SPANISH ula. 20 pp. each. This charming series about a little boy's experi- Spanish-speaking children in the United States ences at home and at school was originally pub- needto be exposedtoattractive,well-written lished in England in 1974. Simple pastel illustra- books that they can read for recreational, informa- tio:.; and an easy-to read bilingual (Spanish and tional, or educational purposes. Unfortunately, the English) text show a curious little boy exploring a selection of books in Spanish for young readers in kitchen cupboard and telling about his friend the United States leaves much to be desired. Many Arthur, a new baby at home, his favorite blanket, books arc either dull, moralistic stories that bore his black rabbit, a neighbor's dog, and a day in young children with their affected plots and sac- school. The ingenuous illustrations and common- charine characters, or uninspired "bilingual books" place situations described should make this series that pretend to teach young children to read in of special interest to the very young. Some adults two languages. The following, however, are recent might object to the small size (6" x 6") of these books for preschoolers and children in primary publications and to the British spelling in the grades published in Spain, Mexico, and Argentina English text. that are likely to delight young Spanish-speaking children. La casa de osito [Teddy's House] (ISBN 84-372-8001-X); La comae; de cub[Teddy's El niio y el globo [The Boy and the Balloon] Dinner] (ISBN 84- 372 -8022- 8); El jara'in de osito writtai and illustrated by Francisca Altamirano. [Teddy's Garden] (ISBN 84-372-8003-6); Los ju- 1985. Mexico Ci.: Editorial Trillas. 12 pp. ISBN guetes de osito [Teddy's Toys] (ISBN 84 -372- 968-24-1845-3. 8000-1) written and illustrated by Michelle Cart- v--)rdless picture book that shows a boy and his lidge. (Libros Para Hablar). 1985. Madrid: Edi- big blue balloon in the city, in the sky, in the ciones Altea. 14 pp. each. See page 334 for acknowledgment and suggestions for further reading. 159 I 6u THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN The very young will enjoy these attractive board Translated from the German by Carmen Seco. books with appealing illustrations and simple vo- 1984.Madrid:Espasa-Calpe.77pp.ISBN cabularies of items well known to children. A 84-239-2823-3. lovableteddy bearintroduces childrentohis Two young bears live with Mama Bear in a cave house, his food, his garden, and his toys. in the forest. On warm days they leave their cave to explore the forest. They lektsi to climb trees, & navidad, Teo [It's Christmas, Teo] by Violeta fish, fight, and look for food. Upon the arrival of Denou.1985. Barcelona: Timum Mas.10 pp. spring, they say good-bye to Mama to search for ISBN: 84-7176-666-3. their own place in the forest. (.1ende black-and- Colorful illustrations on sturdy cardboard pages white line illustrations of bears in the forest exqui- depict happy scenes related to Christmas. This sitely complemen. the text. wordless picture book shows children with Santa Claus, setting up a nativity scene, talking to a wise En casa de los abuelos [At Grandparents' House] man, opening their gifts, and removing the deco- (ISBN 84-261-2065-2); Nuestro perro [Our Dog] rations from the Christmas tree. Hispanic Christ- (ISBN 84-261-2066-0); La virita [The Visitor] mas celebrations are simply presented in this at- (ISBN 84-261-2067-9) by Helen Oxenbury. Trans- tractive, durable book. Other "Teo" titles are: Teu lated by Concertida Zendrera. (Los Libros del come [Teo Eats], Teo juega [Teo Plays], Llueve, Chiquiti .1984. Barcelona: Editorial Juventud. 18 Teo [It Is Raining, Teo], and Los animates de Teo pp. ca,:a. [Teo's Animals]. Charming pastelillustrations and easy-to-read texts describe happy moments in the life of chil- El mono celeste [The Blue Ribbon] 'written and dren. En casa de ler abuelos tells about a little illustrated by Martha Fracchia. 1985. Buenos Aires: girl's weekly visitsto her grandparents'"rouse. Editorial Plus Ultra. 26 pp. ISBN 950-21-0701-1. Some readers may object tr some stereotypical Lolita is delighted with her blue ribbon tied views of older people, such as Grandmother knit- into a bow. She wears it on her hair and sings and ting and wearing house slippers, and Grandfather laughs. One day the ribbon escapes and, even riot being able to crawl out from under a table. though Lolita tries very hard to catch it, the ribbon This is, nonetheless, a warm story about a little disappears into the clouds. Finally Lolita finds her girl and her grandparents. Nuestro perro shows ribbon all dirty and wet. She washes it, puts it what happens when a little boy and his mother away for 2 days and then wears it happily again. take their dog out for a walk. La virita describes an Little girls will identify with Lolita's warm feeling embarrassing day for Mother as a result of an about her ribbon. Engaging watercolor illustrations unexpected visitor at home. of Lolita and her ribbon complement the story. Los abuelos [Grandparents] (Illustrated by Maria If elefante [Elephant Bathes] (ISBN 84- 7525 -336- Rius, ISBN 84-342-0526-2); Los jovenes [Young 9);El gorila [Gorilla Builds] (ISBN 84 -7525- People] (Illustrated by Carme Sole Vendrell, ISBN 331-8); La nutria [Otter Swims] (ISBN 84 -7525- 84-342-0524-6); Los mnos [Children] (Illustrated 334-2); El oso polar [Polar Bear Leaps] (ISBN by Maria Rius, ISBN 84-342-0523-8); Los padres 84-7525-333-4); Fl panda [Panda Climbs] (ISBN [Parents](Illustratedby Carme SoleVendrell, 84-7525-335-0);El tigre[TigerRuns] (ISBN ISBN 84-342-0525-4) by Josep Ma Parramin. (Las 84-7525-332-6) by Derek Hall. Illustrated by John Cuatro Edades). 1985. Barcelona: ParramOn Edi- Butler.Translated byPi lar Gomez Centurion. ciones. 30 pp. each. 1986. Madrid: Ediciones Genera les Anaya. 18 pp. This series teaches children about family mem- each. bers. The charming illustrations of middle-class Originally published by the World Wildlife Spanish grandparents, older brothers and sisters, Fund in 1984, this series relates simple adventures children, and parents in everyday activities and a of a young elephant, gorilla, otter, polar bear, simple text make this series a good introduction to panda, and tiger in their natural habitats. Delicate the family. pastel illustrations and easy-to-read texts show how these young animals ler.rn to survive with the help Donde viven los monstruos [Where the Wild of their parents. Things Are]. Written and illustrated by Maurice Sendak. Translated by Agustin Gervis. 1984. Ma- Erase una vex dos osos [The-e Were Two Bears] by drid:Ediciones Alfaguara.38pp.ISBN Hanna Muschg. Illustrated by Kithi Bhend-Zaugg. 84-204-3022-6. 160 161 Hispanic Books Sendak's award-winning Where the Wild Thing.; U.S. Dealers of Books in Spanish Are has been del'ghtfully translated for the Span- ish-speakingreader. Young readerswillenjoy Baker & Taylor Max's dream of going where the wild thirtgEare, Books in Spanish ruling them, sharing their rumpus, and finally, 380 Edison Way returning home where someone loves him. Reno, NV 39564 iQue hay detrals del abbot? [What's Belind That Bilingual Publications Co. Tree ?] by Leslie Williams. Illustrated by Carme 1966 Brozciway New York, NY 10023 Vendrell.TranslatedbyFabriciCaivano. 1985. Barcelona: Ediciones Hymsa. 24 pp. ISBN French and Spanish Book Corp. 84-7183-342-5. 652 Oive St. A boy and a girl are curious to know what is Lo:. Angeles CA 90014 behind a tree. They try to guess by imagining wild animals, monsters, soldiers, ballerinas, and other Hispania Books Distributors, Inc. things. Finally, they find each other.Striking, 1870 W. Prince Rd., Suite 8 simple illustrations add much interestto the story. Tucson, AZ 85705 Mi primer dUcionario ilustrado [My First Illustrated Iac.ni Book Imports Dictionary] by Concepcion Zendrera and Noe Ile 3030 Pennsylvania kve. Granger. 1984. Barcelona: Editorial Juventud. 24 San Francisco, CA 94107 pp. ISBN 84-261-0358-88. Lectorum Publications, Inc. One hundred and forty-eight Spanish wordsare 137 W. 14th St. included in this delightful dictionary foryoung New York, NY 10011 children. Simple, colorful illustrations andan easy- to-understand sentence explain the meaning of Pan American Book Co. each word. This is an excellent introductionto the 4326 Melrose Ave. Spanish alphabet for young children. Los Angeles, CA 90029 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Are Hispanic books only for Hispanic children? 2.Should the literature presented to young children be translated into English,even it it is about different cultures? 3. How does the use of Hispanic and other language books in early childhood classroomsrelate to bilingual education programs and issues? 161 37. LEARNING MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE THROUGH PLAY by Michatel L. Henniger Quality educational opportunities in science and systems used in mathematics and science. mathematics continue to be important priorities for Jerome Bruner (1972) effectively summarizes the children of all ages. A firm foundation in the value of play in learning as follows: areas is critical for many vocational options withtn Play appears to serve several centrally important func- our complex modem world. Young men and wom- tions.Firstitis a means of minimizing the conse- en with sound math and science understandings quences of one's actions, and of learning, therefore, in have many job opportunities and career choices a less risky situation.... Second, play provides an excel- lent opportunity to try combinations of behavior that unavailable to others. would, under functional pressure, never be tried. (p. Because of their importance, then, educators, 693) parents and others must focus on creative ways of By minimizing risks and opening the door to assisting children atalllevels to have positive experiences in science and mathematics. To be creative options, play becomes an exceedingly im- portant vehicleforlearninginscience and successful in these areas, children must be intro- mathematics. duced at an early age to experiences that lead to The following analysis of play and its impact on solid conceptual uncle -landings. In addition, chil- science and mathematics learning is divided into dren need to develop positive attitudes toward, two major sections. First, examples will be given of and an excitement for, mathematics and science learning opportunities in science and mathematics learning. These positive experiences can be success- available through children's play. The second sec- fully built upon as children proceed through the tion will deal with attitudes developed through educational system. play which are essential to effective learning in Childhood play provides many excellent oppor- these areas. tunities for learning fundamental concepts and developing appropriate attitudes toward these im- portant disciplines. Reflect for a moment upon the potential for learning inherent in a kindergarten LEARNING THROUGH PLAY sciencecenter. The teacher and children have Play is a very difficult concept to define ade- collected fall seeds and leaves. The science area is quately, primarily because of the broad number of organized to allow children to study, compare and activities commonly called play. Take, for example, contrast these treasures of nature. The play in- this imaginary dialogue between a mother and her vo!ved in collecting and analyzing these materials son from the work of Garvey (1977): provides an ideal opportunity for young children to Tom, I want to clean this room. Go out and play. learn about nature. Through the playful explora- What do you mean, "go out and play"? tion of meaningful materials from their local envi- You know what I mean. ronment, children begin to build important con- No, I don't. ceptual understandings. Well just go out and do whatever you do when you're having too much fun to come in to dinner. Consider a second situation in which preschool You mean toss the tennis oall against the garage? Finish children are playing outdoors, taking the roles of painting my bike? Practice standing on my head? Tease their favorite Smurf characters. Sticks, rocks and Andy's sister? ChL.k out the robin's eggs? (p. 2) dirt may symbolically become the ingredients of a marveious new recipe ro be shared among friends. Although a broad, amorphous term, play is This ability to manipulate symbols mentally in nonethelessanextremely powerfulvehiclefor play is a necessary foundation for later learning in learning. Picture the following situation with pre- many acade is areas. Children able to accept the school children playing outdoors: arbitrariness :-,C symbols in play are more readily Fifteen preschool children and two teachers are out- able to accept the arbitrariness of the symbol doors in the play yard. Four children are in the large See pages 334-35 for acknowledgment, references, and bibliography. 162 1(3 Learning Mathematics and Science sandbox playing with buckets, bottles, spoons, shovels With a little imagination, similar learning op- and an assortment of wheeled toys. One of the teachers and three children are digging in the garden plot in portunities in science and mathematics can be seen preparation for the spring planting of seeds. Two chil- in the other situations described in the playground dren have discovered an ant hill and areintently scenario. watching the activity there. Near the large storage shed These and other play situations provide excellent two more children are using colorful plastic building opportunities for young children to learn about the blocks to construct their version of a fort. Wheeled vehicles, always popular on preschool playgrounds, are world around them and to discover through excit- being ridden by two other children in a game of ing experiences many of the fundamental mathe- "follow the leader." Finally, two children are lying on matics and science relationships necessary for later the grass, staring at the sky and talking about the learning. "funny shapes" they see. Does play also serve an important role in the mathematics and science learning opportunities of Upon first glance, the casual observer would older children? Considerable evidence suggests that suggest that these children are having great fun, it does (ZammamIli and Bolton, 1977; Hartshorn but learning very little. A careful analysis of the and Brantley, 1973; Hutt and Bhavnani, 1972; situation, however. reveals much in the way of Humphrey, 1966). Picture the following example learning opportunities in science and mathematics. of a 3rd-grade classroom: Children in the sandbox are filling and emptying containers, pouring from one to another. They are Twenty-five children, the teacher and two parent experiencing the relationships involved in measur- aicl are busily worming in a classroom organized into ing volume. One child is counting the number of learning centers. After completing their required work, spoonfuls of sand required to fill his container. several children are playing together in the block corner, building an elaborate castle based on drawings from a This leads to a clearer understanding of the ordinal social studies unit. This week was designated "Share a relationships in our number system. Two of the Pet" week, and the -ience area contains fish, a gerbil, children are building a sand castle and are experi- rabbits, a dog and a cat. The games area has the ever encing difficulties with collapsing walls.Several popular chess, checkers, and Parcheesi games as well as procedures are tried until, finally, a combination some teacher-made games to reinforce multiplication facts. The mathematics center contains a variety of of sand and water provides the necessary consisten- commercial menipulatives and collections of "cn'uid" cy for durable walls. These children are practicing objects from children's homes. In the book corner, the important problem-solving skillscrucial tolater teacher hr.irefully selected and displayedseveral learnings in science and mathematics. books on animals and pet care. The teacher and children in the garden plot are having similar learning opportunities. Whena This enticing array of activitiesalso provides shovel of dirt uncovers two fat earthworms, the many opportunities for learning math and science. teacher and children take time to observe and Children in the science center are learning about discuss the life cycle and importance of worms. the animal world through observation, discussion Some plants from last year's garden remain and and hands. on experience with pets. The excitement children remove the seeds and sort them by size and interest generated through play can lead chil- and shape. As the dead plants are removed to dren to the book area to seek further information make room for the new garden, the teacher points about pets and their care. In the games corner out the root systems and discusses with the chil- children playing checkers and chess are thinking dren how plants get the nutrients needed for ahead and planning future moves. They are prac- healthy growth. ticing the use of complex mental symbols a 4 Fort construction provides further learning op- developing the ability to mentally visualize rela- portunities.As children select blocks of differelt tionships. These mental manipulations are similar lengths and shines zo use for walls and accessories, to those necessary for effective solutions to algebra- they discover through experience that two 12-inch ic equations or geometric proofs in future grades. blocks cover the same wall space as one 24-inch Other children, using the teacher-made games, are block. By laying a cylindrical solid ontop of a making th,!. rather dull task of memorizing multi- rectangular block, the child can visually compare plication facts into an exciting, motivating activity. the surface area and volume of each. Counting In the mathematics center itself, children are using opportunities abound. At the end of the play commercial manipulatives to help them gain "con- period,aschildren return the blockstotheir crete" understandings of complex mathematical storage area, children gain practice in classifying concepts. A parent aide helps one child visualize the blocks by shape. the concept of division with the use of Cuisenaire 163 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN Rods. Another child is learning about "base 4" the computer to play an educational game. After through the manipulatior. of Unifix Cubes. Playing several successful trials, the student becomes inter- includes a great deal of learning at this level as ested in the computer's reactions to wrong answers. well! To satisfy her curiosity, she playfully tries several Play is not the only avenue for learning during combinations of incorrect responses. This attitude the preschool and elementary school years. Chil- has allowed the student to learn more about the dren can and do learn a great deal from more computer's operation in a playful, nonthreatening structured, adult-directed activities. The play expe- atmosphere. rience is, rather, a unique opportunity to stimulate Curiosityisessential to effective science and interest and build concrete, real-world experiences mathematics learning. In science, for example, the upon which more complex, abstract !earnings in child who is curious about the similarities and mathematics and science can be built. Attitudes differences in birds from various local areas is the nece.,sary for effective learning in these areas are one who will read, discuss and discover new infor- also enhanced through play. mation about birds.In mathematics, the child learning division facts may become curious about the relationship between multiplication and divi- sion. Through the use of mathematics raanipula- ATTITDE DEVELOPMENT IN PLAY tives L play, the child can discover thit, important relationship. Curiosity provides the :motivation to Play creates a valuable atmosphere for learning. explore math and scientific phenomena for the By freeing the child to explore and ueate in a km- sheer joy of learning. risk situation, the child's natural curiosity, willing- ness to consider varying c)tions and motivation to learn are greatly enhanced. Divergent Thinking Curiosity A second attitude is enhanced through play: the willingness to engage in(livergent thinking. A A strong intellectual curiosityisessential for number of researchers (Liberman, 1965, Hutt and sound learning in science and mathematics. Albert Bhavnani, 1972; Pepler -and Ross, 1981; Johnson Einstein (1949),in an autobiographical sketch, 1976) have provided considerable evidence that a mach: the following statement: relationship between play and divergent thinking exists. It is in fact nothing short 3f a miracle that the modem Play provides many valuable opportunities for methods of instruction have not yet entirely strangled the licit curiosi4y of inquiry [emphasis added] .... It is divergent thinking. An 8-year old girl playing with a very grave mistake to think that the enjoyment of blocks may try several different combinations to see seeing and searching can be promoted by means of how many blocks can be stacked on top of each coercion and a sense of duty. (p.17) other without falling. The setting aside of judg- Einstein made two important points. First, children ments of right and wrong while playing allows her need to be curious about their world and how it to be original and productive as she generates works isorder to be productive thinkers. Second, solutions to this problem. This same child, having current methods of instruction are frequently unin gained confidence in using divergent thinking in teresting, unmotivating and therefore unsuccessful play, can apply similar strategies to other tasks. in stimulating curiosity. Children using divergent thinking in their play Play, on the other hand, encourages curiosity at are resea!thing possible solutions to specific tasks all levels of development. Take, f ,r example, the or problems. Play has been viewed as the highest young 3-year-old boy exploring with paint at the farm of research (Caplan and Caplan,197,.). A easel.Perhaps accidentally, he mixes blue and second quote by Albert Einstein (1954) highlights yellow paint on the paper and discovers that green this point: paint is the result. The child's curiosity is aroused ... The desire to arrive at logically connected colizepts and, in an atmosphere of operexploration, he is the emotional basis of this rather vague play.... This allows himself to try out a numl-er of color combi- combin.,ory play seems to be the essential feature in nations. His curiosity has led to in. ?ortant intellec- productive thought. (pp. 25.26) tual understandings at his level of development. As children playfully consider the options avail- Or consider the 11-year-old girl who sits down at able to them, they are enhancing their divergent 164 1 f3 5 Learning Mathematics and Science thinking skills and engaging in a form of research things in their world. Not only is this hands-on that can lead to important new insights. experience fun, it is '-xi.so hip ly motivating to the For both science and mathematics education, play participant. rote leamings ar-farlessimportant than the Clearly, this motivation to learn is important to playing around with ideas that occurs when chil- any educational endeavor. Without it, the task is a dren engage in divergent thinking. Throughout slow and difficult one. The fields of mathematics childhood,play providesdailyopportun: .yto and science are no exception. Students need the strengthen this important approach to learning. motivation tostrikeout with enthusiasm into unknown areas, seeking to learn and grow fre-o the rich experiences presented to them. Play helps Motivation to Learn nurture this attitude in many children. Mot:aung preschool children are naturally in- quisitive. They are eager to learn about themselves and the world around them. Tasks are approached TOMORROW'S CHALLENGE with enthusiasm and, contrary to popular belief, young children can spend relatively long periods of Those who wishto meet the challenges of time concentrating on their individual interests. tomon Av must be willing and able to adjust to Gradually, however, this motivation to learn de- change. Top-quality programs in science and math- creases in many children and sometimes dies com- ematics must go beyond the standardized lecture- pletely. The reasons behind this change are many demonstration format and strive to nurture chil- and beyond the scope of thi- [chapter]. A partial drentobecome creativeproblem-solvers. Jean remedy can e- offered, however. Piageteffectively summarizesthischallengeas Play serves as a powerful motivator for many follows: children. It is a vehicle for leai:1'4; that provides The principal goal of education is to create men who unique opportunities to strengthen interest and are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations have done... men who are motivation. One reasonor th;s is the fact that creative, inventive .rid discoverers. The second goal of play is freely chosen by the child. Having selected education is to form minds which can be critical, ran one of several available activities, the child feels verify, and not accept everything they are offered. The more in control, more ableto make decisions great danger today is of slogans,collective opinions, about the direction the play will take. No one has ready-made trends of d4- 0c. We have to be able to resist individually, to criticize, to distinguish between forced the activity upon the child and thus motiva- what is proven and what is not. So we need pupils who tion is high. are active, who learn early to find out by themselves, Play is also a process-oriented activity. The end partly by their own spontaneous activity and partly product is far less important than the process of through materials we set up for them. We learn early to actually playing. Failure, embarrassment and incor- tell what is verifiable and what is simply the first idea rect responses are infrequent in the play setting. to come to them. (21kind, 1981, p. 29) This builds self-confidence and motivates the child Childhood play provides numerous opportunities to engage in further play experiences. for creative responses to challenging issues. It en- Playishands-on activity where children are ables children to learn key concepts and develop learning by doing. Children in the play experience essential attitudes toward learning.Its value and are not passive observers, but rather actively en- importance to mathematics and science learning gaged in moving, manipulating and exploring should not be overlooked. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Why are early experiences important to later performance in math and science? 2. What are the theoretical rationales for science and math learning through play? 3. Which attitudes can be developed and influenced while children are at play? 4. How does play relate to the learning of science and mathematics? 165 38. MONTESSORI: RIGHT OR WRONG ABOUT NUMBER CONCEPTS? by Jerold P. Bauch and Huci-hsin Joyce Hsu When Maria Montezugi "invented" her methc: tens; and nurber 'rods for the series of natural for teaching the suer urchins from the slums of numbers one .o ten. Rome in the early 19t 0s, she showed remarkable Since Montessori was not encumbered with the insight into children's needs and unique ways to developmental theories of Jean Piaget, she believed help them learn. Montessori was truly a scientific that young children could learnquite abstract person, earning the En medical degree granted to concepts and operations in arithmetic at an early a woman in Italy and sti:dying such diverse fields age. Kohlberg (1968) indicated that the most as pedagogy, anthropology, and psychiatry. When distinctive features of Montessori's theory were her she was asked to develop a preschool program for emphases on classification, seriation, and one -to- the street childrer. of Rome, she made a quantum o le correspondence. On these points she was very jump forward in both instructional theory and close to the views presented later by Piaget. He teaching materials. considered number to be an example of logico- On the current early childhood education scene, mathematical knowledge and that the concept of hlth the Montessori theory and the related materi- number was a synthesis of class and asymmetrical als are of cort;nuing interest. Hundreds of Montes- relations.Piaget stressedclassification,seriation, sori preschool programs are in progress across the and one -to -one correspondence in the construction United States, and some Montessori methods have of number ce-cepts. He also thougnt that children been adapted to many other classrooms. The visitor built their cs acepts of number by reflective, or interestedin how young childrenlearn about mental, abstraction. But Montessori believed that mathematics will immediately be drawn to the very number concepts can be spontaneously learned and special materials designed by Montessori and used abstrarted through manipulating the didactic mate- in exactly the same way today. But was she right? rials in the preschool classroom. She was convinced Did she really understand how young children that children could actually learn the concept of acquire initial number concepts? ztro ? d do additive and multiplicative operations in the age range of three to six. Little change has taken place in the theory or the practice of Mon- MONTESSORI'S INSIGHT tessori education, and most Montessori preschool programs use the didactic materials in exactly the Between 1898 and 1900, Montessori was observ- same way as suggcs.cd by Montessori eighty years ing and teaching young children from the insane ago. asylums of Romc. Shc used a multisensoryap- proach to "awaken their dormant senses" (Montes- sori 1964) and made materials that would develop WHAT WORKS AND WHAT DOESN'T? a deep understanding of mathematic,. In the first Montessori school, opened in 1907, children could We now have fifty years of experience with be seen working with equipment that was designed Piaget's theory and a rapidly accumulating body of toteachseriation,one-to-onecorrespondence, specific research-based knowledge about how chil- grouping, counting, and classification (Standing dren actually learn mathematics. This half century 1962). Contemporary M ,tcssori schools arc using of progress shows that Mcntessori was correct more "golden beads" when children work in baseten often than not and that some of her ideas, te..-h- into the thousands; the spindle boxes for the ing methods, and materials were not ....sistent cardinal numbers one to nine and the concept of with Piagetian theory. In some instances, the re- zero; the sandpaper numerals to develop a multi- search base pruvidts evidence that supports Mon- sensory perception of the numerals; the Seguin tessori over Piaget (Hsu 1987). Since weakness in boards to establish the rlace value of ones and basic number facts and concepts is one of the most See pag -a 335-36 for acknowledgment and eferences. 166 16 i Montessori and Number Concepts common problems of children who are having Montessori method appears to have accelerated the trouble in arithmetic (Russell and Ginsburg 1984), development of these skills. this [chapter] will be restricted to the basic pre- Whereas Montessori demonstrated how children number and number concepts. Comparisons will learn counting with her didactic materials, Piaget be made among Montessori's ideas, Piagetian the- thought counting was only a mechanical action ory, and indicators from current empirical research. until the children acquired the mental operation of The common number concepts that should be number conservation.According tocurrentre- mastered by young children, identified in fourteen search, counting precedes one-to-one correspon- textbooks for preservice teachers (Hsu 1987), are dence in the sequence of development and is a (1) classification (sorting or grouping); (2) seriation prerequisite to understanding number conservation (ordering); (3) one-to-one correspondence (match- (Fuson, Secada, and Hall 1983; Gelman and C-al- ing or pairing); (4) comparison (more than, less listel1978; Kingma and Koops1984;Russac than, and as many as); (5) rational counting; and 1978). (6) recogrition and comprehension of cardinal nu- merals. These same concepts are part of tEe con- Concept of Zero tent of most recent textbooks for childrenin kindergarten. Montessoribelievedthatchildrenlearnthe quantity of each oumber from one to ten through manipulating the number rods. When they sort Counting the forty-five spindles into trays labeled from 9 to 0 and end up with no spindles to place in the "0" Montessori put great faith in counting tasks with tray, they will gain understanding of the zero the didactic materials, but both Kohlberg (1968) concept. Piaget has said that children cannot un- and Lavatelli (1970) indicated that Piaget viewed derstand zero in a mathematically correct way until classification and ordering as necessary mental op- much laterindevelopment when theyhave erations in the counting process. In the Montessori achieved formal operational thought, especially re- model, children learn to count as they experience versibility and conservation. Contrary to Piaget's the meaning of the numerals in a concrete way. views, the concept of zero as "none" or the They count distinct red and blue sections on each "empty set"is commonly included in current number rod and then count the total units on two textbooks for young children. Kraner (1978) tested number rods (also a preview of addition). children ;n the range rif ages 3 through 61/2 and Piaget did not think that this kind of counting found thezomprehension of zero occurs between was of much value for preoperational children ages 51/2 and 6considerably earlier than Piaget because of the absence of the ability to conserve. suggested. In his perspective, counting has no meaning with- out the mental operations implied in a later stage Control of Error of development and plays little part in the equiva- lence of cwo sets when working on one-to-one Montessori designed materials that show errors correspondence. He would certainly have criticized in a visible or obvious way. Among the Montessori the place-value activities of the golden beads and equipment manipulated by the children is a series other materials for this same reason. In fact, recent of knobbed cylinders that fit into holes in a long empirical evidence shows that preschool children in wooden block. The cylinders vary by diameter, a Montessori program demonstrate an acceleration height, or both. If a child ends up with the tallest toward the stage of concrete operations (White, cylinder and the shortest hole, an error is apparent. Yussen, and Docherty 1976; Yussen, Mathews, In another example, when children sort spindles and Knight 1980). After children had progressed into the numbered trays and have one or more left through the Montessori curriculum using the con- over, this mismatch indicates an obvious mistake. crete materials in the prescribed ways, they outper- Most of the Montessori equipment for learning formed children from traditional nursery schools on number concept. has this erroi-control feature, and Piagetian seriation tasks and were also more ad- it virtually eliminates a need for evaluation or vancedinclassification(Morgan1978;Savage correction by the teacher. This featur would not 1973; White, Yussen, acid Docherty 1976; Yussen, be consistent with Piaget's view of zogico- mathe- Mathews, Id Knight 1980). The acquisition of matical knowledge (Kamii 1982; Kamii and DeV- classificati and seriation strategies is a vital step ries 1976), in which feedback can only be per- in the progression of mathematics ability, and the ceived from the internal consistency of logic. Yet it 167 0r THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN is precisely the self-correcting nature of the Mon- "as many as" relations (Kennedy 1984); and is tessori materials that is so highly prized by pre- one of the early counting principles (Brairs and school teachers and often used in programs for Siegler 1984; Gelman and Gallistel 1978). young children with learning delays or handicaps. One -to -One Correspondence SUMMARY Children have extensive experience v 'th one-to- Although some questions about young chil- one correspondence before they arrive in preschool dren's acquisition of number concepts are yet to be programs, with everything from buttoning their resolved, the ideas and methods first presented by own c!othing (one button: one button-hole) to the Montessori eighty years ago stand up well when number of people and chairs or place settings at evaluated through the lens of current research. the dinner table. Many experiences planned for Consider.ble difference of view is evident between children in the Montessori curriculum are aimed at Montessori and Piaget about the importance of this concept. For example, children practice with certain concepts and the level of cognitive develop- different clothing fasteners on the dressing frames; ment necessary for genuine understanding. But they line up the pink tower next to the broad stair those teachers who use Montessori methods and and compare other items to each other by length materials with young children should be comforted or height. In this situation it appears that everyone that theyare on solid ground. Textbooks for is on the right track. Montessori, Piaget, and most teachers, books that guide the children, and many modern researchers agree that one-to-one corre- substantial research studies support the main Mon- spondence is prerequisite to the concept of cardinal tessori position. In fact, further empirical evalua- numbers (Barron 1979; Dawes 1977); is important tion and research on Piaget's views may be in in understanding "more than," "less than," and order to reconcile theory, research, and practice. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are some Montessori's special approaches for learning mathematics? 2. Does the current research support Montessori methods in helping young children learn number concepts? 3. Can children learn some number concepts at an earlier age than the Piaget theory would indicate? 4. How can Montessori practices be used in any early childhood education setting? Should they be used? 168 39. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR PRESCHOOL SCIENCE EXPERIENCES by Robert F. Smith Recently I received an advertisement announcing up a balloon; they can feel air on their faces as a newsletter for early childhood educators. The they release it from the balloon; they can feel air brochure contained a sample science lesson you (wind) on their faces on a windy day. They can could eat"Sink and Float: Jello." Intrigued, I also observe the effects of wind, for example, read through the instructions provided. The lesson papers or leaves blowing, or sailboats moving across involved first graders making Jello and then adding water. some or all of the f lloTing ingredients: blueber- Many new and inexperienced teachers depend ries, sliced bananas, sliced peaches or strawberries, on the literature (journals, magazines, curriculum grated coconut, and crushed pineapple. Children guides, newsletters) for appropriate science activi- were to observe which of these items floated and ties. Some teachers take it for granted that what which sank. Up to this point, everything seemed they find in these resources is developmentally or pedagogically round, but thenIread further: pedagogically sound. This is not always the case, as "Some of these things will float. Some will sink. the e-amples I have cited demonstrate. Talk about why things float or sink" (italics mine). A theoretical framework for a preschool science Obviously, experienced teachers will expect an- curriculum, with illustrative experiences, can help swers in terms of what the child can see, such as preschool teachers develop their ability to letor which objects float and which objects sinkChil- makeappropriate science experiences happen in dren may enjoy classifying objects into these two their classrooms. In addition, such a framework can groups. Teachers shoulu encourage children to ex- help teachers evaluate activities or experiences sug- periment with floating and sinking and accept gested in the literature in terms of developmental simple answers that refer to the object's weight, appropriateness for 3-, 4-, and 5-year olds. size, or shape. Yet beginning teachers with a strong science background, using the instructions in the advenise- A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ment as a guide, might be misled by the direction, "Talk about tyhy" and expect a more sophisticated A theoretic,framework can be developed by explanation from the chiloren. The cause-effect integrating research that examines how children relationships, however, that cause some objects to construct knowledge and how appropriate science sink and others to float (buoyancy and displace- experiences contribute to children's ability to con- ment concepts) are beyond the intellectual capabil- struct knowledge or learn abeut their world. ities of preschoolers and most primary grade stu- The most significant research about the construc- dents (Ward, 1978; Wolfinger, 1982). tion of knowledge was done by Piaget (1929; 1954; Another example of inappropriate science,. ,-, 1973). Kamii and DeVries (1978) and Forman and 4-, and 5- year -olds would be to expect them to Kuschner (1983) discuss the theoretical sig-ificance understand concepts such as air is almost every- of Piagetian constructivism and its implications for where; air is realit takes up space; or air presses early childhood education. More specifically, Howe on everything from all sides (Harlan, 1984). Be- (1975) and Smith (1981) discuss the implication of cause air is invisible, such concepts are not under- Piagetiantheoryforearlychildhc3sc. nce stood by the young child (Kamii and De Vries, education. 1978). Iatridis (1981), in designing a science curric- For Piaget, the foundation upon which all intel- ulu,a for 4s and 5s, eliminated air as a topic at the lectual development takes place is physical knowl- suggestion of both science and early childhood edge, knowledge that comes from objects.This educators. includes iNfc.Tmation about the properties of ob- Some experiences with air are appropriate for jects (their shape, size,textures,color, odor), as preschoolers. They can feel air as they try Lo blow well as knowledge about how objects react to See page 336 for acknowledgment and reverences 169 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN different actions on them (they roll, bounce, sink, the development of these behaviors (Flavell, 1963; slide, dry up). Children construct physical knowl- Greenberg, 1975; Hawkins, 1965; Hochman and edge by acting on objet feeling, testing, smell- Greenwald, 1963). ing, seeing, and hearing them. They cause objects A theoretical framework for a preschool scictice to move--throwing, banging, blowing, pushing, curriculum integrates the child's construction of and pulling them, avd they observe changes that knowledge withscience-relatedexperiences and take place in objects when they are heated, cooled, promotes active, child-initiated action on objects mixed together, or changed in some other way. As and observations of changes. physical knowledge develops, children become bet- Using such a framework,criteria have been ter able to establish relationships (comparing, clas- developed (sec Table1) that can be used to sifying, ordering) between and among the objects determine whether the science experiences suggest- they act upon. Such relationships (logicomathtma- ed for pteschoolers are developmentally appropri- tical knowledge according to Piaget) are easential ate. They can also be used by teachers to develop for the emergence of logical,flexible thought their own preschool science curriculum. processes. The teacher's role in implementing such a cur- Informal experiences (for example, at the water riculum is a challenging one: table, or in the animal center, sandbox, or block 1. Teachers should be aware of daily experiences corner) allow children to explore objects freely and that might involve science, for example, painting discover their properties, what they are made of, (La.-ky and Mukerji, 1980), cooking (Wanamakcr, and how they react when acted on in various ways. Hearn, and Richarz, 1979), or playing with musical Iatridis (1981) found that children exposed to instruments (McDonald, 1979). Such an awareness specific science experiences using carefully selected enables the teacher to capitalize on the children's materials"increased their self-directed discovery involvement with a science experience, either by (active, child-initiated exploration rather thai. aim- leaving them alone to pursue their own curiosities less handling of materials) and verbalized curios- or initiatives (Kamii and DeVries, 1978), or by ity" (p. 26). Such behaviors, that is, active explo- encogiaging them to observe more closely,ask ration initiated by children themselves and questions, and compare and classify what they are increased verbalization, contribute to the child's acting on, or to make their own discoveries (Iatri- construction of knowledge. Educators and research- dis,1981). ers have long advocated the importance of experi- 2. To encourage and facilitate children's explo- ences in preschool science education that promote rations with science-related phenomena, a variety Table 1. Criteria for Developmentally Appropriate Science Experiences (ages 3 to 5) Are the materials selected those that children will naturally gravitate to for play? provide opportunities for the development of perceptual abilities through total involve- ment of the senses (perception of color, size, shape, texture, hardness, sound, etc.)? enco rage self-directed problem solving and experimentation? children can act uponcarto r or that caLeurar c},:k1,-Ln's observations of changes? Do the experiences that evolve from children's play with the materials provide opportunities for the teacher to "extend the child's learning by asking questions or making suggestions that stimulate children's thinking" (NAEYC, 1986, p. 10)? allow for additional materials to be introduced gradually to extend ciiildren's explora- tions and discoveries? allow for differences in ability, development, and learning style? allow children to freely interact with other children and adults? encourage children to observe, compare, classify, predict, communicate? allow for the integration of other curriculum areas? 170 Preschool Science Experiences of equipment and materials should be made avail- matching and sorting on the basis of visualcom- able (Holt, 1977). Kamii and Devries (1978)sug- parisons can gradually be introduced. "Visualcom- gest principles for planning physical knowledge parisons remain the principal concept foryoung activities that are applicable and that involve chil- children to master" (McIntyre, 198ia,p. 40). As dren with materials related to science experiences. the ch-adre4 use different colors in their paintings, The way in which materials are introducedto the teacher :an encourage them to match the young children can maximize their initiative. The colors of theirpaints to the clothes they are teacher can put out materials that children will wearing or to other objects in theroom. Further naturally gravitate toward. For example,a variety opportunities for developing color perceptioncan of musical instrumentscan be displayed to encour- be made available through additional materialsor age children's explorations with sound. Or the experiences (Lasky and Mukerji, 1980; McIntyre, teacher can present specific materials and ask chil- 1981a; Neuman, 1978; Schools Council, 1973b). dren to think of different things they could do During their painting activities, children may with these materials. One set of such material mix paints together and produce a new or different might initially include an inclined plane and dif- color. Teachers should help children focus on this ferent-sized balls or other round objects. Objects color change; the observation that a change has that areriot round or toy trucks and cars of taken place, however, is more important at this differentsizes can gradually be added to the stage than what combination of colors produced collection when the teacher feelsitis the right the chanr. Children can even be encouraged, moment "to enter the child's world" (Forman and through the teacher's example, to experiment by Kuschner, 1983). mixing diffuren± paints togetherto discover what 3. In guiding children's experiences in science, happens. An activity that allows children to com- teachers should remember that "meaningful learn- bine colors (mixing food colors in water or mixing ing is an active, self-regulated process" (Forman paints),isanexcellent example of observing and Kuschner, 1983, p.123). Any attempt to changes in objects, a type of physical knowledge shape the child's behavior according to predeter- activity described by Kamii and De Vries (1978) in mined objectives may interfere with this self-regu- which observation is pri.nary and the child's action lation. Forman and Kuschner (1983) clearly de- is secondary. scribe when and how teacherscanbegin Tactile experiences can also evolve from chil- appropriate learning encounters with young chil- dren's painting. Their dried, finished products dren and set forth the following special require- may be lurr ny or bumpy in some spots and ments: skillful techniques for observing children's smooth in others. Having children carefully feel behavior, a broad child development knowledge their dried paintings enhances theirsense of touch base with which to interpret observed behaviors, and begins to focus their attenticron different good entry techniques, and sensitive timing. kinds of surfaces. Appropriate language--smooth, rough, bumpy, scratchycan be introduced by the teacher. Thus, an added dimension ofan object's ILLUSTRATIVE EXPERIENCES FOR properties, that of roughLess or smoothness, begins 3- AND 4-YEAR-OLDS to become part of the child's developing knowl- edge. Zeit ler (1972) found thata small sample of 3-year-olds did not mention texture (roughnessor Developmentally appropriate experiences that ii. lustrate how teachers can let or make science smoothness) of an object as one of its properties. hiwpch in the preschool include the following: More informal experiences, similar to those de- scribed here, can encourage 3- and 4-year-oldsto focus on texture. Paints Young children love to paint; they enjoy experi- Sounds menting with color and can be quite creative in their artistic expression. Teachers canuse experi- "Listening to, making, and sharing sounds with ences with painting to heighten children's aware- others are enjoyable activities for young children ness of colors and color changes. As children nd provide a base for simple generalizations and become familiar with the primary and secondary understandings related to the science of sound" colors through painting activities (namingor label- (McIntyre, 1981b, n.34). Thus, classrooms for ing colorsis not necessary at this time), color preschoolers should include a sound corner wherea 171 1 "t -1A..., THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN variety of musical instruments are available for the special cooking activity (Christenberry and Stevens, children to play with. At first, only a few instru- 1984; Parent Nursery School, 1974; Wanamaket et ments should be displayed for exploration.As al., 1979). Three- and 4 -year -olds tend to focus on children become familiar with the sounds these taste because this is the most desirable property of instruments make, others can be added. As chil- a particular food. The teacher's role, however, is dren freely explore each instrument, they rely on not only to provide the children with enjoyable their sense of hearingthey begin to discriminate tasting experiences; she or he can also intervene by betweenthe sounds eachdifferentinstrument helping the children focus on other properties of a makes. They are also actively involved in producing food. Appropriate questions might include: "How their own sounds; they experiment by plucking, does it feel?"; "Can you find another fruit that banging, tapping, striking, or shaking. Children as feels the same (or different)?"; "Can you find young as 3-years-old begin to see action or something on the table the same shape as your movement is necessary i ord....rto have sound. orange?"; or "Which smell do you like the best?" 'liner children become familiar with each of the The shape of a particular fruit can be used to different instruments, games can be introduced to explore the movement of round objects. Children help them develop their perception of sound. The can roll an apple or orange across various surfaces; teacher can select or ,e instrument at a time, hide it they can compare the action of the apple with that from the children's view, and make a sound with of a pear or banana ("Which fruitrolls best?" it; the children can guess which instrument the "Can you find other objects in the room that roll teacher is playing. To help children make discrimi- like your apple?"). nations, the teacher can make sounds with two In addition to offering children opportunities to instruments simultaneously; the children have to act on individual foodsto feel, taste, and smell guess what both instruments arc. Children can also experiences with cooking also give children chances play these guessing games with each other, and observe changes taking place: corn seecis chang- tape recordings can be made of the instrument ing to popcorn, cream turning to butter, apples sounds for children to identify. To learn a child changing into applesauce. Making applesauce in does not always need t two different ways enabhs children not only to Children should has.greater opportunity to observe changes taking place, but also to observe listento and identify ordinary soundsinthe and compare different textures and tastes. Child:en classroom.For example,voices, moving chairs, can first cook apples to make applesauce; they can splashing water, footsteps, tumbling blocks, and also grind raw apples, with the teacher's assistance, cars or trucks rolling across the floor. They can also with a small food mill. They then can compare 'isten for sounds outside the classroom. The teach- textures and tastes of cooked and raw applesauce. er plays a key role in helping children focus their listening on specific sounds and in introducing appropriate vocabulary: chirp of a bird, the CONSTRUCTING LOGICAL thump of a heartbeat, I' e crunch of footsteps on RELATIONSHIPS gravel" (Schools Council, 1972a, p. 31). Children can be asked to talk about the sour.-lc they like These examples of science experiences suitable and dislike, they can imitate sounds of familiar for 3- and 4-year-olds are only a small sampling of objects and show that they have associated ..pecific what can be incorporated into a science curriculum sounds with specific objects, and everyday events in for them. Other experiences could include: water the classroom can be used to help children identify play (Kamii and DeVries, 1978); discoveries with loud and soft sounds. sand (Hill, 1977); science using toys (Hiisch, 1984; Schools Council, 1972b); investigating themselves (Holt, 1977; Schools Council, 1973a); and investi- Foods gating animals (McIntyre,1984). Only selected specialists are referenced here, but many fine nurs- Cooking activities are an integral part of the ery educators have been encouraging activities like preschool curihnlum and provide a unit''-oppor- these for yeas. tunity to engage children indevelops, o sight, As preschoolers construct physical knowledge, touch, taste, and smell. Foods, fruits and vegeta- they will be better equipped to begin constructing bles inparticular, vary in color,texture,taste, logical relationships between and among the ob- smell, size, and shape. All these properties can be jects they have already encountered. Such relation- explored by the childreiduring snack time or a ships include classifying objects on the basis of a 172 17, Preschool Science Experiences common property(size,shape,color,texture, that always move (atissue, marble, straw, and taste); ordering objects according to acommon popsicle stick)" (p. 7). Thesame objects could also propertysize,weight, length); and comparing be categorized according to whether they slideor objects (shorter-longer,darker-lighter, smoother- roll. rougher, thicker-thinner). An activity that involves the movement of ob- jects (ICamii and De Vries, 1978) clearly illustrates how these relationships beginto emerge. The CONCLUSION teacher presents each child with a straw and shows them a box containing several of each of the A theoretical framework, then, that evolves both following items:tissues, popsicle sticks,straws, from research and experiences withyoung children, empty cans (frozen orange juice, coffee), marbles, enables preschool teachers to provide appropriate and small blocks. She or he then asks, "Canyou environment and science experiences to help chil- find something that youcan blow acrossthe dren learn about their world. New and inexperi- floor?" (p. 6). As the children lookat each object enced teachers can use this framework as a guide in terms of its blowability, they beginto think, for developing their own science curriculum and "at some vague, intuitive level" (p. 7), about each also as a criterion for evaluating those activities object's weight, shape, or both. Consideration of suggested in the literature. In fact, sucha frame- these objects' properties at this time dependson work serves to heighten teachers'awareness that previous knowledge constructed through action and scienceis not necessarily a separate curriculum observation. As children experimentto find an area:"Science inthe infant[early childhood] answer to the question, they begin to construct classroom is very much interwoven into the activi- logicomathematicalrelationships.Forexample, ties that normally go on there, it is indistinguish- children might group the objects according to the able as a separate entity...." (Schools Council, "things that never move (a block)" and "things 1972a, p. 2). DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Why is it important that early science experiences beconcrete and specific to the child's ability to observe and manipulate? 2. What are some of the inappropriate science teaching practices? 3. How do the theories of cognitive development provide guidance for teachingscience to young children? 4. What are the criteria for planning or evaluating science experiences foryoung children? 5. How can the teacher integrate the curriculum contentareas for science learning? 6. What are some broad concepts about science that should bepart of the early childhood curriculum? 173 40. MUSIC IN THE EARLY CHILDHOOD CURRICULUM by Manny Brand and David E. Fernie Young children love exploring their world, a Thus, not only are early informal and formal world that very much includes sound and music. environmental influences in music essential, but Not only do these ever-present aural stimuli ignite the real challenge is to integrate the content of the same curiosity within the child as a new toy or music in ways that are consistent with children's a leaping frog, but children seek to actively explore developmental levels and interests. By promoting and understand their musical environment. Tradi- activities that turn children's interest to active and tionally, children's natural sensitivity to and inter- directed involvement with music, we help children est in sounds, voice qualities and musical instru- to learn about the variety and the elements of mentsjustifymusicintheearlychildhood music and to develop musical skills. To accomplish curriculum. There are many other reasons, howev- these goals, we advocate an emphasis on vocal er, why music is so important during these early development, instrumental skills and music appre- years. ciation in Early Childhood curricula. Today, music is an ever-present companion for children. In addition to the radio and the record player, music is heard on television and in eleva- VOCAL DEVELOPMENT tors and supermarkets. Many young children even have their own cassette tap' recorders and are able Singing is the most personal, natural and earli- to take their music wherever they go. While music est form of musical activity. Children have been pervades their environment, itis important that using their voices from the moment of birth, children do more than just "bathe" in this musi- experimenting with vocal sounds. They express cal milieu. cries of pain and coos of pleasure, and they The value of a favorable music curriculum for "play" with vocal timbres by manipulating the children 2 to 8 years of age cannot be overempha- tongue, lips and vocal cords. These sounds are the sized,since these years represent the optimum precursors of singing. opportunity for influencing an individual's musical Children's initial song repertoire consists of the potential. Recent research shows that music apti- little melodies they create during their play. The tude develops during theseearly years (Miller, observant teacher can begin by imitating these 1980). This, of course, does not mean that chil- songs, thus highlighting children's actions. The dren over the age of 8 or 9 cannot learn music. teacher may aiso make up melodic phrases depict- Love of music,performanceskillsand music ing classroom events and concerns. For example, achievement can all be developed at any age; but a the teacher can communicate about children's ap- child's musicality can best be influenced during pearances, clothing and physical features through the early years. song. Even suggestions and directions can be easily Formerly, music psychologists generally agreed sung. In turn, children will invent further singing that music aptitude was hereditary. They believed responses. During play activities such as painting that environmental factors, including music activi- and block-building, children can sing and thus ties and instruction, had absolutely no effect on continue to build their singing voices in a very music aptitude. Today, however, most music psy- natural way (Andress et al.,1973). chologists acknowledge that music aptitude is only Young children also enjoy songs selected from partly innate. Regardless of thelevel of music various song books. For instance, Mother Goose aptitude "ne is born with, that level will never be songs and songs about animals are early favorites. realized : achievement without positive musical Teachers may also want to select several available experiences during the early years (Gordon, 1979). children's books that combine illustrations,text Early childhood, then, is a critical period for music and songs, such as A Mouse in My House (Hous- aptitude, just as it is for the ,)romotion of cogni- ton, 1972). Songs that appeal to children usually tive development and the act,cition of language. have a simple and repetitive melody, a steady See pages 336-37 for acknowledgment and references 174 1 7 ,,,; Music in the Early Childs Ind Curriculum rhythm and a limited melodicrange. Generally, emphasize a variety of sounds. One panel might very young children are most comfortable staying be covered with several different sandpapertex- in a five-note range (e.g., d to a). Thisrange is tures.Various car-shaped blocks, some covered soon expanded to an octave (e.g., b to b). Typical- with sandpaper, are used by the child to producea ly,8-year-old children can sing witha slightly variety of "scratchy" and "swishy" sounds. By wider range. changing sound panels, childrencan easily explore Before introducing a song to children, the teach- high and low, short and long, fast and slow,or er should obviously like the song, be able to sing unusual sounds. it comfortably, and plan its introduction. Haines Locating and producing these sounds are prelim- and Gerber (1980) offer severalways of introducing inary steps to music learning; for, if music learning a new song, such as showing pictures of animals or is to take place, the teacher must actively focus objects featured in thesong or asking children to children's attention on the unique properties of find new or "silly" words in thesong. After sounds. When the teachers asks which sounds are focusing the children's interest in thesong, the high or low in pitch, long or short, loud or soft, teacher should sing or play a recording ofpart or the children are moving beyond mere sound aware- all of the song (dependingon the age of the ness and toward an understanding of musical con- children). Next, the starting pitch needsto be cepts. The characteristics of musicpitch, duration established. The teacher shouldcue the children by and volumeare the basis of all music, and atten- singing on pitch, "nne, two, ready, sing," in the tion to these components provides an excellent tempo of the song. Young children enjoy repeat- foundation for music learning. ing a song, particularly if movementor gesture is added or if a few simple rhythm instrumentsare Once a child has the opportunity to learn about used to accompany the song. musicalcharacteristicsthroughnonconventional The primary purpose of singing isto enable sounds,classroominstrumentsareintroduced. young children to sing their own melodies and Classroom instruments usually refer to rhythm in- those of others, and to use the voice in expressive struments such as cymbals, tambourines, triangles, ways (Andress, 1980). In addition, singing activi- maracas,woodblocks, sandpaper blocks,claves, ties obviously expand children'ssong repertoire, rhythm sticks, bells and drums. Others range from and enable them to perform with themost person- the relatively expensive Orff instruments (c.g., al instrument: the voice. high quality xylophones) to the inexpensive home- made variety (e.g., beans in an orange juice can). All are important in the Early Childhood music INSTRUMENTAL SKILLS program. These classroom instruments can be used in Many music educators believe that music educa- many ways. Initially, the children should freely tion for young children should begin withan experiment with the instruments while the teacher emphasis on the discovery of sounds (Zimmerman, helps them find'le different ways to make sounds 1971; Biasini, Thoinas and Pogonowsky,1972). and to use the instruments. Encourage the children This process of discovering environmental and to share and demonstrate what they have discov- body sounds is in keeping with children's natural ered about their instruments. Children enjoy using !earning style of exploring and experimenting, and these instruments to keep the beat while the generally precedes the use of actual musical instru- teacher sings or plays a song. These musical activi- ments. Young children might be encouraged to ties sensitize children to the steady beator rhythm locate and/or produce interesting and different which is characteristic of so many kinds of music. sounds from non-musical sources, suchas those Follow-up activities might include having small made by clicking tongues and squeaking closet groups of children assigned to play different parts doors. or phrases of a song. Additionally, the teacher may Some Early Childhood teachers have created want to have a child "compose" a simple rhythm music activity centers that provide planned sound- to accompany a favorite song. Throughout all of explorations. Andress (1980) describes severalsuc- these activities,itis important that the teacher cessful music activity centers. Take, for example, encourage the children to analyze which rhythms the sound box. This plywoodor cardboard box has are fast, slow or best fit the mood of a particular a lid, floor and entry way, and measures approxi- song. This concept of matching children's rhythmic mately four feet per slide. inside the box, there is creations to the style, mood and tempo of familiar a removable sound wall, which can be changed to songs is another important musical goal. 175 1 76 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN In addition to classroom instruments, young waterplay, and authors have suggested appropriate children can be given the opportunity to play selections for a wide variety of activities (see Nye, standard musical instruments such as violin and 1979). Y, -t this music serves as more than accom- piano. These piano and violin lessons for lursery paniment to non-musical activities.It can signal, school children emphasize the development of cor- focus and heighten activities for young children. rect playing technique and the playing of simple While evoking physical and emotional responses in nursery rhyme songs by cat. The most well-known children, the teacher is modeling the enjoyment approach isthe Suzuki method of instruction, that one can obtain from music. which incorporates carefully programmed learning The teacher's role in stimulating music apprecia- sequences and an emphasis on imitation accompa- tion, however, is more complex than merely drop- niedbyfrequentreinforcement (Zimmerman, ping a needle or pushing a button at various times 1971). Parental involvement is one of the corner- of the day.Since the goalisalso to expand stones of the Suzuki approacb, and parents are children's preferences,the repertoire should not encouraged to surround their child with music reflect any one person's notion of "good" music, beginning at birth. Actual lessons on miniature as it is likely to be both subjective and somewhat violins can begin at the age of 3 or 4. limited. In the attempt to present a variety of Playing instruments is another effective way of music, one should consider popular, classical, jazz, introducing the joy of music to young children. ethnic and even electronic music. Parents, other Discovering the world of sound and achieving teachers and perhaps even the children can be success in performance can provide a lasting in- sources for suggesting selections of diverse music. volvement and genuine love of music. Children's music appreciation can be broadened as new selections are gradually introduced to comple- ment those already familia.to them. Once chil- dren find music that evokes feeling and enjoy- MUSIC APPRECIATION ment, other important responses will follow. In the words of Rachel Carson (1960), "Once our emo- Music appreciation denotes enjoyment and un- tions have been -roused, then we wish for knowl- derstanding of music. Young children's active in- edge about the object of our emotional response. volvement with songs and musical instruments will Ono found, it has lasting meaning" (p. 45). contribute greatly to this goal. Unfortunately, mu- Teachers can best promote children's under- sic appreciation has not been emphasized in the standing of vocal and instrumental music by being early years because many have equatec1 music ap- aware of the musical elements that children find preciation with passive listening for sustained peri- salient. For example, McDonald (1979) suggests ods of time. In contrast, we believe that when a that children respond to music that is either highly variety of music is experienced in developmentally rhythmic or highly melodic. Zimmerman (1971) appropriate ways, the goal of music appreciation supplements this view, contending that "the per- can be successfullycomote' in Early Childhood ception of loudness dew cpsfirst,followed by programs. pitch and rhythm, with perception of harmony An appropriate approach to music appreciation developing last" (p. 28). Some guidance in select- seeks to actively involve the young child.For ing instrumental musicis provided by Fullard example, music can be played, then followed by (1976). This research found that children do recog- movement activities and/or dramatization of ac- nize the timbre or toncolor of instruments, and tions evoked by the mood of the music. The can discriminate between them on this basis. This teacher's role in promoting the foundations of suggests that music with variations in tempo and music appreciation is also an active one. Initially, a dynamics, performed by small ensembles with dif- few of the teacher's favorite recordings should be ferent timbres, may be appropriate to the pre- brought to the classroom and played. This effort is schooler's intellectual and discriminatory abilities. relatively simple, since no vocal or instrumental Since much vocal music is sung by a single per- skills on thteacher's part are involved. Children former, teacher-made cassette tapes featuring per- will benefit from repeated listening and become formers with different voice timbres might be familiar with these teacher-favorites. The teacher enjoyed by young children. Room could be left for can easily comment on the enjoyment and mean- children to record their own singing voices on the ing which these selections hold for him or her. tapes. Teachers have traditionally used music to accom- Records and tapes are somewhat abstract and pany activities from vigorous marching to peacitful removed from music performances. Music listening, 176 Music in the Early Childhood Curricu.um therefore, can be made more concrete by using very personal nature of music. community resources that are often available to In c3ndusion, we have stressed the importance teachers and children. Musically skilled parents and of music in Early Childhood curricula and suggest- high school students will often be willingto per- ed an appropriate approach to accomplish this form for, and involve, the receptive and somewhat goal. A focus on mus.... appreciation, as wellas on awed young audiences. Trips to band and orches- vocal and instrumental skills, can help young chil- tral concerts can reinforce the pleasures of both dren establish a continuing involvement with the performing and listening to music. These "real" world i music. By both extending and directing experiences with music can it corm childrc bout their natural musical interests, children can experi- the relationship between recorded and live music, ence the music o.'. others and express themselves and make them further aware of the diversity and through this most enjoyable medium. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What is the value of music in the early childhood education curriculum? 2. What is the role of singing in the musical development ofyoung children? 3. How should the teacher plan the singing part of the early music experience? 4. What are appropriate instrumental skills foryoung children? 5. How can the teacher stimulate and develop music appreciation inyoung children? 177 41. APPRECIAT7 THE DRAWING AND DICTATING OF YOUNG CHILDREN by Anne Haas Dyson "Draw a picture and then we'll write a story Reuben: "How many horses?" about it." And so begins one of the most common Maggie: "Horsie, horsie, riteen-legged horsi; ..." Points to the questionable one which she 1,r,c1 originally early childhood activities, an activity that might skipped. "... horsie, cow. resultinchildren'sfirstschoolreadingtexts Aron: "No, a six-legged horsie " (Veatch, Sawicki,Elliott,Barnette, and Blakey, 1973) or their first writing journals. Thioughout Later Maggie dictates: the century, this is the way children whose teachers This is four horses. have primarily focused on the language experience And one of them is a cow. approach have been learning to read, write 2.nd Maggie ha: now accounted for all the animals, even spell, in classrooms around the country. This but then she adds: acuity has received increased attention lately, as interest in early literacy has grown. Even preschool And one of them is a six-legged cow. The end. teachers are urged to give their young students The efforts of Maggie and her peers illustrate journals in which to draw, dictate, and write (Rich, how children use drawing, talk, and dictation to 1985). mate order In the course of drawing and talking, Despite the value teachers have Long placed on Maggie solved varied conceptual problems, ind1,4- this activity, we have not looked carefully at the iv; he drawn pans needed to represent the ani- varied ways ,-flung children approach it. After all, mals, the features distinguishing the category o: this is an open-ended task; there are no pans to L: horse from the category cow, an,tic number of assembled as in r puzzle: "[T]he blarlr sheet and horses and caws. The most puzzling piece' r't salient eoges of he page provide an immense 4aggie's drawi: g finally slipped into place wan number of potential 'degrees of freedom' which ti r coir'g of a new name, a six-legged cow. have to be reduced to workable order" (Freeman, Children's drawing ant' independent writing are 1977 p. 4). Children come up with their own valuable parts of the early childhood curricul"m in puzzle parts, their own problems to solve. The their own right, but it is the linking of drawing solutions v) those problems are reflected in their and dictation that is of interest here. pictures and their texts. Listen, for example, to a small group of kinder - gartm at work: CHILDREN AS MEANING MAKERS Jesse, Aron, Maggie, and Reuben are sitting together drawing. The boys stop their own work to Syrni. ols : Tools for Order study Maggie's drawing. She has just made three horses and two cows onthill. The cows have During the early childhood-ars, children work udders. But in one case, the uniers are long and to make their world a more orderly place. To angular and thus look like an extra pair of legs (see rganize and make sense of their experiences, Figure1). children use the tools provided by symbols. For example, as children learn language, they learn Maggie. "See, that one looks sort of scared? That about the objects, people, and events surrounding one That -are." Points to the animal described above. them--vague perceptions take form as they are put Jesse: "That's not even a horsie!" Maggie: "That's a rov," into v,ordc (Brown, 1973; Nelson, 1973; Vygotsky, 1962).Similarly,as childrendraw, they learn The children begin painting to each animal, cbout the visual qualities of objects and also 'bout labeling them as boric or cow. Maggie Pays that the graphic properties of line, color, and so..pe the isn't sure what the "scared" one is. (Smith, 1979). A child, for -xample, experiments See pages 337-38 f."' acknowledgment and references. 178 17j Tne Drawing and Dictating of Young Children --;;;"liji Figure I.Maggie 's horses and cows. with paints and brush mid discovers the possiblility 1982). Some kindergarten teachers in fact refer to of a wavy line. "Water," says the child, as previ- children's drawing as "writing," seeing drawing as ous experiences with water and the present experi- "the communication of thoughts rather than the ence with paints come together. A line that can production of pleasing visual images" (Hippie, symbolize water is discovered and the fluid quali- 1985, p. "S:; see also Newkirk and Atwell, 1982). ties of water become salient as well. From uiis perspective, drawing is important pri- marily because it helps children plan and organize their dlctated or writte The interest is in Drawing: A "Literacy" Activity children's developing animy to communicate a message independently from the pictures. Teachers Both drawing and language provide children might thus evaluate children'stexts by asking with opportunities to reflect upon, organize, and whether they sound "written" as opposed to "spo- share experiences. During the preschool and earls ken" (King, 1980). For example, is a child's word school years, children become able to talk, not choice and arran "emer.clear? (Consider the am- only about current activities, but also about past biguotu "He's noting him" vs."The large experiences and possible future ones (Bloom, 1975: monster is attacking the small monster.") Is the Wells, 1981). They begin to tell stc.ies as well text organized like a story? (Does it have a begin- (Applebee,1978; Leonclqr.1977;Stein,1979); ning, a middle, and an end?) based on their experiences, children select signifi- We quite naturally want to take advantage of cant events and organize them into plots with the link between drawing and written language. beginnings, middles, and ends. But it seems important to acknowledge that, al- Similarly,children'sdrawings become more though drawing and writing are both ways of complex during these years. After exploring fines representing experience, they each h..ve unique and shapes, children begin to form basic objects ways of capturLv that experience and that, fur- people, houses, trees; by 5 or 6 years, children ther, each is governed by the goals of the produc- combine these symbols into ore.erly scenes (Brit- er, the child, whose purposes may not mat.:1 those tairi, 1979; Smith, 1983). of the teacher. Educators and researchers tend to talk about each kind of symbol separately. But when young chilurensit together around a work table,the Th.. Developing Symbolizer: teacher will most likely see drawing, talking, move- The Child in Charge ment, and quite possibly singing and writing well (Dyson, 1981; Korzenik, 1977). Recently the Each symbolic material, be it modeling day, link between drawing and writing has receives languc b,c, paint or music, highlights different fea- special attention, as interest has grown in young tures of objects and events and is governed b! a children as readers and writers (Gundlach, 1981; unique set of rules for structuring meaning (Go- Lamme andChilders,1983;Zalusky,1983). tomb,';174;Smith,1979; Wolf and Gardner, Young children themselves mike clear this link, as 1981). As the opening discussion among Maggie, they claim to "write houses and stuff" (Dyson, Jesse, and their peers illustrates, the drawing event *179 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN highlighted the visual qualities of animals to a from across the school year. Two kindergartners degree that might not have arisen if, for example, introduced earlier, Maggie and Jesse, are highlight- Maggie were telling about a recent experience at a ed, as their behaviors reflect the range observed, farm. When children draw, they are not simply capture the general trends noted, and convey the communicating about their experiences; they are mond, the spirit of their classroom. As we observe solving visual problems 1,,e11. The problems they their work, keep in mind that the children are S- solve influence the nature of the texts they create. and 6-year-olds; their ways of making sense of this Further, children do not all use these materials task may be quite different from those younger in the same way. As children mature and gain children. experience, they learn new and more complex ways of manipulating paints, clay, langnage, and other symbolic material; but children &doom from their THE CHILDREN'S INTENTIONS repertoires the strategics that will help them reach DURING JOURNAL TIME their goals (Franklin, 1973). We must always ask, then, what is the child trying to do? For example, children have different ways of Exploring and Refining the Graphic Medium using drawing. Wolf and Gardner (1979) note that s ne children, referred to as patterners, may be At the beginning of the school year, the chil- primarily interested in exploring the graphic quali- dren used lines and shapes to represent simple ties of colors or paint; these children may draw a objects (houses, people). But, on occasion, they design rather than represent anything in particular, arranged dots, lines, and shapes in nonrepresenta- or they may work toward depicting a scene. Other tional ways. Like his peers, Jesse gave straightfor- children, dramatists, seem much more interested in ward descriptions for his "stories": the talking than in the drawing; the drawing may The story is about two circles. simplyserveasa propforthet'lked-about The two circles are in the water. (9/10/64) experience. This is my dots and colors. I make them with my markers. I like them. (10/10/84) HE CHILDREN AND THEIR CLASSROOM This is two different colors. These two different colors Ilike. The drawing ar' language samples shared in They are purple and orange. (10/12/84) this [chapter] are vixen from a participant observa- tion study in a pub& school kindergarten in the Not only did children explore basic graphic western United States. The 18 class members, 7 elements, they worked to combine these elements girls and 11 boys, came from acieborhoods across into basic forms. For the month of October, for this urban community and were of Anglo, Asian, example, Jesse repeatedly drew a house, apparently Black, Hispanic, and mixed ethnicity. directing his energy at solving the visual and motor The literacy curriculum centered on "journals" problems it posed. His first houses were simply (construction paper books of approximately13 patches of color br rectangular shapes. Next came a drawing/writing products each). The children drew triangular house (see Figure 2) and houses for pied senral times a week, dictating a story to their by pasting squares of paper together in varied teacher and then -copying part of it. arrangements. Finally, Jesse formed a house by I observed in th:s classroom an average of twice putting a small triangle on top of a square; his a week for a 5- month: period (January through May basic symbol for a house was now set (see Figure 1985).Iaudiotaped the children's spor.taneous 3). talk during journal time and their dictations, took Throughout this "housc hunting" period, Jesse nines on their drawing behaviors and photocopied dictated a set text or a variation of that text. completed products. In addition, their teach- er saved every other journal completed by each This is my house. Ilive init. child,so I was able to view samples of the Ijust moved in. children's work done during the school year. The following sections illustrate what the chil- Interestingly, Jesse had not moved during the year dren did during jlumal time and, on the basis of nor was 1 move planned. This seemed to be a text those behaviors, suggest the purposes guiding their of con% enience; his energy was directed toward his efforts. Samples of the children's work are drawn house. 18e 1 81 Figure 2.Jesse's triangular house. Figure 3.Jesse. awl symbol for a house. it Q. Figure 4.Maggie's flowers and hearts. 181 1 R 2 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN In the opening months of school, Jesse's peer, Playing a Story Maggie, concentrated on hearts, flowers, and but- terflits (see Figure 4). Although, like Jesse's house, By January, Jesse showed little interest in pro- the drawn objects became more refined, her text ducing well-detailed scenes of figures and objects. remained a simple descriptive statement: Rather, he concentrated on what might be called Two butterflies are flying around. (9/12/84) two-dimensionaldramatic playon dramatizing action-packed adventures, as did Wolf and Gard- These are some flowers growing. There aresome hearts keeping them company . ner's dramatists. (9/17/84). Although Jesse was capable of drawing basic forms for people, vehicles, and houses, he seldom The hearts and flowers are growing and growing. (9/17/84) did so from January through April. His pieces, in fact,looked Ike those of a childstillin the These arehearts and moons and lightn ng. prerepresentational stage of drawing. In his efforts (9/21/84) to play out an action, he did not labor over each object. He used simple patches of color to stand for places and objects (castles, spaceships), as he Depicting a Scene had first used patches to stand for houses. He seldom depicted the characters carrying out actions. As the year progressed, the children as a group Rather, he concentrated on the actions themselves, tended to create detailed scenes combining objects as his earlier occurring dots and strokes of color and figures that captured their attention in differ- created bomb explosionsanddestructionsby ent arrangements. Maggie, for example, kept her monsters. interest in hearts,butterflies, and flowers; they For example, in producing Figure 6, Jesse dra- now turned up in scenes with other figures and matized a time bomb exploding on the moon. objects (see Figure 5). As her pictures became more Jesse makes a small mark on his paper. Listen to a elaborate, so did her texts: section of his talk: This is under the ocean and there is a whale with There's a time bomb The time bomb's right here. black lipstick on. And there's a flower lady under water. Jesse now begins writing numbers on his papers, And there's insect butterflies. accidentally making two ones, then turning the And there's a couple of stars and a moon second into a zero. and a rainbow and a sun. (11/6/84) 10, 9, 8,7, 6,5, 4, 3,u!,,3,2,1. Thisis a girl.She's playing in her garden and No, I don't need that 1. picking some flowers. And she's about to p;ck one Zero. [loudly) Kerplooh. more. That oze more is the only tulip. The end. [One doud in the sky is shaped like a heart.) (5/2/85) He now oakes dots all over his paper. "What are you doing, Jess?" ask two peers intently watch- The persistency of Maggie's interest in hearts ing. Jesse replies: and flowe:s is not atypical. Observers of young children's drawing have commented on children's Now look how many moonsat- -ound the moon. repetition. Like adult artists, children explore par- Jesse then makes an sound and connects ticula: theme..; (Gardner, 1960; Lindstrom, 1970; the dots. Later he dictates the following text: Smith, 1983). Similar repetition has been noted in This is a time bomb. a variety of media (Gardner, Wolf and Smith, The rime bomb is on a light. 1982), induding writing (Graves, 1983). Although And it blowed up a lie repetition may at times prevent the child from exploring new ideas, it is "enerally an avenue Jesse's text summarized, rather than relived, the experimentation and growth (Gardner, NW and basic drama that unfolded during his drawing and Smith, 1982), as illurtrated by Maggie's increasing- talking. ly more complex work. Because for young children drawing is a fr?- Coordinating Text and Picture quent lead-in to composing, observers of young writers have suggested that, as thildren's drawings By the last months of the school year, the are elaborated, so are their texts (Graves, 1983; children as a group made mote elaborate pictures Zalusky, 1983). Although this w'true for many and, also, appeased aware of the need to organize children in the room, it was n..true for all. coherent messages about those pictures. Paul, for 182 ------... tr.) et, At i IA if illk ,44..; :-;.::-.::-e). de (*did iill1141 Figure 5.Maggk's garden scene. Figure 6.Jesse's time bomb explosion. 1R4 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN example, claimed to have eliminated one possible house. To this point, these objects have not been journal topic because of the difficulty of coming related to each other in his accompanying talk. up with a text about it: Jesse next draws a boot, remarking: Reuben(toPaul): "Why do youalwayswrite He [the man] lost his boot right here. aboutmake monsters?" Paul: I make houses too. But I don't like to work in Now, the man and the boot are thematically my journal making houses. connected. After drawing rain and smoke, which Author.Why? seems appropriate for a picture containing a boot, Paul: I don't know. Because I don't know what to Jesse narrates this story: say about them. And then he saw a boot and grabbed it and walked In the event described in the opening of this in [to his house]. [chapter], which took place in May, we saw Maggie Jesse then makes a line from the person'* foot to and her peers work to make the visual image and the boot, crosses out the boot, and continues the language cooperate. Their efforts finally came to- line into the house. gether in the term six-legged cowMaggie had Now it's [the boot's] not t sere any more. something to say. In May, Jesse faced similar coordinating prob- Then Jesse dictates his story, which does not lems. By then, he had begun to draw recognizable convey theentirenarrativerelated during the houses and people again, weaving them together drawing: into stories. Consider, for example, the production A man's walking home. of Figure 7. And he saw a boo: Jesse has already drawn a person (originally Perhaps the clear image of the man in his identifiedas his"friend"),a rainbow, and a picture, who obviously is not inside the house, led Figure 7.Jesse's lost boot picture. 184 IR 5 The Drawing and Dictating of Young Children him to a dictation that also doesnot place the themselves during drawing and talking. So, ifa man inside the house. child is not concerned with tellinga story while Like Maggie's dictation about thecows and dra-ving, that child may not dictatea story. For horses, Jesse's text hide the problem solving, the example, judging Jesse's ability touse conventional coordination of picture and talk, that resulted in story grammar or explicit language by analyzing his this seemingly simple text. "house" composition or Maggie's by studying her "cow" piece would seem strangethe children would be evaluated for tasks they didnot complete (Newman, Griffin, and Cole, 1984). One might ACKNOWLEDGING better judge those abilities by having children read THE OPEN-ENDEDNESS wordless picture books or simply dictate storieson OF OPEN-ENDED TASKS particular topics rather than on theirown drawings (Sulzby, 1985; Magee and Suttoa-Smith, 1983). A plain piece of paper anda box of crayons are Second, the teachers must also be sensitiveto simple tools, but with them childrencan pose for c' 'Idren's purposes when respondingto their cf. themselves complex tasks. As Brittain (1979,p. 19) 13rts. For, as we talk to children, we help then writes, a child's drawing is "a challenge which is reflet.t upon their goals and articulate their pk.ns manifest on the paper." The children inthe and strategies (Smith, 1983). Wemust, then, be observed class explored the nature of the graphic sensitive to what those goals arc. For exarnp!e, in medium, constructed a figure, depicteda scene or responding to Jesse's house composition,ai.zempts played out a story,and,at times,negotiated to discuss his moving experiences would not seem between talk and picture. The children's dictations as helpful as talking to him about his strategies for were most oftenrecords of the experience of actually making the house. On the other hand, his drawing, rather than records ofpast incidents. "bomb" picture would seem an appropriateocca- Over the course LC theyear, as the children sionfordiscussingthedepictedimaginative worked in their journals, theywere learning about experience. drawing, about the basic elements of literature, Finally, the diversity of the children's behaviors and about written language itself. As theyear also has implications for planning literacyprograms progressed, -ny children in the room began for young children. A variety of text-producing arranging their drawn symbols intoscenes that experiences is needed to encourage a variety of reflected their interests and experiences. In addi- kinds of text from different children. For example, tion, through their talking and drawing, the chil- Vivian Paley (1981) describes the imaginativesto- dren werebusy"inventing worlds"(Winner, ries her children dictated when those storieswere 1982). They built scenes from a cast of characters; acted out, as were "every other kind of printed the characters were often engaged in actions and, wordfairy tales, storybooks, poems, and songs" in the latter half of the year, increasingly placed in (p. 12). These stories presented Paley withoppor- settings. Thus, the childrenwere organizing the tunides to help children thinklogically about basic stuff of which literature is made. themselves, their world, and, ofcourse, their sto- Finally, through dictation, the childrenwere also ries.Usinganothertechnique,Sylvia Ashon learning about the nature of written symbols. The Warner (1963) was able to elicit powerful personal children appeared to progressively adapt their dic- narratives by writing special "key" words for chil- tations to written language (see Sulzby, 1982, fora dren, like kids, love, and ghost, words thatcarry study of this phenomenon). For example, by May "their own illustrations in the mind" (p.39). they more often paused after each clause,some- And. as many educators have recently discussed, times backing up and repeatinga clause word by children need regular opportunities to be writers, word for their scribe; they frequently observedas .other than dictatorsto takepen in hand and their dictations were transcribed and spontaneously explore the connection between meaning andp.1-nt attempted to read their texts themselves. (Dyson, 19bi, 1985). Despite this obvious literacy learning, the chil- In sum, whether composing with linesor lan- dren's behaviors suggest cautions for those who guage, children invent symbols for figures, objects, assess and foster literacy growth. First, researchers and events (Smith, 1983); engage in the thinking and teachers analyzing children'stexts must be processes of organizing and abstracting as they aware of children's purposes. As noted earlier, work to portray their concepts (Brittain, 1979); and adults may evaluate thesetexts for their quality as communicate their ideas to themselves and others. "stories." But children pose varied problems for Depending upon their skill in each medium, their 185 1 R 6 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN personal style, and their perception of the current mance, respond supportively to their efforts, and task,the goals guiding individual children will provide a range of literacy exneriences, we must vary. We must remember, then, that the plans we appreciate this diversiq. And, like the children, we make for children are not necessarily the tasks they must take the time to observe, listen, and ask, set for themselves. To accurately 2SSCSS their perfor- "What are you doing, Jess?" DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How do drawing and talking relate to literacy development? 2. What is the role of symbols in language learning? 3. How can the use of journals enrich and expand the early childhood learning experience? 4. What are the appropriate teacher roles to encourage and maximize children' abilities to communicate? 5. How should teachers use open-ended questions and good listening skills to help children develop their liter- acy skilis) 186 1Raey 42. ENCOURAGING POSITIVE SOCIAL INTERACTION AMONG YOUNG CHILDREN by Dwight L. Rogers and Dorene Doerre Ross Some children easily find friends and convince that social con potence during the preschool years peers to accept their ideas. Others fir ii it difficult also predicts future adjustmet t because it is during torelate to playmates, share materials,protect the early years that children develop social skills. their rights, and deal with problems withoutcaus- How, then, can adults facilitate positivesocial ing conflict. In most classrooms thereare a few interaction among preschool and primary children? isolateschildren who are rejected by theirpeers. Many of these isolates are unable to enter into and negotiate socialinteractions. This [chapter] will VALUES OF PEER INTERACTION explore two questions: Why is it importantto help isolate-children develop more effective social skills Although children need adult guidance to pro- and what can adults do toencourage children's mote prosocial development, they also need oppor- positive social interactions? tunities to interact with peers with minimal adult intervention. Charlesworth and Hartup (1967) con- firm this point in a study of social reinforcement FUTURE IMPLICATIONS among preschool children. They found that posi- tive peer social reinforcement is r ore likely to Bremen and Erickson (1977) note that children occur during free play activities (e.g., blocks, dra- who are unable to identify and follow the rules of matic play) than during adult structured or project- the social group not only disrupt interactions but orientedactivities(e.g.,music,art,ortable are apt to be judged socially and intellectually games). incompetent. Children who are sociallycompetent Rubin (1972) found a significantcorrelation during their school years tend to "be tracked between the frequency of kindergarten children's higher; [and] advised toward higher ranked curric- contact with peers and the development of empa- ula, post-secondary programs and jobs" 159). thyskills(an important element of social In addition to children's academic ai'career competence). potential, early soda, adjustment in thepeer group Through peer interactions, children are confront- seems to predict adult social adjustment. Based on ed with real social problems. Honig (1982) awes several longitudinal studies, Roff, Sells, and Gold- that children benefit from opportunities to provide en (1972) conclude that the inability to form sympathy and help to peers in real "situations of satisfactory peer relationships in the primary grades distress or misfortune." Peer interactions provide is associated with poor conduct evaluations in the concentrated experience in situations where chil- military and with future delinquency. Similarly, dren get natural and realistic feedback about the Cowen, Pederson, Babijian, Izzo, and Trost (1973) attitudes of others and areas of mallet (Wilkinson found that poor peer relationship, in third grade and Dollaghan, 1979; Denzin, 1977). In these are the best predictor of futu:e emotional and situations, children continually try, modify, and mental health problems. discard behaviors as they develop their style and While most of these studies have included ele- ability in social situations (Wilkinson and Dol- mentary children, "we know very little about the laghan, 1979). effects of preschool social experiences on adjust- As children interact and experiment with social ment in kindergarten, the primary grades or be- interaction strategies, they are more likely to imi- yond" (Moore, 1981, p. 107). Because the impor- tate the positive social behavior of peers than the tance of elementarychildren'seffectivesocial negatiresocialbehavior.Vaughn and Waters interaction is so well established, it seems probable (1980) found that the behaviors of the most social- See pages 338-39 for acknowledgment and references, 187 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN ly competent children are watched and imitated by OBSERVE SOCIAL COMPETENCE their preschool peers more often than the behaviors f less socially competent children. Similarly, chil- The first step in helping children become more dren who play with altruistic peers display signifi- successful in their social interactions is to observe candy more altruism than those who do not have them. Adults can identify children who are pas- such models (Hartup and Coates, 1967). sive, aggressive, isolated, or efft. live in their social Peer interaction also encourages prosocial behav- interactions. ior because positive responses te, children's proso- During the primary grades, unpopular children cial behavior reinforce that behavior (Charlesworth are more likely to try to exert control over others and Hartup, 1967; Moore, 1981). Moore also states (Putallaz and Gottman,1981).Their demands that highly aggressive children are negatively rein- usually lead to negative responses from others forced when they are resisted and avoided. Such (Leiter,1977). Dirk uses an assertive/aggressive peer interactions give highly aggressive children style, with predictable results. "the message that their companions would like Dirk has a strong desire to be "the boss." Each time them to change" (p.106). another child suggests an idea or states a desire, a disagreement occurs as Dirk reasserts his authority.... Dirk consistently gets his way but [his kindergarten] teacher notices many conflicts and disagreements center- Ways to Ensure Peer Interaction ing around him. While Dirk has a few friends ... he is not considered a highly desirable playmate by most of Clearly, peer interaction provides children with the children. (Ross and Rogers, 1982, pp. 26-27) the impetus to change, the opportunity to observe Other children, like Nellie, seem to say or do and model competent behavior, and reinforcement the wrong thing and are consistently excluded from for prosocial interactions. In order to provide suffi- play situations. cient opportunities for peer interaction to occur, teachers must allocate time and space for process- Few children seem to want to play with Nellie.... Her repeated attempts to enter the play of others are oriented activities and play with minimal adult frequently rejected. When ... children allow Nellie supervision. Only then will children, and not the into their play, she is often excluded again within a few adults, control the social interactions. Adults can minutes. She seems unable to match her desires and anticipate some potentially troub!esome situations behavior to the ... group. By suggesting the wrong and structure activities to avoid them (see Stone, thing or 'ay trying to alter the course of play inappropri- ately, she inadvertently alienates herself from the othci 1978). children. Nellie constantly looks to the teacher for help The development of empathy and other positive in gaining entrance and acceptance in play situations. social interactions will be encouraged when chil- (Ross and Rogers, 1982, pp. 22-27) dren engage in activities such as block play, water and sand play, dramatic play, or similar activities Children who are social isolates are also a con- with limited adult intervention. Teachers can circu- cern. These children seldom initiate contact or late among the groups during these free play respond to the overtures of others, and thus sel- times, commenting about and asking questions dom interact with their peers. pertinent to the children's play. The teacher's ale By observing children who are highly competent is to show interest inrather than to con, social negotiators like Kyle, teachers can identify their play. strategies children use to maintain successful social As Mead (1930) noted, individuals also grow relationships. through conflict, frustration, and the confrontation Everyone seems to enjoy playing with Kyle. He is able of problems. Children who are given the opportu- to suggest ideas to guide the direction of a play episode nity to resolve their own problems can test the and yet also can smooth over potential disagreements. Kyle seems to understand and be able to meet the validity and worth of the developing social skills needs and interests of other children while at the same and attitudes. time fulfilling his own needs. The teacher seldom needs Hill (1982) summarizes the importance of activi- to intervene in a play group where Krle is a participant. ties with minimal adult supervision: (Ross and Rogers, 1982, pp. 25-26) Once these strategies are identified, children like The inevitable conflicts that arise in social interaction Dirk and Nellie can be helped to adopt them in provide important occasions for learning about other people's needs, wants, etc.... In early childhood class- their play. rooms, too much adult intervention might reduce the Sociometric measures can help validate observa- number of potential learning situations. (p. 9) tions and provide additional information about the 188 1s3 Encouraging Posuive Social Interaction childreninthe group."Sxiometric measures needs simultaneously. Less effective children fre- avoid the problems with assessing socialcompe- quently use a variety of strategiesto try to meet tence from an adult's point of view by eliciting their own needs but are unable to predict the playmate preferencesor nominationsforeach reaction of the children in the group (Ross and [child]" (Vaughn and Waters, 1981,p. 276). Rogers, 1982; Putallaz and Gottman, 1981). Un- One sociometric measure asks childrento "as- popular children are more likely totry to alter the sign pictures of each of their classmatesto one of action and conversation of the group toward them- three faces according to how much they likedto selves rather than to determine a rayto integrate play with that person: a happy face,a neutral face, their actions and conversatior and a sad face" (Asher, Singleton, Tinsley,and This kindergarten play episode illustrates the Hymel, 1979, p. 444). Thescores derived from this importance of these elements of effective 3ocial measure are more reliable than the common tech- interaction. nique of asking children toname the children whom they consicitr to be their Dirk, Nathan and Sabrina were working togetherto most and least build a slide out of large hollow blocks. Nelliewas preferred playmates. nearby building an independent structure. When the After making observations and using sociometric slide was completed, Dirk selected an H-shaped block measures, teachers can evaluate the information, and used it as a raft to slide down the slide. Nathan determine which social skills are lacking, and de- also grabbed a raft and Dirk called to Sabrina toget cide upon the most appropriate intervention for one too. Nellie, hoping to join their play, said "I'll get in behind Sabrina." Dirk emphatically told her toget each child. her own. Nellie continued to try to join the play... in a variety of ways.... She suggested they all build a house. This idea was emphatically rejected.... She also ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL SKILLS ... told the teacher several times and tried to use the teacher's authority. "The teacher says to letme on there." Finally, she... got the teacher and successfully Several skills have been identifiedas elements of joined the ploy. However, v.,' en she saton the slide effective social interaction for preschool andele- refusing to go down, she was ;oon excluded from play mentary children. again. (Ross and Rogers, 1982, pp. 26-27) Ability to assess what is happening ina social As was often the case, Nellie was unableto situation. The child must be ableto determine the determine the focus of the other children's play focus of the interactions and be sensitiveto the and unable to take into account their interests. problems encounterti in that situation (Bremm Although she used a wide variety of strategiesto and Erickson, 1977; Putallaz and ()Inman,1981; enter the play, she was unable to predict the Spirak alid Shure, 1974). children's reactions and thus did not selecta strategy that would be successful. Skill to perceive and correct!,interpret the actions and needs of the children in thegroup at play (Bremm and Erickson,1977;Hill,1982; Mussen and Eisenberg-Berg, 1977). WAYS TO HELP CHILDREN Ability to imagine possiblecourses of action and select the most appropriateone (Bremm and Increase Group Play Erickson, 1977; Spivak and Shure, 1974) Encouraging group play is especially effective in Spivak and Shure also found that children who helping children who are social isolates learn how were able to generate a wide variety of possible tointeract with others. Teachers can stimulate solutions were more likely to solve the problem in interaction by directing the child to agroup of a prosocial manner. They stress that the child must children with similar play interestsor by playing be sensitive to the possibleconsequences of an with the child and gradually involving other chil- action in order to selectthe mosAppropriate dren as well (Smilansky, 1971; Christie,1982). solution. Further, the most appropriate solution Information gleaned from observations about the seems to be one that will be perceived positively child's play interests will be valuable in determin- by other children (Gottman, Gonso, andRasamus- ing the type of activity most likely toengage the sen, 1975; Asher, Oden and Gottman, 1977). isolate. We also found that the mostcompetent chil- Smilansky offers several strategiesto help chil- dren are able to select a strategyto meet both the dren think of possible connections between their needs of the children in thegroup and their own play and that of others. For example, the teacher 1 9 0 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN might encourage a child playing alone with a car For example, children might ask "What are you to join nearby children pretending tobegas playing?" "Who are you pretending to be?" or station attendants by asking her "Does your car "What are you building?" Once familiar with the need gas?" If the child does not try to enter the group's intentions and play direction, a child is group, the teacher might try more direct strategies. able to make more accurate judgments about how making a statement such as "I go to the gas tointegratepersonaldesiresintothegroup station for a fill-up every week," the teacher can perspective. clarify the behavior expected. "Your gas pauge is A similar,but lessintrusive,strategyisto on empty. Before your car runs out of gas, why suggest that children observe briefly beforeat- don't you go to the gas station?" further elabo- tempting to enter the group. rates on the suggestion. Young children who reflect on their own feel- Some children may still be reluctant to join the ings develop a greater understanding of the feel- group. If it seems appropriate, the teacher may ings of others (Hughes, Tingle, and Sawin, 1981; establish contact between the children by com- Hill, 1983). When children can consider the listen- menting to the group, "The driver of this red car ers' perspectives they will be less likely to work at needs to fill :p with Las." Or the teacher may cross purposes with the others m the group (Asher, model the appropriate dialogue for the social iso- Oden, and Gottman, 1977). Adults who encourage late by taking another car and saying to the group, children to talk with them about their problems, "I need to fill my car with gas before I run out." feelings, and desires thus help '.arose children :m- Teachers can also promote positive social behav- prove their communication skills and sensitivity to ior by grouping children who have inappropriate others (Schuler, Kirshner, Klips, Friedricks, and social skills with more socially competent children, Sanders, 1974). since we know that children model effective beha- ior example, a teacher might help upset chil- viors of their peers (Hartup and Coates,1967; Moore, 1981; Vaughn and Waters, 1980). dren to clarify their feelings by saying "You look For example, a teacher might group an overly very sad. Can you tell me what happened?" assertive/aggressive child such as Dirk with an A logical next step is for teachers to encourage equally strong yet prosocial child like Kyle. Most children to express desires, provide explanations, likely,less socially competent children's familiar and resolve arguments through discussion with strategies will be ineffective in such a group. At other children, without teacher intervention. the same time, the more competent children pro- Children also may need help in deciding which vide a model for more effective strategies. behaviorswill be perceivedpositively by their Through this sensitive structuring of the play by peers. Coaching children is advocated by Asher, using questions and suggestions, most children will Oden, and Gottman (1977). In coaching, the adult begin to interact with others. Such interventions advises the children on how to have fun during must be enthusiastic, natural, and timed so that play and then offers the opportunity to put it into they do not disrupt, but rather add to, children's practice. For example, during the episode about play.If reluctanceisexpressed by any of the Nellie, the teacher might have suggested she try children, the teacher should respect the children's using a different block as a raft to enter the play wishes and find other times to help the isolate of others. She also might have said, "Everyone child establish a tic with another group. Patience likes to slide down, so when it's your turn, slide will be needed, too, as children's progress in social down quickly. Then you'll get another turn very skills is gradual and depends upon their frequent soon and everyone will have fun." use. Putallaz and Gottman (1981) suggest a similar strategy. They advocate helping children to talk about rules or social norms during disagreements Build Communication Skills to justify their positions. This strategy, they found, is used by popular children. For example, a child Children who have difficulty assessing situations attempting to enter the block area where the other and interpreting the needs and actions of others children have already said he cannot play, might can be encouraged to refine their communication be encouraged to state the classroom rule, "There skills through several techniques. are only three people in here and four are allowed Putallaz and Gottman (1981) suggest teaching to play." children to ask questions as they approach a group Other strategies to help children improve their at play in order to determine the group's interest. perspective-taking skills and decide upon the most 190 Encouraging Positive Social Interaction appropriate behaviors are role-playing andstruc- In the above example, the teacher might nccdto tured discussion (Krogh,1982). Both strategies extend her participation for the nonverbal child by help children explore the possibleconsequences of suggesting, "Sam, how can you tell Michael and alternative solutions and thus improve theirreason- Marshall that you want to play? Can you remind ing ability. By helping children understand how them that three can play in the block corner?" others might perceivetheiractions,these two strategies help children make decisions aboutap- propriate and inappropriate behavior. SUMMARY When a problem occurs during play, teachers might guide children towardmore appropriate All adults who work with young children know behavior choices by using reflective discipline (Hill, that social development is an integral part of the 1982). This technique helps children think about early childhood curriculum.This component is their feelings and the feelings and it, ..itions of essential if children are to become socially compe- others. The teacher asks questions designedto tent adults. Current research indicates that these provide the child with information leadingto a strategics will encourage positive social interaction better understanding of the consequences of heror among children. his acts. For example, if Alison hit Kevin witha block, the teacher might ask, "How doyou think Provide activities in which children interact Kevin felt when you hit him? What couldyou say with minimal adult supervision such as blocks, to get him to give your block back?" water, sand, and dramatic play. For children with poor communication skills, the Observe, assess, and group childrenso that teacher may nccd to intervene in interaction prob- those who are effective social negotiators can inter- lems before they become major conflicts. Often the act with children whose skills are less refined. adult's presence lends needed support. Forexam- Help ch'idren learn to ask questions, observe ple, the teacher might walk with the childto a group, bend down, and speak for the child by a group before entering, improve their communi- saying "Sam has something he cation skill*, and talk about their feelings and wants to say to desires. Pointing out effective behaviors or suggect- you. " This may be sufficient for Sam to express ing ideas may be nccdcd for some children. his desires and encourage the othersto welcome him into their play. Each of these strategics will offer childrenop- Other children may n!ed the teacher to provide portunities to develop social skills in a natural verbal reasoning tohell, them negotiatesocial context in which they receive immediate feedback interactions (Asher, Oden, and Gottman, 1977). about their behavior. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Should social interaction be a goal of the early education program? 2. How do children differ on social interaction skills? 3.Is peer interaction important foi all children? 4. What should teachers do toencourage positive peer interaction? 5.What is the role of teacher observation? 6.Which social skills are of the most importanceto young children? 191 43. TEACHING WITH LESS TALKING: LEARNING CENTERS IN THE KINDERGARTEN by Barbara Kimes Myers and Karen Maurer Randy had come to school early to help his in learning centers so thatsheis freed to interact teacher set up the new learning center so he knows with small groups or individual children. A learn- all about the plastic eggs. He lifts one, trying to ing center approach is consistent with what leading recallif it feels like the egg he had put four early childhood professionals have defined asdevel- pennies in earlieror maybe the five-penny egg. opmentally appropriate practicesince before the He studies the direction card, sees the picture of turn of the century, because it allows teachers to an ear, and tries listening to the sound of four consider both the age appropriateness and the penniesor maybe five. Finally, he opens the egg individual appropriateness of learning experiences and counts. Aha! Five it is. Carefully he closes all (NAEYC, 1986). The termslearning centerand the eggs and lines them up, each on its own mat, developmentally appropriateare variations of the the way he found them. He takeQ a green card same concepts phrased slightly differently for al- from the egg-math center to the record keeping most 100 years. station, stamps it with the date, and slips it;- to the tubby labeledRandy.He moves on to the blocks where Martin and Deseree build garages for LEARNING THROUGH PROJECTS their cars. IS NOT A NEW NOTION Maria and Jonathan sharetheirexploration. "Mine doesn't have anything in it!" complains Learning centers have long been an integral part Maria. of the educational scene. Their roots can be found "That's zero," Jonathan explains. "Let's put all in the work of educators like Pestalozzi, who the money in one egg. Then they'll all be zero believed that children learn through direct interac- except mine." tion with other children and their environment; He counts the contents of his plastic egg with all Dewey, with his emphasis on learning through the pennies in it, goes to find his teacher, and, doing and the "organic connection between educa- knowing she is interested in important discoveries, tion and personal experience" (Dewey, 1966, p. announces that he has found an egg with 14 25); and Montessori, with her deep conviction that pt.Inies in it! the young child learns through tasks and carefully Randy, Martin, Deseree, Jonathan, and Maria prepared teaching materials. Theopen education are active learners in a kindergarten where their movement in the 60s and early 70s was another teacher uses carefully planned learning centers. steptoward opening the schoolroom and the Their teacher feels that learning centers are one schedule to make room for educational projects, method of teaching that allows for developmental committee work, and learning activities meaningful theory and educational practice to be integrated. to children, in contrast to giving them, in a fixed She believes that learning centers permit her to sequence, printed material preparedforthem. meet individual needs of children while enabling More recently, Day (1983) described three essen- her to structure their learning environment. tial characteristics of this teaching strategy. Accord- In the example, Randy's teacher,like other ing to Day, as well as to the many other educators kindergarten teachers who use learning centers, who have w:itten on the subject, a learning center structures the learning environment not by strict approach for young children provides an intention- scheduling and insistence upon children remaining al strategy for the active involvement of children, seated, but by the arrangement of space, equip- experience-based learning, and individualization in ment, and materials through which children are relation to children's developmental abilities, inter- free to move, choose, and busy themselves. Rather ests, and learning styles. Building from Day, we than instructingtheentire group of children, have suggested that curriculum taught through Randy's teacher invites them to become involved learning centers be termedresponsive curriculum See page 339 for acknowledgment and references. 192 1 R 3 Teaching with Leas Talking (Myers and Maurer, 1986). Nimnirht used a term some risk taking and is not easy. The most impor almost like this in his 1964new nursery school," tant resources for persons wanting to incorporate made well-known in the book by the same name learning centers into their kindergarten practice are (Nimnicht, McAfee, and Meier, 1968); the school's strong, viable network of early childhood profes- curriculum s called theresponsive environment. sionals and a strong personal disposition to learn A learning center style curriculum can be viewed (even when learning brings change). asresponsivefor two reasons. First, the curriculum is designed for a specific group of individuals and LEARNING CENTERS INVITE CHILDREN therefore meets them where they are developmen- tally and experientially.Second, the curriculum Spodek (1985) stresses that although kindergar- responds to children at the same time it also builds ten teachers intenticnally structure the activities upon the teacher's (responder's) previous experi- presented in each center"it is the children who ences with young children; formal teacher training; carry the activity forward, and in the final analysis, beliefs about appropriate teachers'roles within determineits content" (pp. 217-218). particulareducationalsettings;andinchriduo I Learning centers invite children to assume re- skills, values, and interests. sponsibility for their own learning through implicit Kindergarten teachers are expected toeither or explicit contracts. (Sometimes Lhildren are re- develop their own curriculum, work withcol- quired to record their own work as Randy did in leagues to plan a curriculum that frs within a the example.) Children of varying ages and with specific school setting (often such a curriculum is different interests and learning styles can benefit part of a K-6 or K-8 continuum), or use a from centers. A center is set up in a defined space prescribed curriculum. In any of these situations, (i.e.,table, floor, mat, packing box, wall, play learning centers can offer responsive possibilities area), mai have defined or open-ended educational for teaching a complex mixture of skills, subject objectives, and either is self- directing or has in- content, and character traits as long as the teacher structions included within the center. (All instruc- is knowledgeable about age-appropriate curriculum tions included [within] the center need to be for children in a specific kindergarten group; is understoodby a kindergarten-agechild.They attentive to the developmental levels,interests, should have pictures, agreed-upon symbols, exam- learning styles, and needs of the individual chil- ples, and sometimes words if there are children in dren in the group; and has a great deal to say the group who can read.) about the development and expansion of the pre- Learning centers do not need continuous adult scribed curriculum. Obviously, if prescribed curric- supervision,but some children may need help ulum is simply divided among a number of learn- making what the teacher views as good choices or ing centers and each child expect' lto do it they may want to share a discovery or display some allas is often the case in kindergarten class- work. A teacher may want to have a morning roomsmuch of the value of learning centers is planning session with the classto discuss the lost. choices for the day and give background or demon- Many teachers hesitate to use learning centers. strate techniques to be used in a new center. Such teachers are at either end of a continuum one pole representing those fearing chaos in the classroom, the other representing those not want- DECISIONS TO BE MADE BY ADULTS ing to intrude on children's spontaneous play. Persons at both ends of the spectrum can be Before setting up learning centers, teachers have reassuredbyobserving1kindergartenteacher to make a number of decisions about the size and skilled in using learning centers. Those fearing structure of the classroom and how learning centers chaos will see children busy with learning center can best fit into the overall scheme: adult-child activities and invested in their own learning. Those ratios; skills, interests, and abilities of staff mem- not wanting to be too directive will see how more bers; length of school day; characteristics of the intentional planning (a Lucy Sprague Mitchell children; available resources; parents' and school term) facilitates spontaneous play and provides a personnel's expectation of kindergartens teachers; rich variety of carefully structured activities consis- teachers' assumptions about how children learn; tent with the social,emotional, cognitive, and and teaches' values. Some of the questions that phl sical development of young children. For both need to be addressed include: sets of teachers learning new ways of doing, things Will centers be offered all day, every day; can be anxiety producing because it always Involves out of the day; or only sonic days of the week? 193 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN (Our choice is to offer centers for a large block or teachers to set up an activity;Or a prescribed blocks of time every day at approximately the same purpose. The latter two types allow teachers to set time. This allows children to plan ahead, make up activities for children of varying ages, learning choices, and become involved in activities. It allows abilities, and experience levels, and allow the child teacherstoinitiallystructurelearningcenters to determine the outcome. throughout the room and gradually add centers, Ithas been our experiencethat oftenearly remove centers, or modify centers during the year. childhood personnel follow the elementary and The centers themselves do him often change; the secondary educators' model of dividing the curricu- activities available in some of them do.) lum into subject areas such as language arts, social What classroom features uffci potential set- science, mathematics, science, creative arts. When tings for centers? Teachers can make creative use of an educational strategy includes learning centers walls, floors, chalkboards, tables, and nooks and and an academic subject model is used, the subject crannies. areas overlap and are integrated. Although we will Should there be limits on the number of now focus on language arcs centers, the academic children using any specific centers? If so, how will a:cas of mathematics, science, social studies, and this be determined, and how will children know the creativearts could also have been used as what the limits are? Learning centers should be examples, as well as other terms within a different planned so thereis opportunity for children to curriculum-naming framework (i.e., large muscle, work individually or in small groups of various small muscle, cogs.ive). Ideas for activities to be numbers. The size of a small group of children at included in centers can come from other teachers, any center is determined by the amount of materi- conference workshops, age-appropriate activity rei- alsavailable,theeducational objectives of the pe books, curriculum guides, observations of chil- center, physical space considerations, and the need dren's activities, and parents' suggestions. to avoid overstimulating confusion. Signs with stick figures and numbers can indicate the number of Self-Directing/ Self-Correcting children who can use a specific center. Learning Centers What kinds of centers will provide a workable balance in terms of content? This will depend on Self- directing /self correcting centers have o-i- the characteristics of the children and staff. ous and prescribed uses;the materialtells the How free should movement be in and out of learner whether a given action is correct or incor- the centers? (Our choice is that children move at rect. Puzzles and other toys with parts that fit their own paces guided by the teacher. This allows together in one specific way are self-directing/self- for more individualization within the program.) correcting. Battery-operated matching games and Must every child use every center? Each day? computer-assistedinstruction programs alsofall Each week? into this category, as do many Montessori materi- How will children know what to do in each alsSee Table 1 for examples of self-c'irecting/self- center? Some centers will have directions built into correcting centers. their structure. Others will need direction cards. Any educational catalog or supply store sef's When a new centerisadded or acenteris learning games like these. Games can be made by modified the teacher needs to help children under- cutting, pasting, and laminating workbook and stand rules related to that specific center. ditto sheet exercises. Is it important that a record be kept of each child's center work? If so, what is the most effi- Self-Directing/Open-Ended Learning Centers cient way to keep records? Our answers to the question listed have evolved Self-directing/open-ended learning centers allow from the context of our own experiences. A unique for a variety of learning outcomes, including some blend of values, assumptions, and resources will that teachers may not initially consider appropri- shape each teacher's responses. ate. A unit block or hollow block center is self- directing because the blocks invite building and the creative possibilities are limited or1y by the TYPES OF LEARNING CENTERS children's experience and imagination. An egg carton with objects to place in the hollows may Learning centers may be described as self-direct- motivate childrento drop one objectin each ing/self-correcting;self-directing/open-ended;or hollow for a one-to-one correspondence, 1 put two teacher-instructed/explorewy. The first type allows in each, to count, to sort, or to pretend that the 194 4.lre.10 Teaching with Less Talking Table 1. Self-Directing/Self-Correcting Centers Educational objectives Defined space Materials 1.auditory discrimination, preparation for paper rug samples or carpet direction cards with correct match illustrated on and pencil matching squares back, object pairs that can be matched by some criterion (e.g., initial sound, rhyme), lengths of yarn 2.auditory discrimination, verbal interaction and table boxes labeled with upper- and lower-case letters, cooperation when two or more children work pictures on individual cards to be sorted into together boxes according to the same initial sound (same center may be varied so that sorting is by final sound or by rhyme) 3.understanding and audio discrimination of table, rug a puzzle having pairs of rhyming objects rhyme to sharpen audio discrimination, oppor- tunity for verbal interaction and cooperation when children work together hollows are nests and all rounded objects are eggs. Examples of teacher-instructed/exploratory centers Table 2 gives several examples of self-directing/ are provided in Table 3. open-ended centers. The purpose of the three types of centers and All activity and play areas suited to preschool the several examples of each one can be made clear classrooms for 3- and 4-year-olds are also appropri- to children with a minimum of direction from the ate for5s. teacher. For instance in the object-matching exam- ple given under self-directing/self-correcting learn- Teacher - Instructed / Exploratory ing centers, one set of objects can be lined up in a Learning Centers vertical column on a small rug with the matching set loosely clustered on a second small rug. This Teacher - instructed /exploratory centers can pro- center also has a directions card presented along vide opportunities for children to further explore with a picture of an car and several matching sets techniques or concepts that have been presented shown (e.g.,dog matches door,sun matches earlier in a teacher-directed activity. Following a sockyarn connecting the two). The directions teacher-presented experiment in which a cork, a card mayal:.-.oshow some stickfigures and a rock, a coin, and a piece of wood are tested to see numeral if the teacher wishes to limit the number whether each willsink orfloat,children may of children who may use the center at one time. extend the possibilities beyond theinitialfour Children will argue, correct, and teach each other. items. Children might work from a larger prepared The center is made self-correcting by having the set or create their own set of items to test. The acceptable matches shown on the reverse of the presentation thus becomes a model for the chil- card. dren's free exploration.In the preser,cation the Because children using self- directing /open -ended teacher may want to model attitudes, words, and or teacher-instructed/exploratory learning centers behaviors that she believes are desirable for the may respond in a variety of ways, the outcomes of children to incorporate into their explorations, but these centers often depend on the sophistication of the critical factor is that the children redesign the the learner. The type of center offered at any experiment by extending the set of objects tested. specific time may depend on the teacher's percep- specific needs. For example, As part of such a science center on floating and tion of children's sinking, a teacher may want to demonstrate how to Victor's teacher planned to use a self-directing/ record findings on a group or individual chart: by open-ended center: placing the object on a chart in the float column Victor, a child in a kindergarten/child care setting, was or the sink column; by drawing the object in the close to being able to write his name. He worked the appropriate column; or by cutting out a picture soft green dough clay with obvious enjoyment, rolling long snakes that he shaped to the strokes of the letters and gluing it in the proper column. Later in the his teacher had printed on a large sheet of construction year some children may choose to write the names paper. An observant parent helped watch him complete of the floating and sinking objects on the chart. the r, handed him a marker, and remarked encourag- 10" 195 Table 2. Self-Directing/Open-Ended Centers Educational objectives Defined space Matenals 1.audio discrimination, listening pleasure, motiva- table tape recorder, headsets, audio tape with record- tion for children to practice rhyming or making ings of stories written in rhyme up stories of their own 2.representation of experiences and fec:ings with tables near display of chil- 12" x 18" paper, pencils, markers (This center oral and written language dren's paintings will need a couple of parent volunteers or older students from the 5th or 6th grade who can write down the children's dictations about their pic- tures. Children who arc writing independently with conventional or invented spelling, of course, write their own stories.) 3.Nc.111 discrimination, practice in formation of table rubber stamp letters, ink pad, pencils and paper letters 4.opportunity for oral language and verbal and famil" living center child-sized furniture, clothes for dress up, other nonverbal cooperation, representation of experi- props for dramatic play ence through pretend play Table 3. Teacher-Instructed/Exploratory Centers Educational objectives Defined space Matenals 1.practice in rhyming, audio discrimination, ex- table tape recorder, headsets, teacher-made audio ploring and sharing own ideas tapes of rhymes with time on the tape for chil- dren to add their own examples 2.idea that experience can be represented in visual tables or easel tempera paint (the three primary colors, black, form, opportunity for children to explore and and white), 12" x 18" paper, 1/2-inch wide shale feelings and experiences with others, ex- brushes (teacher initiates the activity with con- pansion of vocabulary as children mix paints in versation about sensory memories related to a various colors and tones common experience the children have recently had) 3.concept of writing as meaningful marks on paper table next to bulletin magazine pictures mounted on 12"x 18" sheets and of stories as something that can be written board where children's of unlined paper, pencils or felt-tipped markers, down original stories are dis- stapler (for those who may want to make a book) played as well as library display of picture books (teachers have previously written the children's orig- inal stories with them) 196 Teaching with Less Talking ingly, "I think you're ready to write your name." He know this. Researchers have further shown that by did, again and again! Then, it was lunchtime and as he marched triumphantly down the hall to his child care reflecting on the events of their own classrooms, room, Victor could be heard chanting softly, "I thought any teacher can make implicit curriculum more I could,I thought I could, I thought I could." explicit. Often, although not always, the explicit curriculum includes academic skills and subject Obviously, Victor was influenced by The Little content, while the implicit curriculum involves the Engine That Could, as well as by his good feelings development of character traits or personal attri- about writing his name. The responsive open- butes. Selecting the appropriate type of learning endedhess of the center allowed for the adult's center allows teachers to help children develop suggestion as well as for Victor's input. certain character traits of personal attributes, in Just as each child is unique, so is each teacher. addition to learning skills and subjects. The teacher's own skills, values, and interests will Setting up effective learning centers, some of color the structure and use of learning centers. which willserve only one or two children and Instruction may be more heavily weighted in one others of which will serve various size groups, is area of the curriculum if the teacher has specific initially time consuming. But once the environ- skills related to academic subjects such as math and ment is structured and children learn the uses and science or development areas such as language limits for each center, teachers can concentrate on acquisition. Teachers who fear chaos may initially working with small groups or individuals as needs usemoreself-directing/self-correctingactivities. arise. When the teachers' active participation is not Teachers concerned about excessive intrusion into necessary, they can spend time observing students children's play may initially plan for more self- SO that better informed curriculum decisions can be directing/open-ended centerseducational play ar- made. Gradually, new centers will be added, some eas,suchasthose we seeinearly childhood centers removed, and others mod.riecl. When one, programs for younger children. two, or several children are helped to understand Som: researchers in the field of early childhood how a new or modified center is to be used, they education (Ber lak and Berlak, 1981; Bussis, Chit- can help other children learn. tenden, and Amarcl, 1976; Halliwell, 1980; King, Angela Andrews, an exemplary kindergarten 1976; King, 1978; Myers, 1984) have found that teacher and teacher educator skilled in the use of teachers teach both a surface or explicit curriculum learning centers, tells those who compliment her that is clearly articulated and a more hidden or onher kindergartenpractice,"Thank you,I implicit curriculum. The former generally includes worked hard to learn to do this." the kind of activities a teacher would describe in Teaching a reponsive curriculum through learn- her plan book, but the latter is taught through the ing centers requires knowledge, skill, and a lot of arrangement of time, space, and materials as well thought. It is hard work, but seeing young chil- as interpersonal relations and interactions. Teachers dren vibrant and deeply involved in the process of with strong educational philosophies of any kind learning is a tremendously rewarding experience. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Are children learning while the teacher is not "teaching"? 2. What is the justification for learning through projects and learning centers? 3. How do adult decisions and child interest fit together in good learning center environments? 4. What are the characteristics of the various types of learning centers? 5. Do learning centers increase the individualization of instruction in the classroom? i ,Th 197 -Il. L.) 44. INFLUENCES FROM THE PAST: PLAY IN THE 7.ARLY CHILDHOOD CURRICULUM by Margie L. Hardy and Laurie J. Greene Throughout the course of history, the role of a distinction between work and play by including children's play has been influenced by the zeitgeist worksheets in "work" and games in "play." Some of the time, causing it to have varying definitions educators concede that children do need to play, and purposes. More recently, proponents of the but the need is relegated to recess or playground back to the basics movement, which is character- activities.It is further observed that when group ized by rigor in the curriculum and competency games are allowed in the classroom they are usually testing, tend to view play as unimportant.Itis reserved for "after the children have finished their necessary, therefore, for us to examine the purpose work" (Kamii, 1985). Kamii further feels that of education. Is our main concern to produce high although work and play become differentiated as test scores or are we committed to the child's the child grows older, the differentiation is never ,Ievelopment,well-being,andmeans through complete because work and play can share common which he learns most effectively, including play' elements including enjoyment, learning, intrinsic Identifying play as the child's war- and exploring motivation, and a sense of accomplishment. the loots of play and its recurrence through history Piaget provides a cognitive view of play fro_his can help strengthen its role in the early childhood studies which reveal that children come to under- curriculum. stand and master their environment according to In order to identify play as the child's work, it their age and stage of development (Butler, Gotts is necessary to understand what is meant by the and Quisenbcrry,1978). During infancy, Piaget term,play.Definitions char- Acrizing play vary relates play in its initial stages to assimilation or according to the educational purpose and historical the integration of new experiences or environmen- setting of which it was a part. tal information into the child's already existing According to Glickman, during the late 1800s cognitive structure. Even though no new cognitive play was viewed as an imitation of adults and a structure is produced during assimilation, the child release of surplus energy. During the progressive repeats an action for the sheer joyitbrings. era, play was viewed as important in problem Symbolic assimilation is referred to as the source of solving and socialization.In the era following make believe play while functional assimilation is World War II, play was viewed as nonproductive the source of practice play. On the other hand, and frivolous. A more contemporary definition accommodation forces the infant to develop new reveals play as intrinsic, enjoyable, and an active cognitive structures. Hence, Piaget classifies play base for language, cognitive, motor, and social and imitation as representative of two poles of development ( lawkey and Pel!egrini,1984). intellectual thought. Play is defined as a continua- Part of the confusion concerning the meaning of tion of assimilation, while imitation is defined as a play arises from the separation between work and continuation of accommodation (Butler, Gotts and play with the belief that while work is good, play Quisenberry, 1978). is somehow questionable, if not sinful or bad, In further consideration of a definition of play, according to Frank (Hartley and Goldenson, 1963). Lawrence Frank declares, Athey states the division bericen work and play as Play is the way the child learns what no one can teach useful and useless activity parallels the view of the him. It is the way he explores and orients himself to the preschool as less important than foi_nal education actual world of space and time, of things, animals, (Yawkey andPeliegrini,1984).Piaget(1962) structures and people. Through play, he learns to live in wrote, "But the main reason for the difficulty lies our symbolic world of meanings and values, of progres- perhaps in the fact that there has been a tendency sive striving for deferred goals, at the same time explor- ing and experimenting and learning in his own individ- to consider play as an isolated function ... whereas ualized way. (Hartley and Goldenson, 1963) play is in reality one o, die aspects of any activi- ty." Kamii (1985) notes that some educators make Over one hundred years earlier, Froebel declared See page 339 for acknowledgme it and references 198 Influences from the Put that, "Play is the highest phase of child develop- an active explorer of nature and practiced a teach- ment ... for itis self active representation of the ing methodology based on sense impression. He inner from inner necessity and impulse" (Hail- favored the use of free play and movement in the mann, 1887). learning process. Pt ;tolozzi's teaching method was Since play has been considered the crux of the aimed at strengthening the child's own faculties, preschool ,experience for much of this century, it is thus cnabling him to think for himself. 'nponant to understand something of its historical Froebel, who studied with Pestolozzi and read background in order to make decisions about its Rousseau's writings, went beyond the methods and inclusion in today's early childhood curriculum. theory of play. He derived a new conception of Glickman states that play, as an educational enter- childhood, meaning that it was not merely prepa- prise,hasitsroots in the French Revolution, ration for adulthood, but thatit was of value especially in the writings of Rousseau (Yawkcy and itself.Froebeldeveloped instructionalmaterials Pellegrini,1984). The ancient Greeks also saw along with guides for teachers and encouraged the value in play. Plato wrote "... the play of children organization of the environment (Yawkey and Pel- have the mightiest influence on the maintenance legrini,1984). or nonmaintenance of laws" (Hailmann,1887). The plays and occupations which Froci)el used Plato also wrote that education for children should in the curriculum encouraged activity. Imitation be a sort of amusement (Braun and Edwards, was a significant development which arose from 1972). Paralleling the view that instruction should free activity. Even though play mainly consisted of be rendered as amusement was Quintillian,a activity in the early stages, later it assumed a more Roman, who advocated learning through use of definitepurpf-sebecause representation of the games and imitation. Play assumed a greater role thing to be represented in the activity was sought. of imitation in preparing children for their future Froebel felt that physical and sensory training role in society during the Middle Ages. were important and that the way a child revealed A forerunner of the "child-centered" philoso- his nature was dependent on the kinds of play and phy of education was Erasmus, who believed that occupations which he chose. Hence, Froebel wrote, work, meaning study, should begin by way of "The educator should noc regard the manifesta- play. Play was viewed as a release from work or tions of children's activity as external and isolated, learning by some educators of the Reformation but always affecting or arising from their inner including Martin Luther (Haiimann, 1887). life" (Hailmann, 1887).Parents were urged to During the Early Modern Period, physical exer- cultivate the spontaneous play of the child. cise and games for health purposes were empha- "Although Froebel understood the role of play sized by such spokesmen as Comenius and Locke. in the development of the child, he never actually Locke believed that a sound body should be culti- worked out a system of classification on play as vated as well as a sound mind. He further believed play"(Butler,Gotts, and Quisenberry,1978) that freedom of play and activity would reveal However, three successive stages are identified by natural temperaments and levels of development. Piaget in the evolution of children's play including During the 18th century, amid the aristocratic practice, symbolism a', d rules. Practice play begins society of France, Rousseau advocated following in the fast months of a child's life, and symbolic nature's way in his book, Emile (1762). Rousseau play occurs in the second year with games and believed that the child needed to be active in a rules primarily belonging to the third stage (ages natural environment. Rousseau beLeved children 7-11). Piaget's description of the development of learn through sensory experience. Hence he reiter- intelligence parallels the successive stages of play ated Comenius' earlier belief that everything must (Butler, Gotts, and Quisenberry, 1978). be related through sense impression if possible. By The research of Piaget, Bloom, and others recog- allowing the child to demonstrate his own interest nized the importrnce of the early years to later and follow it,a fe-andation for learning could cognitive development. As a result, Athey states begin to be constructed where the child was free to that many of the worklike activities of the elemen- explore, at and question. According to Glickman, tary school were pushed downward into the early Rousseau advocated play as an educational enter- childhood grades. This was the opposite of the prise and he believed that through changes in the extension of play into the elementary grades (Yaw- education of society's youth, changes would follow key and Pellegrini,1984). in the society (Yawkey and Pellegrini, 1984). &cause the back to the basics movement stresses Influenced by the educational ideas of Rousseau, that more time be spent on direct instruction in Pestolozzi applied Rousseau's view of the child as reading, writing and arithmetic, replacing a more 199 0 0 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN informal activity-centered curriculum, itis impG.:- In the past,earlychildhood educators have tanttoexamineour purposeandgoalfor supported avariety of interpretations of play. education. These interpretations intended to help the child Piaget once stated, develop either physically,cognitively, socially or The principal goal of education is to create men who emotionally. Throughout history, society's defini- are capable of doing new things, not simply of repeat- tion of play has been a critical factor. By knowing ing what other generations have done... The second the roots of play and how itis identified as the goal of educationisto form minds which can be child's work, our commitment to the child's devel- critical, can verify and not accept everything they are opment and well-being is strengthened. And we offered ... So we need pupils who are active, who Tram early to find out by themselves, partly by their own have also learned that play is important and has a spontaneous activity and partly through mzterials we set necessary role in the early childhood curriculum. up fr- them ... (Munsinger, 1975) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What is the meaning of play in the early childhood curriculum? 2. How has play been defined and justified in the historical literature? 3.Is there time in the current school program for play? 4. How can play be explained and justified to parents? 200 45. LEADING PRIMARY EDUCATION TOWARDEXCELLENCE: BEYOND WORKSHEETS AND DRILL by Constance Kamii It is almost impossible today to talk with teach- COMMON SENSE NOTIONS ers of young children,especiallythosein the OF INSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT primary grades, without hearing some complaints about having to produce higher test scores. Most Let me clarify first what is generally understood teachers trained in the child development tradition by the term development. To most people, devel- believe, for example, that some of their children opment means a long-term process of unfolding or are not yet ready to learn how to read. Yet these maturation from inside the child, like the unfold- teachers feel compelled to give phonics lessons ing of a flower that develops out of a bud. Child simply because they are expected to produceac- development is a loosely related field in psychology ceptable test scores, and this pressure is working consisting of a variety of theories about the child downward even to some classrooms of 4-year-old that are not directly applicable to education. For children. In arithmetic, too, many teachers believe example, Sigmund and Anna Freud are bignames that first graders cannot possibly understand miss- in child development, and so are Erik Erikson an-1 ing addends (the 0 in 4 + 0= 6) and place Jane Loevinger. But their theories cannot be ap- value (the fact that the first 3 in 33means 30, plied to instruction because they donot deal with while the second 3 means 3).Yet, they feel. children's cognitive development, and social and compelled to teach this content simply because it is emotional development is only indirectly relatedto on the achkvement test. the 3 R's and other academic subjects. The work of Education is an amazing profession in which Arnold Gesell and L. S. Vygolsky comes closerto professionals can be forced to do things against education because it deals with children's cognitive their conscience. PhysicLins are not forcedto give development. However, their ideas ate too diverse treatments that only make the symptoms disap- to unite into a theory of instruction, and each is pear, but many teachers give phonics lessons and too sketchy to select one of them for curriculum worksheets, knowing perfectly well that the imposi- development. tion of the 3 R's may make children dislike school When early childhood educators speak of child and lose confidence in theirown ability to figure development, they are referring not to descriptive things out. Why is it that such harmful practices or explanatory theories but to a philosophy or an are going on in early childhood education from approach to education. This philosophy may be coast to coast? excellent, but it represents an intuitive leap from One explanation is that administrators in educa- psychologicaltheoriestoeducationalpractices, tion, who have the power to make decisions,are without precise theoretical links between the two. ignorant of child development. Many of themare In medicine, the objective of .he practitioner is politically motivated and go along with thepres- always defined in relation to scientific explanation, sure to produce higher test scores. While these and if thecause of adiseaseisnot known, statements may be true, they do not fully explain physicians know that the cause is not yet known. why those of us within the profession who believe In early childhood education, however, ifwe in child development are not winning the battle look in any textbook written in the child develop- against those who believe in force-feeding the 3 ment tradition, we do not find objectives based on R's. I would like to offer an additional explanation a precise explanatory theory. We find, instead, of why we are not winning the battle and then vague and broad goals such as emotional, social, propose some suggestions about what we might do and intellectual development andmore specific to lead primary education forward toward excel- objectives defined along traditional subjects such as lence rather than backwards to worksheets and language arts, math, and science. With these ob drill. jectives defined without any foundation in a pre- See page 339 for acknowledgment and references. 201 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN cise, scientific, explanatory theory, it is not surpris- ism,associationism, and psychometrictestsare ing to find a variety of activities--all without compatible with common sense because they grew precise theoretical links to an explanatory theory out of common sense. This is why I put A for such as pretend play, painting, block building, associationism inside the circle on the left. Behav- water play, and games. Itis these activities that iorism, shown with the 3 within associationism, is seem softheaded and worthless to the traditionalists an intensified version of associationism that breaks who believe that education consists of the 3 R's, "correct" behaviors, or answers, down tc small lessons, exercises, and/or drills. When the pressure components and sequet.ces them to ensure better is on to use worksheets, furthermore, advocates of internalization. Psychometric tests approach evalua- play can usually not defend play's educational tion in a similar way, by focusing on "correct" value. behaviors, or answers, thereby reinforcing the com- For centuries, education has been based on mere mon-sense no. ion that the child who has acquired common sense, trial and error, and opinions called more knowledge is the one who can give more philosophies, such as Rous' eau's and Dewey's phi- correct answers. Now that the common -sense no- losophies. When some educators attempted to in- tion of teaching has thus been buttressed by troduce a scientific foundation into the profession, behaviorism,associationism,and psychometric they found associationism, beh::..iorism, and psy- tests, it is even harder for the Educational Estab- chometric tests. Behaviorism, a.t re intense and lishment to accept the child development philoso- systematic version of associationi aris a scientific phy. theory that has been confirmed all over the world. Developmentalists, however, are convinced that Psychometric tests yield numbers and printouts there isa process of unfolding from inside the that give the impression of being scientific. If we child, and that the force-feeding of isolated skills want to win the battle against the force-feeding of with worksheets is inappropriate for young chil- the 3 R's and worksheets, we have to have a dren. But we need to go beyond saying that scientific theory that is powerful enough to dis- worksheets are developmentally inappropriate and prove associationism, behaviorism, and the desir- explain precisely and scientifically why these are ability of psychometric tests. inappropriate. We must also go beyond criticizing I would like to back up and focus more sharply the undesirable, and advant a alternative ways to on common sense. Accord;lg to common sense, replace what we criticize. I would now like to show teaching consists of telling or presenting knowl- how Piaget's theory can help us accc mplish both of edge, and learning takes place by the internaliza- these tasks. tion of what is taught. When proponents of child development methods speak of unfolding from the inside, or maturation, these ideas appear in an Constructivism and the Curriculum almost mutually exclusive relationship with the common-sense notion of instruction as can be seen Reading and Writing in Figure 1. To people who think in common- sensical and either-or terms, this relationship im- Let me give an example from Ferreiro's (Ferreiro plies that the development approach necessitates and Teberosky,1982) researchin reading and giving up instruction, which is exactly what they writingto show the kind of precisescientific want to intensify in going back to basics. Behavior- explanation thatispossible to presentagainst associationists and behaviorists. Ferreiro was a col- laborator of Piaget in Geneva until she returned to her native land, Argentina, where she did her research in Spanish. She interviewed 4- to 6 -year- old children before they received any instruction in school in reading and writing. She asked them, for example, to write their own name, the name of a friend or a member of their family, and words such as mama, papd, oso (bear), sago (toad), and pato (duck). She found developmental levels among these children who had not received any instruction in school. At the first and lowest level, the children wrote essentially the same squiggles for everything. 202 Leading Primary Education Toward Excellence Here is an example: pato PAO mand Susana SANA I simplified all these levels for purposes of clarity, papi and further details can be found in Ferreiro and Teberosky's book entitled Literacy before School- ing.I hope you can see that the conventional alphabetic writing comes next, at the fifth level, 050 and that the children who can benefitmost from phonics lessons are those who are already at this I igh developmental level. Some childrenlearn Interestingly, at this level, the child often thought despite the poor methods! that a big animal like a bear hadto be written These lewls illustrate what to me is the most with bigger squigglesor with more squiggles than important point of Piaget's theory, namelycon- a small animal like a duck! structivism. No one teaches children that if they At the second level, the child believed thatto write mama with four letters, they can write papa read different things, there hadto be objective simply by changing the order of the same letters. differences in the writing. When they hada limit- Yet, children construct, or invent this way of ed repertoire of letters consisting of only four writing when it occurs to them that each word has letters, for instance, they wrote different words to look different. The syllabic hypothesis at the such as the following by varying the order of the next level is also wrong, but it represents enormous same four letters: progress over the previous level. Such progress is never picked up by achievement tests. For tests, the only thing that counts is correct answers, but mamag 1 0 71. oso 7\ c?01 according to Piaget children develop byconstruct- ing one level after another being "wrong." papi ellrR sail°OV Arithmetic The third level, called the syllabic hypothesis level,is a major achievement because the child I would now like to go on to the teaching of thinks that each "letter" stands forone syllable. arithmetic to illustrate constructivism in another One child wrote as follows: area of the curriculum. A typical worksheet gets children to write 3 next to a picture of three cookies and 4 next to a picture of four bottles. sapo Children who can do these worksheets already know how to do them, and do not learn number concepts by completing them. Those who cannot oso do them, on the other hand, will not learn number concepts by filling out worksheets. Num- ber is something children construct by thinking, in patito their heads, and not by pushing pencils. I would like to clarify children's construction of number by discussing a Piagetian task (Inhelder and Piagct, 1963). The child is givena glass, and This syllabic level is a major achievement because the researcher takes an identical glass. The adult for the first time children make correspondences then asks the child to drop a bead into his glass between the parts they write and theparts they each time she drops one into hers. After about six utter. beads have thus been dropped in each glass with At the fourlevel, called the alphabetic hy- one-to-one correspondence, the adult says, "Y..et's pothesis level, the child's analysis goes beyond stop now, and I want you to watch what I am syllables as can be seen in the follow examples: going to do." The researcher then drops one bead 203 2 04 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN into heglass and suggests,"Let's get going vcntions made by peori-Examples of social again." Each person drops about six more beads knowledge are the fact that Christmas comes on inta his or her glass with onc-to-onc correspon- December 25, that a bead is called bead, and that dence, and the child is asked whether the two grown-ups sometimes greet each other by shaking people have the same amount, or the child has hands. more, of the adult has more. You can see that the spoken words "onc, two, Four-year-olds usually say that the two glasses three, four..." and written numerals belong to the same amount, and wilt a asked "How do social knowledge and representation, which are the you know?" they explain, "Because I can see they most superficial parts of arithmetic. The underly- both have the same." Upon being asked to de- ing number concepts belong to logico mathemati- scribe how the beads were dropped, they can cal knowledge, which has its source in each child's usuallygivealltheempiricalfactscorrectly head. The bad news from Piagct's theory is that ("... Then you told me to stop, and you put one number concepts are not teachable, as they can be in your glass.... Only you put an extra one in constructed only by children, through their own your glass, and I watched 'cause you told me to mental activity. The goad news, however, is that wait.... Then we got going again..."). we don't have to teach number concepts because By age five or six, however, the majority of children will construct them on their own. children can deduce logically that the experimenter It is amazing to me that all of math education has one more. When we asked them what will is based on the empiricist, wrong assumption that happen "if we continued to drop beads in the number 's something that has to be learned by same way [one - to-one correspondence] allafter- internalization from the environment. Piaget (Pia- noon," only some of them reply that the adult get and Szcminska, 1941) showed more than 40 will always have on more. Others make empirical years ago that number concepts are constructed by statements such as"i don't know because we each child, but math education is still going on as haven't done it yet" or "We don't have enough if Piaget had never published The Child's Concep- beads to keep going all afternoon." tion of Number and many other subsequent The logical name of number can be clarified by volumes. understanding the distinction Piaget made among th..:e kinds of knowledge according to their ulti- Based on his theory, I did an experiment in first mate sources: physical knowledge, logico- mathe- grade arithmetic. We eliminatedalltraditional maticalknowleA7c,andsocial(conventional) instructior from first grade arithmetic including knowledge. Physical knowledge is knowledge of worksheets and used instead two kinds of activities objects .11 external reality. The color and weight of that emphasized thinking: (a) situations in daily a bead are examples of physical properties that are living such as the counting of votes and (b) group in objects in external reality, and can be known by games such as dice and card games. I will not go observation. The knowledge that a bead will go into the details of this study, since a book was down when we let go of it is also an example of recently published entitled Young Children Rein- physical, empirical knowledge. vent Arithmetic (Kamii, 1985). I would simply like Logico- mathematical knowledge, on the other to make one point from this research, that work- hand, consists of relationships constructed by each sheets are harmful for lust graders' development of ir.lividual. For instance, when we are presented arithmetic while play is highly beneficial. witn a red bead and a blue one, and think that One of my reasons for saying that worksheets are they are different, this difference is an example of harmfulisthat they require children to write logico-mathematical knowledge. The beads are in- answers, and having to write interferes with the deed observable, but the difference between them possibility of remembering combinations such as isnot. The differenceisa relationship created "3, 2, 5" and "4, 2, 6." Children can remember mentally by th individual who puts the twu sums better when they are free to concentrate on objects into this relationship. The differenceis these combinations, without having to write the neither in the red bead nor in the blue one, and if answers. a person did not put the objects into this relation- My second reason for saying that worksheets are ship, the different.: would not exist for that per- harmful is that they teach children to count me- son. Other examples of relationships the individual chanically when they don't know a sum. In ex- can create between the two beads are "similar," tending my research into second and third grades, "the same in weight," and "two." I am amazed that the great majority of traditional- The ultimate source of social knowledge is con- ly taught second graders arestillcounting on 204 205 Leading Primary Education Toward Excellence fingers to do sums such as 5 + 6, and this needto count persists in the third grade. The first graders I had worked with used their heads instead and said, "5 + 5 = '0; so 5 4 6 has to be 11," but the children who had been taught with worksheets in first grade had become counting machines. Since they were required to write answers to satisfy the teacher, they used the most mechanical, surest, deadly technique they were taught to be ableto write the correct answer. Children who had thus mindlessly engaged in counting, repeated the same mechanical procedure if 7 + 2 was followed imme- diately by 2 + 7, or 6 + 4 was followed immedi- ately by 7 + 4. GOING BEYOND COMMON SENSE I would like to return to Figure 1 to point out that constructivist teaching is not maturationist. Piaget clearly differentiated maturation, which isa biological process like the baby's becoming ableto walk, from the construction of knowledge through children's own mental activity. While peopleare passive in biological maturation, they are mentally very active when they construct knowledge. A ir ore precise way to talk about this mental activityLs to say that children construct knowledge by putting things into relationships. For example, childrenare mentally veryactive when theyconstructthe knowledge that 2 + 3 gives the same resultas 4 + 1. Knowledgeisconstructed through anactive mental process that is far from the maturationist It is still true that th sun rises and sets, when we view represented by the Gesellian school. Ifyou limit ourselves to a certain perspective. b:iieve in maturation, you will wait for the child The relationship between Piaget's theory and to mature. If you believe in construction, however, behaviorism is similar as can be seen in Figure 3. you will promote activities that stimulate the con- Piaget's theory went beyond behaviorism by en- structive process such as board games with dice in compassing it.Therefore, his theory can explain the first grad:. the phenomena explained by behaviorism, but the 1.-ou must have noted that Piaget's scientific converse is not true. Piaget explained conditioning theory about how children learn is very different as an instance of organisms' adaptation to the from behaviorism, which is another scientific the- environment. Worms, rats, and dogs, a- well as ory about how children learn. Why is it that two human beings, adapt to rewards and punisaments. scientific theories can be so diametrically opposed? But human beings are more complicaced than The answer is that the same relationshipcan be dogs,andbehaviorismcannotexplain human found in every other scientific field such as astron- knowledge. omy. While the heliocen.ic theory disproved the Piaget's constructivism thus did not eliminate geocentric theory,according to which the sun behaviorism. This is why behaviorism remains sci- revolved around the earth, the new theory didnot entifically true as long as we limit ourselves to eliminate the old one. The new theorywent surface, observable behaviors. If we view learning beyond the old one by encompassing it ascan be only as a change in behavior, we can define our seen in Figure 2. '11'roof is that even today, we objectives behaviorally and use rewards and/or still talk about the sumise and sunset, even though punishments to modify it. The results of such no one believes in the geocentric theory anymore. teaching are often higher test scores because psy- 205 2 n 6 THE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN chometric tests in early childhood education are seen many people change from behaviorism and made to evaluate surface skills such as children's associationism to Piaget's theory as I did, but I ability to count and to recognize numerals. But have never heard of a Piagetian who later became this kind of teachingisliketrying to cure a a behaviorist. Psychometric tests, too, are a stage patient's illness by giving aspirin. Aspirin works on that psychology is bound to go beyond. Speaking symptoms, but not on the underlying cause of the of intelligence tests, Piaget (1965) said 20 years illness. Many children who can write 8 next to a ago, "either we shall one (Iv find good tests, or picture of eight ice cream cones continue to believe else intelligencet.- is will go into history as an that eight chips spread out are more than eight example of a fruitful error" (p.150). chips pushed close together. I have no doubt about the eventual victory of I would liketo say one more thing about the developmental point of view simply because Piaget'stheory inrelation to behaviorism and science does not stand still and human intelligence associationism. All sciences begin by studying sur- dots not stay permanently satisfied with low-level face, observable, and limited phenomena, and by knowledge. But victory will not happen allby explaining them with mere common sense.In itself, without considerable efforts on our part. astronomy, the geocentric theory came first and As I said earlier,I have not found in a single VMS a surface, common-sensical interpretation of book written in the child development tradition the apparent movement of the sun.Itisnot any rigorous conceptualization of educational ob- surprising that psychologists, too, began by study- jectives based on a scientific, explanatory theory. ing behavior, which is observable and easier to Physicians know whether their objective is to allevi- study than complicated phenomena such as human ate only the symptom or to remove the cause of a knowledge and morality. Teaching by telling and disease. But educators do not define their objec- rewards and/or punishments makes good common tives with such scientific rigor. We must first be sense, but the time has come for educators to go clear about how children construct knowledge be- beyond mere common sense. It is very hard to give cause without an explanatory theory about how up common sense, and this is why it took human- children construct knowledge, it is impossible to ityabout 150 years to accept theheliocentric conceptualize specific objectives in relation to long- theory (Taylor, 1949). range goals. [For a clarification of this point, the I hate to say this, but I think educators' accep- reader is referred to I" unii (1984).] tance of behaviorism, associationism, and/or psy- I cannot insist enough on the importance of chometric tests constitutes progress in our profes- definingobjectivesbased on precisescientific sion.Isay progress becauseit was a big step knowledge of how children construct knowledge. forward for education to go beyond the primitive In arithmetic, for example, place value is taught stage of making decisions based only on tradition, not only in first grade but also in second grade, common sense, and opinions called philosophies. third grade, fourth grade, fifth grade, and sixth Other professions such as medicine, engineering, grade! It is amazing to me that no one in the and architecture have long had a scientific founda- Educational Establishment has noticed that there tion, but education was entirely in a prescientific must be something profoundly wrong if the same stage until it accepted associationism, behaviorism, thing has to be taught every single year in the first and psychometric tests. six grades. Place value ought to be outlawed in the One of the major points of constructivism, as I firsttwo grades,along with missing addends, said earlier, is that each child has to develop by because it is cognitively impossible for most young going through one level after another of being children to understand them. "wrong." Science, too, develops by going through Only after defining valid objectives based on one level after another of being "wrong." The children's dc-elopment doesitmake senseto geocentric theory was wrong, but it was a necessary debate whether play is superior to worksheets to stage without which the heliocentric theory could achieve these goals. Some kinds of play are more not have been invented. The heliocentric theory educational than others, and the same kind of SW thus a great achievement, but Kepler later play, such as the card game of War, is educational proved Copernicus wrong when he found the only at a certain level of intellectual development. planets to move in elliptical orbits rather than I will not go into the details of these activities, circular ones. since these have already been published in Physical Behaviorism was likewise a necessary stage in the Knowledge in Preschool Education (Kamii and history of psychology, and many psychologists are DeVries, 1978), Group Games in Early Education already saying that behaviorism is dead.I have (Kamii and DeVries, 1980), Number in Preschool 206 2o 7 Leading Primary Education Toward Excellence and Kindergarten (Kamii, 1982), and Young Chil- edge and originality to build a better world in dren Reinvent Anthmetsc (Kamii, 1985). ways that humanity has not yet imagined. The philosophy of child Cer-lopmentmay be I am aware that scientific rigor alone will not correct, but we must go beyond philosophies or stop legislators or the Educational Establishment opinions if we want to stop being dictatedto by from imposing its quick and simple solutions. But other philosophies or opinions. I, therefore, plead if all the teachers in America knew onlyparts of for educators to construct tlw next stage ofour ten books by Piaget, the Establishment could not profession from within by studying Piaget's theory get away with their ignorance anymore. about how human beings construct knowledge and moral values.Itis easy to complain about the I am also aware that education willalways naivete of behavioral objectives awl the rvils of remain an art, in spite of my insistence on science. achievement tests. But we must be willingto go As Piagct (1965) said, the practice of medicine, beyond complaining and study children'sconstruc- too,isan art,but an art based on scientific tion of knowledge in the same rigorous way physi- knowledge rather than on mere common sense or ians study physiology and pathology, and engi- intuition. neers study physics and mathematics. Rather than Reform is obviously needed in teacher education being on the defensive and complaining about the and colleges of education, too. Although change is pressure downward from the primary grades, we painfully slow in colleges of education, the fact is ought to be leading primary education toward that not a single course is taught today in educa- excellence based on precise knowledge of cognitive tional psychology without some discussion of Pia- and moral development. get's theory. This is an improvement, considering The public knows that today's medicine and that when I got my Ph.D. 20 years ago, I did not engineering are not what they were 30 or 40years get even 2 minutes of graduate school devoted to ago because it knows that science does not stand Piaget's theory. The theory is usually badly taught still. While the public does not tell physicians and and misunderstood, but professors of education, engineers to go back to the basics of 40years ago, too, must go through one level after another of it proudly tells us to go back to...I don't even being wrong. know when. The reason is that politicians and the Iapologize for allthe negative statements I public honestly believe that there isno more to made about the child development philosophy, education than common sense, and thattheir and would like to hear aboutany disagreement common sense isas good as educators' common anyone may have. I honestly believe that educators- sense. As long as we continue to teach with must construct the next stage of our own profes- worksheets, the public will continue to think of sion from within if we are to stop being dictated education as an unskilled job becauseany adult of by politicians and the public and by the old normal intelligence can give and correct work- pendulum that keeps gong back to what didnot sheets, with or without a teaching certificate. work before.Back tobasicsis bound tofail The recommendations often espoused for "ex- because itis based on wrong, outdated assump- cellence" are based on mere commonsense. It is tions about how human beings construct knowl- not by lengthening the school cay or the school edge. Whether education will then go forwardor year, giving more homework, pushing the 3 R's backward on another bandwagon depends onus down to kindergarten, and increasing the require- and our willingness to be scientifically more rigor- ments for high school graduation, that we are ous, both about how we define our objectives and going to produce a generation who has the knowl- about how we try to achieve these objectives. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.What is known about child development thatcan guide the teacher away from incorrect practices in the classroom? 2. How does the initial experience and behavior of the child help the teacher in planninglearning experiences? 3.Are worksheets really harmful to children in the first grade? Which practicesare better? 4. What is the relationship between Piaget's theory and behaviorism? 5. How does the theory of constructivism influence the curriculum and teaching practicesfor early childhood education? 207 2n3 Section Six: Evidence and Evaluation Editor's Overview 209 46.Effects of Program Models and Teaching Practices, by Douglas R. Powell 210 47.Evidence That Good Early Childhood Programs Work, by Lawrence J. Schweinhart and David P. Weikart 216 48. The Promise of Early Childhood Education, by Lawrence J. Schweinhart, John R. Berrueta-Clement, W. Steven Bar- nett, Ann S. Epstein. and David P. Weikart 222 49.Early Childhood Evaluation: What? Who? Why? by Doris Bergen Sponseller and Joel Fink 226 EDITOR'S OVERVIEW Although evaluation and resekrrh are far more they produce questions that are yet to be an- sophisticated than answering the questions "What swered. In the next two chapters, Schweinhart and did you do?" and "What did you get?" the 1980s Weikart, and Schweinhart et al. come to a some have become the decade of reliance on solid evalu- what different point in their review of the research ationtojustify good early education. As the evidence: that good programs work. These two chapters in this section point out, the evidential chapters represent the evaluation research on sever- framework is growing. We have dependable insight al experimental programs and include a detailed into the developmental, educational, and economic analysis of the authors' own Perry Preschool model. outcomes from carefully designed program efforts. Then, the purpose,practice, and personnel of Even the best early childhood program in the evaluation are the subjects of Sponseller and Fink's schools cannot survive very long or confirm its discussion of evaluation inearlychildhood value without comprehensive and systematic education. evaluation. The body of evidence is improving, and the Powell clarifies the question of difference among science and art of evaluation are growing rapidly. program models and summarizes the effects of Both the expert and the practitioner have equiva- these models on the children. The studies do not lent obligations to know what they are doing, how identify the ultimate model, nor do they end the to evaluate it, and how to communicate the results discussion of one approach over another. At best, to the profession and the general public. 2n 46. EFFECTSOF PROGRAM MODELS AND TEACHING PRACTICES by Douglas R. Powell During the last several years there has been an types of early education function in later years. A important shift in the public debate about early brief description of these studies follows. childhood education. Questions about the overall The Louisville Experiment, initiated by Louise effectiveness of preschool programs are being re- Miller and her colleagues (1983b) in the Head placed by an interest in the effectiveness of certain Start program in Louisville, Kentucky, compared types of programs and teaching practices. This is four preschool programs. Two programs used di- not a new question, yet it is increasingly a critical dactic instructional methods with small groups of one as growing numbers of programs emphasize children. One of these programs was the direct basic academic skills and public schools become instruction model developed by Bereiter and Eng- more involved in the education of 4-year-olds. lemann (1966). This model is also known as the The early education field is characterized by a DISTAR program. In direct instruction, teachers wide range of teaching approaches. A major differ- use a patterned drill procedure to elicit responses, enceisbetweendidactic,teacher-directedap- in unison, from children. The pace is rapid and proaches and child-centered or discovery approach- repetitive. The curriculum is organized into read- eswhere childreninitiateorselectactivities. ing, language, and arithmetic. Programcl; ierencesalsoc:-istregardingthe The other didactic program in the Louisville amount of teacher contact with groups of children Experiment was DARCEE, developed by Susan versus individual children. In addition, teachers Gray (see Gray, Ramsey, and Klaus,1982).It vary in how often they present information versus emphasizes remediation of linguistic 4ind conceptu- ask questions, and in the amount of positive versus al deficiencies and the development of attitudes negative reinforcement of child behaviors. These related to academic achievement (e.g.,delayed and related program differences reflect diverse as- gratification). Formal instruction in language is a sumptions about how children learn and the role major part of the program. of teachers in guiding or structuring the learning The two other programs in the Louisville Experi- process. ment did not entail group instruction. One was a This [chapter] reviews findings of selected stud- Montessori (1964) program that emphasizes devel- ies on the effects of different types of preschool oping the senses, conceptual development, compe- programs and teaching practices on children.It tence in dailyactivities, and character develop- includes recent research on the long-term effects of ment. The child decides which activities to pursue. model early childhood programs and on the nature The other non-didactic program was a traditional and consequences of teacher behaviors. Most of the nursery school that focuses on social and emotional research has involved children from predominantly development. Consistent with the child develop- low-income Black families and hence the findings ment point of view (Hymes, 1968), this program cannot be generalized to other population groups. emphasizes development in all areas at each child's pace. The largest single portion of the school day is occupied by free play, a time when children SCOPE OF MAJOR STUDIES engage in whatever activities they choose. In the late 1960s, several researchers initiated The Louisville Experiment included an initial major studies comparing different preschool curric- sample of 214 four-year-old children in the four ulum models. The aim was to determine whether program models plus a control group of 34 chil- one approach was superior in terms of child out- dren. Children were randomly assigned to pro- come. Fortunately, investigators have collected fol- grams by school. The study involved four each low-up data on children who were enrolled in direct instruction, DARCEE, and traditional class- these preschool programs, permitting an examina- rooms,and two Montessori classrooms (14 total). tion of he w children who experienced different The short-term effects (through second grade) are See page 340 for acknowledgment and references. 210 210 Effects of Program Models reported in Miller and Dyer (1975), and the long- PeabodyLanguage Development Program (Dunn, term effects are reported in Miller and Bizzell Horton, and Smith, 1968) in a standardized man- (1983a, 1983b). ner. The sample included 111 four-year-old chil- The High/Scope Curriculum Comparison Study dren from low-income, predominantly Black fam- (Schweinhart, Weikart, and Larnet, 1986)was de- ilies. The research is referred to in this [chapter] as veloped by David Weikart in Ypsilanti, Michigan the Preschool Dimensions Study. This study by to compare three program models: direct instruc- Miller and colleagues should not be confused with tion (DISTAR), the High/Scope model, anda theLouisvilleExperiment;theyaredifferent traditionalchild-centered nursery school. The investigations. High /Scope model use; an open-frameworkap- proach where teacher and child plan and initiate activities and actively work together. It is knownas SUMMARY OF FINDINGS the High/Scope Cognitively Oriented Preschool Curriculum (Hohmann, Banet,and Weikart, Findings of the follow-up studies do not support 1979). Parents of each child in all program models the idea that different types of well-implemented received a home visit from the teacherevery 2 preschool programs have similar effects on chil- weeks. Initially the study involved 68 three- and dren. The data suggest that the kind of preschool four-year-o!d children from low-income families; program attended by low-income children may 65 percent were Black. Children were randomly affect them through their middle-school and early assigned to program models. Study details anda teenage years. In particular, the results raise ques- follow up of the children at 10 years ofage are tions about the effects of didactic approaches to reported in Weikart, Epstein, Schweinhart, and early education. They also indicate that program Bond (1978). A follow up at 15 years ofage is effects vary by sex of child. reported in Schweinhart et al. (1986). In this [chapter], discussion of the long-term Long-Term Studies effects found in the Louisville and High/Scope Follow-up data from the Louisville Experiment studies will be supplemented by findings from show that by eighth grade, boys who had been curriculum comparison studies by Karnes and her enrolled in a nondidactic preschool program (Mon- colleagues (Karnes, Shwedel, and Williams, 1983) tessoriortraditional) were superiorinschool involvingpreschoolchildren,and byStallings achievement to boys who had been enrolled in a (1975) involving Follow Through classrooms in first didactic preschool program (direct instruction or and third grades. This [chapter] also drawson DARCEE). Nondidactic boys had a 12-month ad- additional research reports on the long-term effects vantage in reading and a 10-month advantage in of the direct instruction model. math compared to didactic boys. In sixth and A major limitation of curriculum comparison seventh grade, the reading and math scores of studies is that they confound content, activities, nondidactic boys were also superior to the scores of and materials with teaching techniques.Some didactic boys. By eighth grade, didactic girls per- teaching practices are necessarily related to program formed better in reading than nondidactic girls but goals and content. For instance, if a program goal not in earlier years and not in math at any year is to teach numbers, it seems inappropriate fora beyond second grade. teacher to ask a child to elaborate on thecorrect There were also differences in IQ scores. During answertothequestion,"What comesafter the period from prekindergarten to eighth grade, three?" (Miller, Bugbee, and Hybenson, 1985). the boys who had been in a didactic preschool This confounding makes it difficult to determine program lost 9.2 points while the boys formerly in whether program content, teaching technique,or a nondidactic preschool program lost 3.1 points. some other program dimension is related to child Both didactic and nondidactic girls lost 11.8 points Outcome. from the end of prekindergarten to the end of To avoid this problem, Miller etal.(1985) eighth grade (Miller and Bizzell, 1983a). There was conducted a study where bothcontent (e.g., lan- a greater IQ decrease for direct instruction children guage) and global teaching method (e.g., small than for the other program groups. Boys formerly group instruction) were controlledinorder to enrolled in the Montessori preschool program per- determine whetherspecificteaching techniques formed significantly higher than all other groups in (e.g., amount of reinforcement) were relatedto math and reading in sixth, seventh, and eighth child outcome. This 1-year study involved eight grade. This was not the case for girls. DARCEE Head Start classrooms where teachers used the boys performed significantly lower in reading in 211 211 ,i EVIDENCE AND EVALUATION sixth, seventh, and eighth grade than boys in the were included at 15 years of age in thefollow up, other three programs combined. They also scored the sample i: relatively small. lowerinsixth-grade math (Miller and Bizzell, Didactic preschool programs may not sustain 1983a). By 10th grade, the superior performance of higher IQs and achievement scores unless they are Montessori boys in achievement tests had contin- followed by a similar program in kindergarten and ued. They performed above national norms aca- elementary school. Children who entered a nondi- demically and were in the normal IQ range. In dactic program after attending a direct instruction preschool, Montessori boys started at the same IQ preschool programdidnot performwellon levelsas DARCEE boys, but by 10th grade the achievementtestsintheLouisville Experiment Montessori boys were 15.3 points above the DAR- (Miller and Dycr,1975).Similarly, Becker and CEE boys (Miller and Bizzell cited in Stallings and Gersten (1982) found that without continued in- Stipek, 1986). The IQ scores of Montessori girls volvement in the direct instruction Follow Through increasedatthe end of preschooland then program, most children demonstrated losses when dropped dram tically. compared to a standardized sample. Another study While additional research is needed to confirm found thatfifthgraders who had been in a and elaborate upon these findings, the results of DISTAR program for 4 years had significantly the Louisville Experiment cannot be dismissed as higher achievement scores than comparison chil- chance. The research was well designed and execut- dren (Meyer, Gersten, and Gutkin, 1984). Meyer ed, with random assignment and no indication of (1984) examined three direct instruction Follow selective attrition of children. The original sample Through classrooms for 3 to 4 years, and found WO large, and 60 percent to 65 percent were superior reading and math performance in ninth secured for the follow up. Also, longitudinal re- grade when contrasted to a comparison grow,. search by Karnes et al. (1983) inryatea there were a higher percentage of high schoolgraduates, higher school success ratings, :rnd a lower grade- Short-Term Studies retention rate among former i lontessori preschool children compared to children who were enrolled Short-term studies provide additional data on in four other model preschool programs. the effects of different program approaches and Results of the High/Scope Curriculum Compari- teaching practices. Stallings's (1975) study of first- son Study indicate that at age 15 (ninth grade), and-third-grade Follow Through classrooms found children who had attended the direct instruction higher scores in reading and mathematics among (DISTAR) program engaged in twiceas many childrenin highly controlled classrooms where delinquent acts as the children who had been in teachers used systematic instruction and a high rate the High/Scope and traditionalpreschoolpro- of positive reinforcement. In flexible classrooms grams. The delinquent behavior included 5 times where there was more exploratory material and as many acts of property violence. This juvenile children had more choice, children scored higher delinquency pattern, however, was no worse than on a test of nonverbal perceptual problem solving, that of control group in the Perry Pre-chool study. showed greater willingness to work independently, The DISTAR children participated less often in and had lower absence rates (perhaps an indicator sports and held fewer appointments to a school of attitude toward school). Also, children from office or job. Also, in response to the question, more flexible classrooms took responsibility for "How does your family feel you're doing?," a their own successes but not for theirfailures. greater percentage of DISTAR children expressed a Children in the highly structured classrooms took negative impression ("poorly") than children en- responsibility for their failures but attributed their rolled in the High /Scope (0%) and traditional Successes to the teachers or some other outside (6%) preschool program. These socialbehavior force.Similarly,a 2-year study of elementary outcomes arc based on self-repor.data. School schoolchildren by Fry and Addington (1984) found achievement scores and IQ performance were not that children in open classrooms had higher scores reported for ?he sample at 15 years of age. Follow- insocial problem solv'ng and self-esteem than up data at earlier points (4 through 10 years) children in more closed, traditional classrooms. indicate no significant differences by curriculum In a study of 13 Hcad Start classrooms, Huston- model in IQ and achievement scores (Weikart et Stein, Friedrich-Cofer, anti Susman (1977) found al., 1978). Schweinhart et al. (1986) caution that that children in classrooms with a high level of the High/Scope study is not definitive. Although teacher-directed activities engaged in less prosocial an impressive 79 percent of the original children behavior with pem and less imaginative play, and 212 212 Effects of Program Models were less aggressive than children in classrooms ing compoundsentences.Thechildren'sun- with a lower level of adult control. Children in the prompted use of compound sentences increased, high-structure classes were more attentive in circle first in those directed to teachers and then to other time and helped to clean up more after free play, children. The incidental teaching approach also but did not show more independent task persis- seemed to stimulate spontaneous variety in speech. tence. In an observational study of free play peri- ods in preschool classrooms by Fagot (1973), chil- dren who engaged ina high amount of task- relevant behavior hzd teachers who gave fewer PRESCHOOL EXPERIENCES directions, criticized less, and responded more to AND SEX OF CHILD questions. As noted earlier,a problem with curriculum In addition to the sex differences in program comparison studiesisthat they cannot identify outcome noted previously, it appears that boys and relevant program dimensions. For example, when girls may have different day-to-day experiences in positive child outcomes are produced by a struc- the same classroom. In three separate classroom tured academic preschool program such as direct observation studies, Fagot (1973) found that teach- instruction, is it because of academic content or a ers appeared to instruct girls more than boys. They teacher technique such as drill? In the Preschool answered girls'questions more often, and gave Dimensions Study,wherecontent andglobal girls more favorable comments. Similarly, in all methods were held constant across eightclass- four of the preschool models examined in the rooms, Miller etal.(1985) found that didactic Louisville Experiment, girls received more instruc- teaching (drill) was negatively related to boys' tional contact than boys (Biber, Miller, and Dyer, auditory and visual receptive skills but positively 1972). associated with verbal expression. The researchers A number of differences in teacher behavior questioned the use of didactic methods to improve were related to sex of the child in the Preschool boys' expressive abilities, noting there are likely to Dimensions Study (Miller et al.,1985). Girls re- be alternative methods that may not have a nega- ceived twice as much drill from teachers as boys. tive impact on important receptive skills. Moreover, it appeared that when boys were unin- The types of questions asked and the informa- terested in group work they received individual tion provided by teachersalsorelatetochild instruction; girls in the same situations were repri- behavior. In a preschool program that used teacher manded. Positive reinforcement from the teacher questioning to enhance children's representational was associated with boys' volunteering and offering thinking,childrenshowedsignificantlygreater opinions, but with girls' peer interactions. Also, competence in tasks that required prediction than girls who volunteered more and asked more ques- children in a traditional nursery school program. tions received relatively more negative than positive Also, parents of children in the inquiry program reinforcement. The data suggest that this child reported their children had more hobbies and behavior pattern probably was viewed by teachers interests,and were more curious compared to as disruptive even though it was task-related. parent reports of children in a traditional nursery More research is needed on factors surrounding group (Sigel,1979). teacher behaviors in relation to sex of children. Are Smothergill, Olson, and Moore (1971) compared teachers responding to sex differences already pre- two teaching practices with nursery school children. sent in the children, or are they responding to In one group, teachers used an elaborative style by their own preconceived biases toward the sexes giving detailed task information and encouraging (Fagot,1973)? child comment and involvement.In the other Variations in child behavior in a preschool pro- group, teachers used a nonelaborative style, giving gram were associated with different child outcomes only necessary task information and not encourag- in the Preschool Dimensions Study (Miller et al., ing child involvement. Children in the elaborative- 1985). Further, relationships between child behav- ly taught group performed better from pre- to ior and child outcome varied by sex of child. One .posttests on a verbal similarities task and on a of the most striking findings dealt with the effects storytelling task. of participation in group work. For boys, group Naturally occurring teacher-child interactions in participation was related to higher scores in diver- free play situations were used by Hart and Risley gent thinking and logic, but for girls group partici- (1975) for incidental teaching of language skills. pation was related to lower scores in logic and Teachers responded to child interests by cmphasiz- curiosity. 213 2 1 3 EVIDENCE AND EVALUATION INTERPRETATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS research such as the Preschool Dimensions Study (Miller et al., 1985) to identify the specific aspects Taken together or separately, these studies do of programs thatrelate to child behavior and not provide a solid empirical base for advocating Outcomes. one program or teaching method over another. The findings of the studies reviewed here chal- However, they do raise crucial questions about the lenge the idea that any theoretically coherent, well- cffects of didactic versus nondidactic approaches, implemented preschool program can have positive and the experiences of boys versus girls in early effects on children. This was the influential 1978 education programs. message of the High / Scope Curriculum Compari- Why would the nondidactic Montessori program son Study (Weikart et al.), and subsequent investi- prove to be beneficial for low- income boys but not gations indicated that different types of programs girls? Why would there be a tendency for girls but achieved similarresults (Lazar and Darlington, not boys to benefit from didactic direct instruction 1982; Karnes et al., 1983). Now there is persuasive and DARCEE programs? Miller and Bizzell (1983a) evidence to the contrary. have speculated that because girls mature faster Teachers should be sensitive to how they ap- than boys, girls may be more ready to process proach girls versus boys. For instance, if praise is information gained through observation and verbal given to boys for one type of behavior and to girls instruction in a didactic preschool group setting. foranother,asthefindingssuggest,teachers Boys may need more hands-on manipulation of should examine carefully the determinants of their materials such as provided by the Montessori ap- own behavior. At a maximum, perhaps different proach.The individually paced,self-correcting, teaching strategies should be used with low-income cognitive materials of the Montessori program may boys versus girls. The group participation which be a good match for 4 -year -old boys' cognitive had positive benefits for boys but negative out- receptivity (see Stall; lgs and Stipek, 1986). comes for girls in the Preschool Dimensions Study Thereisthe strong suggestion that didactic raises questions about the appropriateness of using preschool programs may not produce positive long- the same method for both sexes. The Lousiville term results unless they are followed by similar Experiment findings raise similar questions. didactic programs in elementary school. Moreover, the High/Scope study shows negative results in the There is a profound need for research on pro- social behavior of 15-year-olds who attended a gram approaches and teaching practices with chil- didactic direct instruction preschool. It appears that dren from families other than those with low the direct instruction (DISTAR) program did not incomes. Very little of the research reviewed here actually harm the children's social development, can be applied to children from middle-class fam- because there is no evidence that the direct instruc- ilies, regardless of race. This is a serious limitation tion program children engaged in more delinquen- in the field today. Equally limiting is the narrow cy than they would have if they had not attended range of outcome areas generally considered in the preschool program. Yet children enrolled in program evaluations. Considerably more attention two nondidactic preschool programs (traditional needs to be given to social competence (Zigler and nursery and High/Scope models) had lower rates of Trickett, 1978), and to attitudinal factors such as a juvenile delinquency and othersocialbehavior child's disposition to leam (Katz, 1985) and desire problems. Schweinhart et al. (1986) speculate that to read, write, and think critically (Willett and the presence of social behavior goals and child- Kamii, 1985). initiated learning activities in the nondidactic pro- Both practitioners and researchers need to con- grams may account for the differences. sider the contributions of child characteristics and We must use caution in our assumptions about classroom behaviors to child outcomes.In the why various preschool curricula might yield differ- Preschool Dimensions Study, child behaviors were ent results. The dimensions of a preschool class- stronger predictors of child outcome than teacher room that relate most strongly to child outcomes behaviors. We need to examine two-way processes are not always the ones that discriminate between in the child - teacher /program relationship. For in- programs. For instance,Soar and Soar (1972) stance,in one study,high-arousal children ap- found the amount of teacher talk (versus child peared to be ill-suited for an open classroom talk) in a classroom was related to complex-abstract environment (Koester and Farley, 1982). Instead of cognitive growth (e.g., word meanings) in chil- searching for the best approach to early childhood dren, yet the dimension of teacher versus child talk education, our energies should focus on finding did not differentiate programs. We need more the best match between child and program. 214 21 4 Effects of Program Models DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Are there essential differences among the various models for early education programs? 2.What were the findings of the major comparative studies on program models? 3. Do differences in program models produce immediate and long-range effects that are also different from program to program? 4. How does gender interact with type of program model? Are some programs more effective with girls? with boys? 5.Should future curriculum development take the best parts of several models, or should professionals be seek- ing a generic model that is more effective? 215 215 47. EVIDENCE THAT GOOD EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAMS WORK 13-; Lawrence J. Schweinhart and David P. Weikart In the early 1960s, many leading educators and though all were conducted in areas east of the social scientists expressed hopes that preschool edu- Mississippi River. Six of the seven studies evaluated cation programs for poor children could help break programs that operated in a single location. the cycle of poverty. They assumed that a chain of These seven studies and most of the other recent cause andeffect linked family poverty to the research on the effects of early childhood education scholastic failure of children and to their subse- have focused on children living in poverty. The quent poverty as adults. concern of the 1960s for righting the wrongs of These educators and social scientists speculated poverty was closely tied to the struggle of blacks to that preschool education would enhance the intelli- obtain civil rights. Thus the response to this con- gence of poor children. This theory received sup- cern tended to focus on the needs of the black port from early reports that several experimental population,combining compensatoryeducation preschool programs were in fact raising I.Q.s.' programs with new policies to insure equal rights However, two well-publicized events in 1969 in voting, housing, employment, and education. It undermined the popular credibility of the scientific is not surprising, then, that in most of the studies basis for claims about the beneficial effects of reviewed here, at least 90 percent of the subjects preschool education for poor children. The first are black.' was a negative evaluation, by the Westinghouse The size of the samples and any spec', l charac- Learning Corporation and Ohio University, of the teristics of the populations are listed in'able 2. first years of Head Start; the second was Arthur The sample sizes varied from a low of 40 in the Jensen's article in the Harvard Educational Review, Milwaukee Study to 2,058 in the New York Pre- in which he argued that "compensatory education kindergarten Program. The Perry Preschool Project has been tried and it apparently has failed."2 focused on children whose tested I.Q.s at age 3 As the years passed, however, evidence of the were between 60 and 90.* The Milwaukee Study effectiveness of preschool began to mount. Evi- focused on children whose mothers had tested dence from several evaluations demonstrated that I.Q.s of 75 or below. The Harlem Study focused good preschool programs have both short- and exclusively on males. The New York Prekindergar- long-term positivt. effects on low-income young- ten Program was open to the public in selected sters. Many studies bear on these issues, but we school districts, so the sample more nearly repre- will consider only seven of these evaluations here. sents the racial mix of low-income families in the The ones we chose, though not perfect, are among population at large. the mostscientificallyrigorous,and reviewing Attrition is a major threat to the validity of them provides a clear picture of the long-term longitudinal studies. As more subjects arelost, effectiveness of early childhood education, as well both internal and external validity are at risk. The asan overview of some of the problems that investigators who carried out these seven studies researchers face in conducting such studies. fared well in locating subjects for their follow-up studies:they found at least 71 percent of the original subjects. The Perry Preschool Project found SEVEN STUDIES 100 percent of its original subjects and interviewed 98 percent of them. The median percentage of The seven studies listed in Table 1 have fol- subjects located in the follow-ups was 80 percent. lowed subjects at least to age 9 and at most to age Moreover, differential attrition across groups within 21. They have been conducted in locales that the subject populations was not large enough to represent a cross section of America's urban com- constitute a major problem. munities, in both northern and southern states, Four of the seven studies used the standard See pages 340-41 for acknowledgment, foouiote, references, and recent reports on the seven studies. 216 216 Good Early Childhood Programs Work Table 1. The Seven Studies Year Age of Subjects Study At Last Study Began Place Report Early Training Project 1962 Murfreesboro, Tenn. 21 Perry Preschool Project 1962 Ypsilanti, Mich. 19 Mother-Child Home Program 1965 Long Island, N.Y. 9-13 Harlem Study 1966 New York, N.Y. 13 Rome Head Start Program 1966 Rome, Ga. 20 Milwaukee Study 1968 Milwaukee, Wis. 10 New York Pre-K Program 1975 New York State 9 experimental design; their treatment and control The third quasi-experimental study, that of the groups were selected from the same population by New York Prekindergarten Program, compared two procedures designed to insure equivalent groups. control groups to an experimental group of approx- In ther study of the Early Training Project and in imately 1,800 youngsters who took part in the the Milwaukee Study, students were randomlyas- program in 1966. The control group for compari- signed to groups. In the Harlem St dy, treatment sons of test scores consisted of 87 children on the groups were selected by applying the same sample program's waitirg list. This group may or may not selection procedures to children born in different have differed from the program participants, de- months. By chance, one of the two experimental pending on the original procedures for selecting groups had an average I.Q. at age 3 that was six participants. For comparisons of scholastic place- points higher than the average I.Q. of the control ment, the control group consisted of both the group at age 2years and eight months. This waiting-list group and a group of 171 children of difference was controlled for in the analysis of slightly higher socioeconomicstatus who came group differences. from neighboring school districts. Thus some be- Three of the seven studies use a quasi-experi- tween-group differences certainly exist, but they mental design; their treatment and control groups tend to favor the control group. For example, were selected from different populations. 0'such mothers in the treatment group reported 10.9 years study, that of the Rome Head Start Program, of schooling while control-group mothers from began in 1966 by identifying all first-graders in the other districts reported 12.0 years of schooling. Rome, Georgia, public schools who qualified for The seven programs varied in size, design, and federal funds for the economically disadvantaged. presumably cost. The Milwaukee program was the Some of these students had attended Head Start most extensive, providing full-time, year-round de- and some had not. In the absence of data to tile velopmental child care for children ranging in age contrary, we cannot rule out the possibility that from a few months to 6 years. It also provided an Head Start participants and nonparticipants in this educational and vocational program for mothers. study differed in important ways before the study The r My Preschool Project provided one home began. Because of such doubts, this study cannot visit per week and a morning classroom program stand alone. However, in combination with other five days a week for two school years (at ages 3 and studies, it bears examination because of its extraor- 4).Its classroom component was equivalent in dinary duration. scope to the one-year programs of the New York In the study of the Mother-Child Home Pro- Prekindergarten Program for 4 -year -olds and the grama quasi-experimental effort for the years Rome Head Start Program for 5-year-olds. The reviewed heretreatment was offered to all willing latter two programs also included several home participants within a given geographic area. This visits during the school year and offered parents group was then compared to a demographically the cl-ance to become involved in the classrooms. similar control group in a nearby geographic area. The Early Training Project featured part-time class- The groups thus selected were generally equivalent room experiences five days a week in the summer on important background factors, though some risk and weekly home visits during the school year for of unmeasured group differences may affect the either three years (for children starting at age 3) or outcomes of the study. two years (for children starting at age 4). The 217 2 i 'i EVIDENCE AND EVALUATION Table 2. Design Information Subjects Special Original Included in Selection Sample Sample Most Recent Study Procedure Characteristics* Size Follow-up 0/0 Expenmental Deng's Early Training Random 90 80 Project assignment Harlem Study Selections from Boys only 315 81 same population Milwaukee Study Random Mothers' I.Q.s 40 80 assignment 75 and below Perry Preschool Assignment of Children's I.Q s 123 98 Project matched pairs 60-90 Quasi-experimental Desrgn Mother-Child Assignment by 250 74 Home Program site New York Pre-K Some assignment 42% white; 2,058 75 Program by site 42% black; 16% other Rome Head Start Self-selection Blacks and 218 71 Program whites A11samples were selected on the basis o. family poverty. Unless othem.x noted, 90% or more of the subjects are black. Mother-Child Home Program consisted of twice FINDINGS weekly home visits for one to two years, and the Harlem Study provided one-to-one sessions be- The documented effects of early childhood edu- tween a child and a tutor twice weekly for eight cation may be organized according to the major months. outcomes for participants at each period of their In reviewing the findings of these studies, we lives. These outcomes and tb.: ages at which they will also mention corroborating findings from the occurred areimproved iccellectual performance Consortium for Longitudinal Stu dies. The Consor- during early childhood; Letter scholastic placement tium was an association of a dozen educators and and improved scholastic achievemec. during the psychologists, each of whom had initiated a longi- elementary school ;ears; and, during adolescence, a tudinal study of an early childhood program dur- lower rate of delinquency and higher rates of both ing the 1960s and had agreed to collaborate in a graduation from high school and employment at follow-up assessment during the late 1970s. The age 19. Consortium was formed in 1975 by Irving Lazar of Early childhood. The best-documented preschool Cornell University and Edith Grotberg of the U.S. effect is an immediate improvement in intellectual Administration for Children, Youth, and Families. performance as represented by intelligencetest As investigators for the Perry Preschool Project, we scores. Of the studies reviewed here, the six that belonged to the Consortium, and our review of the collected such data allattest to the immediate seven studies in this [chapter] is the better for our positive effect of early childhood education on I.Q. experience with that group. The Consortium based Four studies reported a maximum effect of be- its conclusions on careful review of the methodolo- tween one-half and one standard deviation (16 gy of each longitudinal study, and we maintain points on the Stanford-Binet test); however, statis- that tradition here. tically significant group differences disappeared by age8.The intensive Milwaukee Study had a 218 218 Good Early Childhood Programs Work maximum effect of two standard deviations; the tently favoring the preschool group over the con- difference whe'i the children were last tested (at trol group at ages 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, and 19. Of age10)wasstillgreaterthanone standard the other st.idies reviewed here, only that of the deviation. EarlyTrainingProject had sufficientdata on Two other studies in the Consortium for Longi- achievement (from 70 percent or more of the tudinal Studies reported effects on I.Q. of about subjects) to enable conclusions to be drawn. This half a standard deviation, which disappeared by study found some positive effects at age 8, but no age 8. Craig Ramey and his colleagues recently effects at ages 7,10, or 11. reviewed11experimental studies that included The Consortium for Longitudinal Studies ana- I.Q. data on children between the ages of 1 and 6; lyzed achievement test scores across seven of its eight of these studies had lata on children be- studies. The pooled analysis found statistically sig- tween the ages o: 1 and 3. In every study, the nificant positive effects of preschool on arithmetic average I.Q. of children who participated in pre- scores at ages 10, 11, and 12, but not at age 13. school was as. good as or better than the average In reading, the Consortium analysis found statisti- I.Q. of children in control groups. I.Q. differences cally significant positive effects of preschool at age ranged from zero in two studies to 21 points in 10 only, one; the median difference was six points. Of the Adolescence. The studies of the Perry Preschool eight studies with I.Q. data for children between Project and the Rome Head Start Program are the the ages of 1 and 3, six showed I.Q. differences of only preschool studies we know of that have col- up to half a standard deviation, and t vo showed lected information on delinquency or crimeeither I.Q. differences between one-half and one stan- from police and court records or fromr, self-reports. dard deviations Neither study found a difference between : artici- Elementary school years. In the studies we are pants and nonparticipants in the number of per- reviewing, every single comparison of scholastic sons referred to juvenile court. But the study of placement was favorable to the group that had the Perry Preschool program did find reduced received early childhood educationTable 3). In delinquency among participantsdocumented by four of the fivestudies that included data on self-reports at age 156 and by official records of special education placements, the rate of such either total number of arrests or referrals to juve- placements was usually reduced by half. In the nile court. Perry Preschool Project, the overall figure for Spt- Both the Perry Preschool Project and the Early cial education placements (by student-years rather Training Project collected information on rates of than by students, as reported here) was reduced by te.nage pregnancy. The Perry Project reported 64 half. Two studies report statistically significant re- teenage pregnancies per 100 females who had ductions in retentions as well. The Harlem Study attended preschool and 117 teenage pregnancies could not obtain data or, placements in special per 100 females who had not attended preschool. education. The Early Training Project found that 38 percent The staff of the Consortium for Longitudinal of the females in the study reported a pregnancy, Studiesreportedsimilarfindings on scholastic with no between-group differences.The Early placement. Moreover, their technique of pooling Training Project did find that after pregnancy and probability estimates confirms the improbability of childbirth, 88 percent of the females who had obtaining all the findings in Table 3 purely by gone to preschool were likely to complete high chance. school, whje only 30 percent of the females who Avoiding placement in special education pro- had not gone to preschool were likely to return to grams was me of the major financial benefits of school after pregnancy and childbirth. preschool education to emerge from the cost-bene- In three of the studies reviewed here, youngsters fit analysis of the Perry Preschool Project. The who had attended a preschool program were less strength and consistency of the finding that partici- likely to drop out of high school than were their pants avoided such placements in these other stud- peers who had not attended preschool. Table 3 ies argue persuasively that these ( her preschool shows that the dropout rates of those who attended programs, too, would show a favorable cost-benefit preschool as opposed to those who did not were 17 ratio. percent lower in the Rome Head Start Program, 21 Most of the experimentally derived evidence for percent lower in the Early Training Project, and 18 thepositiveimpact of preschool on scholastic percent lower in the Perry Preschool Project. As far achievement comes from the study of the Perry as we know, the Perry Project is the only study of Preschool Project, which found differences consis- the effects of preschool that includes data on 219 2 1 p EVIDENCE AND EVALUATION Table 3. Findings For Scholastic Placement Program Control Study Group Group % % P. Rome Head Stan (age 20) Placed in special education 11 25 .019 Retained in grade 51 63 Dropped out of high school 50 67 .042 Perry Preschool (age 19) Placed in special education 37 50 Retained in grade 35 40 Dropped out of high school 33 51 .034 Early Training (age 18) Placed in special education 3 29 .004 Retained in grade 53 69 Dropped out of high school 22 43 .079 Harlem (age 13) Placed in special education No data No data No data Retained in grade 24 45 .006 Dropped out of high school No data No data No data New York Pre-K (age 9) Placed in special education 2 5 .006 Retained in grade 16 21 .019 Dropped out of high school No data No data No data Mother-Child Home (age 9) Placed in special eduction 14 39 .005 Retained in grade 13 19 Dropped out of high school No data No data No data Milwaukee No data No data No data *Two-tailed p-values are presented if less than .1. err: ioyment after .-raduation, reporting an em- tial.The federal government annually provides ployment rate at age 19 of 50 percent for the about a billion dollars each for Head Start and preschool group and 32 percent for the non- subsidized child care. preschool group. Compensatory education, during the past three From our review of these seven studies and from decades, has essentially been delivered by Title I of the data collected by the Consortium for Longitu- the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of dinal Studies, 'It! feel safe in concluding that good 1965, now Chapter 1 of President Reagan's Educa- early childhood programs ate a wise investment of tion Consolidation and Improvement Act of 1981. public funds that can benefit children, their fam- In deciding who participates in Chapter 1pro- ilies, and all citizens-d taxpayers. To what extent grams, school districts must give priority to chil- is the U.S. making t,,s investment today? dren enrolled in kindergarten through grade 12. During the past 30 years, the federal govern- Thus only a small portion of Chapter 1 funding ment has provided the lion's share of funding for has found its way to programs se wing very young early childhood programs for children from low- children. During the 1981-82 school year, Chapter income families. For prekindergartners, this fund- 1 funds served a total of 4,866,108 students; only ing has taken two forms: the Head Start Program 332,355 of them (7 percent) were in kindergarten and subsidized child care. Head Start has main- or prekindergarten programs. tained a modest but steady growth since it began However, there are good reasons for state and in1965. F ;deral funding forchild carenow local school administrators to use whatever Chapter provided primarily through the SocialServices 1 funds they can for prekindergarten programs for Block Grant and the Child Care Food Program children atrisk of scholasticfailure. The cost- has had its ups and downs, but it is still substan- benefitanalysis of the Perry Preschool Project 220 0 , ier P..V Good Early Childhood Programs Work showed that school systems recoup their investment the staunch support of that program by Gov. in a one-year prekindergarten program by the time Mario Cuomo and State Education Commissioner the participants graduate from high school. Gordon Ambach and the recent increase in fund- But the federal government is only a minor ing for that program (from $10 million to $14 source of Mucation funding in general. Well over million) are largely due to the positive research 90 percent u, funding for education comes from results.In South Carolina, Gov. Richard Riley state and local source'. Furthermore, state and made expanded child development programs an local governments bear the largest burden of pay- integral part of his education reform package with ing for juvenile delinquency, teenagt. ,regnancy, funding for early childhood programs slated to rise and welfare assistance. Therefore, state and local to about $11 million. Texas has authorized $50 governments stand to profit the most fro in invest- million for early childhood programs in the coming ment in good early childhood prof luns for chil- years, and Missouri recently passed comprehensive dren from low-income families. legislation on early childhood education. Funding California leads the nation in funding for early legislation for early childhood programs is now childhood education and child care, spending $277 pending in more than a dozen states. million in 1984-85. No other state even comes Yet, despite compelling research fir dings and dose. New York spends only $155 million on early despite the recent actions of a numb: of states, childhood programs, with $141 million of that there are still not enough good ea..y childhood sum coining from the Federal Social Services Block programs for children from low-in. JMC families. Grant. However, the New York Prekindergarten We must all do something about that. Program has received a good evaluation, and both DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Questions for this chapter and Chapter 48 are combined; they appear at the end of Chapter 48 on page 225. 221 48. THE PROMISE OF EARLY CHILDHOODEDUCATION by Lawrence J. Schweinhart, John R. Berrueta-Clement, W. StevenBarnett, Ann S. Epstein, and David P. Weikart One out of every five children in the United THE PERRY PRESCHOOL STUDY States lives in poverty.' Only 39 percent of the 4- yea: -olds in families that are below the poverty line The Perry Preschool Study examined the lives of attend preschool programs.2 Yet recent longitudi- 123 youths born between 1958 and 1962. The nal studies of early childhood programssuchas students were divided into five waves: Wave Zero, the Perry Preschool Study that we are reporting 4-year-olds selected in 1962; Wave One, 3-year- herehave shown that good preschoolprograms olds selected in 1962; Wave Two, 3-year -olds se- can have a beneficial effect on the lives of children lected in 1963; Wave Three, 3-year-olds selected in reared 'n poverty.3 1964; and Wave Four, 3-year-olds selected in 1965. The federal government invests abouta billion Each wave was divided into a preschool group and a half dollars annually inearly childhood and a nonpreschool group. The Wave Zero pre- programs for poor children through Head Start, school group attended preschool forone year; the federally funded child-care services, educationpro- other four preschool groups attended preschool for grams for the disadvantaged, and incentive grants two years. For purposes of analysis, we generally for handicapped children.* Severalstates invest in combine the waves to form a larger sample. Our early childhood programs independently of the most recent longitudinal analysis was conducted federal government, and even more statesare using data collected when the subjectswere'.9 considering doing so. New York and South Caroli- years old, an age reached by Wave Zero in l' 77 na have substantially increased their funding of and by Wave Four in 1981. early childhood programs, and Texas has beguna The children selected for the study lived in the new program. Local agencies and school districts attendance area of the Perry Elementary School,a also providc early childhood programs, thoughno neighborhood located on the south side of Ypsi- national statistics have been compiled. Arecent lanti, Michigan, that has been populated primarily survey by the Michigan Department of Education by low-income black families for some time. Chil- found that one-third of that state's school districts lren of preschool age were identified bymeans of offer prekindergarten progranis.3 a school census of families with youngsters already The past two decades have seen an increasing attending the school, by referrals from neighbor- number of reports of longitudinal evaluations of hood groups, and by door-to-door canvassing. early childhood programs for poor children. Such Once the preschool-age children had been iden- research was originally based on the hypothesis that tified,the socioeconomic levels of their families human intelligence could be improved during the were assessed on the basis of the parents' educa- early years. However, as the years have passed, the tion, the level of employment of the head of the research has broadened its conceptual framework household, and the ratio of rooms in the ly::ne to and considered program effects other thantest persons in the household. Children from families scores and success in school. below a specified socioeconomic level were given In addition, theorizing about human develop- the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. Those whose ment has moved beyond questions of whether such scores were between 60 and 90 and who exhibited personal traits as intelligence are inheritedor are no evidence of an organic handicap were selected products of experience. The focus today ison the for the study. unfolding relationship between an individual'sge- Families whose children participated in the study netic make-up and environmental opportunities. were considerably less well-off than the average Still,all that we can observe andmeasure is a American family, according to comparisons with person's performance in a given setting. Thus the data from the 1970 U.S. Census. The parents of effects of the Perry Preschool Prog'am reported participants had a median 9.4 years of schooling here may be seen as a sequence of performances in only .4 years less than the national average for various settings, at various times, and in various blacks in 1970, but 2.6 years less than the national domains of life. average for the entire population. Fewer than one See pages 341-42 for acknowledgment and references. 222 21.4 The Promi,e of Early Childhood Education in five of the parents had completed high school. group. .1tatistical analyses indic4rf that the mater- Forty-seven percent of the children in the study nal employment rate had no effect on the pattern lived in single-parent families, although only 14 of findings." percent of all American families in 1970 were headed by a single adult.6 The scientific strength of this studyits ability THE PRESCHOOL PROGRAM to identify preschool effects 20 years lateris pri- marily due to an experimental design that random- The program to which the 58 children in the preschool group were assigned was an organized lyassignedsubjects to treatment and control groups. Neither teachers nor parents had any say in educational program directed at the intellectual who was assigned to the program and who was and social development of young children. Each not. year, teams of four teachers, who had received Each year, children in the incoming wave sr le extensive inservice training staffed the program. put in pairs according to their Staofqrd-Binet test The children took part in the program for two school years, at ages 3 and 4, except in the case of scores; the members of each pair weassigned to different groups. Then, pairs of similarly ranked Wave Zero, which included only 4-year-olds, who children were exchanged between the two groups took part in the program for only one year. to equate within-group ratios of boys to girls and The school year lasted for 71/ months, from to adjust the average socioeconomic level of the October to May. Classes were conducted 21/4 hours each morning, Monday through Friday; the teach- two groups. Finally, a toss of a coin determined er/child ratio was one adult for every five or six the group assigned to the preschool condition and the group assigned to the nonpreschool condition. children. Teachers made lEnne visits to each moth- We made few exceptions in this assignment er and child for 11/2 hours weekly. The Cognitively procr.-lure. In Waves Two, Three, and Four, any Oriented Curriculum9 describes the course of daily siblings were assigned to the same group as their activities. older siblings in order to maintain the indepen- Except for participation in the preschool pro- dence of the groups. Between three and six chil- gram, both groups received the same treatment. All 123 children in the study were interviewed and dren with single parents employed outside the tested in exactly the same way regardless of whica home were transferred from the preschool group to the nonpreschool group because they were unable group they were in.Testers,interviewers,and to participate in the classroom and/or home-visit subsequent teachers were not informed about the components of the preschool program. group membership of the children. Any knowledge Using these procedures, 58 children were as- they did acquire about preschool attendance may signed to the preschool group and 65 to the be considered a latural extension of the experi- mental treatment nonpreschool group. Once children were assigned to the groups, none of the families withdrew from the program. ANALYZING THE DATA Group comparisons on background characteris- tics provide added assurance that the effects we The major sources of data in the Perry Preschool found can be attributed to the preschool program. Study were an interview at age 19, reports from When they entered the project, our two subject primary and secondary schools, police and court groups showed no statisticallysignificant differ- records, and records of social service agencies. The ences (p < .1) on the following background charac- outcome variables of this study may be divided teristics: ratio of boys to girls, child's age and I.Q. into three domains of measurement: scholastic suc- at entry, family socioeconomic level, father's pres- cess, socioeconomic success, and social responsibili- ence or absence, parents' scholastic achievement, ty. family welfare status, father's level of employment, Attrition in the study sample was minimal. The household density, family size, and birth order.? median rate of missing data across all measures was Becauseseveralchildrenwhosesingleparents only5percent. The interview at age 19 was worked outside the home had been reassigned administered to all but two study participants, and from the preschool group to the nonpreschool school records were located for all but 11. These group, there was a statistically significant difference low rates of missing data generally mean that between the groups on maternal employment-9 attrition does not affect either the representative- percent maternal employment in the preschool ness of the sample orthevalidityof group group versus31percentinthenonpreschool comparisons. 223 223 EVIDENCE AND EVALUATION The findings for the subjects at age 19 are Table 2 summarizes the costs and benefits of the displayed in Table1.In the area of scholastic program; all entries are in constant dollars dis- success, members of the preschool group stayed in counted at 3 percent. Discounting takes into ac- school longer, scored better on tests of functional count the fact thatitisbetter toreceive an competence, were less often classified as mentally amount of money today than a year from today ...etarcled, and spent fewer years in special educa- (much like the interest that would accrue on a tion classes. In the area of social responsibility, bank deposit held for a certain interval). The 3 members of the preschool group were arrested less percent rate was chosen because it is the long-term often than members of the nonpreschool group, economic growth rate for the nation. and the females had fewer pregnancies as teen- The per-pupil costs of the Perry Preschool Pro- agers. In the area of socioeconomic success, nearly gram were relatively high, but no higher than the twice as many members of the preschool group costs for many early childhood special education were employed, and only half as many were receiv- prograns. The figures reported are upper-bound ing welfare. estimates of the full costs to society; some of these A cost-benefit analysis of the program and its expenses, such as the cost of the building. would effects indicated that the money that society invest- not be borne by a sponsoring agency. Fulermore, ed in the preschool program was money well spent. the program was an innovation when it began, The return on the initial investment was 3'times with the emphasis on quality and effectiveness the cost of two years of preschool and seven times rather than on efficiency. the cost of one year (based on an analysis of Our analysis does suggest certain ways that the outcomes for pupils in Wave Zero only). The program could have been made more efficientfor major benefits to society were in the form of example, by limiting the program to one year reduced costs of later education and increased instead of two. Table 2 shows that both one and earnings, both actual and predicted. Other benefits two years of preschool are go(investments, but included decreased costs for welfare assistance and the benefits of one year are about the same as the crime. The economic benefits obtained by the end benefits of two years. Since two years cost about of high _,.pool were sufficient to justify public twice as much, there is little economic justification investment in one year of preschool for children at for investing in the second year of preschool. On risk of failure. the other hand, note that only 13 of the children in this study attended preschr-11 for only one year, while 45 attended for two years. Thus we can be Table 1. Major Effects of the Perry Preschool Program at Age 19 PreschoolNonpreschool Table 2. Summary of Costs and Benefit? Category N Group Group p* Benefit or Cost" I%) (%) One Year Two Years Schooling Success Preschool Preschool High school graduation (or equivalent) 121 67 49 .034 Measured College or vocational Preschool program $4.818 $9.289 training 121 38 21 029 Child care 290 572 Functional competence Education. K-12 5,113 4,964 (average or above- Earnings, ages 16-19 642 623 average score) 109 61 38 .025 Welfare at age 19 55 53 Ever classified as mentally Crime through age 20 1,233 1,197 retarded 112 15 35 .014 Percentage of years in special Predicted education 112 16 28 .039 College 704 684 Earnings after age 19 23.813 23,121 Social Responsibility Crime after age 20 1,871 1,816 aver detained or arrested 121 31 51 .022 Welfare after age 19 1,438 1,396 Teen pregnancies 49 64 117 .084 Net Benefitt 128.933 123,769 Socioeconomic Success Benefit /Costitio 7.01 3.56 Employed 121 50 32 .032 Entries are present values in constant 1981 dollars, discounted at 3% Receiving welfare assistance 121 18 32 .044 annually. "Costs are indicated as negative amounts. *Two-tailed probability of chance occurrence. tColumn sums differ from net benefits because of rounding. 224 22 The Promise of Early Childhood Education considerably more confident about the findings for play for children, with the teacher merely keeping two years than we can about the findings for one them from harming themselves or their classmates. year. Second, it was not a narrowly focused academic However, the findings of the Perry Preschool program, and there was no academic drill. The Study and similar studies should not be construed focus was not on letters,lumbers, shapes, and as an endorsement of all early childhood programs. colors. Unfortunately, thes, things often become There is no intrinsic value in a young child's the focus of early childhood education, when they leaving home for a few hours a day to join another should properly be viewed as no more thanmeans adult and a group of children. Unless the content to an end. of a program is carefully defined, a preschool is A good early childhood program, we believe, just another place for a child to be. teaches children two things: how to be good Such thinking has led us to conclude that learners ant; how to work with adults who are not quality is essential in ealy childhood programs if members of their families. These are the real basic they are to have long-term benefits. We have skills to be imparted by early childhood education. developed a definition of quality in preschool If children do not become learners, open to their programs that is based on research and on our experiences, and if they don't learn to work with experience in running such programs. Quality in adults other than. family members, then they will early childhood programs -alls for parent involve- never have more than limited access to reading, ment, programmatic leadership by su ,3ervisors and writing, and arithmetic. directors, competent and genuinely enthusiastic Two conclusions ran be drawn from our re- teachers, an articulated curriculum of proven effec- search. The first, we have detailed here: a good tiveness, a sound inservice training program, and preschool program hell.children overcome the the feedback provided by program evaluation. If a effects of poverty to soy e extent. But preschool program has these features, we believe it is a good and poverty are merely the specific experiences one that will produce lasting effects. explored here. The more general conclusion of our The Perry Preschool Program was a developmen- studyisthat early childhood education has a tal program that helped children to plan, to carry lasting impact on adult life. Easy rhetoric, now out their plans, and to take responsibility for documented as fact. The quality of life of today's problem solving. It did not simply follow either of young children has profound consequences for to- the two most common approaches to early child- morrow's adults. For better or worse, that is the hood education. First, it was not simply unguided promise of early childhood education. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are the main effects of excellent early education programsover time? 2.f.:an we generalize these findings to all early childhood education programs? 3. What are the critical qualities of the "good" programs? 4. Do the results of the longitudinal studies justify the cost/effort of the early intervention programs? 5.Are the research findings sufficient to justify major quality improvements and expansion of goodprograms for all children? 6. How can these research findings be used by the classroom teacher? 7. What are the policy and program evaluation implications of these research findings? 225 2 °;5 49. EARLY CHILDHOOD EVALUATION: WHAT? WHO? WHY? by Doris Bergen Sponseller and Joel Fink Evaluation has always been a component of 1969); and responsive evaluations using case stud- educational practice. In early times, howevci, the ies (Stake, 1975, 1978). questions asked were concerned primarily with in- Three basic questions about evaluation are raised dividual student performance rather than with pro- and discussed here: (1) What is to be evaluated? gram effectiveness.Further, how well students (2) Who is to do the evaluating? (3) For what learned was seen as a function of their ability, not purpose is the evaluation to be conducted? We feel of the effectiveness of the education environment. that if early childhood educators clarify their posi- In early childhood education programs, children tions on these questions, they will be more able to were usually evaluated in terms of their social and develop appropriate evaluation strategies. For each emotional adjustment. The value of accepted edu- of these questions, two major alternative answers cational practice in the traditional early childhood will be presented, and a statement will be offered settings was not examined. of what we view as desirable responses. Evaluators' With the advent of federal financial support and consideration of these responses may point to more active promotion of early childhood education as a useful future evaluation strategics. means Ixincrease children's academic learning Although these three questions may seem to be potential, the focus of evaluation shifted to pro- ones that would be routinely addressed, this is gram effectiveness. How well students learned was seldom done explicitly. Studies have been conduct- seen as a function of their educational environ- ed in which conflicting values of early childhood ment, rather than of their individual abilities. educators, program evaluators, and government Developers of early childhood programs were re- representatives have been incorporated in the same quired to evaluate their activities in order to obtain evaluation design. Unless these conflicting views and to continue to receive public funding. In order are highlighted, and addressed, the evaluation toidentifyeffectiveeducationalenvironments, activities can be confusing and unsatisfactory to comparisonswere madeboth amongvarious those involved. planned programs and between these programs andnaturallyoccurringchildrearingsettings. While different evaluation approaches have been WHAT IS TO BE EVALUATED?: used, there is general agreement that evaluation PRODUCT AND PROCESS EVALUATIONS has not produced the clear results expected and promised. Numerous writers have suggested that Product evaluation emphasizes measuring chl- there are major problems with current evaluation dren's performance as the major method of assess- practices (e.g., Glick, 1968; Circirelli et al., 1970; ment. The assumption that well-designed product Bentley et al., 1974; House and Hutchins, 1978; measures can best demonstrate effectiveness of pro- Takanishi, 1979). Inadequacies of design and mea- gram has been generally accepted. The products surement methodology,incongruitiesbetween most commonly measured are students' intellectual goals and measures, inappropriate analysis proce- or academic performance. Further, this linking of dures, simplistic or politically motivated cone a- measurement of children's outcomes performance sions,and deleterious policyimplications ha c with program worth has suggested implications for been exhaustively discussed. policy decisions. Early childhood educators believe In response to these problems, alternatives t that if evidence of successful products is not clearly current practice have been suggested, including a demonstrated, public support for early childhood stress on developmental models (Takanishi, 1979); programs may be affected. classroom rather than child assessment (Zimiles, There has been criticism of product-centered 1977); naturalistic inquiry (Guba, 1978); synthesis evaluation.For example, Takanishi (1979) has of research evidence (Pillemer and Light, 1980), questioned whether short-term product measure- clinicalsupervisionapproaches (Goldhammer, ment is appropriate when a developmental per- See page 342 for acknowledgment and references. 226 Early Childhood Evaluation spective might predict that behavior changes would ed; staff variations in methods of collection that become evident only over a longer term. She also decrease reliability; and staff specification of mea- asserts that measured performance may not reflect surer:2m targets that increase possibilities for ob- competence. taining favorable results. In addition to stress on Early childhood educators have consistently re- the use of outside evaluation to achieve objectivity, minded evaluators that processes are as important there has also been an emphasis on quantitative as products and that products unrelated to intellec- measures that are adaptable to statistical analysis, tual or academic success have value. For example, rather than qualitative measures which provide in- in the Head Start program, where process goals depth descriptions. such as parent participation, staff development and A common complaint of early childhood educa- commur1.1 mobilization are identified, program tors has been that outside evaluators do not always success may be demonstrated, even if the measures have a perspective that enables them to make of children's products do not reflect academic judgments which adequately reflect program quali- gains. In addition, experiences provided for chil- ty. When evaluators come into settings with prede- dren may be intrinsically worthwhile processes if they are congruent with positive child develop- termined goals and an ealuation design which may be insensitive to local conditions, essential ment. They can also lead to desirable social out- elements may not be measured. Across-program comes. Program quality may thus be determined model comparisons have often been criticized be- by carefully observing and describing the processes cause individual setting variables substantially af- within the program setting, as well as by measur- ing a range of products. fect the basic model. Pillemer and Light (1980) have suggested synthesizing data from many stud- Takanishi (1979) states that a perspective which iesin order to examine internal variations in focuses on .t number of levels of child, adult, and similar program models. program development can give greater richness and depth to evaluation. Whether products or processes A major evaluation alternative has been to have are the major focus of evaluation or whether a each program evaluated individually with evalua- combination of both art used should be decided tion done by program staff. Some programs have within the context of overall program goals. Deci- had staff members collect data using more objec- sions should not be based on the ease or difficulty tive norm-referenced measures. Others have devel- of measurement, but on articulated quality stan- oped criterion-referenced measures closely tied to dards defined by a consensus of early childhood specific program goals. These staff evaluator meth- educators and community representatives. ods may be superior precisely because they empha- Even evaluators who have successfully demon- sizeself-identifiedgoals,measures and targets. strated long-term academic effects of early child- Without an outside validation of staff-conducted hood progr..ms have concluded that policy deci- measures, however, internal evaluation may not be sions are only minimally influenced by evidence of objective. children's academic success (Lazar, 1980). Perhaps Thereareapproachesthatbuild upon the this realization will encourage evaluators to broad- strengths of both external and staff evaluation, and en their perspectives in deciding on content of are designed to control for subjectivity and bias evaluation and on whether product or process even though they use program staff in the evalua- measures are nee& d The dimensions identified as tion process and collect qualitative data. (Striven, crucial to program quality are what should be 1972, has pointed out that objective data may be evaluated. qualitative as well as quantitative.) One such ap- proach is Goldhammer's (1969) clinical supervision model which avoids the imposition by external WHO IS TO DO THE EVALUATING?: observers of the objects for evaluation. Staff mem- EXTERNAL AND STAFF EVALUATION bers are asked to clearly identify the teaching and learning behavior to be emphasized. The evaluator Because the essence of evaluation is judgment, then carefully observes and records these observa- measurement compared to standards, the appropri- tions.Finally, during a post-observation confer- ateness of the evaluators who are selectedis a ence, the evaluator systematically shares the obser- crucial issue. Evaluation practice has stressed that vations and documents these with recorded objectivity is most likely to be preserved if outside evidence. This clinical supervision model retains evaluators collect and analyze the data. Subjectivity the objectivity of external evaluation while requir- may result from staff biases in the measures select- ingstaff todirect the process. An important 227 2 2 7 EVIDENCE AND EVALUATION product of this approach is a renewed professional prograii_s. These programs are dynamic, with con- commitment by staff to program improvement. stant staffing reassignments, curriculumadditions Cuba (1978) recommends using an outside eval- and deletions, changes in the composition of the uator who takes a phenomenological perspective, children's groups, and movement in program loca- observing goals, relevant processes and products, tions.Dynamicprogramscreatemeasurement and identified problems through the perspective of problems for summative evaluation approaches. A staff members. This method of naturalistic inquiry formative evaluation approach hich can assist in requires balanced discussions with all relevant par- the management of change and in adjusting to ticipants and the use of procedures to crt,z 'heck change may not only prevent destructive effects, and confirm information. but also enhance program quality. Each of these evaluation models preserves objec- Finally, the acceptance of the legitimacy and tivity because reliable and confirmable information desirability of formative evaluation makes it more is collected. The emphasis on multiple evaluators plausible to recommend an emphasis on evaluating may well enhance objectivity, since this prevents processes and on involving staff in evaluation activ- the superficial understandings of external evalua- ities. Conversely, so long as only summative evalu- tors and the unconscious biases of the staff from ations are considered legitimate, there is likely to influencing the judgments made. An evaluation be undesirably strong emphasis on products and approach which involves participants in the evalua- external evaluation to the exclusion of concern with tion and which looks atvariations as wellas process objectives and staff involvement. A cyclical similarities in programs may provide the most model which includes formative and summative useful approach to the question of who should data collection periods can serve multiple purposes. evaluate. Once the purposes have been dearly identified, an appropriate balance between formative and sum- mative approaches can be planned. FOR WHAT PURPOSE IS THE EVALUATION CONDUCTED?: SUMMATWE AND FORMATIVE ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES EVALUATION FOR EVALUATION The emphasis in educational evaluation has most Although many of the evaluation studies which commonly been on summative approaches, assess- were conducted in the past 15 years have been ing how well a program has done its work after it flawed, they have demonstrated that learning abili- is supposedly completed. This results from a need ty was enhanced in the majority of programs at to compare programs in order to select those which least over the short term and that long-term posi- be.: promote children's learning in a cost-effective tive effects also are evident for some programs way. In many cases, formative evz.:Jation which (e.g., Lazar, 1977). The cost-effectiveness of early would give ongoing feedback and lead to program childhood education also has been given support changes was limited so as not to confound outcome by evaluation results (Weber et al.,1978). data. Throughout this period, the evaluation strategics On the other hand, early childhood educators employed have most commonly presumed that have often felt threatened about these measure- only products should be measured, that evaluation ments because of the tic between summative evalu- should be conducted by external evaluators, and ations and minding decisions. In those cases where that it should be summative. Perhaps these em- summative evaluations wereroutinelycollected phases have been a result of pressures imposed by with few guidelines and with no stated relationship public funding sources. to funding decisions, diey were often perceived as We are currently in a period of low public pro forma efforts. Results were sent to state or support for early childhood education and of an federal agencies to be filed end forgotten. easing of outside pressures to evaluate. Perhaps this More attention needs to be devoted to formative time can be productively used by evaluators to evaluation to promote program quality. Formative modify their past responses to the questions raised evaluation with its planned and continuing review in this [chapter]. New consideration can be given of data, its promotion of systematic changes and to evaluation approaches that (1) include a greater staff skill development, and its monitoring of the emphasis on educational processes and on a wider effects of these changes can be of great value in variety of products, (2) protect objectivity while achieving the goals of early childhood education also increasing staff participation, and (3) offer 228 Early Childhood Evaluation useful information to guide the task of program attention to differences as well as to similarities of design and modification. results need to be pursued further. Hopefully,as Evaluation approaches which use naturalistic in- early childhood educatorsreflect on the three quiry or case study methods, which are adapted questions raised in this [chapter], alternative evalu- from the clinical supervision model, and which ation strategies will receive the careful examination synthesize data from a number of programs with which they merit. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are the problems associated with evaluating early education programs? 2. How should evaluation be conducted? What should be evaluated? How should theresults be used? 3.Are outside evaluators necessary for a quality evaluation? Why? 4.Have evaluation results been used effectively in program revision and improvement? in policydecisions? 5.Are program effects on the children the ultimate evaluative criteria,or are there other purposes for evalua- tion of early educational programs? 9 r; 229 Section Seven: Electronic Technology for Early Childhood Programs Editor's Overview 231 50.Computers for Young Children? Perhaps, by Sandra Anse lmo and R. Ann Zinck 232 51.Computers and Young Children: A Review of Research, by Douglas H. Clements 237 52.Technological Priorities in the Education of Young Children, by Warren W. Buckleitner and Charles F. Hohmann 245 EDITOR'S OVE' /IEW As the computer and other electronic technol- research literature. Then, Buckleitner and Hoh- ogies transform the way people work, they are also mann raise the question of priorities in the use of having an influence on the way we teach and on computers in early education, with special atten- the way children learn. This is a period of transi- tion to financial considerations. tion from initial introduction to a better picture The costs, the benefits, the effects, and the about what computers can and cannot do for early influence on teaching and learning are persistent childhood education. areas of concern when computers and electronic Anse lmo and Zinck give a classroom-eye view of technologies are introduced into the schools. The computer use with young children while reminding challenge to the profession is to determine opti- readers that computers cannot replace some 4 the mum applications, to identify limitations, and to traditional, concrete learning experiences. More of blend these technological tools into the stream of the critical questions are presented by Clements, instructional methods for teaching young children. with answers to the questions derived from the 230 50. COMPUTERS FOR YOUNG CHILDREN? 7ERHAPS by Sandra Anse lmo and R. Ann Zinck The popular press and professional journals are DI learn about computers, the teachers enrolled filled with accounts of the prowess of young chil- in a university course on LOGO in theclassroom. dren with computers. Television commercials de- When they were ready, computers were added as pict good parents guiding toddlers' pudgy fingers another interest area in classrooms already rich with to computer keys as a first step to success.In activity choices. Two chairs were placed in front of advertising their services, some child care centers each computer to encourage children's interactions. prominently mention the availability of computers. Children were shown individually and in groups In contrast to what is said and implied in the how to use the hardware and then were allowed to media, -,ve are not awed by computers, nor do we use the computers freely. Children were shown 2ssuinethey are essential for early childhood class- how to use software only as they had questions. rooms. Rather,this [chapter] will take a more Teachers wet availabletoassistchildrenif balanced look at the possible value of computers asked, but they consciously avoided extended indi- for young children. vidual sessions. They also met regularly with us to evaluate software and test it with young children, and assisted us in collecting information on the HOW WE BEGAN reactions of children, parents, and teachers. Many early childhood educators became interest- ed in computers because of the potentialfor creative thinking and interaction. Papert (1980) SOFTWARE TO ENCOURAGE raised hopes that the use of computers could add THINKING SKILLS another dimension to children's problem - solving skills.This possibility seemed timely when the Software, like all other materials in the class- National Assessment of Educational Progress (1983) room, must be evaluated in the context of devel- confirmedthatproblem- solvingskillsamong opmentally appropriate curriculum goals (NAEYC, American children were declining.Children 1986a, 1986b). Computers are controlled by soft- seemed better able to do rote computation than to ware, so it is essential to select programs that are search for meaning and think out implications. consistent with the principles of good early child- While Papert (1980) and Turk lc (1984) stirred hood education. Children must already have a our interest in computers for young children, we broad background of concrete experiences before still had many questions. Even though we were they can find meaning in the more abstract com- experienced with home computers and with curric- puteractivities. ulum development, we were hesitant to generalize Our curriculum emphasis is on the process of from clocks, scissors, and crayons to computers. If helping young children developtheir thinking computers were added to early childhood class- skills. Without neglecting content, our priority is rooms, what software and instructional approaches to helpchildren learnto use andtrusttheir should be used? What could computers add to abilities to receive information, remember it, make classrooms that was not already being handled decisions, and solve problems. We thus searched without electronics? for software that would enhance children's think- To help answer our questions, we placed an ing skills in comprehension, memory, evaluation, Apple He computer in one preschool and one and creativity. kindergartenclassroominaprivate,nonprofit New software is being released daily, and pro- school. The Rainbow School was chosen because it grams are subject to change. Therefore, although has a well-articulated curriculum based on the we mention the names of some programs we found development of thinking skills (Ansclmo, Rollins, suitable for our purposes, readers are cautioned to and Schuckman, 1986), and because the teachers evaluate any software thoroughly before purchasing were enthusiastic about the project. it. See page 342 for acknowledgment and references. 2.1 v , 232 Compute= fa Young Children? Comprehension A program likethisisnot a substitute for memory games using concrete objects such as the Comprehension :c the ability to be aware of and memory tray or memory book (Anselmo, Rollins, to understand information. Young children use and Schuckman, 1986), nor is it appropriate for this skill when they smell, taste, and touch food; children who have yet to develop the necessary when they listen to stories; and when they put language skills. However, this sophisticated game puzzles together. Comprehension is an essential allows older children to challenge their memories aspect of all learning. without teacher assistance. One aspect of comprehension is visual cic :ure, the process of mentally completing apicture, word, or other figure from information gained by Evaluation only seeing a pan of it. Visual closure skills are used in reading: Good readers look quickly at Evaluationisthe abilityto make decisions. whole words or groups of words, rather than at Young children evaluate when they decide what to individualletters. Two computer games, Guess wear in the morning, when they fitid a 'ray to Who? on Ernie'sQuiz (Children'sTelevision enter into play with a group of child-en, or when Workshop, 1981a), and Instant Zoo (Children's they help a child in distress. Television Workshop, 1981b), seem to help chil- Gertrude's Set;rets (1982) gives children an op- dren improve visual closure. In these games, chil- portunity to classifyone aspect of evaluation. dren use scattered visual clues to determine what Gertrude, a goose, has many rooms in which she figure is partially pictured on the monitor. As tries to group items by color and shape. Children children watch, more segments are gradually filled help Gertrude classify using two or more in on the screen. attributes. Similar activities can be conducted without com- Evaluation skillsare also used in Estimation puters (Anselmo, 1983), but the process is cumber- (1983). For example, one part of Bug Tracks asks some and involves drawing several pictures of the children to estimate which of two trails is longer, object. which may aid in the development of the concept Another aspect of comprehension is the ability of conservation of length. 0- lo Choo gives chil- to complete mazes by using visual tracking, a skill dren control of sound, speed, and visibility as they also used in reading as children follow the lines of estimate the location of a train in a tunnel. print. Peanuts Maze Marathon (1984) providesa Another game that uses evaluation skills is Layer variety of colorful mazes for children to solve by Cake on Mix and Match (Children's Television manipulating the movement of an object on the Workshop, 1981c). Children try to move cakes of screen. This program can buili on children's expe- three sizes from one spindle to one of two others riences in constructing mazes or obstacle courses without crushing the smaller cakes. Planning and with Mocks, for example. strategy are used by successful players. Programs such as these can be matched with children'sabilities and intereststo supplement Memory other activities designed to help children solve real problems, both concrete and interpersonal. Memory is the ability to rtore information so it can be used at a later time. Well-developed mem- ory skills are essential for virtually every aspect of Creativity life. The third pan of Pacemaker (1982) contains an Creativity is the ability to use divergent thinking appealing computer memory game for children to solve problems. Children use creativity when who can recall the labels assigned and identify they make up new words and motions to a favorite initial letters of words. Children createa face, song, when they propose how to divide an apple program expressions on the face, and then play the among three children, and when they add a new game with those expressions. For example, the face role for a child joining them in dramatic play. might smile and stick out its tongue. The child Creativity may well be the thinking skill that types S and then T to indicate the sequence has the computer most enhances. The capabilities of been remembered. A three-part sequence is then the LOGO language make it possible for older presented. Children who are unsuccessful are given preschoolers and kindergarten children to program another two-part sequence. the camputer. According to Papers (1980), chil- 232 233 ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY dren who program computers are active partici- Age Is a Relevant Variable pants in their learning. For example, they might program the movement of the turtle using Draw Before adding computers to classrooms, we won- (undated) as an introduction to Apple' LOGO dred whether computer use might prevent some (1983).Papertcontraststhismore interactive, children from participating in hands-on experiences problem-solving use of computers with their inap- scheduled at the same time. We need not have propriate use as electronic workbooks. worried. We found almost no computer use by 3- Another way the computer can encourage cre- year -olds, moderate use by 4-year-olds, and enthu- ativity is with word processing programs such as siastic use by nearly all of the kindergarten chil- Kidwriter (1984). Most young children wili need dren. Three-year-olds did not choose time at the teat.r assistance to record their stories, although computer when the alternatives included block older children may use the stories to develop some ')wilding, digging in sand, and stuffing mail in word-recall and keyboard skills. boxes at the classroom post office. Why are younger childrenlessinterestedin computers? The answer lies in an understanding of POTENTIAL VALUES OF COMPUTERS child development. Piaget has described the pre- operational stage, from 2 -o 7 years,in which The distinctive thinking patterns of young chil- hands-on experiences are Important as children dren have been extensively described (Piaget and construct their own understanding of the world. In Inhelder, 1969; Thomas, 1985). In the context of the middle of this periodaround age 4children our understanding of young children's develop- beginto use anintuitive,prelogical form of ment, we observed children's use of computers. thought. And around this age is when children Our observations have led usto four general began to express interest in computers. conclusions about the use of computers with pre- Papert (1980) suggested that computes may be school and kindergarten children: a vehicle for making certain concepts "simple and Computers can be interactive. concrete" (p. 7) for intuitive thinkers. Computers Age is a relevant variable. may serve as a transition from actual objects to Cladren prefer action. mental representations. Nonreaders may be encouraged to read. Teacher presence seems to be a second factor regarding the age of children and their interest in computers. As children mature and have more Computers Can Be Interactive experience in group settings, they become more independent. In the setting we created, teachers Computer use seems to provide a vehicle for to were not regularly Lew the computers. For 3-year- types of interaction:child-computer and child- olds, the lack of the reassuring presence of a child.Child-computer interaction depends to a teacher, and the compelling semaal satisfactions great extent on the software. Some software re- found in sand and water play, may have been a quires children to choose one response, which is factor in their lack of interest. then corrected. In contrast, the software nescribed here requires more child involvement. Gertrude's Secrets (1982) allows children to use information Children "refer Actior. on the screen to construct classification systems. Children rect.., feedback, and if theydesire, Just as in other aspects of their play, children modify the classification. like action with computers, and they do not neces- Child-child interaction at the computer seems to sarily choose to follow the rules of games. They depend on the ar.ingement of the environment as watch what happens when they press new keys, well as on the selection of software. As indicated and they purposely may try to squash the cakes in earlier, two chairs were placed at each computer. Layer Cake. One of the strengths young children Other children were drawn to the vicinity because bring to computer use is their fearless experimen- we placed related concrete materials (beads, par- tation! quetry E -cks, geoboards) on adjacent tables. This Children's search for action was made clear by enabled children to discuss problems and assist their reaction to Drat-, which was used to intro- each other with possible solutions. Some pro'rair duce LOGO. Children conducted interesting explo- also are designed for, or lend themselves better to, rations of turtle graphics urril we began to add participation by more than one child. other software. After that, Draw was used only 234 23J Computers for Young Children? occasionally. Why were the supposedly popular Even among different programs, the framework turtle graphics less appealing? First, Draw is visual- for using the computer is often similar (use of ly unexciting, and it pales in comparison with the menus, prompts for return and space bar, escape color and graphics in other software. Secondly, it is key). Within this meaningful context, children not a vny powerful program. It lacks the repeat, became adept at reading the language they needed nesting, and procedural functions of LOGO, so to control a new environment. children can only create line drawings. Perhaps As children gained reading skill, they tended to some of the older children could halve benefited help each other. For instance, one day we asked from systematic instruction in the more Ileyib le two childrenif they couldreada particular LOGO. prompt. They responded "No." After being told As we watched children use the computer, we once what the prompt meant, they were able to were curious to know what they were thinking. read the screen and follow through with the appro- When asked "What are you doing?" and "What priate action the next time the prompt appeared. are you learning?" we frequently received a puz- When one of the children left the computer, the zled look and occasionally heard action-oriented remaining child immediately taught ti,e next child responses such as "Moving this from here to what the prompt meant. here," or "To move this thing." Iti addition to meaningfulness, motivation seems While the children in these groups are generally to explain the success of previously nonreading quite verbal, their lack of response might result children who learned to read computer terminol- from a perceived lack of continuity between com- ogy. Four- and 5-year-old preschoolers chose to puter use and the rest of their lives. They were spend an average 22 minutes at the computer, often the first in their families to use computers, while 5- and 6-year-old kindergartners spent 29 or if not, the youngest to do so. Perhaps teachers minutesan indication of substantial interest and should take more opportunities to talk with chil- involvement. dren about the similarities and differences between activities on the computer and off, about the meaning of those activities, and about children's CONCLUSIONS reactions. Children's preference for action also leads us to We were pleased to find an array of interesting recommend that, just as with foods, only nutri- software that emphasized the four thinking skills tious choices should be offered in software. Mid- we encourage in our process-oriented curriculum. way through the year, someone slipped a copy of Readers are urged to identify the skills they wish to the arcade game Frogger into out carefully selected promote, and then evaluate software based on its collection of disks. The game became an instant appropriateness for young children. hit. Although we will not make a case that playing For those interested in using computers with 3- such games is harmful, we believe that children's year -olds, we recommend substantial amounts of time is precious and should be spent on growth- adt.feedback, guidance, and encouragement. To enhancing activities whenever possible. We are build in more tactile experiences, a Koala Pad or responsible for choosing software th^t fits within add-on keyboard with fewer and larger keys might our curriculum goals. be helpful. Teachers working with 4-year-olds will also want to schedule more individual or small group interac- Nonreaders Encouraged to Read tion,both withthe computer and inother activities. We planned tocreatevisuals withpictorial Some 4-year-olds and many kindergarten chil- prompts so the software could be used by the dren can be successful, independent computer us- nonreading majority of the children in the groups. ers for sustained periods of time. While this high Before these p ...;...scould be implemented, we level of interest may be a positive feature, there is found them to 1.... unnecessary. Children mastered some (Linger that the time spent with computers keyboard letter-matching tasks after a few weeks. could detract from other valuable learning experi- Within 2 months, most children were easily able to ences, especially in part-day programs. We encour- select options from menus and read prompts relat- age teachers to monitor usage to ensure a balance ed to the operation of particular programs. These in children's self- directed activities. children were reading! In most cases, they had Do we recommend purchasing computers for little or no outside assistance. preschool and kindergarten classrooms? Our stron- 235 2A 4 ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY gest positive response is. "Perhaps . . .depending sand and water exploration, and a host of other on the circumstances." We believe that the plea- age-appropriate activities. Computers can supple- sure and success young children experience with ment, but do not substitute for, experiences in computers isproportional to the foundation of which childrenLimdiscover with all their senses. pleasure and success they have already built by Only after a sound, basic program has been comprehending, remembering, evaluating, and cre- developedshouldpreschoolsand kindergain ating with tangible objects and familiar people. It teachers consider buying a computer. First should is important that children already have sufficient come blocks, sand and water tables, art materials, self-confidence to take risks and to experiment books, and all of the other proven elements of a with computers, developing what Erikson (1982) good program for young children. calls a sense of initiative. The research reported in this [chapter] was sup- A good environment for young children includes ported by the McDaniel Educational Opportunity many experiences that involve sigh:, sound, touch, hind. We also apprec"ate the interest and assis- taste, and smell: adult-child and child-child con- tance of Rita Schuckma;. and Pamela Rollins, versation, children's literature, block construction, directors of Rainbow School, in carrying out this opportunities w manipulate objects, creative art, project. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.What happens when computers are introduced into the early childhood education classroom? 2.Is the software adequate for use with young children? 3.What can children learn from computers in the classroom? 4. Do some software programs stimulate higher-order thinking? 5.At what age or developmental level can children best be introduced to computers for instruction? 236 2 1 5 51. COMPUTERS AND YOUNG CHILDREN: A REVIEW OF RESEARCH by Douglas H. Clements Although questions of the use and effectiveness ous than books or pencilsall could be used to of computers in education are raised at all levels, push a child to read or write too soon. However, thesequestionsaredebated most passionately they can also be used to prc.dcle developmentally about the early childhood ages (birth through 8). appropriate experiences. Watson, Nida, and Shade Are young children physically and cognitively ready (1986) suggest that the dilemma best be handled to use computers? Will such use inhibit their social by allowing children toselect and work with development? Can computers help build skills or activities at their own level. If so permit- 'd, how develop problem-solving ability? Which is prefera- do children react to this new technological learning ble? Research has not answered these questions device? definitively. However, in just a few short years since a similar review was published (Brady and Hill, 1984), there has been a substantial increase in Children'. Interactions with Computers what we know about young children's use of computers. Children approach computers wig.. comfort and confick nce and appeer to enjoy exploring this new medium r and Ledger,1985). Even pre- YOUNG CHILDREN USING COMPUTERS schoolers eri work cooperatively with minimal in- struction and supervisionif theyinitiallyhave adult support (Rosengren,Cross, Abrams, and Are Computers Developmentally Appropriate Perlmutter, 1985; Shade, Nida, Lipinski, and Wat- for Young Children? son, 1986). However, adults p :ay a significant role in successful computer use. Children are mote This is perhaps the first question early childhood attentive, more interested, end less frustrned when educators should ask about computers. An ex- an adultis present (Binder and Ledger,19f15; pressed concern is that children must reach the Shade a al.,1986). Thus, teachers may wish to stage of concrete operations before they are ready make the computer one of many choices, placed to work with computers (e.g., Brady and Hill, where they can supervise and assist children. 1984). Recent research, however, has found that Using the Standard ':eyboard is not a problem preschoolers are more competent than has bee for young children, and is often superior to other thought and can, under certain conditions, exhibit devices, such as a joystick. Indeed, typing appears thinking traditionally considered concrete. Rohwer, to be a source of motivation and sense of compe- Ammon, and Crammer (1974) put itthis way: tence for many (Burgh and Dickson, 1986b; Li- "Children do not universally wake up to their pinski, Nida, Shade, and Watson, 1986; Muller seventh birthdays... tofind that they have arrived and Perlmutter,1985;Swiggcr and Campbell, at the period of concrete operations" (p.172). 1981). Preschool children can successfully use age- A related concern is that computer use demands appropriate software requiring that they press only the ability to work with symbols (i.e.. that com- a few single keys. They can turn the computer on puters are_int concrete). This ignori:s, however, And off, remove and replace diskettes properly, that much activity in which young children engage follow instructions from a picture menu, Lad talk is symbolic. They communicate with gestures and meaningfully about their computer activity (Wat- language, and they employ symbols in their play son, Chadwick, and Brinkley, 1986). and art. Thus, it appears that preschool children A computer center may vary from being among might benefit from using computer programs. the most popular free-time activity to being chosen But should they? Isn't this "rushing" them? slightly less frequently than ninny other areas (Pi- One answer is that computers are no more danger- card and viuli, 1985). Such differences may be See pages 343-44 for acknowledgment and references. 237 236 ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY due to the physical setup, the teacher interven- ness, Brinker (1984) sought ways to use computers tions, and especially the computer programs (soft- to help them exert control over their environment. ware) used. For example, children prefer programs Infants wore ribbons attached to .Thirches. Their that are animated, problem-solving-oriented, and arm or leg movements sent different signals to a interactivethat give them a feeling of control computer, which was programmed to turn on a over the computer (Shade et ai., 1986; Sherman, tape recording of the mother's voice or of music, Divine,and Johnson,1985;Sivin,Lee,and show a picture, activate a toy, or the like. These Vollmer, 1985). In most cases,3- to 5-year-old activities built motivation to control such events children apparently spend approximately the same and increased the infants' smiling and vocalizing. amount of time playing in the computer center as drawing, talking, or playing in the block or art Equity: Girls and Boys centers (e.g., Hoover and Austin, 1986; Picard and Giuli,1985). The attraction outlives the novelty A :onsistent finding is that as early as the later effect. However, play in other important centers, elementary school years, boys have more access to such as blocks, is not decreased by the presence of computers, own more computers, and use comput- I. computer. Thus, the computer is an interesting, activity for young children ers more frequently and with more control (Lieber- but not engrossing, man. 1985; Picard and Giuli, 1985). Is this imbal- (Lipinski et al., 1986). ance present in early childhood? There are some similar signs. For example, a pair of studies found 1 Characteristics of Children that,although children5years or older used computers similarly, boys younger than 5 used the Do any characteristics distinguish preschoolers computer more than did girls the same age (Bee- most interested in using computers? They tend to son and Williams, 1985). In addition, two studies, be older and to exhibit significantly higher levels one at the preschool and one at the primary level, of cognitive maturity. They manifest higher levels have found that boys are more interested in cre- of representational competence and vt.cabulary de- ative problem-solving programsin exploring their velopment and display more organized and ab- control over the computerwhereas girls tend to stract forms of free play behavior. They do not stay within the dictates of established drill and differ from less interested peers in creativity, esti- practice programs (Shrock, Matthias, Anastasoff, mates of social maturity, or social cognitive ability. Vensel, and Shaw, 1985; Swigger, Campbell, and Thus, there may be important cognitive underpin- Swigger, 1983). However, other studies have not nings of computer involvement by preschoolers revealed such differences (e.g., Sherman etal., (Hoover and Austin, 1986; Johnson, 1985). 1985), and the vast majority report that girls and boys do not differ in the amount or type of computer use (Hess and Mc Garvey, in press; Hoo- How Young? ver and Austin, 1986; Johnson, 1985; Lipinski et al, 1986; Muller and Perlmutter, 1985; Shade et Although older children may be more interested al., 1986; Swigger and Campbell, 1981; Swigger et in using computers, there islittle evidence that 1., 1983). Considering the traditional heavy domi- computers should not be introduced to younger nance of computer use by males, these researchers children. No major differences have been found have suggested that the early years are the idea' between the way computers are used by younger time to introduce students to computers. "Imagine and olderpreschoolers(Beeson and Williams, what it might mean in the life of young girls to 1985), although 3 -year -olds take longer to accli- have positive,earlyexperiences with computers mate to the keyboard thin 5-year-olds (Sivin et al., before society convinces them that 'computers are ;.985). Some research suggests that 3 years or age for boys' (Watson. Nida, and Shade, 1986, i: and older be selected as an appropriate time for 313). introducing a child to discovery-oriented software. Howevei, even 2-year-olds might be introduced to simple, single-keystroke software, mainly for devel- oping positive attitudes. The crux is appropriately SOCIAL/EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT designed softy/Ere (Shade and Watson, in press). If computers are seen as a general educational tool, First grader Darius never talked aloud, was slow perhaps no one is too young. Noting that handi- to complete his work, and had been placed in a capped infants are at high risk for learned helpiess- socialization group to draw him out of his shell. 238 Computers and Young Children When the computer arrived, Darius spent nearly these caveats in mind, let us see specifically what 90 minutes with the machine the first day. Imme- kindsofsocialbehavioroccurincomputer diately thereafter, his tcLcher noticed that he was environments. completing seatwork without prompting. Then he would slide his seat over to the computer and watch others-ogram in Logo. A bit later, he stood beside i..z computer, talking and making Interaction and Cooperation suggestions. When lthers had difficulties, he was quick to show them the solution. Soon, others Although :iere is agreement that computers do started getting help with Logo from him. In brief, not isolate children, there is some disagreement as Darius moved up to the high reading group, to whether computers promote interaction more skipping the third preprimer. He began complet- than other activities or to approximately the same ing twiceas much work per day as he had degree. For instance, Lipinski et al. (1986) reported previously. He participated eagerly during class that social interactions arc similar to interactions in discussions andas a crowning achievementwas other play areas; others have found that, in com- givena10-minute"time out"becausehe parison to other areas, computers facilitate social wouldn't stop talking (St.Paul Public Schools, interaction and cooperation (Clements and Nasta.;, 1985)! Such episodes arestrikinglyinconsistent 1985; Muhlstein and Croft 1986; Miller and Perl- with the ncz-.ive vision of isolated children work- mutter, 1985), friendship formation (Swigger and ing with computers. Swigger, 1984), and group constructive play (Hoo- In retrospect, the early concern that computers ver and Austin, 1986). Considering the nature of would stifle p!ayful social in eraction appears over- both computer and noncomputer activities can stated. Children would either have to be forced or resolve the discrepancy. Preschoolers' social interac- mesmerized into solitary use of computers for long tions may be no different in computer learning periods. Actually, young children prefer social use centers from those in other centers such as blocks of computers, and rarely work alone (e.g., Lipinski or art. However, computers may stimulate interac- et al.,1986; Rosengren et al.,1985; Swigger et tion more than noncomputer activities. Interactive al., 1983; Swigger and Swigger, 1984). The addi- behavior should not be viewed as a unitary phe- tion of a computer center does not disrupt ongoing nomenon. Computer activitie, may facilitate inter- play activities; many studies have found that com- active problem solving, but not interactive play puters encouraged social interaction (Binder and (Fein et al., 1984). Finally, computer use should Ledger, 1985; Rosengren et al., 1985). As we shall not be viewed as a unitaryactivity.Relatively observe repeatedly, people affect how computers simple software cannot be expected to engender are used more than computers affect people. For interactions similar to those promoted by cognitive- example, Fein, Campbell, and Schwartz (1984) ly richer computer programs. compared young children'ssocial and cognitive behaviors when computers were in or out of the classroom. As usual, the computers were not dis- ruptive. Interestingly, several specific effects varied Teaching and Helping as a function of classroom and teachers. For exam- ple, in the computer's presence, dramatic play A frequent report is that children help and decreased in one classroom and increased in the teach each other while working on the computer. other, because only the teacher in the latter class- For example, Shade e t a.(1986) traced the devel- room made interesting changes in the dramatic opment of 4 -year -olds from positioning for a turn toassisting one another. play center. Other factors, such as the ratio of Several other reports confirm that children spontaneously and effectively computers to children, may also influence social teach and help each other in computer environ- behaviors. Lipinski et al. (1986) found that only ments (e.g., Borgh and Dickson; 1986b; Paris and with a 1:22 ratio (and no teacher present) was Morris, 1985; Wright and Samaras, 1986). Kull there any aggressive behavior, along with a sex (1986) observed first graders engaging in a consid- difference favoring boys. With a ratio of 1:12, erable amount of peer tutoring often modeled on there was no such behavior and the sex difference their teachers' strategies (therefore using a guided favored girls. Thus, they suggest that a 1:10 ratio questioning approach). Not surprisingly, these ac- might ideally encourage computer use, coopera- tions were most successful when such assistantwas tion, and equal access to girls and boys. With request e3Paris and Morris, 1985)! 239 238 ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY Social and Cognitive Interaction encourage peer teaching; open-ended programs elicit more wondering and hypothesizing(i.e., In sum, computers appear to facilitate certain stimulate imaginatic a). prosocial behaviors. Although they may not do so to a greater degree than other worthwhile learning Often used in an open-ended manner, Logo centers, computer contexts appear to have one programming has potential to engender positive unique benefit: They facilitate both social and attitudes,especially persistence.Strand, Gilstad. cognitive interactions. Hoover and Austin (1986) McCollum, and Genishi (1986) showed that pre- found that computers produced a more advanced school students competently managed their Logo cognitive type of play and coi.duded that this environment and evidenced enthusiasm and confi- technology represents another way for children to dence. Kindergarten children sustained their atten- learn, both socially and cognitively. In anoCier tion on Logo tasks for substantial time periods, study, the computer was the only activity that even when they had the option to choose other resulted in high levels of both language develop- activities in lieu of programming. Clements and ment and cooperative play (Muhlstein and Croft, Nastasi (1985) found that primary grade children 1986). Finally, Logo programming has been found in a Logo environment exhibited a greater frequen- to increase both prosocial and higher-order think- cy of several behaviors indicating motivation to ing behaviors (Clements and Nastasi, 1985; Cle- actively control their environment, including en- ments, 1986). Thus, computers may represent an gaging in self-directed explorations and showing environment in which both social and cognitive pleasure at discovery. Logo has been found particu- interactions simultaneously are encouraged, each to larly effective in increasing disabled children's en- the benefit of the other. As we shall see, research gagement in learning (Weir, 1987). One researcher on the cognitive influences of con-purer use sup- recorded the following statement of a boy persist- ports this claim. ing in the face of several setbacks on his Logo project: "He turns to me and very seriously says 'I say, never give up!' " (Carmichael, Burnett, Hig- Attitudes ginson, Moore, and Pollard, 1985, p. 286). Properlyused,Computer-AssistedInstruction Researchers frequently observe young childrer (CAI) might provide similar benefits, at least for commenting positively about their computer work primary grade children. One study found students (e.g., "I did it. I did it. I made it work"; Shade to be more task oriented, even during regular e al.,1986). When asked, girls and boys alike instruction, than those in a control group. This express favorable attitudes toward the computer suggests that experiences with the computer trans- (Shrocketal.,1985).How validarethese fer to regular classroom group activity. Students' findings? attitudes toward learning were also positively af- Obser"ing 5-year-olds, Hyson (1985) found that, fected (Silfen and Howes, 1984). in comparison to television watching, computer use produces far more active, positive, and emotionally Not all results have been positive, however. For varied facial expressions and more smiling. Also, example, one group of preschoolers' interest in children working at a computer speak more often using the computer declined (Goodwin, Goodwin, either to each other or to observers. They are far Nansel, and Helm, 1986). it may be significant more anin:ated and display more varied and com- that the experimental treatment was short, solitary, plex expressions. It appears, then, that the com- and inflexible. In comparison, other studies report puter enhances both communication andself- that children verbalize considerable curiosity, inter- confidence. est, enthusiasm, and sense of personal control after Of course, the type of software used influences direct involvement with computers (e.g., Wright these behaviors. In one study, a drawing program and Samaras,1986). Thus, most, but not all, tended to elicit more indicators of concentration, studies have reported increases in positive attitudes planning, and social ergagement than a face con- after computer use, especially when children work struction and counting program (Hyson, 1985). In M groups, write on the ,:omputer, or program in a similar vein, Borgh and Dickson (1986b) found Logo (cf. Lieberman, 1985). This is promising, that children's verbal statements are strongly af- especially as the motivational advantages of good fected by the characteristics of the software. Pro- computer uAwaiechallenge,curiosity,control grams with definite correct answers elicit verbaliza- and fantasyare compellingly consonant with the tions about correctness and winning, but also type of experiences desired for young children. 240 2.9 Computers and Young Children LANGUAGE A specific program that hie had substantial success in kindergartens is Writing to Read. Chil- Language Development dren work with computers, typewriters, and tape recorders in both preparatory activities and story Not surprisingly, increases in social interaction writing using a simplified phonetic alphabet. Kin- and positive attitudes help generate increased lan- dergartners effectively learned to read and write guage use. Preschoolers' language activity, mea- better than those in comparison groups, with no sured as words spoken per minute, was almost deleterious effects on spelling (Murphy and Appel, twice as high at the computer as at any of the 1984). other activities: dough clay, blocks, art, or games Computers can make a special contribution to (MuhLstein and Croft, 1986). Research with Logo special needs children. After 6 weeks of reading indicates thatit engenders interaction and lan- instruction using a microcomputer, 3- to 6-year-old guage rich with emotion, humor, and imagination deaf children demonsti-ted a significant improve- (Genishi, McCollum, and Strand, 1985). Reports ment in word recognition-id identification (Prinz, such as these help allay the feat .hat computers Nelson, and Stedt,1982). Taking advantage of will deemphasize play and fantasy. When children young children's cognitive readiness regardless of are in control, they create fantasy in computer their primary mode of communication, the pro- programs beyond the producers' imaginations. For gram allowed them to press a word (say, "flower") example, two children humanized the lines they and see a picture of a flower, the word, and a were constructing with a computer drawing pro- graphic representation of a manual sign. gram. When the line went off screen, they de- clared, "It's sleeping." When it reappeared, they said "It woke up." Another boy pretended the Writing cureor erasing was a termite eating wood (Wright and Samaras, 1986). Why is writing skill s, scarce? One reason may lie in its tedium; anotha in its lack of power. For young children especially, spoken language pro- vides them control over their environment. Their Prereading and Reading written language L anemic in compa:ison. But certain computer environments can infuse writing As early as 1972, Atkinson and Fletcher taught with control and power. The written word can first graders to read with computerprograms em- create animated pictures and stories that can be phasizing letter recognition and recall, sight words, heard. They can also reduce the tedium of writing. spelling, phonics, and sentence and word mean- Little or no research has been conducted with the ings. Since then, it has been demonstrated that most innovative writing programs, but we do know about 10 minutes work with CAI per day signifi- something about using computers as word proces- cantly benefits primary grade children's reading eors,oftenincorporatingspeech,withyoung skill development (e.g.,Ragosta, Holland, and children. Jamison, 1981; Silfen and Howes, 1984). Similarly, First, we know that the benefit of using com- preschoolers can develop such reading readiness putersisin providing scaffolding,or necessary abilities as visual discrimination and letter naming support, for young writers (Clements, 1987; Rose- (e.g., Swigger and Campbell, 1981). As always, grant, 1986). Used in construction, scaffolds serve however, result.- are not guaranteed. For example, as supports, lifting upN.Drkers so they can achieve three 20-minute sessions with simple readiness soft- something that otherwise would not be possible. ware had no effect on pry schoolers' prereading Educationalscaffoldssupportchildren,helping concepts in one stud,/ (Goodwin. et al., 1986). In a them achieve otherwise impossible personal com- different study, however, placing computers and municative tasks. Computer scaffolds allow chil- appropriate software in kindergartners' classrooms dren to maintain a sense of competence: "I did it for sever !months significantlyfacilitated their by myself." Importantly, scaffolding allows the acquisition of school readiness and reading readi- childright from the beginningto use written nessskills. When supplemented by concurrent language for a purpose: communication. Children computing activities outside of school (each child can experiment with letters and words without in one class also received a computer touse at being distracted by the fine motor aspects of home), academic gains were even greater (Hess and handwriting. McGarvey, in press). If encouraged to use such scaffolding, children 241 240 ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY write more, :re less worried about making mis- her own grandchild!" She was, however, quite takes, take increased pride in their writing because pleased with (and supportive of) her child's intelli- text looks better, have fewer fine motor control gent use of the tool. problems, and are more willing to take risks and On the other hand, Jane had to write 13 thank revise(Clements,1987;PhenixandHannan, you lettersall virtually identicalfollowing her 1984). Borgh and Dickson (1986a) have reported birthday party. She, too, thought of using the that a talking version of a word processor signifi- samebasic"file,"alteredappropriately.Her cantly increased the amount of editing children mother refused to let her take that shortcut, pe formed on their compositions, although it did forcing her to type the exact same letter 13 times. not significantly affect leni,,th or quality. It may be Needless to say, Jane's impressions of writing, the that the spoken feedback fostered an awareness of use of the computer as a tool, and the experience the need to edit ("When the computer talks it as a whole were traumatic, unlike Jessica's. As a sorts sounds like someone else is reading it to me tool, the computer is used to facilitate communica- and that way if it doesn't sound quite right. . . tion, print frequent drafts, and explore and experi- I cc.n change it"; Borgh and Dickson. 1986a, p. ment. The teacher is a supportive mentor. As a 15). Beginning writers learn to name letters, sound trauma, the computer is used to help you be more out words, invent spelling, express ideas, and write accurate and print only when the composition is simple sentences (Rosegrant, 1985). Perhaps more "correct." The teacher is a critic. Word processors importantly, young children learn to use the com- will not support children's writing without cone- puter as a tool for exploration and experimenta- spending support from the teacher. tion.Forexample,one4-year-oldrepeatedly scrambled the letters of her name to assess the effects on pronunciation. Another confused "b" and "d" and continued to experiment on her own MATHEMATICS AND PROBLEM SOLVING (note her initial choices: ded dird dlue, for dead, bird, and blue). A group of kindergartners discov- The most dramatic gains in the use of CAI have eredon their own"magic letters" that caused been in mathematics for primary grade children, their word processor to pronounce a word rather especially in compensatory education (Niemiec and than separate letters (these were, of course, vowels; Walberg, 1984; Ragosta et al., 1981). Again, 10 Ho, iann, 1986). minutes per day proved sufficient for sign ificant Speech is not always the appropriate presenta- gains; 20 minutes was even better. Properly cho- tion. Deaf children as young as 3 to 5 years have sen, computer games may also be effective. Kraus improved their writing, reading, and general com- (1981) reported that second graders with an aver- munication skills by composing with a special age of one hour of interaction with a computer keyboard that included animation of color pictures game per 2-week period responded correctly to and representations of signs from American Sign twice as many items on an addition facts speed test Language (Prinz, Pemberton, and Nelson, 1985). as students ;n a control group with no computer This represented a true communicative context for experience. these children. Younger children may benefit as well. Three- Benefits do not always accrue, however (Cle- year-olds learned sorting from a computer task as ments, 1987), and, like all computer applications, easily as from a concrete doll task (Brinkley and word processors can be misused. For instance, in Watson, undated). Reports of gains in such skills one study parents were involved in teaching their as counting have also been reported for kindergart- own children to compose with word processors. ners (Hungate, 1982). Similarly, kindergartnersin The computer became a "tool" or a "trauma," a computer group scored hi °her on numeral recog- depending on how it was used (Rosegrant, 1986). nition tasks than those taught by a teacher (McCol- For example, Jessica wrote a letter to one of her lister, Buns, Wright and Hildreth, 1986). There grandmothers, mailingit when she got home. was some indication, however, t! at instruction by a Several days later, her other grandmother called, teacher was more effective for children just begin- jestingly "demanding" her own letter. During the ning to recognize numerals; but the opposite was next session, Jessica loaded in the old computer true cor more able children. This recalls the find- letter, typed the second grandmother's name over ing that children more interested in using comput- ác first, added a quick personalized "P.S." and ers had greater representational competence, and promptly mailed out the "new" letter! The moth- has implications for use of this type of drill and er joked, "My mother just got a form letter from practice program. Children should not work with 242 241 Computers and Young Children such programs until they understand the concepts; present action on the computer. In a sense, these then, practice may be of real benefit. children are "both watching an action and watch- Studies have explored the potential of computer ing themselves watching it later" (Forman, 1985, graphics for developing spatial and geometric abili- p. 33). Computers car. help present children with ties. For example, one found that a computerized representations of their own past trials and errors. and a teacher-directed program for learning about These representations can be observed and edited. shapes were equally beneficial for kindergartners "Let children play with kinetic print replays of (v-n Stein, 1982). Perhaps more promising, how- their own performance" (Forman, 1985, p. 33). ever,is a different approach to developing such Teachers who expect cumputet drawing tools abilities. Working withpreschoolers,Forman (1986b) to help children draw more realistic pictures probably found that certain graphics programs offer anew, win be disappointed. Teachers who expect Paint and dynamic way of drawing and exploring geometric Play Workshops to generate emotionally rich stories probably will not be satisfied. On the other hand, concepts. For example, a boxes function allows teachers who see these media as new systems of cause children to draw rectangles by stretching an elec- and effect relations, logic relations, and spatial relations tronic "rubber band." Using this stretchingpro- will make hundreds of interesting observations and will cess gives children a different perspective on geo- invent hundreds of games that children will find educa- metric figures. The area fill function, which fills tional. (Forman, 1986b, p. 73) closed regions with color, prompts childrento reflect on topological features suchas closure as the Logo programming is another rich environment consequences of actionsrather than merely as that can elicit reflection on mathematics and prob- characteristics of static sh pes. The power of such lem solving. Classroom observations have demon- drawing tools lies in the possibility that children strated that students do use certain mathematical will internalize the functions,thus constructing notions in Logo programming, such as notions of new mental toms. inverse operation. First grader Ryan wanted to turn the turtle to point into his rectangle. He asked the Other engaging situations Forman (1986a) has teacher, "What's half of 90r After she respond- explored include computerized "kinetic print," or ed, he typed RT 45. "Oh, I went the wrong symbols that move. For example, he found that way." He said nothing, eyes on the screen. "Try children 3 to 5 years old think mote about process LEFT 90," he said at last. This inverse operation in a computer Smurf program (Paint and Play produced exactly the desired effect (Kull, 1986). Workshop) and more about content in a three- Kull maintains that such behaviors illustrate what dimensional doll house. Children had to reflect Piaget called the "spontaneous mathematical intel- more because choices must be more deliberate in ligence of the young child" (Kull, 1986, p 113). the computer medium. Ideas for using miniature real object Other studies have irk:icated that programming seemed to flow from the physical in Logo incre:ses problem-solving abilities in kin- manipulation of those objects, whereas ideas for dergartners (Degelman, Free, Scar lato, Blackburn, use of the computer objects come full-blown from and Golden, 1986) and special needs preschoolers premeditation, often announced to others. Thus (Lehrer, Harckham, Archer, and Pruzek,1986). the computer may promote planfulness, possiblyat Several studies have reported increases in both the cost of playfulness. The computer also allowed preschoolers' and primary grade children's ability and encouraged creative thinking, such as addinga to monitor e eir comprehension (i.e., realize wnen 2 to a chair (leading to laughter about how 2 can they don't understand; Clements, 1986; Miller and be one arm of a chair) or cloning a single bed into Emihovich, 1986). This may reflect the prevalence a bunk bed. of "debugging" in Logo programming. It is essen- Children had to be explicit about the "loca- tial to note that a critical element in each of these tions" to which they would move. The increased successful efforts was an active role of the teacher distance between their own action and thema- encouraging, questioning, prompting, modeling, nipulation of the objects increased the needto and, in general, mediating children's interaction reflect on their performance. This distance also with the computer. This scaffolding led children to contributes to benefits children derive from watch- reflect on their own thinking behaviors and bring ing a replay of their actions (in effect,a cartoon problem-solving processes to an explicit level of the children created that could be viewed repeated- awareness. Logo does induce high quality instruc- ly). Replay is a powerful tool to help the children tion, even from fairly naive and inexperienced think about the future when constructing the adults. However, "the importance of Logo is that 243 242 ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY it provides an unusually rich problem space within many potentially valuable learning centers. There which children can confront important ideas;it is, however, nothing to lose and potentially rich does not guarantee that the confrontation will benefits to acquire through informed use of com- occur" (Fein, 1985, p. 22). puters with young children.Informed,because Such problem solving often has social roots, and inappropriate or insipid uses will have little or no computer environments appear to have the poten- benefit.Effectiveness depends critically on the tial to facilitate social, as well as cognitive, prob- quality of the software, the amount of time it is lem-solvingbehaviors.Primarygradechildren used, and the way in which it is used. Research working with Logo exhibit similar amounts of needs to evolve beyond simply assessing, for exam- conflictas those working with CAI programs. ple, the effects of computers on social behaviors. However, they resolve these conflicts more fre- We need guidance on effective programs to use quently. Logo children also evince more high-level and effective ways to use them. Even inthis problem-solving behaviors (e.g., determining the process, we should avoid inflexible conclusions; the oar.= of problems and selecting strategies to solve field is changing too radically. Acceptance of a them; Clements and Nastasi, in press). Computers certain level or type of either hardware or software, stimulate the social interaction of preschoolers to without consideration of advances, or rejection of it the benefit of their problem solving (Muller and for its shortcomings, would be unfortunate. This Perlmutter,1985). The children are also more review can reflect only what is. Teachers should be persistent and effective at solving problems (Perl- proactive in determining what could and should mutter, Behrend, and Muller, undated). This is be. They know that the gold is to develop problem MC mostly for 5-year-olds, rather than 4-year-olds, solvers,not progn miners;communicators,not however. Younger preschoolers' problem solving wordprocessors;fulfilledchildren,notearly may be disrupted by social interaction. For them, achievers. The strength of quality computer appli- the cognitive demands of simultaneously solving a cations is not that they replace the teacher, but challenging problem and managing social relations that they allow the teacher to focus on the human may be too taxing. They may also find it too parts of teaching, as shown by a Writing to Read difficult to take the perspective of their partner. letter from a first grader to her teacher (Wallace, 1985, p. 23): CONCLUSION I liket the tipe titer Best of all We now know that computers are neither pana- and Ilike to work with you. cean nor pernicious. Young children do not need And Ilikt lisoning to the story's computers any more than they "need" any of But best I like working with you. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Do the age, gender, and other characteristics of the child influence the effectiveness of computers in the classroom? 2. Do computers enhance or delay social development? 3. How can children learn from each other using computers? 4.Does computer-based instruction influence language development? How? 5. Do computers improve the educational opportunities for handicapped or developmentally delayed childrer ? 6.What are the effects of computer-based instruction on thinking and problem solving? 244 2 4 j 52. TECHNOLOGICAL PRIORITIES IN THE EDUCATION OF YOUNG CHILDREN by Warren W. Buckleitner and Charles F. Hohmann Can we find ways to use technology to help These characteristics thus become priorities for ef- improve the learning experiences we offer young fective programs. children? Should technology be a priority? These The High/Scope Curriculum Demonstration questions have been addressed by a healthy body Project Study (Schweinhart, Weikart and Lamer, of researchers and practitioners in early childhood, 1986) indicatesthatcertain learning stylesare among them Clements (1985), Cuffaro (1984) and priorities too. The study examined the effects of Tan (1985). We believe the answer to bothques- three distinctlydifferent curriculum approaches. tions is yes, but we also feel it is essential to first The results were surprising. Nineteen years after examine overall priorities in early childhood educa- preschool, children who had participated in pro- tion and then see how technology fits in. grams featuring many child-initiated activities re- ported only one-fifth as many acts of property damage and one-half as many acts of drug abuse QUALITY AND INITIATIVE: as those who had participated in highly teacher- TOP PRIORITIES FOR EARLY controlled programs. As teens, the pres-.hool initia- CHIT PROGRAMS tors participated in more sports and extracurricular Quality is essential in delivering effective early school activities than the highly directed young- education. This is the principal conclusion of sever- sters. In addition, the former were viewed in a al long-term studies of early childhood programs more positive light by their families than the (Lazar etal.,1982), including the longitudinal latter. A fundamental priority of early childhood study of the Perry Preschool Project. The Perry programs, then, is the encouragement and support study (Perracta-Clement et al., 1984), which fol- of children's initiative in assuming respons;bility lowed 123 disadvantaged children for more than for their own learning activities. 21 years, showed that quality preschool experience Quality and child initiative are top priorities in increases the overall quality of children's ':.es and the education of young childrenthe sine qua non saves society money in the long run. The positive of effective early learning. Within this context,a benefits for children include lessretention and school provides a safe, stimulating educational en- special education, higher rates of high school grad- vironment, managed by adults who allow children uation and subsequent college enrollment,in- to make decisions about what they will do and creased employment and higher lifetime earnings. how they will do it.Italso provides children Society benefits from quality preschool education experiences that facilitate emotional development. through reduced welfare costs, lower crime rates and fewer teenage pregnancies. But the Perry reports go beyond highlighting thesefindings. AN EXAMPLE OF TECHNOLOGY They define the characteristics of quality early _:FLUENCING THE EDUCATION childhood programs as having: OF YOUNG CHILDREN THE MICROCOMPUTER Class size no greater than 20 and one teacher or aide per 10 children. Many types of technology have had both direct Qualified staff implementing a validatedcur- and indirecteffects on thelives of American riculum model and planning, teaching, and evalu- children. Television is a good example. Only in the ating as a team. last five years, nowever, has the microcomputer Administrative leadership in curriculum and started to play a more direct role in the daily curriculum-related inservice training. classroom routine of children. Computersand the Parents working as partners with teachers in peripherals they can accommodate such as voice the child's education. synthesizers, touch screens and printersare pre- See page 345 for acknowledgment and references. ti 245 ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY senting tempting instructional options for educat- support of the curriculum goalsnot as a goal in ing young children. Almost overnight, they have itself.Searching for good software that supports become commonplace in classrooms. According to these curriculum goals is essential to the comput- reports from the 1985 National Survey: Institution- er's success in the classroom. Good software allows al Uses of School Computers (Becker, 1986), the childrentoexperiment,exercisecontrol,solve proportion of U.S. elementary schools having five problems and learn through their own initiative. or more computers in the building jumped from 7 Carefully screening over 200 pieces of early child- percent in 1983 to 54 percent in 1985. hood software on three types of computers has In 1978, High/Scope began to explore the use helped us find software that supports many of the of computers with young children (ages 3-7 years). school's curriculum objectives and lives up to our Since that ti ..te,High/Scope has been carefully "Hallmarks of Quality Software"(Buckleitner, integrating computer technology into its preschool 1986). We have found age-appropriate software on and kindergarten curriculum. This curriculum un- language, classification, seriation, number and spa- dergoes continuing developmentatthe High/ tial concepts, enabling us to introduce new com- Scope demonstration school in Ypsilanti, Michigan, puteractivitiesattherateof one per week where a visitor can see children using computers as throughout the school year. The search for good routinely as they use blocks and art materials. software and input devices that decrease keyboard dependence is an ongoing priority. The computer 1. Computers in the Learning Environment doesn't do everything well by any means; it can't provide emotional support, for example. But by When computers are used in *Se learning envi- facilitating certain classroom tasks, the computer ronment, we have found them to be a powerful can release teachers to focus on extending chil- learning device that facilitates cognitive develop- dren's thinking, providing varied activities, resolv- ment and positive social interaction without harm ing disputes and offering affection. to young children. Computers in the High/Scope classroom can be found in an activity center similar 2. Use of Computers by Teachers in function to the block area, the art center and Just as technology is leading to greater efficiency the dress-up area. Along with other experiences, in grocery stores and banks, it is playing a role in they are offered to children as a free-choice activi- professionalizing the worn of the teacher. Given ty. Computers are also used in small-group instruc- high quality software and the opportunity to ex- tional activities, transported on a cart from the plore,teachers can discover ontheir own the computer area. These computer small-group activi- advantages and limits of a computer system. In ties employ teaching techniques like those used in additiontoitsapplication to young children's typical non-computer small-group activitiesstart- learning, the computer can help teachers write and ing with concrete materials, then moving the activ- reviseletters;print posters,signs and greeting ity to the computer (Hohmann, 1986). A counting cards; and keep children's records. Software pack- program, for example, would begin with each ages such as Appleworks (1983, Apple Computer, child counting real objects such as corks or inch- Inc.), Print Shop (1984, Broderbund Software) and cubes before continuation of the concept in the Magic Slate (1985, Sunburst Communications) can computer context. greatly aid these processes. Although such use of Computers are also used at "circle time": teach- technology is not a direct educational priority, it ers type children's dictation for a group story that can improve the working climate for early child- is later printed, illustrated by children and sent hood professional, leading to positivespin-offs home as a personal storybook to be read with that eventually affect the profession as a whole. parents. Experimentation has taught us that chil- dren do best with computer activities if they are first introduced, through manipulative materials, COST FACTORS OF TECHNOLOGY USE to the concept they will pursue at the computer IN PRESCHOOLTHE COST and to the physical act of operating the keys that BENEFIT QUESTION make the program work. Moving, counting, measuring, sanding, mixing, Eventhoughthepriceof computershas comparing, tasting, feeling, climbing and spinning dropped tremendously in the past five years, a are all components of the "active learning" at the computer system with at least 64K, a disk drive heart of a typical day in the High/Scope school. and color monitor, the minimum for early child- The computer is added to this environment in hood computer activities, will cost between $500 246 24 r) Technological Priorities and $1000. A service colizract (an amortized ap- used computers as part of their schools' instruc- proximation of average maintenance costs) can add tional programs (Becker, 1986). another $80 per year. In addition, at least $350 must be bu -1geted for software to provide a mean- ingful range of computer learning experiences fo.r CONCLUSIONS ABOUT OUR CURRENT one center or classroom. Staff training in computer TECHNOLOGICAL PRIORITIES operation, including released time to try out com- puters and software, is still anuther cost factor in For lack of a single benefit equation, the calcu- using computers. lation of priorities for computer use must vary Do the benefits of computer use in preschool from program to program. But as humans, unaid- ed by computers, we are reasonably good at mak- warrant these expenses? Too littleiscurrently known about the specific1- enefits of computer ing judgments when information is limited. Here learning to address this question adequately. The are a few conclusions that have guided our priori- priority of using the computer with young children ties in the use of computers. First of all, computers must be worked out without benefit of such data. can be integrated quite naturally into the daily Even without answering the cost/ benefit question, routine of programs that emphasize "active learn- the equity issueis clear. The significant cost of ing" through concrete experiences and exploration. computers means f....t poorer populations consume They function as an aid for promoting certain their resources on higher priorities, without specific types of reasoning, problem-solving and explora- assistance in this area. tion. We have found that computers: Inspire practice of important skills by provid- ing varied and lively formats, by allowing children to choose activities and by providing automatic THE BOTTO: r LINE FOR PRIORITIES pacing and feedback. WHERE DOLLARS HAVE BEEN SPENT Stimulate thinking with tasks that have simple FOR TECHNOLOGY but meaningful consequences on the computer; e.g., sorting colored shapes. At the preschool level, almost half the nation's Help children use symbols by giving letters, programs with 20 or more children enrolled: have numerals, words and sentences the power to make microcomputers, with nearly three-fourths used for things happen. educational and recreational activities (Report on Preschool Programs, June 25,1985). This means In short, we have found the microcomputer to that more than a third of preschools with 20 or be an educational asset when integrated into a more children use a computer in the classroom. developmental program in a way that supports the Having a computer is already a priority in many curriculum goals. Major effort needs to be directed preschool programs. toward identifying the contributions computers can At the elementary and secondary levels,the make to children's learning and to early childhood number of computers in use quadrupled from educators' work. Moreover, new materials and sys- about 250,000 to over one million between spring tems to aid children's learning need to be devel- 1983 and spring 1985. The typical computer-using oped. There's plenty for all to do. We believe that elementary school went from two computers in use careful application of technology can improve the to six. During th.1984-85 school year, approxi- quality of the programs we offer young children: mately 15 million students and 500,000 teachers our foremost priority. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Is new technology necessary to improve early childhood education programs? 2. What are the positive effects of using computers with young children? Are there negative effects? 3. How can the teacher take advantage of computer technology? 4.Will the costs of new technology be justified in the possible effects on children and the program? 5.Will new technology increase or reduce equity in early childhood education programs across SES and other child characteristics. 247 246 Section Eight: Parents and Community Involvement Editor's Overview 249 53.In Designing a Preschool Program, We Went Straight to the Source: Parents, by Robert L. Zorn 250 54.Is `Parenting' Essential to Good Teaching? by James P. Corner, M.D 253 55.Making Conferences Work for Parents, Teachers, and Children, by Gail Bjorklund and Christine Burger 259 56.Innovation in Parent Involvement: Using High Techto Connect Par; ts and Teachers, by Jerold P. Bauch 264 57.Literacy Environments: 3ridging the Gap Between Home and School, by Jon Shapiro and Roy Doiron 266 58.Communicating with Parents About Beginning Reading Instruction, by Lorene D. Ross and Elizabeth Bot y 271 EDITOR'S OVERVIEW For many children, early ch;' education in about early childhood education in the schools. the schools will be their first .-i-home educa- Corner's contribution further explains the reasons tional experience. For others, it isa transition from for better relationships between home and school. some form of day care to the school experience. Probably the most critical form of parent invdve- But forallchii 'ren,the relationship between ment is through face-to-face c 'dermas between home and school an important linkage to make parents and teas:s. Bjorklund and Burger give and enrich. The family is a greatsource of knowl- extensiveguidelinesforconducting conferences edge about the child, and has already hada huge with professional effectiveness and personal consid- influence on the child's overall development. Since eration. A quite different use of technology is most parents are telt ively unprepared to create described by Bauch, with a model using computers optim^' !earning experiences for their young chil- and telephones for better school/home interaction. dren, they need the support and interaction that Next, Shapiro and Doiron examine the influence can come from active participation in the work of of the home on the child's literacy. helpinr, teach- the school. And since the school and the home crs make the home/school connections around lan- exist in a broader context, the educational value of guage development. Then, Ross and Bondy give the community must also be considered. teachers directions for helping parents think about Zorn starts the section with a description ofi sv 5eginning reading,one of the most frequent one school system involved parents in decisions parental questions. 24 7 53. IN DESIGNING A PRESCHOOL PROGRAM, WE WENT STRAIGHT TO THE SOURCE: PARENTS by Robert L. Zorn When we asked parcts last spring how interest- Additional hours, $1.25 per hour. ed they might be in a preschool' day-care program Three-day Preschool:3,4,or5-year-olds, e-un by our school system, we expected a nibble or Monday, Wednesday, and Friday from 9a.m. to two. But we received an overwhelmingly positive 11:30 a.m., when the Poland Schools are inses- response, and that turned out to be just the first sion, $45 per month. Additional hours, $1.25per of many surprises we've had in developing the hour. program, which opened in the Poland (Ohio) Half -day Day Care: 3, 4, or 5-year-olds, Mon- Schools (K-12; cnr.: 2,300) thispast September. day through Friday from 7:30 a.m.to 12:30 p.n. Ohio statutes, like those in manystates, do not or 12:30 to 5:30 p.m., $6 per day or $30 per permit school systemstt,spend tax dollars on week. preschool or day-care programs. The laws do, how. Full-day Day Care: 3, 4, or 5-year-olds, Mon- ever, allow school systems to operate such programs day through Friday from 7:30 a.m.to 5:30 p.m., where fees make them self-sipporting. Soour $11per day or $55 per week. This includes preliminary survey was designed simplyto find out preschoolers. how many parents might be attractedto a pre- school/day-care program run by the school and Of course, we didn't come by these fees easily. paid for by the parents using it. Becausewe sent We looked at how much local private schools and out letters only to parents of children already day-care centers charged for similar services, and enrolled in our school system,we didn't find out then we worked backward from the number of how much community interest there reallywas, youngsters we figured we would enroll verdis the but we did identify 60 possible enrollees. Thiswas likely costs of the program. (For financial details, encouraging enough for us togo on to some see ... pages 251-52.) planning. We proposed a pilot programto demonstrate that people wanted preschool/day-care services and GOALS AND SERVICES that those services could be self-sustaining. The program would be housed in a centrally located Our coordinator/teacher put together brochures elementary school that we had closed in 1985 and explaining what parents and children could look subsequently reopened as a continuing education for in the Poland Schools Preschool and Day-care center. We figured a preschool would fit nicely Program. We emphasized the relaxed and casual into this operation, which already servedyoung- atmosphere we hoped to create and the teacher- sters as well as senior citizens. What's more, there directed activitiesboth quiet and activein were empty classrooms available. which students would participate. Because these We next sent a second letter toparents laying early childhood programs were to be integrated out options and fees, and after their responses with our regular school curriculum,we planned confirmed their interest, we offeredout final plan. with care. Our aims: to stimulate childr inter- The day-care program would operate five daysa est in areas sech as art, music, health, and science week (includingschoolholidays),September and to help the children developmotor skills, through May, at.d both the preschool and the day- cognitive vocabularies, basic mathematical skills, care programs would include morning and after- and positive ideas about themselves. noon snacks. Here arc the program choices we gave We quickly found school system sponsorship parents: made the-1grams especially attractive to many parents. Lie school system's expertise and it:, ac- Two-day Preschool. 1, 4, or 5-year-olds, Tues- countability made a strong appeal, andso did day and Thursday from 9 to 11:30a.m., when the linking the preschool, programs to therest of the Poland Schools are in session, $32per month. school curricult.ra. As it happened 'e also were See page 345 for acknowledgment. 250 NIIIIMAINIMAINININ111111=s- Designing a School Program able to provide services that would have been to run the program. difficult if not impossible for private preschool and Our first assumption wits that we would enroll day-care programs to offer. Well-equipped play 60 youngsters, based on what parents told us when areas belonging to the former elementary school we surveyed them. That led us to project the were available, for example. So were school buses following revenues: for field trips. And we could offer students en- rolled in the all-day programs hot lunches at school Two-day Preschool: Fifteen kids paying $32 lunch prices. per month for nine months came to $4,320. Some parents of preschoolers who had older Three-day Preschool: Fifteen kids paying $45 children taking part in a K-5 latchkey program per month for nine months came to $6,075. also held at the continuing c Iucation center en- Half-day Day Care: Seven youngsters paying joyed an additional convenience: one-stop child $30 per week for 40 weeks came to $8,400. pickup at the end of the day. Full-day Day Care: Seven youngsters paying What would we do if we were beginning again? $55 per week for 40 weeks cane to $15,400. We'd be prepared for a lo more interest than we expected. Instead of the 60 students we planned Total projected receipts for parental fees, then, for, we got 90. Next year, we might be using the came to $34,195 for the 40-week 1987-88 school entire first floor of the continuing education cen- year beginning September 1,1987. ter. We also would be prepared to be more Next, we estimated the costs. To run the pro- flexible in our offerings. School people are used to gram, we calculated we would need one coordina- doing things the way they do them. So when we tor/teacher and three part-time aides: The coordin- made our original proposal, we assumed that all ator/teacher would work from 8:30 a.m. to 3 the children would attend five days a week. The p.m.; the teacher, from 7:30 a.m. to noon; the parents educated us to their needs by telling us first aide, from 8:30 a.m. to 12:30 p.m.; and the they wanted more flexibilitywhich is why we second aide, irom 12:30 to 5:30 p.m. offered both two-day and three-day weeks. And if We wouldn't have been able to offer the pro- we had it to do over again, we would start out gram at all if we'd had to pay the staff according offering day care on a year-round basis instead of to scale. Fortunately, the local collective bargaining 40 weeks per year (in fact, we made that change agent agreed to unusual conditions as a sign of its after the program started last fall). support for our experiment: Staff members in the These changes have been easy to take care of, preschool/day care program would be noncontract and I'm :onfident everybody agrees the programs and receive limited benefits, and their employment are a big success. Parents tell us they feel relaxed would depend on adequate enrollment. about leaving their young children in school-spon- Given these conditions, we anticipated these salaries: The coordinator would earn $7.50 an hour sored programs. And taxpayers are impressed that for 35 hours a week, for a total of $262.50 a week; the schools have been able to add an important the teacher would earn $7.13 an hour for 17.5 service without increasing taxes. We are pleased hours a week, for a total of $124.78 a week; the because child careisa big problem for many people, yet it's one the public schools should be aides would earn $3.50 an hour for 65 hours a ableo help with. week, for a total of $227.50 a week; and retire- ment and workers'compensationcontributions I in't need to tell you that schools tend to be cons_rvative and slow to changeand insofar as would total $90 a week. those qualities keep them from running headlong The weekly total, then, was to be $704.78, or a into ditches, they're useful. But schools also need 36-week total of $25,372.08. to be responsive to the important needs of the Bea use the day-care programunlike the pre- communities they serve. In Poland, we're happy schoolwould rur: during four weeks of school that we saw such a need and responded. vacation between September and May, we calculat- ed that program would. involve additional salary costs of $1,782.56, bringing the total costs for a HERE'S WHERE THE MONEY GOES 40 -w' k day-care and 36-week preschool program to $27,154.64. In figuring how much to charge parents for a For snacks, we estimated the following costs: proposed preschool/day-care program in Poland Two-d1 Preschool: Fifty cents for each of 15 (Ohio) schools,... werecognized the fees had to students attending two days a week for 36 weeks be in line with the realities of what it would cost came to $540. 251 249 PARENTS AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT Three-day Preschool: Fifty cents for each of 15 The total for snacks, then, was $3,450. students attending three days a week for 36 w....;s Then we added that total to the personnel costs came to $810. ($27,154.64) for a program total of $30,604.64, Half day Day Care: Fifty cents for each of againstrece;ptsof $34,195. The difference of seven students attending five days a week for 40 $3,590.36 we would use to pay the school board for utilities and maintenance at the center. At $90 wez.ks came to $700. per week for our 40-week session ($3,600), we Full-day Day Care: Fifty cents for each of would have just enough to cover these operating seven students having two snacks a day for five expenses. In other word, our program would be days a week for 40 weeks came co $1,400. self-supporting, as the law req,..ired. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.How can a school system implement an early childhood education program that is responsive to parents? 2.Should parents be given choices and input into the early education program in the schools? 3.What are the financial implications of various program and schedule options? 252 9 ) 1 Iv9.) l..I 54. IS 'PARENTING' ESSENTIAL TO GOOD TEACHING? by James P. Comer, M.D. The idea that teachers are "parent surrogates" and the United States panicked. Our schools tried fortheir students doesn'tsitwell with many to do even more of what they were already do- people, though most find the notion of teachers as ingteachers teaching and students learning in a child developers less troublesome. BLit when we mechanical fashion. But gradmIly, study by study, :onsider the fact that good child rearing and child a new theme emerged. Teachers, parents, and development practices promote academic learning, students alike begz..1 pointing to the importance of the notion of teacher as parent surrogate becomes the quality of relationships among everybody in- logical. In fact, many of the techniques and condi- volved in the educational enterprise. Those most tions required for successful parenting in families intimately involved in our schools were telling us are also required for successful teaching in schools. that these relationships received little attention All adults involved with children either help or and as a result are often not conducive to student thwartchildren'sgrowth and development learning and development. whed er we like it, intend it, or not. The effort to "They don't care" is the number one complaint limit the role of the teacher and the school to heard from student dropouts. Teachers complain academics is one of the primary reasons America's at:out behavior problems and the lack of student great cxpeement in education the effort to edu- motivation. Parents complain that they feel un- cate more than the intellectual elite and economi- wanted by schools except when they're needed to cally privilegedhas been less successful than it control their children. These are all relationship might have been. This limitation has been one of issues. the reasons that so many students drop out and only about 20 percentactuallythrivein our schools. THE 'GOOD OLD DAYS' Teaching and learning are too often considered Nonetheless, school reform reports over the past mechanical processes. This view, reinforced by the few years have reemphasized the same issues ad- emergence and growth of technology, sees student dressed in the 1920s and '30seducational stan- minds as computers. Teachers input information; dards, school organization and functioning, and students process the input and respond. teacher training. More than half a century later, Despite the lessons of John Dewey, Maria Mon- educational reform is still paying little attention to tessori, Lucy Sprague Mitchell, and others who relationships, to the role of the affect in learning. have recognized the importance of feelings and Our public schools are under mounting pressure. relationships in fostering student growth and de- The U.S. economy, and our standard of liN:ig as a velopment, this mechanical view of the learning nation,willdeteriorateunless the majority of process has prevailed.It was reinforced by the students receive an adequate education. And that educational reform movement of the 1920s and education must do more than enable students to '30sand the resulting changes ineducational earn "acceptable" scores on standardized tests. standards,sch)ol organization and functioning, The schools must prepare students to be responsi- and teacher training ble family members and citizens of their communi- The cognitive sciences and experimental and ties and our society. quantitative research gained acceptance and pres- Educational policymakers must learn the lessons tige during the 1950sto the detriment of the of the past. Many students will not be motivated affective sciences and clinical, field, and qualitative to learn, to mister academic material, while trou- research.This development contributedto the blesome underlying relationship feelings and con- widespread perception of learning as a mechanical ditions are at play. Our schools cannot provide cognitive functionas opposed to a cognitive and educational excellence until the policymakers make affective process that involves relationships and it possible for teachers and school people to again development. serve as parent surrogates. In 1957, the Russians sent Sputnik into space Prior to the mid-1950s, most teachers were See pages 2A5-46 for acknowledgment and suggestions for funher reading. 253 251 PARENTS AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT parent surrogates without ever being fully aware of along allthe crucial developmental pathways it. Before this time, transportation was slow, televi- social-interactit e, psycho- emotional, moral, speech sion nonexistent. There was only modest move- and language, intellectual-cognitive-academic. ment of people and ideas in and out of communi- I don't remember much from the college alge- ties.Teacherswereanintegralp' tofthe bra course I took in high school. But the teacher community in which they lived and worked. They was also the dean of students, and he once adjudi- went to the same churches or synagogues as their cated a student election in a way that was fair students. They shopped in the same stores or used despite a great deJ of pressure to do otherwise the same post office. Some walked to school hand His behavior was a model of fain ess and integrity in hand with their students. They sometimes en- that lives with me today. Modern technology has gaged in play and leisure time activities with the replaced typesetting by hand. But my print shop families of their students. teacher remains important to me )ccause in casual As a result of the limitations on travel and conversation with several of us he pointed out -hut communication, parents, teachers, religious leaders, most of us will never be Einstein, Franklin Roose- and other adult authority figures were the "source velts, or Joe Louises; that the important thing in of all truth" for children in their early develop- our lives was to prepare ourselves to be able to mental years.These significant adults generally take care of self and family in a responsible way. held a consensus about what was right and wrong, I haven't had much use for high school Latin good and bad. over the years. And as mischievous teens we were A set of attitudes, values, and ways dominated amused that t ur teacher appeared to be on famil- individual communities and were generally accept- iar terms with Julius Caesar, Marc Anthony, and ed by children and adults alike. This sitration other figures of ancient Rome. But I was also limited change and free expression. At the same motivated to learn Latindespite the fact that it time,it made the environment very predictable, was a dead language-1,ecause of eiir teacher's provided children with a sense of belonging and enthusiasm for the subject. When I complainet: placeeven when "your place" was not acceptable about the slowness of the democratic process in by today's standards. All of these conditions creat- dealing with obvious injustices, my government ed alocal sense of communityof which the teachersaid, "'Me wheels of democracy grind school was a'aaturalpart.This allowed for a slowly, but they grind." His observation alerted transfer of authority from home to school in a way me tothe complexity of human systems and that permitted parents and teachers to support contributed to my eventually becoming a student children's Jowth and development. of behavior and social systems. WheAt I was in elementary school in the 1940s, I The ways my teachers worked and interacted went on a shopping expedition to the A&P store with us were very much like the ways of concerned every Friday with my parents and siblings. I can't parents. The attention they gave to our nonaca- remember a week that we did not encounter demic thoughts, fears, co-"erns, ana nroblems did someone from the schoolthe custodian, princi- not detract from teaching the basics. In fact, it was pal,teacher, school clerk.There was always an their concern, interest, and enthusiasm tl t moti- exchange of information about how we were doing vated many of us to learn the academic material in school, what was expected of us, and what to do often when it hao no intrinsic or obvi,us value, if we didn't meet those expectations. The positive interest,or even benefit,other than a grade. relationship between my parents and school peo- Cognitive skills were honed and the confidence pleand the probability of a weekly reportmade and discipline to learn were gained because of it difficult for me to do anything short of live up positive relationshipsfirst with parents, then with to the expressed expectations. teachers in school. Learning at home that prepares children for school initially takes place through imitation of, identification with, and internalization of the atti- SOCIETAL TRANSITION tudes, values, and ways of parents, family, and selected friends,kin, and socialinstitutions. A After the 1940s, our society began to change positive relationship between home and school veryrapidly anddramatically.Today airplanes allows children to imitate, identify with, and inter- move people in half a day from coast to coast and nalize the attitudes, values, and ways of school continent to continentdistances that took weeks people. This makes it possible for school people to and months to travel less than a hundred years counsel, guide, and motivate students to grow ago. Work is less often local, and play is less often 254 Or;') 14. k . kw 'Parenting' and Good Teaching communal. Modern roads, cars, and rapid trans- and management are designed to facilitate a focus portation allow people to live long distances from on academic content rather than to promote desir- where they work. These conditions decrease the able staff -student interactions and adequate stu- interactions among, as wellas the power and dent growth and development. The organization is influence of, parents, teachers, religious leaders, usually hierarchical and departmentalized. Manage- and other local authority figures. There's 2 con- ment isusually authoritarian and top -down, in comita t decrease in the predictability of the envi- execution.Teachers and administrators arc not ronment and children's sense of trust, belonging, trained to appreciate the way school organization and place. and management impact the behavior of staff, Television now bringsattitudes,values,and parents, and students. ways from around the world directly to children Most teachers and administrators who work well without the censorship or sanctions of the impor- with students and promote their development do tant adults around thers. Sometimts what they so on the basis of intuitive knowledge and skills observe is in conflict with what their parents are not thrcugh knowledge they gained in applied trying to teach them. Children can listen to differ- child development courses in their pre-service or ences of opinion about what is right : nd wrong on in-service training. There aren't many such courses. almost every newscast. There is leof a single All of these conditions make it difficult for school truth and way to understand and behave agreed on people to serve as parent surrogatesto help their by important adult authority figures. students learn to manage a more complex age and There are now many truths in competition wit!, school environment, to help them succeed and stay each other. And television bombards young people in school. with more information than ever before. Human Education theorists and policymakers ignored shortcomings and frailties are revealed to children the changes in communities,relationships, and at veryearlyages."Dynasty,""Dallas," and behavior brought about by science and technology other television programs present young people after World War II. The schools adjusted to soci- with the "nitty gritty" of adult life,including etal changes by concentrating almost exclusively on appropriate and inappropriate sexual expression. the new academic demands. Policymakers also ig- And some children, because of working or careless no.ed the fact that schools would now be expected parents, are able to watch "Debbie Does Dallas" toeducatechildren who inthepastusually and other pornographic films. dropped out, but still found a place in the labor Nonetheless, children are no more mature than force. they were 40 years agoeven if they appear to be Those children who are provided with a good because they have more information. Our chil- developmental experience prior to school, whose dren's exposure to a complex world increases their parents' attitudes, values, and ways are similar to nee; for adult guidance and support to integrate those of the school, and whose parents make a the information intotheir developing psyches. conscious effort to support the activities of the Children need adults to help them learn what, school, are the children most likely to succeed in when, and how to act on the information they school. This was as true 40 years ago as it is today. receive,anddevelopthecontrolstodoso But young people who didn't succeed in school 40 appropriately. years ago could leave. They could find a job that would enable them to take care of themselves and their families, feel rewarded for doing so, and be THE SCHOOLS ADJUST... motivated to be responsible family members and citizens of their communities and the society. Children need more adult guidance than in the Today when young people drop out of school, pastbut for many reasons they receive less. Fam- they are usually embarking on a downhill course in ilies with two working parents are now the norm life, with reduced chances of meeting their adult instead of the exceptionand children spend less responsibilities. In short, a higher level of academic time with their parents. There's more family stress, achievement and social development is required to conflict, and divorce. There are more young, single carry out adult tasks today than has ever been parents with inadequate incomes rearing children. required before in the history of the world. There is less extended family, social network, and B-cause of the complexity of today's world, all community support for parents and children. students need more support from school people And our children don't receive adult guidance than in the past. But a disproportionate number of and support in the schools.Scher '-'organization the children who will not do well in school are 255 253 PARENTS AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT fru1 low-income families, families under excessive Children who have not received an adequate stress, or fiunilies with lifestyles very different from developmentalexperiencepriortoschoolfor the expectations of the school. Antia dispropor- whatever reasonsoften present themselves in ways tionaw nui abet of these familiesare from the that cause school people to view them as willfully minority groups that ha-,... had themost traumatic "bad" and of limited ability. A common response experiences inthis countryNative Americans, is to punish such youngsters or to have lowexpec- Hispanics, and Blacks. These groups differ from tations for them. But because societal conditions others in that they have ,Eperienced the most today don't provide the kind of absolute authority cultural discontinuity and destruction of theirorga- schools nad in the past, students often fight back nizing and stabilizing institutions and practices,as in acting-out or disruptive ways. The staff often well as )*orced exclusion from education and other then makes an even stronger effort to control the developmental opportunities. behavior without responding to the underlying After the 1940s, education increasingly became problems with relationships and development of the ticket of admission .o fling wage jobs. Minor- the children. This makes the situation worse. In ities,greatly undereducated prior to that time, addition, school stafflike all of us wrent to be were increasingly closed out of primary job market successful ira their work. Children who don'tap- opportunities and locked into the lowest level of pear to be ready, motivated, or trying to learn the work force. Minorities had always been relegat- mAce itdifficult for school staff to experience ed to the bottom of the occupational ladder in this success. country. But through the first half of this centu.y, School staff and students are often unable to many minority families in rural areas, with strong develop the kind of relationships that will allow religious and cultural supportsystems, functioned .motional attachment and bonding,imitation, reasonably well despite low incomes. identification, and internalization of the attitudes, By the mid-1950s, rural minority familieswere values, and ways of the school that are necessary to being pushed off the land and into urbancenters promote adequate academic learning. Many stu- bytechnologicaland economicdevelopments. dents withdraw, lose confidence, or adjust in other These families, which had previously ii uctioned ways that limit their academic performance. In reasonably well, began to function less well. They turn, staff attitudes about the behavior and ability came under social stress of all kinds and became of the students are confirmed. Teachersare then increasingly unable to give their children the kind less likely to be positive parent surrogates. These of preschool experiences that would allow themto negative interactions lead to a spectrum of condi- achieve well in school. These children need the tions from controlled and quiet but academically teacher-as-parent surrogatein alliance with their underachieving schools, to chaotic and academically own parentsmore than any other group of chil- underachieving schools. dren. Unfortunately, due to cur history and cul- Parents are often asked to get involved in mean- ture, these are the children '-ast likely to receive ingful ways with schools only after their children parenting in the schools. are in trouble or not learning well. Because they don't have natural interactions with school staff, parents are often suspicious and distrustful before HOW SCHOOLS FAIL there are problems and convirced that their feel- ings were justifiedafter problems arise. Some Differences between home and schoolwhether patents have difficult memories and ambivalent of class,race, income, or culturealways create feelings about schools themselves. And those under potential conflict. Today, because the school isno great stress, with their own personal problems and longer a natural part of the community, the alli- failures, often view the school problems of their ance between home and school must be forged if children as yet another failure. Thus, many parents itisto exist atall. And wherever there isa stay away from schools or interact with school disparity of power between groups whomust relate people in angry, defensive, and confrontational to each other to achieve a goal, the group dith the ways. most power must make the greatesteffortto overcome the real and potential obstacles to creat- ing a desirable relationship. The effortmust be NEGATIVE RELATIONS made with good will and skill in orderto avoid School staffdoing their best and not appreciat- coadescension and other attitudes that will only edoften respondin understandablydefensive exacerbate the conflict. waysStaff people sometimes say and feel, "The 256 'Parenting' and Good Teaching parents don't care." They offer in evidence the We realized that no single groupparents, teach- fact that the parents don't keep appointmentsor ers,administrators, studentswas atfault. We attend school functionswhileat the same time recognized that no single interventioncurriculum they blame the school for their children's prob- change, behavior modification method, physical lems. In fact, most parents do carebut they have environment improvementwould makea signifi- difficulty interacting with the school. cant and sustained difference. When parents are unhappy, and studentsare The problem was that the schoolswere address- not behaving or learning adequately, conflict often ing new problems and opportunities in old and develops among school staff. The social workers, now ineffectiveways. The interaction between psychologists, and special education teacher:,are home and school, among school staff, and between expected to "fix" the children's problemsbut staff and students created a climate that made it often feel those problemsare created or exacerbat- difficult for the staff tiCorm an alliance with ed by the classroom teachers. Some teacherswant parents and serve as parent surrogates. to have more influence in the management of the We createda governaae and management school in order to address problems. Others simply group, led by the principal, made up of represen- want dr. administrator to get tough and do hisor tatives of the key adult groups in the school her jobpunishing the badnessout of the kids. teachers, pupil personnel staff, teacher assistants, The negative cycle intensifies. Disappointment and parents. This group encouraged the interaction and conflict consume energy andget in the way of between critical authority figuresthe kind of in- gratifyingprofessionalexperiences.Hopelessness teraction that took place in yesterday's communi- and despair can ...ad to apathy,poor staff perfor- ties in natural ways. This mechanism decreased mance, and criticism from within and without the distrust and alienation between Lome and school. school. Additional problems basedon racial, class, Parents and staff realized their mutual interest and cultural, and economic differences often arise. developed a sense of program ownership andre- The traditional organization of schools doesn't sponsibility, along with the principal.Effective allow thestaff to work togetherto overcome communication and planning became possible. problems. Departmentalization in middle and high The governance and management groupeventu- schools further separates and fragments staffs.Even ally developed a comprehensive building plan that in schools that serve students from better et:ocared focused on creating a desirable climate of social families under less economic stressburwhere relationships in both the entire school and the studentsstillneed guidance and supportthe academic program. The objectives and strategies of school organization makes it difficult for staffto the plan dictated the kind of staff development develop desirable relationships with students,to that took place at the building level. Andsystem- serve as parent surrogates. atic assessment of the outcomes in both the behav- We cannot turn back the clock andreturn to ioral and academic areas allowed thegroup, with "the good old days." In fact,it's necessary to the support of the entire staff ar,c1 parentcommu- keep in mind that many students from all socio- nity, to modify the schoolprogram as indicated. economic groups didn't achieveto the level of We also brought the social worker, psychologist, their academic potential in the good old days.But special education teacher, and othersupport staff we can reorganize schools so that staff can support together as a group. They continued to provide social and emotional growthand inturn, aca- service to individua: children and families. But the demic learning. emphasis was shifted from respondingto problem A reasonable consensus is neededto accomplish behaviors to pr-venting them. A member of this the schools' mission. This consensus can't beman- group served on the governance and management dated as it was in the pastit doesn't exist inour team and helped team members, and the entire schools or our communities. A mechanismmust be staff, think of children as underdeveloped, under created through which school building leadership stress, or with skills that work outside of school, can create desirable relationships and developa but not inschool. They helped the staffsec consensus consistent with school system goals that children as having modifiable behaviorsnot will allow staff and parents as to support the develop- beingsimplybad,"dumb,"oroflimited ment of studentsand involve students in their intelligence. own self-development and learning. In my initial intervention research work intwo schools in New Haven, Connecticut,we observed SCHOOL AS COMMUNITY many of the most severe problem: described above. The staff responded by helping the children 257 PARENTS AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT modify undesirable behaviorsas good parents do. left home upset, it was very late, and he hadn't They received parental support because the parents returned. The teacher went to the school and were involved in the program to helpestablish a found the child huddled at the front cl, )t in the good school climate.Pot luck suppers, fashion dark and the cold. The teacher started his search at shows, book fairs, workshops by teachers for par- the school because he knew it had come to mean ents, and a variety cother academic and social support and security to the youngster.While the projectsrestoredthetrustbetween home and school does not want to take over the role of the school. These activities created an alliancethat parent, creating a climate that permitssuch strong permitted both staff and parents to parent. The positive feelings allows the staff to influence posi- program brought the parents into the school d.-r- tivestudentbehavior andmotivateacademic ing good times rather than bad. learning. We're taking the same general intervention ap- The decreased behavior problems in the nhool proach in a New Haven middle and high school as led to decreased conflict among school staff. The we took in the elementary schools.Our work at more desirable interaction between staff and stu- the secondary level is too recent io report results. dents increased parent and community support of But it's also possible to create activities related to the schools. This in turn increased staff energy, the curriculum and student learning that bring hope for student success,and for professional time for staff, parents, and students together in ways that success for themselves. There was more support the growth of middle andhigh school teaching and planning. In such an environment, students. The specific ways this can occ'ir must be teacher-student attachment and bonding, imita- tion, identification, and internalization of school developed at the building level because each school is different, with different needs and opportuni- ways by students could take place. ties,assets, and problems. Eventually it became possible to tailor the co- Positive outcomes are possible incertainin- curricular activities arts, athletics,social skills stances without changing the traditionalorganiza- and the academic curriculum of the school to the tion of the schools. Creative and charism-tic lead- specific needs of the children. The schools went cs can create desirablehome-school relationships, from being the lowest achieving in the city to and some gifted teachers are able to help children within the top five with no change in the 99 grow and develop even indifficult school situa- percent Black, almost all poor make-up of the tions.But suchpositivesituationsoften"fall student population. St-if and parents, planning apart" when the unusual leader or gifted teacher together, were able to develop a number of pro- leaves. And many more students can be helped to grams that worked in a changed climate of interac- develop when the school climate permits all of the tion that probably wouldlot have worked in a adults interacting with the children to serve as climate in which the emphasis was on teaching successful parent surrogates. academic material with no attention to the quality Our society has changedso have our schools. of relationships. Teachers were able to discourage But by focusing solely on academic changes, the undesirable behavior and encourage desirable be- schools have ignored the affective domainthe havior,and to respond to the thoughts, fears, crucial relationships that students need to grow concerns, and problems of the students muchin and learn. We remain mired in a mechanical the way of parents. approach to learning. It's one that has never served One of the single parents from the school called our children welland in today'sworld dooms her 10-year-e: d son's teacher because the child had many of our students to failure. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Why is a positive relationship between school and home important totoday's programs' 2.Are there lessons and practices from the past t!.at can be used toimprove home/school elationships in the present? 3. Do children under "social stress" need special support from teachersand parents during their first school e,criences? 4. What are some barriers to positive relationships between teachers and parents? 5. How can new interactions and partnerships be establishedbetween parents and teachers? What are the po- tential outcomes? 258 55.MAKING CONFERENCES WORK FOR PARENTS, TEACHERS, AND CHILDREN by Gail Bjorklund and Christine Burger Communication with parents is An essentialpart variation in how parents wil' approach the confer- of any good early childhood educationprogram. ence, you will feel better equipped to handle any Parents want and need to know about their child situation whic...1 might arise. from the school's perspective. At thesame time, You can help parents prepare for the confer- the school benefits from the input ofparents as ence, too. In addition to an announcement and teachers seek to developa more comprehensive general information about the conference, provide understanding of a child" behavior. Parent-teacher each parent with concrete information aboutyour conferences are an important part of thiscommu- goals for the conference andsuggest things for nication process. Both parent and teacherpossess them to thin!: about before you meet. valuable information about the child's abilities, Take: time to create a proper ciinferaice setting. interests, likes, dislikes, and needs. This informa- If yrpir meeting is to be a productive. comfortable, tion must be shared in a positivemanner so that two-way interaction, you will need to ensure priva- thebestinterests of the childcan be served cy (Berger, 1981). Teachers need to be sensitive to (Morrison, 1978; Nedler and McAfee, 1979). the hidden messwges that barriers, suchas a desk Conducting successful parent-teacher conferences between parents and teacher, can imply (Chinn, is a difficult task. What strategiescan teachers use Winn, and Walters, 1978) A good arrangement is to conduct conferences that will result in better to sit in adult-size furniture around a low table so teaching and better parenting? This [chapter] will the child's work and any other itemscan be offer guidelines and a model strategy, all basedon displayed and discussed. Proper lighting, ventila- the experiences of early childhood professionals,to tion, and temperature are also necessaryto help help you conduct more productive parent-teacher you focus your Attention on the child. conferences. When You Talk with Parents GUIDELINES FOR CONFERENCES When conducting the conference, you should Advance Preparations strive to Teachers should view preparing for parent-teach- 1. help the parent feelrelaxed, comfortable, er conferences as an ongoing process. Preparation and wanted, since the school is "teacher territory," should begin before the childenters the program 2. communicate with parents on their level, and continueuntilthechildleaves.Teachers without educational jargon, should collect samples of children'sart and record 3. accentuatethepositiveattributesof the anecdotes of ty-ical behaviorsto share with par- child, and ents. This will help set the stage for meaningful 4. provide specific suggestions for ways parents dialogue with the parents. In most early childhood can help their children at home. programs there are opportunities for daily contact with parents. If you take advantage of these,you Effective communication is crucial to thesuccess can get to know the family better each day and of a parent-teacher conference. Reflectiveor active anticipate what parents might liketo discuss in a listening will encourage information sharing and more formal setting. discourage confrontation between you and the par- Once you know the families,you will be more ent. To be an active listener, you must pay atten- confident about adjusting to themany individual tion to both the stated and implied feelings of the differences among parents (Hymns, 1974). Parents' parent and respond in a reflective way so as to set attitudes may range trom comfortableto skeptical, the stage for further communication. An active depending upon their background and experience listener makes "an empathetic response that speaks (Nedler and McAfee, 1979). Whenyou expect this verbally and physically to the specific feelings of See page 346 for acknowledgment and references. 259 25 7 ilrm.:a. PARENTS AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT the speaker.' (Chinn, Winn, and Walters,1978, p. 5. plan programs to serve parents and children. 84). (Morrison,1978) For example, if the parent of a 3-year-old states, "I just don't see where Matthew is learning very These guidelines highlight the importance of much in this group," an active listener might using parent-teacher conferences to resolve issues, respond with an understanding, reflective state- search for answers. decide on goals, determine ment like, "You're concerned that Matthew is not mutual strategies, and form a team on behalf of making as much progress as you expected." This the young child. We have developed a strategy active-listening statement will encourage the parent thatwillhelpensurethatthesegoalsare to ciaborate on why the child's progress has been accomplished. disappointing: "We really thought that by now he would be able to say his ABCs and write his own name." A STRATEGY FOR A SUCCESSFUL A quick, closed, or negative response by the CONFERENCE teacher, on the other hand, will stop productive George Mason University's Project for the Study communication. A teacher comment such as an of Young Children in Fairfax, Virginia, has devel- incredulous "You're dissatisfied wit:I our curricu- oped a coordinated strategy for conducting parent- lum?" or a patronizing "Oh, no, he really is a teacher conferences. This strategy seeks to help very bright child," or a defensive "I find that teachersinitiateeffective conference techniques hard to believe when ... !" will immediately limit within a sequential framework and it can readily the parents' willingness to continue the discussion. be adapted to a variety of settings for young Berger(1981)recommends that in any parent- children. teacher conference the teacher speak no more than As you look over the outline of this strategy, it 50 percent of the time. This allows you half of the is essential that you consider the role of all possible conference time to get to know the parent and conferenceparticipantsnotonlyparentsand child better. teachers, but also administrators, teacher assistants, associate teachers, and children. In most programs After the Parents Leave the administrator assumes responsibility for imple- menting the strategy, and a committee represent- The conference is far from over when the par- ing the other groups could offer assistance. mts leave. "The parent-teacher conference is only as good as the follow-up and follow-through that Phase 1: Set the Stage occur after the conference" (Morrison,1978, p. At the beginning of the saw:A year, or whenev- 163). Immediately after the parents leave, write a eritseems appropriate for your program, the careful recori of the conference; include init director (or other designated staff member) should suggestions that were made and querions that lead a discussion about the conference strategy were raised. If a response from you is expected, be with all of the staff and the parents. For staff, sure to follow up immediately. Depending on the topics covered can include family, an acceptable follow-up might include re- ferrals to other resources, scheduling another con- a brief overview of when and how conferences ference, a telephone call, a home visit, a written will occur throughout the year, report, an informal note to the parents, an evalua- a detailed examination of the developmental tion form asking for suggestions about conference curriculum goalstheir meaning, examples of be- format, and informal daily chats with parents. haviors in each, and sample activities which best Why isfollow-upsoimportant?Following address the goals (see Table 1), and through with parents can be advantageous because a discussion of alternative techniques to usein it allows you to order to observe each child prior to thefirst conference. 1. acknowledge to the parents that you genuine- ly care, Also during this phase, parents should gather as 2. clarify issues or problems, a group so the director can explain the develop- 3. encourage children and parents to continue mental curriculum goals of the program. Parents to do their best, should be encouraged to think about how these 4.offer opportunities to extend classroom learn- goals pertain to their child and which goals are ings at home, and most important to them. 260 2 5 S Making Conferences Work Table 1 Project for the Study of Young Children Developmental goals Social and emotional goals: I. tc become increasingly autonomous 2. to use initiative in pursuing c,...)sities 3. to have confidence in one's ability to solve problems 4. to feel secure in relationships with adults 5 to enjoy playing with other children and alone 6. to begin to coordinate different points ofview by cooperating and re- solving conflicts 7. to cope with fears, anxieties, and frustrationsconstructively 8. to demonstrate persistence in completinga task Cognitive goals: I.to express ideas through language and symbolic representations ineffec- tive and varied ways to pi: ideas or objects into relationships, noting similarities and differ- ences 3. to come up with interesting and creative ideas,problems, and questions Physical goals: 1. to build awareness of one's body in space 2. to coordinate fine and gross motor skills These developmental goalstatements are the key years-old (Ireton and Thwing, 1974),or the Min- to thisinitial phase. Adapted from Kamii and nesota Preschool Inventory if their child is between De Vries (1973), they are based on Piagetian theory 31/2- and 5-years-old (Ireton and Thwing, 1979). and phrased in a way thatrespects individual parents should submit these materials to the direc- differences. You can may translate these goals tor1 week prior to the planning conference. into curriculum content to promote severalaspects of development simultaneously. Inour project, we emphasize the social and emotional goals, and In preparation for the planning conference, teach- provide a foundation for growth in the otherareas. ers will organize their observations and selectsome Phase 2: Set Priorities at a Planning representative anecdotes. Conference select two to four p.:ority goals for each child. Shortly after the initial meeting, theparents, head teacher, and project directormeet in a plan- The director will ning conference. To prepare for this Conference parents will stoke the Minnesota Child Development In- ventory or Minnesota Preschool Inventory and write examine the developmental curriculum goals a brief summary for each child. and select ly.. ;teen two and four priority goals for offer help and advice to teachers as they select their child based upon the child's strengthsor their priority goals. The director might makea areas of need. focused classroom observation of selected children complete the Minnesota Child Development or give teachers release time so they can observe Inventory if their child is between2'h -and 31/2- the children without interference. 261 PARENTS AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT The results of the Minnesota Inventories are ary. Conferences with parents are called in situa- recorded in a profile format which parents can tions where changes in behavior are dramatic or readily understand. We have found that these where concerns arise. Programs that operate year- instruments accurately depict a child's develop- round will probably want to gather and review this ment, but we do not use these or any other information about every 3 or 4 months. standardized test as the sole indicator of a child's progress or development. We use the profile in Phase 4: Involve the Child in the conju action with anecdotal records and work sam- Progress Conference ples to draw a more complete and accurate picture Startingin April, our project holds progress of individual children. conferences: the parents, teache, assistant teacher, The planning conference begins with casual, and child all meet together. After this much time pc...tive comments and proceeds to a brief summa- ry of the conference format by the conference in the program, everyone has had ample opportu- leader. Ask parents to share the priority goals they nity to establish solid relationships and to discuss concerns without the child's presence. Thus, much have selected for their child. As the parents discuss of the groundwork necessary for success has taken these, the teacher can comment upon the goals by place long before the progress conference. relating anecdotes of classroom behavior which Prior to the conference, the teacher should send clarify, support, or alter the goals. This provides a a progress report to the parents which summarizes transition into a discussion of the priority goals the growth seen during the year and describes the selected by the teacher and the determination of child's behavior in each of the developmental areas mutually agreed upon goals. The director may also (Table 2). At the same time, the families should use the results of the Minnesota profiles to furtivr receive a guide sheet emphasizing that this confer- deiineate meaningful and appropriate goals for ence will focus on the strengths and accomplish- each child. Participants can also discuss how the ments of the child. In L .dition, the guide sheet priority goals might be addressed both at school should list three topics the family will discuss at and at home. the conference and suggest that they talk about The 20 minutes allotted for this conference is these in advance: very effective in focusing discussion on developing a joint educational plan, since many of the ideas 1. What do yo" like best about school? have been prepared prior to the conference. Par- 2. Who are soi..e of the special friends you like ents report that this advance planning makes them to play with at school? feel less apprehensive about the conference. They ;. Are there any things you woul I like to do also indicate that they are impressed by the atten- more at school? tion given to their opinions and concerns. Staff, too, have found that the focus on goalsgi-,es The teacher begins the progress conference by structure and direction to the conference while sharing examples of the child's growth through allowing for flexibility to meet the needs of fam- anecdotes which describe some of the child's best ilies and children. skills or characteristics. This leads into a discussion of the three questions with the child. This portion Phase 3: Observe at Regular Intervals of the conference gives each child a special oppor- tunity to share ideas with people who are impor- Throughout the year, each child's progress re- tant to them. Children also hear good things about garding all of the educational goals is observed and themselves, which contributes to their self-image. recorded. Special attention is given to the priority When we introduced the progress conference goals selected 1-.parents and staff. The curriculum into our program, teachers and parents expressed isbuilt around the., same developmental goals, reservations and apprehensions about the child's with each 2-week period focusing on a few of the presence: "What if my child doesn't talk?" or goals as priorities. These planned learning experi- "What if negativebehaviors need tobedis- ences enable teachers to center their observations cussed?" How:.ver, our experiences with this for- on the children whose priority goals match those of mat have been positive. The childreiihave a thecurriculum.Teachers document growth chance to participate in a conference (possibly the through anecdotal records, checklists, rating scales, only chance they will ever have in their school and behavior frequency tallying. careers). The parents are able to comment on the Teachers in our program formally record chil- varied and sometimes unexpected answers they get dren's progress on all developmental goals in Janu- to the three questions on the guide sheet. And 262 26u Making Conferences Work Table 2 Project for the Study of Young Children Progress report Progress Developmental objectives al u- Social and emotional areas: Growth in a child's sense of autonomy, initiative, and confidencecharacteristics which make a child feel good about her or himselfare a child's ability to relate well with other children as well as adults are vital tasks during the preschool years. Children also need togrow in their ability to cope with fears and frustrations and to show persistence in completing a task. Lumitive area: De.",loping a child's thirking processes during the pre-schoo years involve; coming up with interesting ideas, pursuing problems and questions, putting ideas nr objects into relationships, and expressing ideas in a variety of ways. Children learn through active interac- tion with their environment. Physical area: Physical aspects of growth provide a child withan awareness of one's body in space and how one's body moves and the effects of these movements on the envi- ronment. Children also need opportunities to build small and large muscle coordination. teachers enjoy the sense of positive closure this home and school. Their value to parents, staff, and three-way conference brings to theyear. All-year children depends on the active participation of programs might setledule progress conferences in each person involved. Successful conferences lay the summer, especially for children who will be the foundationfor highquality programs for leaving to attend other schools. young children. The model outlined here can be adapted for use in any good early childhood program. CONCLUSION Conferences offer a rich opportunityto build communication and understanding between the DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.What should a teacher do to prepare for parent/teacher conferences? 2. What are appropriate goals for conferences? 3. Why is follow up after the c )nference important? 4. How should the teacher guide the conference? 5. What are the recommended states or phases of successful conferencesbetween teachers and parents? 263 2 f31 56. INNOVATION IN PARENT INVOLVEMENT: USING HIGH 'TECH TO CONNECT PARENTS AND TLACHERS by Jerold P. Bauch When busy part :its and busy teachers try to for children of the nation's poor; the most com- communicate, they several barriers. First, their mon element of all the new programs was active schedules seldom match. When parents want to involvement of parents. In fact, federally funded hear abm,-heir child's day, the teachers are at early childhood programs were judged not in com- home and trying to relax. When teachers need to pliance if they could not demonstrate that parents communicate with parents, they are at work or not were involved. available. Second, parent!. *lave to think about only Since the 1960s many new approaches have bcen one teacher; teachers have to think about many tried. Home visitors taught parents in their own parents and tryto communicate with each of homes. Cassrooms with observation rooms were them. These repetitive interactions are very time- built so that parents could observe their children at consuming. Third,teachers have complete and school. Some parents attended parenting classes; specific information about the child's learning and others served as aides in the classroom. In a few development. Parents have very little information communities, classrooms on wheels were brought about the curriculum and the child's daily pro- into the neighborhood so that early education was gram; this knowledge sometimes has been inacces closer to home. But in virtually all cases, parents sit:le to parents, yet they cannot actively participate were expected to bear considerable responsibility in their child's learning and aevelopment without for their children's education. Not many of the it. innovations in early childhood parent involvement During the first years of schooling, fundamental have endured as widespread and routine practices, changes take place in parents as well as in their however. Most were very personnel intensive, tonic developing children. For first-time parents, initial a great deal of rime and energy to sustain, and contacts with the school will establish their percep- required supplementary fiinding for operating ex- tions about continued involvement. If parents do penses. The federal manaates concerning parent not begin to grow in partnership with their child's involvement have been reduced, yet the needs of teachers,itis unlikely that they will form these parents remain exactly as they have been for many partnerships during later schoolyears. On the years. Parents want to know what is going on with other hand,if parents have rich and frequent their children at school, and they want the infor- information about their child's first learning expe- mation to be frequent and accurate. They also do riences, they are more likely to understand their not want to spend large blocks of time receiving teaching roles at home and to comprehend the small bits of information, but want to reserve their nature and practice of early education at school. precious "quality time" for interaction where it Early childhood educationis a criticalstage for countsin direct support of the child's learning. parents, too. If they are actively involved, they will The circumstances and distance between the form "attachments"thatwill enable them to home and school of the "good old days" have make vital contributions to the learning process. become even more intense, as economics, gender The field of early childhood education has a equity, changing family patterns and social con- solid and long history of involving parents in the cerns make home/school communication .nore dif- child's schooling. For example, Fioebel, Rousseau, ficult. Day care, by its very definition, means that and Pestalozzi each recognized the important role parents are busy elsewhere while the child is being of parents. They also knew that the school could caredfor.Single parents faced with economic help parents grow with the role, and suggested pressures have much more competition for their that parent education be a part of the educational time than in the past. Teachers and school person- program. When the national PTA was formed in nel also face new demands on their time, from 1896, a model of partnerships was forged between extensive pape:work to expanding professional re- parents and teachers. The early education revolu- sponsibility. The need for convenient, quick, fre- tion of the 19603 provided new access to education quent, meaningful, and ustrul communication be- 264 2 r9 Innovation in Parent Involvement tween school and home is serious. One response co before the main message is delivered. The message this need is the application ofnew technology to for families who prefer languages other than En- linkthe parents of the young child with the glish can be delivered in their preferred language. educational program. (The message must be translated and recorded in When parents send their child to "school" for the preferred language at the school.) the first time, the very reactions thatare well For direct access to information about the child's known and-ng children also are experienced by the daily experience, th,parent has a direct phone parents. Parents suffer from separation anxiety, a number to the classroom. Each teacher has:lit fear of the unknown, the uncertainty about the answering machine, and uses the announcement people and experiences at the new place, anda feature tot pat_nts know about the program. For major lack of information that could quell these example, at the end of the school day the teacher concerns. Fortunately, a major new innovation in writes a short script and records themessage. parent involvement has appeared on the scene; it When parents call the number, they hear: uses computer and telephone technology to build Today in math, the children in Ms. Hampton's group stronger relationships between home and school. were working on counting up to ten with the Cuisenaire Now, any early childhood programcan give par- rods. You could help by asking your child to count ents daily, accurate, and relevant information and objects at ho ne; if he child touches each item when it takes the teacher only five extra minutes per saying the number, 'te/she develops ,-e concept of 1:1 day! Telephone answering machines give thepar- correspondence. In grt we painted with red, yellow, and blue, and children are learning to identify these colors. ents this daily access, so news about the child's day Our next science unit is on peck) plants, and we will be is only a phone call away. The administratoror planting bean seeds. A good weekend project would be teachers in any early childhoodprogram can also to have your child help with any planting or gardening reach the parents with the sameease, using corn- around the house. Please leave your name and number puter-basecicallingtosendinformationfrom if you want me to call you back. 041 again tomorrow. school to home over the telephone. Thesetwo Every parent can call the classroom number and technical systems are the essentialcomponents of a hear the ,.cher describe the program for that day, high-tech parent involvement model that has been and can follow up on the suggestions with the developed at the Betty Phillips Center for Parent- childat home. The continuity between school hood Education, a project of Peabody Collegeat learning and home learning is greatly enhanced, \ianderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee. enabling parents to become real partners with the The model uses a sophisticatednew computer- teacher. Easy access to daily information can also calling system named Compu-Callto deliver infor- strengthen the parents' interest in the schoolpro- ',nation to homes. Someone at the school just gr4m and establish a long-term pattern of active records a message, sets the time for callsto be participation. placed, and goes home. At the designated time, Using computers and answering machines is not the computer makes the call and delivers the intended toreplaceallother forms of parent message in the natural voice of the sender. It will involvement, but only to increase theease of also keep records of the calls completed, whichcan routine communication. The use of this techno- be reviewed and printed out the next day. When logical model can double or triple thecontact the phone rings at home, a greeting message is between school and home, and it takes nomore heard to prepare the parent for the main informa- than five extra minutes per day! Busy teachers and tion. If someone other than theparent answers, busy parents need not be out of touchthey are there is time for the parent to come to the phone only a phone call apart. DISCUSSION QITA377ONS 1. How do time and scheduling reduce the opportunities for teachersand parents to interact? 2. What is the historical rationale for parent/ tea::her relationships? 3. How can new technology improve the communication between school andhome? 4. What is the potential for parent involvement whenparents have accurate, daily information about their child's school expeninces? 265 0ct.)..) A., 1 57. LITERACY ENVIRONMENTS. BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN HOME AND SCHOOL by Jon Shapiro and Ray Doiron For many years educators believed that children young child is fluency in oral language. Children about to start school knew very little about reading develop a tremendous amount of language from and writing. Hence, the job of the teacher was to birth until school entry. Oral language develops in get children "ready" and then begin the teaching the socialsetting of the home without formal of reading. Writing was usually taught after many instruction andecause of the basic need to com- reading skills were mastered. Research has now municate with the important adults in one's life shown,however,thatliteracyskillsbeginto (Goodman, 1980). Children develop oral language emerge at a much earlier age, well before school skills through their natural efforts to understand starts. This [chapter] will examine the major pre- the world around them. They are active partici- conditions for literacy that are rooted in the home pants in private eAplorations of their home, as well environment and then discuss some of the implica- as in the interactions with their parents. Parents tions of this home literacy environment for schools. allow attempts at words and encourage Lhildren to Research into the roots of literacy arose in an say a word after them. Parents attribute meaning attempt to determine the best environment in to utterances that seem close to the real world. which children can learn to read and write. A link Cazden (1983) outlined several ways adults assist was made between children's oral language devel- language development. The first one, scaffolding, opment and a similar development ofallthe consists of vertical constructions for building new language strands (Holdaway, 1979). Support for information or retelling past events. Proto-conver- this view was found in longitudinal studies that sations, peak-a-boo routines and picture book read- examined the emerging reading and writing of ing all provide opportunities for parents to build preschool children (Bissex, 1980; Chomsky, 1972). scaffolds for their children. A second technique, Wells (1985) found that children's experiences often combined with scaffolding, is modeling, in using storyin decontextualized ways developed which the r'-tild not only imitates the model but skills necessary in reading and writing develop- strives to ac,,aire its underlying structure. An ex- ment. Goodman (1980) described the importance ample would be an adult coaching a child in a of print awareness and huw children begin to act narrative accounting by detailing all the steps they on literate forms within their environment. A great use to do something or by telling a .ory about the body of research has examined the many aspects of things the child did. The third a most obvious literacy behavior in the home and how it relates to form of assistance comes in the ,rm of direct later literacy acquisition.Several conditions have instruction. An adult models an utterance and asits been reportedas being prerequisite toliteracy the childto repeatit.Adults also use direct development. The major ones to be discussed in instruction to teach the interpersonal uses of lan- this [chapter] arc: (1) oral language development, guage, such as politeness, or to teach vocabulary. (2) hypothesis construction and testing, (3) experi- Inherent in the adult's use of language, and ences with the tools of literacy, (4) modeling of developed within the child,is an understanding literacy skills, (5) the use of decontextualized lan- that language is functional. Children learn to use guage and (6) a developing sense of story. A brief language to communicate their needs, desires, de- elaboration on each of these conditions within the mands, fears, pleasures and affections. Children home literacy environment will lead to a discussion learn that language contains a message they can of several implications for schools. interpret and act upon. Children find their at- tempts at oral lank aage are nun and encour- aged by adults who believe the child can talk. ORAL LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Even the most remote attempt is pfaisee and the child is encouraged to get closer and closer to the One oft greatest accomplishments of the real world. Parents attribute intent and meaning to See pages 346-47 ,or acknowledgment and references 266 I Literacy Environments children's utterances and provide strong supportive establishing rules by which they can understand it. feedback to the child. These rules are revised as new information and Oral language develops in a natural, supportive various experiences are made available to the child. and interactive environment wherestrong models The fact that children have demonstrated their and lots of encouragement guaranteesuccess. Chil- ability to abstract, hypothesize, construct andre- dren are receptive, moth.ted and active in the vise has serious implications for the manner :n whole development of their oral language. which we deliver instruction in our schools. HYPOTHESIS CONSTRUCTION AND TESTING MODELING OF LITERACY SKILLS The ideal home environment can be described As children learn, they search through their as "safe" or risk-free. Children are encouraged to environment for examples of what they want to explore their environment and to ask questions know. Aware of the consistent use of a behavior in about everything they come into contact with. their environment, children are likely to seek out They are provided enriching experiences that allow the same sorts of behavior. Given that children are new information to be gathered, as well as oppor- active participants in their own learning, it is not tunities for language to :row. Parentsgo out of surprising that it should be considered important their way to provide chances for their childrento for children to see adults involved in theuse of work out their undentandings of the world around literacyskills.Most parents couldcitelots of them. They take precautions toensure that no examples of their own children caught in the act of harm comes to the children. The materialsor imitating some characteristic of the parents. Chil- experiences they provide for the children always dren assume that the people who have provided all have a built-in success rate.Children approach of their needs since birth are prime examples of their playasa great adventure into new and how to deal with the world around them. exciting worlds never before seen. Holdaway (1979) drew attention to the impor- While engag:d in their pla'children direct tance of modeling when he noted how children their own activities. They decide whatgoes with will open books and immediately shift inflection in what, what should be done next and when itis their voice into the one they often heard from time to stop.Research into the ways children parents reading stories aloud. Harste et al. (1984) approach literacy events in the home implies that noticed children wanting to engage in writing children are actually in control of highly sophisti- activities after they saw their parents makinga list, cated processes that guide their learning ( Bissex, filling out a check or writing a letter. Parents who 1984). Bissex suggests that children actas their recognize these events as ones that teach children own teachers and carry on inner anti outer dia- about literacy skills arc also recognizing the impor- logues as they negotiate their way throughnew tance of allowing these fledgling attempts to take information and alreadyestablishedstructures. placewithin an environment of support and Holdaway (1979) found that children corrected encouragement. themselves as they triedto reconstruct familiar Shirley Brice-Heath (1985) presented a compari- stories. When they make their literacy decisions, son of the ways preschool children and adults even very young children seem well aware of what interacted in two communities of differing socio- they know and don't know (Harste et al.,1981). cultural milieus. Both communities providedexam- Read's (1971) extemive work with children'suse of ples of how important it is for parents not onlyto invented spelling presents childrenas actively in- talk about literacy and about the form and content volved in their own learningforming hypotheses of the materials in order to give them importance, which they test and reformulate tocarne up with but also to be active users of th.:irown literacy rules they apply consistently to their spelling. sk.iis. Children must see parents reading and writ- The environment where this hypothesis-testing is ing in purposeful and enjoyable situations,not just nurtured must reflect an accepting, supportive and as promoters of literacy skills. Children must see stimulating relationship betweenparents and chil- models of the skills, as -'ell as have opportunities dren. Within this environment there existsa re- to participate in literacy events. spect for children's ability to direct their learning. One of the most important ways parents model Bissex (1984) tells us childrenassume there is order literacy skills is by reading to their children. Bissex in the world and set out to reconstructitby (1980') says that reading to children provides them 267 A2 8 5 PARENTS ,iND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENTT with a sense of what reading isall about. Tea le USE OF DECONTEXTUALIZED (1984) sees reading to children as important in LANGUAGE establishing that print is meaningful. Oral reading to children provides experiences with the functions As children's language grows in size and sophis- and uses of written language, as well as nurturing tication, it becomes possible for a language about a positiveattitude toward reading. Of allthe language to begin to develop. One of the charac- activities characteristic of literate family homes, the teristics of literate people is their ability to talk most important one found by Wells (1985) was the about language.Brice-Heath(1985) recognized sharing of stories. Wells also concluded that homes how some people carry in their language an ability in which reading grid writing were naturally occur- to talk about language and .o analyze language as ring daily events gave children a partirllar advan- a system of bits and piecesinpatterns.This tage when they started school. analysis requires us not only to recognize patterns It appears then that preschool children need to in print, but also to talk about v. ords, letters and see adults frequently as participants in purposeful sentencesmetalinguistically.Parents who talk literacy events. Children then attribute an impor- about rhyming words, the alphabet, fairytales, tance to these activities and use them as a model fables and poetry arebuilding intochildren's for their own development of these skills. language the vocabulary and concepts necessary to abstract language from ;ts immediate context and to talk about what itis made up of and how it works. EXPERIENCE WITH THE TOOLS OF Catherine Snow (1983) refers to adult literacy as LITERACY "the ultimate decontextualized skill": a skill that develops from the highly contextualized experi- Consistent with the provision of purposeful and ences of early oral language development into the functional models for children developing literacy more decontextualized experiences of book reading skills is the ease of .Ltess children have to pencils, and the telling of oral narratives in play experi- paper, books and other _laterials needed to be- ences. Initially children treat reading as a highly come literate. Children will not learn how to read contextualized skill by reading words contained in and write easily if their experiences with the tools the popular logos within their environment or by of literacy have been limited. reading their own names. Children must gain Reading to childrenis recognized as a strong experiences that allow them to establish distance support for the emergence of literacy (Tea le, 1984: between themselves and the message they want to Wells, 1985). Literate homes go further and allow send. Such experiencesasretellingpast events children to handle, manipulate and "read" these provide opportuniq to use languagetorelate books themselves. Children arc then able to pre- things not part of the child's immediate experi- tend to read by modeling the reading behavior and ence. Home environments that engage in the use become practitioners themselves of reading skill. of decontextualized language are providing a major Children who receive books as gifts or who buy experience that children need if they are to read. books themselves are again establishing a signifi- In teaching reading schools often begin with very cance for books in their lives. Trips to the library, contextualized experiences with print, but children where children are encouraged to select their without a strong decontextualized base orthe books and become regular users of the library, are means to make the transition may soon develop a concrete way parents can provide the materials of problems with the more decontextualized re.. ling literacy. of the intermediate program (Snow 1983). Along with many experiences with the handling of books, parents need to provide children with the materials of writing. Harste etal.(1984), A DEVELOPING SENSE OF STORY Bissex (1980) and Chomsky (1971) found it useful when hey provided letters, markers, crayons and Closely linked to using decontextualized lan- other materials which their subjects were free to guage, yet unique because of its influence from use in literacy events. Many parents engage in daily literature and its role in a child's imaginative play, activitiesthatdemonstrate what writingisall ischildren's developing sense of story.Hardy about, such as drawing up a shopping list, writing (1977) defines narrative as the "primary act of the checks to pay bills, or writing a note for someone mind" that enables us to understand the world and posting it in the kitchen around us. Research indicates that children engage 268 2 f ; 6 Literacy Environments in various "storying" activities. They create fictions are born and continue pursuing literacy activities of based on actual experiences, as well as imagine increasing difficulty. Upon school entry, many chil- new situations in whi h they play out their evolv- dren undergo a major shift in their method of ing understanding of the world (Wells,1986). learning. Before school entry, they proceed their Children use language to create the context of the own rate and within the supportive environment of stories, and they use that language as a narrative their home. In school, they must often adjust their tool to create their story. rate of learning by speeding up or slowing down to Arising from this private or "inner" narrative match the speed set by school. Before entering comes a willingness to share in the narratives of schoo!, children determined many of their !earning others, which we call stories. In addition to creat- goals and now they must throw out their own ing their own stories, children listen to the stories goals or readjust them to match the goals set for of others either told or read to them. Story be- them by the school. Parents had full control over comes a way to communicate one's own narratives, their children's learning environment, and now as well as a way to share in the narratives of others. they must turn over most of thatcontrolto Applebee (1978, 1980) details children's develop- authorities operating in their child's best interests. ing "sense of story," which he says begins with These distinctive differences between the home the very personal experiences of the child suchas a and school environments have left the child out- visit to grandparents or a trip to the zoo. Gradual- side of the discussion of what methods best suit ly character development, actions and settings be- 1,nw children learn. come removed from that experience and narrative This [chapter] began by exploring six of the structures become more tightly controlled. major conditions within literate homes thatre- Since literature contains perfect examples of the search has identified as prerequisite for literacy narratives of others, it plays a significant role in development. The outlining of these conditions the child's developing "sense of story." Inan contains obvious messages for parents who want to attempt to determine what preschool activities re- enhance their home literacy environment and make lated to later literacy development, Wells (1985) it more conducive to emerging literacy skills. What reported that the activity of looking at and talking then must schools do differently to reflect the about books helps a child develop new vocabulary, knowledge that literacy is an emerging skill, devel- as well as providing practice at answering display oping from birth and continuing to grow on into questions. More important, by listening to stories adulthood? read aloud,children gain experience with the First, schools must recognize and applaud the organization of written language and its character- home as the foundation of the child's learning. istic rhythms and structures. Also, children experi- This recognition should include awareness of the ence language as it is used to create new experi- achievements of the child prior to school entry. ences removed from the context of their everyday Second, schools must establish a bridge between lives. They learn to escape the "big bad wolf 'or to sail away "to where the wild things are." the home literary environment and the school By school age, children are experienced users of literacy environmmt, including instruction. Pres- ently, the gap between home and schoolespecial- narrative (Applebee, 1980). Their own inner story- ly ing is active within their play; they create stories in terms of language related toinstruction to (Wells, 1985; Downing, 1970) and verbal media- establish order in the world; they have listener:to many stories read by auults; and they are heighten- tion of learning (Juliebo, 1985)is often quite w'de. When the gap is wide. children are forced to ing their ability to use language in its a- develop new strategies for 'earning in what is not lizedforms.Their''senseof story''is establisheci. always a risk-free and nurturing environment. In an effort to close the gap between home and school environments,kindergarten and primary FROM THE HOME INTO SCHOOL: grade teachers need to create classrooms that reflect BRIDGING THE GAP many of the positive qualities of the home literacy environment. These classrooms would recognize No one of thesesix major prerequisites for andreflectthefollowingbeliefs,actionsand literacy development has been identified as the environment: single most important. All six work together and Children acquire language socially; therefore, contributedifferentlytoliteracydevelopment. if language is to grow children must have frequent Children begin this development soon after they interaction with peers and teachers. 269 2f 7 PARENTS AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT Children enter school with a great deal of extend the modeling role of the parents by appear- language; therefore, their oral language should be ing as active users of reading and writing skills. linked to written forms of language. Children's comprehension development and Children are just emerging into proficiency skills mastery are affe red by their attending be- with decontextualized uses of language; therefore, havior, which ;y a product of motivation; therefore, they require rich language experiences that height- classrooms should respond to the interests of chil- en their oral language and focus on the decontex- dren and provide opportunities for them to ditect tualized nature of language. their own learning. Children's new learning is built upon previ- Children enter school with knowledge of both ously established foundations; therefore, teachers readingandwriting;therefore,instructional must identify children's abilities and strengths so schemes should expand and extend this knowledge that new instruction is appropriate. by developing reading and writing simultaneously. Children learn when risks of failure are mini- Children learn by doing; therefore, they need mal; therefore, the classroom must nurture and opportunities to observe literacy in action,take develop the "safe" and supportive environment of part in literacy events, and construct and test their the home. own hypotheses related to reading and writing. Finally, schools must recognize that the bridge Children need to experience the richness and built between the home literacy environment and power of the written word; therefore, a literature the school literacy environment cannot be a one- program utilizing the best examples of written way path. Parent involvement must be allowed and discoursetheculturehastooffershouldbe supported, and parents' understandings extended. implemented. After an, parental involvement and knowledge are Children areinfluenced by thesignificant resources for the cliild's continued success in learn- models in their lives;therefore, teachers should ing to read and write. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.How does the home environment contribute to the preconditions of literacy? 2. What are the ways adults influence early language a velopment? 3.What characteristics of an optimal home situation will improve literacy? 4. How can parents model the literacy skills they want to foster in their children? 5.What are the features of decontextualized language? 6. How can the schools influence the home literacy experience and improve initial schoo literacy success? 270 58. COMMUNICATING WITH PARENTS ABOUT BEGINNING READING INSTRUCTION by Dorene D. Ross and Elizabeth Bondy Parents of youngsters in early childhood settings answering them. A theme unitesthe answers: typically have many concerns and questions about childrenbecomeskilled,enthusiasticreaders their children. Does Mary have friends? Does Jason through varied, ongoing positive experiences with pay attention? Does Sara eat all,..,her lunch? print. Teachers who .ase this approach emphasize Invariably, they have ,aestions about learning to reading and writing for meaning and the develop- read. To many parents, reading successis an ment of oral language competence, and de-empha- indication of their child's competence and of their size instruction in the formal elements of reading competence as parents. They want their children to such as pencil-and-paper drill on reading skills. succeed and as a -esult they may come to you with The approach is consistent with the developmental questions or concerns about reading instruction. needs and abilities of young children (Elkind, This is more likely to hzppen if your reading 1986) and with research about the development of program differs from the one the oarent or an competence in reading (Anderson etal.,1985; older child experienced. Goodman, 1984; Teak, 1982). There areseveral waysto deal with parent concerns. One way is to wait for parents to ask 1. My child knows all the letters of the alphabet, questions.If you don't have any parents who but his kindergarten teacher is no; teaching him to express concern, this is by far the easiest path; read Why? generally, however,itis better to communicate Children need to know many things before they with parents before tli come to you with ques- are ready to read. Whip it is useful for children to tions. You might s,.1 aletter home atthe learn the names and sounds of the letters of the beginning of the year, explaining your reading alphabet, many other types of knowledgt and program and the kinds of strategies you will be experience are necessary if they are to become using. A sample letter appears at the end of this successfulreaders.For example, research about [chapter]; you may want to adapt it to suit you successful readers indicates that all of the following and your ciassroom. information is necessary for success in reading: Another strategy that has worked for many Understanding that speech can be written teachers is to send home a regular newsletter. How down often you send a newslc...1 will dependon your Recogniring the special vocabulary and sen- schedule and your nee?.For most teachers, two to tence structures of print four times a month works well. A newsletter aced Becoming familiar with a variety of types of not be elaborate; its main purpose is "o tell parents literature (folk talcs, poetry, mysteries, etc.) what you have been doing in the classroom. You Knowing that reading is useful and pleasur- can also include the words to songs and Lagerplays able you have been teaching the children. Suggestions Developing a rich background of knowledge can be added for parents who wish to work at about the world home with their children on the things you have Knowing that the print and not the pictures be-n teaching in school. A sample newsletter used tel.'s the story by one kindergarten teacher is also included in this Knowing that the order of letters in words is [chapter]. important Early communication with parents usually con- Knowing front and back, top and bottom of vinces them that you have a sound beginning book reading prqam. Occasionally, howev(a parent Knowir g that one reads from left to right will come in with a question. The remainder of Having a clear concept of the special language this [chapter] lists some questions that parents may of reading, suchas"word,""letter" and ask and provides information that may be useful in "sentence" See page 347 for acknowledgment and references. 271 90 , , I )j..., PARENTS AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT Expecting that what one reads will make 3.My child seem; to waste a lot of time playing in sense. (Anderon et al.,t985; Allington, 1983; the housekeeping center.Wouldn't this time be Bussis, 1982; Roney, 1i84; Taylor, 1977) better spent in learning how to read? As your child plays in the housekeeping center, Itisimportant that children develop a firm he/she practices a number of behaviors associated grounding in all of these background experiences. with reading and writing: newspapers are read, Too much emphasis on letters and letter sounds shopping listscomposed,bedtimestoriesread, can encourage children to focus on reading words notes written, and mail sent and received. Less rather than understanding the meaning of the obvious reading-related behaviors also occur: using story. Successful readers arc more concerned with symbols, sequencing events and resolving conflicts understanding the story than with reading any through clarification and compromise (Pellegrini particular word. It is likely that your child's teacher and Galda, 1985). Additionally, play helps chil- is providing experiences that will develop funda- dren (1) increase their vocabulary and knowledge mental background knowledge. of concepts, (2) lengthen their ave.! tion span, (3) develop a better understanding of causal relation- 2.My daughter's friend brings home reading pa- ships and (4) develop knowledge of the difference pers from kindergarten. She is already in a work- between reality and fantasy (Sponseller,1982). book and seems to do five or six little letter papers Each of these abilities is important in the develop- every day. Will my daughter fall behind because ment of competence in reading. Far from a waste she is not doing any of this in school? of time, play actually provides children with op- portunities to practice and elaborate literacy skills. Drill on letters, a frequent focus in workbooks forYou can facilitate this productive play by contrib- beginning readers, may not be the most fruitful uting print-related materials to your child's play approach toraisingskilled,avid readers. Most area, such as magazines, junk mail and note pads. reading researchers have expressed concern about the overemphasis on written drill of reading skills 4.What are some materials I should buy and and the lack of time devoted to meaningful read- activities I should do to help my child learn to ing activities (Anderson etal.,1985; Cazden, read? 1978; Durkin, 1978-79; Strange, 1978). Individual symbols(letters)frequentlyarcmeaninglessto Actually, very few things need to be purchased. young children and may confuse them about the Your child needs to see, hear, write and talk about reading process. Furthermore, children faced with print. Opportunities for these experiences abound letter drill may develop inaccurate concepts of in the natural course of your day together. Make a reading (Bondy, 1984) which lead them to dislike point of sharing the print you encounter. Involve and avoid books. Your childisprobably not your chid in your own literacy experiences: making missingout on importantreading experiences. shopping lists, locating a favorite television show in Check with theteacher and find outif your the guide, cooking, reading and writing postcards daughter is getting the following experiences in and letters, identifying road signs. It isn't necessary school: to buy special materials to provide these experi- ences. If your supply of paper and writing imple- The teacher reads to children at least daily. ments is low, you might replenish it since experi- The teacherleadschildreninsongs and menting with writing is related closely to reading fingerplays. development (Butler and Turbill, 1984). The teacher writes down what children say on In addition, ii. your child does not have a library charts and on their papers. card, now is the time to apply for one. In doing The teacher provides a variety of experiences so, you are giving the child access to unlimited for children to help them learn about the world. pleasurable encounters with books. You need not The teacher provides many books in the class- buy word or letter flashcards, as these break mean- room and time for children to explore them. ingful print into meaningless pieces. Your child The teacher encourages children to write with- will have plenty of opportunities to learn individ- out insisting on correctspelling andletter ual letters and words when encountering them in formation. meaningful contexts. The teacher brings environmental print to the In summary, you don't have to buy special children's attention(e.g.,lunch menu,signs, materials to help your child learn to read. Provid- memos). ing access to print and talking about print experi- 272 2' U Communicating with Parents ences are what really count. Also, make sure your It is important that home reading be a pleasurable child sees you reading and writing. Modeling isa activity. If your son cannot read a word, encourage powerful teacher! No matter how importantyou him to guess, using all available clues, or to skip may say reading is, your child will not get the the word and come back to it later. If, after trying message if you do not find time to read yourself. these alternatives, he isstill unable Lo read the word and it is important to the story's meaning, 5. My child wants to hear the same story over and simply tell him the word. It is more important for over again. This is so boring! What should I do the beginning reader to get the meaning of the about it? story than to read every word accurately (Smith, 1973). The tedious "sounding out" of words Holdaway (Park,1982) explained that a child's disrupts the flow of a story and can make reading 'experience with a favorite book passes through boring and frustrating. The most important thing three phases. First, the child is introduced to the you can do for your son is to make sure he enjoys book and may participateasitisbeing read. your nightlyreadingactivities and understands Second, the child demands many repetitions of the what he reads. book. Third, the child "reads" the book indepen- Good readers focus on understanding what they dently and does other activities related to it suchas read and keep track of how well they understand drawing and "writing." Children who have these what they are reading (Davey, 1983). You can help experiences "develop a complex range of attitudes, your child develop this ability, called self-monitor- concepts and skills" that Holdaway (1984) calls the ing, by withholding immediate feedback when a "literacyset."According to Holdaway, "Such mistake is made during oral reading (Smith, 1973). children are all set up for reading and writing Instead, when your child misreads a word, result- they are ready to go" (p. 49). ing in a sentence that does not makesense, let Became hearing a book read over and over again your child finish the sentence and see if he corrects is part of the process by which children become himself. If not, say to your child, "Did that make readers,itis important that you providethis sense ?" Usually, this is all that is needed for the experience for your child.Itis also important, child to detect his error. If the child is unable to however, that parents as wellas children enjoy self-correct, repeat the sentence as he reads it. He their reading experiences together. A strategy that may then be able to hear the mistake. By using works for some parents is to read a book two or this feedback strategy, you will encourage your three times at one sitting and then to encourage child to read for meaning and to monitor his the child to choose a different book. Additionally, understanding as he reads. itis important for children to be exposed to a In addition to listening to him read, nake sure variety of literature. You can accomplish this by you continue to read to your child.For oral taking your child to the library regularly. reading, select books that are a little too difficult for him to read independently. You will both 6. My child is pretending to read She has memo- enjoy the time together and it will help him in his rized some stories and "reads" them. Should I tell efforts to become a successful reader. my child she is not really reading? If teachers want parental support of their efforts Although, to you, your child is not "really read- in the classroom, they must help parents under ing," she is in fact practicing reading behavior as stand the nature and purpose of classroom prac- Holdaway explained (see question 5). The behavior tices. In the case of beginning reading instruction, you describe is a positive and significant step along the road to teachers must provide parents with some insight proficient reading. Encourage your into the reading process and the ways in which child. Help h'tr believe sle.^ is reading, for she is. young children learn. The abused practice of drill With repeated exposure to print 'uid opportunities on isolated reading skills is based on an inaccurate to practice reading, your child will gradually be- come more proficient at reading independently. view of reading (Bussis, 1982); no set of essential subskills or processes has yet been identified (Ro- Don't rush her, and continue reading to her and senshine, writing together. 1980). The strategies that have been discussed represent a more holistc approach, one that focuses on familiarizing the young child with 7. My son is beginning to -1 and reads to me thenature of the language and printinthe every night. What should I do when he cannot immediate environment. These strategics are con- read a word or misreads a word? sistent with the way young children learn in gener- 273 271 PARENTS AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT al and the way they become readers. Furthermore, "Nothin' " or "We just played all day." When children who have pleasurable, meaningful experi- children make such comments and don't bring ences with reading are more likely to become avid home as many papers as the parents had expected, readers than those faced with confusing drills. parents may become concerned Teachers must be When children spend more time reading and prepared to help parents understand the complex- engaging in meaningful writing, however, they will ity of the reading task and the nature of good do fewer ditto and workbook pages. These papers, reading instruction. This essential role of the teach- which u.:e sent home, are frequently the parents' er is one that cannot be neglected if we expect to main contact with the school. We all know what provide children with the best reading instruction children say when asked what they do in school: possible. Sample Letterto Parents Dear Parents: small group situations. I want to take this opportunity to welcome you and °rovide time for children to go to the library, look your child to our class. Bac', new school year is exciting at books and share books with their friends. and challenging for me and I am looking forward to Record information on classroom charts and the getting to know you and your child. I hope you will blackboard. We do a lot of singing and fmger- come and visit with us from time to time. If your plays. Recording familiar information on charts schedule makes it possible, we'd love to have yc,u work helps children begin to learn to read words and in the classroom on a regular basis. If not, I hope you phrases. can join us for field trips, occasionally for lunch, or for Take dictation from children. By recording what avisit when you have a day off. You are always your child says, he /she learns that reading is just welcome, so please stop in. "talk written down." Reading then becomes more Because reading plays such alargerolein our familiar and children begin learning words and classroom, :'d like to take this opportunity to describe phrases. our reading program. The major focus of our program is Provide time for children to write and draw inde- to help children love reading, to see reading as useful pendently. Writing and reading are connected. and to develop the knowledge and experience they need Children who enjoy writing also enjoy reading. to become successful readers. While we will be working, Provide practice in learning letters, sounds and of course, on the names and sounds of the letters of the words. alphabet, that is only o small part of our program. The Your child will bring home papers that emphasize children also will be learning the following information drill on some reading skills, but this is not the major which is necessary for success in reading: focus of our reading program. Research in reading Understanding that speech can be written down indicates that overemphasis on skills can be counterpro- Developing familiarity with many different types ductive in helping chiL.en learn to read and can lead of stories to negative attitudes toward reading. As we work on Learning the pamrns of spoken and written reading at school, you can help by reading to your child language at home. Providing 15 minutes of reading time daily Learning that reading is fun can make a big difference. Learning that we can learn things through reading I hope you will feel free to call me or stop by and Developing a rich background of knowledge about sec me if you have questions about any aspect of our the world. kindergarten program. I'll look forward to meeting you Itis very important that children develop a firm and talking with you. foundation in all these background experiences if they are to become competent readers. Consequently, I will do the following things during the school year to help Sincerely, your child develop the necessary skills and knowledge: Yaur child's Spend time daily reading to children in large and kindergarten teacher 274 Communicating with Parents Sample Parent Newsletter K NDERGARTEN CORNER ABOUT OUR WEEK: ABOUT YOUR CHILD: In Language Arts we: NEXT WEEK WE WILL: sang and read "Here We Go Round the Mulberry make holiday placcmats for our family and friends Bush" begin writing in journals by drawing and labeling made up and illustrated new verses for our classroom things we will give to others for the holidays Mulberry book make a Christmas carol book read a recipe and made porno latkes review classification mem making and comparison read books about Hanukah and Christmas celebra- activities tions talk about families and how our holiday celebrations drew and labeled pictures showing how each of us are similar or different. celebrates the holidays. ANNOUNCEMENTS: Our Winter Holiday party will be next Friday, Dcc. In Math we: 20 at 1:00. We arc expecting a surprise visitor! talked about putting things together in a group and Our room mother will be contacting you to find out reasons for putting things together in a group what you can send in for the party. grouped various kinds of beans Don't forget the Holiday program tonight at 7:30. grouped various kinds of macaroni See you there! sorted a collection of buttons put blocks or assorted shapes and colors into one of HOME ACTIVITIES: two circles. Have your child help you sort and fold the laundry to practice putng things into groups. Read traditional holiday books with your child. For our Winter Holiday unit we: Let your child make wrapping paper for holiday talked about Hanukah presents. made dreidles (tops used in a traditional Jewish Help your child make Christmas or Hanukah cards game) for special people. made latkes (potato pancakes, a traditional Hanukah Help your child write thank-you notes afterthe food). holidays. HAVE A SAFE AND HAPPY HOLIDAY DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.What do parents want to know about their child's reading experience and performance? 2. What are the characteristics of successful readers? 3.What are the inappropriate and appropriate early reading experiences foryoung children? 4. How does play relate to initial reading experience? 5. Why sh uld teachers provide extensive information about the beginning reading program? 275 Section Nine: Child Behavior and Discipline Editor's Overview 277 59.The Banning of Corporal Puilishment: In Child Care, School and Other Educative Settim in the ' States, by John R. Cryan 278 60.A Cognitive Approach to Behavior Management, by Jerold P. Bauch 284 61.Corporal Punishment in the Schools, by John H. Meier 287 62.Child Abuse and Neglect: Prevention and Reporting, by Barbara J. Meddin and Anita L. Rosen 290 EDITOR'SOVERVIEW Children who are out of control or disruptive in paper of the Association for Childhood Education the classroom cannot gain the maximum impact of International (ACEI) on corporalpunishment the educational experience. Young children, in the leaves no room for ambiguity; it says, "No corpo- school setting for the first time, are not likelyto ral punishment!" Next, Bauch gives a special point behave perfectly at all times. But there are good of view that uses a cognitive approach to the ways and bad ways for, helping children control management of behavior in the classroom. Then, themselves and focus their attention on the learn- thesocial and moral problems associated with ing experience provided for them. The selections corporal punishment enumerated by Meier make a presented in this section reflect a definite bias, but connection with thelastchapter.To carry a it is a bias held by most clear-thinking profession- humane concern for children's welfare one step als who work with young children. further, Meddin and Rosen make definite sugges- Cryan's important presentation of the position tions for dealing with child abuse and neglect. 274 59. THE BANNING OF CORPORAL PUNISHMENT: IN CHILD CARE, SCHOOL AND OTHER EDUCATIVE SETTINGS IN THE UNITED STATES by John R. Cryan Nearly 100 years ago the American public be- Whereas there is a resurgence in some quar- :ame outraged over several much-publicized cases ters of a call for a return to the "old-fashioned" of cUd abuse.Organizations were formed to discipline in the schools, and combat abuse and protect children. Subsequently, Whereas ACEI is committed to the belief that and for nearly 50 years, child welfare issuesre- child care and educative settings should be models ceived widespread publicity. One of those issues of appropriate behavior toward the young, and was the use of corporal punishment as a form of Whereas thereisconsiderable psychological school discipline. Opposition to this method was and medical evidence that corporal punishment stre-g. Educators writing at the turn of the century impala the development of children into socially disapproved of corpoi al punishment and seemed to responsible adults and interferes with the process think that its use was rare No longer feeling the of le2ming, and need for corporal punishment to maintain order, Whereas better methods of disciplineare schools abandoned it in favor of more humane available, and discipline. By the mid-192C the issue of corporal Wherer3 reported cases of child abuse are punishment disaieare(1. Along with other pro- alarmingly on the rise in the United States (60,0r1 gressive social issues,it remained dead for four pl 7;1:al abuse cases alone in 1983), and decades (Hit_r, 1979). Whereas the National Education kssociation is Today we are again experiencing a major child theloneeducationorganizatioo among other welfare movemen-Once again childr;:i's rights, major nationalorganizations opposing corporr health anu safety are at issue. And once again anishment (A :rican Medical Association, Na- child-advocategroupsarecot.derming corporal tional A-iatioi. for the Advancement of Colored nunishment. People, American Acadehly of Pediatrics, Mental One such group, the Association for Childhood HealthAssociation,Children'sDefenseFund, Education International (ACED, passed the follow- American Psychological Association, National Asso- ing resolution at a business meeting of its 1985 ciation of Social Workers and League Against Annual S udy Conference in San Antonio, Texas. Child Abust.). In doirso, ACEI joined parents, teachers, doc- Be it the-efore resolved that ACEI publir4 a tors, 1 .yers, psychologists, soda; workers and 14 written statement (position paper) speaking agqinst major national organizations in the effort to ban corporal punish; Lent iri :had care and educati., or corporal punishment. sch:Jol settings with the understanding that as a part of this statement there will be support for Whereas the United Slates is one of a scant specificIlternative disciplinary"racticeslikely to few of reiatively developed countriesin which foster self controlled individuals and - democratic children can lawfully be beaten, and ci';zenry. Whereas effective September 1,1985, only eigl:t states (Marl husetts, New Jersey, Hawaii, Why isitnecessary to campaign against the Maine, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Vermont, corporal punishment of childrenina country and New Yt.r1c) forbid teachers and other school where the Constitution protects every adulteven employees to hit or hurt children in their care, and convicted criminalsfrom physical violence and Whereas many major cities including New cruel or unusual punishment? York,Philadelphia,Chicago andSeattlehave Why is it necessary to campaign against corocral bar:ned the practice of corporal punishment in punishment of children in a country where nirtu li- _-hools, and ly every state furbi is ph,sical -buse of any animal See pages 347-48 fcr ^cknowledgment and referen-es. N1 h.r 278 The Banning of Corporal Punishment or child? Communist bloc countries (H:in and Wise, Because the fact is that, although the issue of 1979). corporal punishment of children in schools died 50 How isi1 that such practices are forbidden in year ago, the hitting did not stop. only eight states in the United Stares? A brief look Because the national average of those children in at the religious, historical and legal perspectives schools receiving corporal punishment is estimated will hel., explain the resistance to change. at 3.5 percent of the population in schools. Because in a country whey democracy and hu- man rights are its cornerstone, 42 of its 50 states RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVE allow or specifically endorse the use of corporal punishment as a means of disciplining children in The Bible is often quoted to provide the ratio- schools. nale for corporal punishment. Solomon's familiar Corporal punishment is "... an officiallysanc- admonition "Sparc the rod and roil the child" tioned form of institutionalized chila abuse in the may be found in the early scriptures. In Proverbs United States" (Hyman and Wise 1979, pp. 4-5). we read: "Foolishness is bound in the heart of a The remainder of this [chapter] will attempt to child; but the rod of -1rrection shall drive it from present evidence in support ACF.I's position that him.... Withhold not correction from the child; the barbaric practice of corporal punishment in for if thou beatest him with the rod, he shall not child care, school and other educative settings must die. Thou shalt beat him with the rod and shalt be BANNED. Suggestions will be made regarding deliver his soul from hell." solutions to this problem. Add tc these biblical sanctions the traditional Christian wncept of children born into sin and it becomes clear why it was thought that God sanc- DEFINITION tioned the molding of ci'" 1-en's character through severe punishment.School achers of colonial "Punishment," according to W'ebster's Dictio- days, for example, viewea children as "wili and nary, comes from the same Latin root poen as do satanicneeding to have the devil beaten out of the words "penalty" and "pain" and means "to them" (Williams, 1979, p. 30). impose a penalty for some fault," "to inflict a But reading the Bible one verse at a time will penalty in retribution" or "to deal with harshly." enable finding jurificat. n for nearly any activity. The word "corporal" derives from the Latinord Proverb. recomme, is, "The mouth of the just corpus, meaning "body." So we have legal bringeth forth wisdom, but the forward t.ongue definitiontaken fromBlack's Law Dictionary shall be cut out." It was common punishment in (1968) that corporal punishment is "physical pun- the past to cut out tongues of "sassy children" but ishment as distinguished :tom pecuniary punish- we no longer follow that practice. We are more ment or a fine; any kind of punishment of or enlightened today and reject the use of Bible verses inflicted on the body, such as whipping or the as commandments. pillory." And, we have an education definition: "the infliction of pain by a teacher or other educational official upon the body of the student as a penalty for doing something which h-,s been HISTORICAL FLASPECTIVE disapproved of by the punish -r" (Hyman and Wise, 1979, p. 4). As the NEA t otes (1972), pain Schooling inthe "good old days" wAs not may be inflicted by not only beating the child but exactly what we would taketo remember. The also by: (a) confining the child in a small, uncom- following passage was written in 1870: forta: lc space; (b) fort ing the child to stand fora Wanting elbow room, the chair would be quickly long period of time o: (c) forcing the child toeat thast on one side, aad Master John Todd was to be seen dragging his struggling suppliant to the flogging obnoxious substances. These and a host of other ground in the center of the room. Having placed his refinements fit the definition. left foot upon the end of a hutch, with a patent jerk Interestingly. these types of practices were abol-abol- pecuti-to himself, he would have the boy completely ished in the U.S. Navy in 1850 and in the schools horsea across his knee, with his left elbow on the back of Luxembourg, Holland, Austria, France, Finland, of his neck to keep him securely on._ Having his victim thus completely at his command..., once more Denmark, Belgium, Cyprus, Japan, Ecua-Ecua- to the .ring crew would be exhibited the dexterity of dor, Iceland, Italy, Jordan, Qrar, Mauritius, Nor- master and strap.... Moving in quick time, the fifteen way,Israel,The Philippines,Portugal andall inches of bridle rein would be seer,... leav'ng on ''the 2 76 279 CHILD BEHAVIOR AND DISCIPLINE place beneath" a fiery streak at every slash. teachers instruct children only part of the day, and "Does it hun?" "Oh yes, Master! Oh don't Master!" few opportunities exist for teachers to fonn close "Then I'll make it hun thee more.... Thou shan't relationshipswithchildreninlargeclassesor want a warming pan tonight " (Watson, 1870, p. 290) schools. Moreover, the school ziiild relationship is intermittent, with different adults involved at dif- William Channing (1851)describes the disci- ferent times of the day and year, very often at pline in his dame school as enforced by means of superficial levels. the Dame's long round stick, which stood next to The courts have failed to reach common inter- her soft easy chair like a "watchful sleepless being pretation of the in loco parentis concepasit of ancient mythology" (Channing, 1851, p. 23). pertains to the hitting of school children. In Baker Elizabeth Montgomery (1867) describes the prac- v. Owens (1975) the state's right to use corporal tices of a girls' school. Girls were fo' .ed to wear a punishment to maintain law and order inthe necklace of sharp Jamestown weed-burs if they classroom was affirmed, thereby invalidating the in permitted their heads tofallforward.If they loco parentis concept. In Glaser v. Marietta (1972) slighted their work, the usual punishment was to the court came to the opposite conclusion. The wear a morocco spider on the back confined to the Supreme Court in Ingrahamv. Wright (1977) should:rs by a belt. refused to -'eny teachers the right to hit children, T ,e nonconformist was forced lc suffer severe stating that there is nothing in the U.S. Constitu- consequences. Manning (1979) lists the following tion that forbids it. Yet four years later... West contingencies implemented over 100 years ago in a Virginia District Court in Hall v.Tawney (1981) North Carolina school: "For boys and girls playing ruled that children may not be denied substantive together, four lashes; for failing to bow at the due process; that is, the child's punishment may entrance of strangers, three lashes; for blotting not be in excess of the minimum necessary to copy book, two lashes; for scuffling, four lashes; protect the state's interest in maintaining order in for calling each other names, three lashes" (Man- the school. ning, 1979, p.52). In the absence of court supportitbecomes These examples typify colonial and later school- obvious that, if children's rights to freedom from ing which was at best dull; mostly involved drill, excessive corporal punishment are to be assured, repetition and recitation; and had clearly defined states and school boards will have to ban the behavioral expectations that remainedstaticfor practice. Until then the in loco parentis concept many years. Unmistakable is the mix of belief in will standastherationaleforall manner of punishment as a nec. ..ary part of pedagogy with knocking children about. One has to wonder why religious philosophy focusing on morality and char- schools do not use this same concept to: acter development (Hyman and Lally,1981). Authorize medical intervention as a parent would. Order incarceration of an incorrigible child. Take responsibility for feeding, clothing, and how,- LEGAL PERSPECTIVE ing a child as parents do. (Maurer, 1981) For about as long as the Bible has been used to Corporal punishment is an antiquated approach rationalizecorporalpunishmentinAmerican to children's discipline in both sch, -1 and home. 'chools so has the concept of in loco parentis (in It seems ingrained in the minds of some parents, p..ice of parents). Derived from English law, this teachers and school administrators that children concept ascribed responsibility to the teacher to act must be "disciplined" and that hitting them to as a parent in the absence of parents. This notion make them moredisciolinedisarightand made sense in England when the wealthy who responsibility. hired tutors for their children could fire them easily for unsatisfactory performance.Education the._ vas voluntary and personal. The parent vol- USE OF CORPORAL PUNISHMENT untarily, committed the child to the Authority of the teacher, who usually spent the entire day with Not too long ago Time captioned a picture, "As the child in a small class or school, thereby devel- a teaching tool,he hickory stick ranks with such oping an approximation of the parent-child rela- pedagogical fossils as the dunce cap and McGuffy's tionship. In today's school bureaucracy education is Readers" (Maurer, 1981). The assumption was that no longer voluntary, parentsh...relittleif any we have .nade progress. The truthisthat the opportunity to choose among teachers or schools, hickory stick has keen replaced by other even more 280 ZCy 7...11i / The Banning of Corporal Punishment fearsome weapons such as belts, canes and paddles. siders that forms of punishment other than pad- Paddles art: the most formidable andare frequently dling are reported to include striking students with drilled with welt-raising holes. This is progress? sticks, ropes, fists or belts; choking; throwing them Just how much paddling takes place in Ameri- against walls or desks; sticking them with pins; can schools is difficult to know because there is no dragging them by the hair or arm; tying them to systematic reporting of individu lincidents. One chairs; forcing them to do strenuous exercise; forc- can get some sense of it, however, by looking at ing them to remain in uncomfortable positions, individual research studies and federal andstate such as standing on their toes; and confining them government records. in closets, school vaults, storerooms or boxes, it Hapkiewicz (1975) reportsthatittook "65 becomes very clear how punishment is at variance beatings a day to sustaia a school of 400" in with accurate information about the vulnerability Boston in 1850 and that there were 11,768 chil- of children's bodies (National Committee for the dren physically punished in Boston in 1889. The Prevention of Child Abuse, 1983). Adults plainly California State Assembly-mandated survey ofcor- underestimate the amount of force they are capa- poral punishment in 1972-73 revealed 46,022 in- ble of producing. Sometimes children are injured stances of corporal punishment. Los Angeles and during even the mildest punishment when they 80 other school districts failed to report for that jerk assay and the blow lands off target, or when study (Maurer, 1981). Corcoran (1975) reports Ver- they fall against the sharp edge of some object. mont State Department of Education statistics for Eyes, ears and brains may be permanently dam- 1974-75. During that school year there may have aged as a result of paddling. Whiplash injuries teen as many as one out of every 379 children may result from shaking. Injuries from blows to punished, 60 percent of whomwere in grades " 4. the chest and abdomen are life threatening. Bones The Office of Civil Rights in the Departmen_ of are easily fractured and even the slightest whack :duration first began keeping recordson the num- may produce a jolt to the brain through the bony ber of paddlings in 1976. In that year therewere spinal column and spinal cord, resulting in signifi- 1,521,896 punishments(Maurer,1984).Three cant swelling or bleeding (Taylor and Maurer, years later the figure stood at more than 1,000,000 1985). A thorough analysis of the medical effects in 77,000 schools (Van Dyke, 1984) and by 1982 of physical punishment is found in Taylor and had been reduced to 792,556 (Maurer, 1984). Maurer (1985). Although the trend seems to showa significant Psychiatric News (1982) states that the psycho- reduction in the unount of paddling year byyear, logical effects may be as harmful as the physical one still has to be concerned about its widespread effects. These include: use (Hyman and D'Alessandro, 19841. Rose (1984) a. Lost of self-esteem reports that, based upoi a random survey of 324 b. Increased amcicty and fear principals in 18 states from all 9 census districts, c. Impairment of ego functioning virtually every region in the country supports pad- d Feelings of helplessness and humiliation dling of students in every grade. The national c. Stifled relationship with others average is about 3.5 percent of students paddled in f. Aggression and destruction at home and at school g. Self-destructivebehavior,often culminating in a year, ranging from 0 percent in four states to c, suicidal gesturts high of 12.6 percent in one state (Maurer, 1984). h. Limitedattentionspanandhyperactivityin school, leading to deficient academic perErmance. (Psy- chiatric N-tvs, 1982) MEDICAL EFFECTS RESEARCH FINDINGS A fine line of distinction may be drawn between discipline and child abuse. it differs from familyto In the face of ,Ividence that corporal punishment family ?.nd school to school. In the majority of is widespread in the schools (Rose, 1984), that 83 corporal punishment incidents, the abuses children percent of American parents spank their children experience are minor injuries such assoreness and (ReadY's Digest,1986), and that physical and redness of the skin. Few require medical treatment, mental harm to the child being punished is likely, but the potential exists to cause other injuries such what does research on corporal punishment tell us? as hematomas, ruptured blood vessels, massive fat Ethicsinresearchobviously do not permit emboli, sciatic nerve damage, muscle damage and researcherstomanipulatepunishmentdirectly brain hemorrhage (Hyman, 1978). Whenone con- (inflicting pain deliberately) and then measure the 28i 278 CHIII., BEHAVIOR AND DISCIPLINE effects. Further, it is nearlj impossible for research- a. There is a negative correlation of 0.54 between ers to time school visits to observe paddling or its the extent of school corporal punishment and the proportion of high school graduates. znacedcnts. Medical research is hampered because b. Physical punishment in the home significantly only the most severe injuries come to the attention reduces school achievement among junior high school of medical personnel. Linking developmental im- students in Illinois. pairments to single causes isall but impossible because of the intertwined nature of physical and psychologicalinjury during punishment (Taylor CONCLUSION AND ALTERNATIVES and Maurer, 1985). Therefore, what scant research does exist is based upon correlational or retrospec- The position of the Association for Childhood tivestudies and inf *rential commentaries from Education International with respect to corporal related research (Hyman and Wise, 1979). punishment cams through clearly inits1985 Bongiovanni (1977) produced an exhaustive re- resolution:Corporal punishment must b.? view of empirical research on punishment asit E.,NNED in child care, school and other educative relatesto corporal punishment inschools. He settings.It is a barbaric prat ice that: concluded that "corporal punishment is ineffective Is unneceaary. in producing durable behavior change; it poten- Preempts better means of communicating with a tially harmful to students, school personnel, and child. property;itis highly impractical in light of the Teaches by example that the infliction of pain on control required for maximal effectiveness" (Bon- others is permissible. Increases aggressiveness in the child. giovanni, 1977, p.35). Develops deviousness;thetrickisto not get Lamberth (1979) reviewed research on the effects caught. of punishment on academic achievement. His at- Is dangerous in that it escalates into battering. tempt was mainly to update the findings of the Reduces the ability to concentrate on intellectual popular Rosenshine and Furst (1971) study that tasks. Can cause sexual aberrations. revealed a negative relationship between teacher Damages the punisher inthatitnarrows his criticism and students'school achievement. His options, tunnels his vision and tarnishes his image as a conclusion supports Rosenshine and Furst (1971) scholar. and states that extreme forms of punishment are Is inconsistent with any view of the child as a counterproductive to learning person worthy of respect. (Adapted with permission from statement of purposes of the Committee To End Maurer and Wallerstein (n.d.) report a series of Violence Against the Next Generation, Inc., 977 Kccler findings relative to the influence of school corporal Ave., Berkeley, CA 94708.Ir.The 1.4.1; Retort, Fall punishment on crime: 1985, p. 28.) a. Violent criminals were often abused and beaten in Corporal punishment is rejected by professionals early youth. b. Thereisa directrelationship between severe who are either directly or indirectly involv_ I with corporal punishment in early childhood and delinquency the care and education of children. It is rejected by later in the life cycle. the American Medical Association, the American c. Young male drivers who had oppressive school Bar Association, the Nation'',sociation for the experiences were inclined toward "speeding, reckless- Advancement of Colorc..,,uple, the Americans neslawlessness and defiance of authority." d. For identical offenses those 18-year-olds of the for Democratic Action and the American Public Philadelphia Birth Cohort Study who were severely HealthAssociation.Itisrejected by religious punished were more likely to be in prison than those groups such as the Society of Friends (Quaters), who were lightly punished, or not at all. Unitarian Universalists an 'Presbyterians. e. High corporal punishment schools are also high on vandalism. C. Everett Koop, M.D., Surgeon General of the f. The more a child is..tten in youth the more United States, convened a Workshop on Violence. likely he or she to become a lawbreaker. He presented the recommendations that work- g. The single mos: important correlate of juvenile shop to the Senate Subcommittee on Children, delinquency is severe parental punishment. Families, Drugs and Alcoholism in October 1985. h. Wl.en comparing school corporal punishments in In part, he said that the Working Group on Child the 50 states with the Lripac. rate as measured by prison admissions in those states, the tstrelation is 0.66. AbusePreventionrecommendsthattheU.S. "Conduct a massive campaign to reduce the public acceptance of violence and toprotect children In a separate publication they_late two other against all forms of violence including physical findings (Maurer and Wallerstein, 1983): punishment ('No Hittcr Day' is one oi the many 282 27d The Banning of Corporal Punishment possible techniquesenlist the media's help)" and The increased competence of staffs through "Abo"ch corporal punishment of children in all extensive inservice training to he educators see forms" (Maurer, 1985-86, p.1). the theory-practice Ji-,k. The only warranted conclusion based upon med- ical evidence, research findings and expertpro- The improvement of teacher training Iv fo- fessional judgmentisto STOP HITTING cusing ther :fining on techniques to motivate CHILDREN. students andeffectivelyhandlediscipline What then are the alternatives? We must first problems. resist the temptation to use punishment as the The early i..ntification of potential problem automatic solution to behavior problems. Ameri- children and follow-up counseling aimed at pre- cans tend to see punishment and disciplineac. venting discipline problems. synonyl nous (Hyman and D'Alessandro,1984). Second,ge must view discipline as motivated by a The use of other s..rategiess' (I as "time - set of internal controls, not by ;he fear of harm. out,""in-schoolsuspension," peer/cross-age Third, we ',fist recognize and demonstrate respect counseling"and "Latchkey(afterschool) pro- for individual rights. Fourth, our systems of ?isci- grams." (See Hyman and D'Alessandro, 1984, and pline must center upon the desire to understand Maurer, 1984, for elaboration on diese strategics.) the causes and motives of misbehavior. To improve and promote effective disciplinein Schools, teachers, administrators and parents can schools without resorting to corporal punishment learn positive techniques for changing behavior, will require at least the following: building good character and d'..veloping good citi- zenry. More difficult fo them to learn, however, is The improvement of school climate with the how to guide children u.ough internal motivation supportforthatimprovementbyallschool whileresisting the urge to model control by personnel. authority. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What is the official position of ACEI on punishment? 2. What are the reasons for eliminating corporal punishment from the schools? 3. How have the historical antecedents influenced present attitudes and practices? 4. What is the legal situation concerning punishment in the schools? 5.Does punishment work? What does research say about the effects of punishment? 6. What are some acceptable alternatives to punisluw nit.? 283 60. A COGNITIVE APPROACH TO BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT by Jerold P. Bauch The Cognitive Curriculum for Young Children* In this cognitive model, this learning takes place is now being implemented in over 60 classrooms within the formal curriculum and in the hundreds across the United States and Canada (Weatherford, of unplanned incidents that occur. The CCYC 1986). This curriculum model is currently found in formal curriculum is currently composed cf seven Head Start programs, public and private schools units, two of which concentrate on behavior and and in classrooms for children who are develop- self-control:self-regulation and role-taking mentally delayed or at risk. The program model (Haywood, Brooks, and Burr s,1986b). The very centers on developing children's thinking skills. beginning classroom experiences in the first unit Teachers intentionally structure learning opportuni- on self-regulation are organized around the behav- ties to focus children's attention on what they are ior of the individual child. For example, many learning while they are learning. The curriculum is traditional games, such as "Simon Says," "Ring sequentially organized in terms of specific cognitive Around the Rosie," and "London Bridge," are or thought processes. Teachers emphasize how chil- used to show how following the rules makes the dren use these basic thought process skills over and game go smoother. over again in their daily routines and activities. As children begin to control their own behavior, Every grouping of young children includes po- they move into two "content" units and then tential sources of disruptive behavior needing be- return to the fourth unit, Role-Taking. In this ha:' ,r management by the teacher. At least eight unit, children learn to think about their behavior staradded public school programs for children in its social context and are helped to change their younger than five years of age lastyear. The perspective when faced with conflict. Games like classroom mix of children with a wide variety of "I Spy" and discussion activities about "things I home and social experiences and developmental like or dislike"give the teacher a chance to levels may also seem to increase the "discipline" demonstrate how other children might feel or problems; the new combinations of children in react. Teachers then use these concrete experiences many classrooms may accentuate a need for really as examples when a disruption occurs, often using effective management techniques. phrases like "How did yc i feel when..." or "If we have to wait for you, then..." to help a child consider others as well as his or her own actions. A NEW COGNITIVE APPROACH The CCYC believes experiences in role-taking and perspective-taking give children cognitive reasons New research on how children learn and how for controlling their own behavior and help them teachers can create optimum learning environments move toward a higher level of sell control. The has also produced important new insights about goal in each of these two units is to help children behavior management. The Cognitive Curriculum identify a particular problem and participate in its for Y otn.g Children (CCYC) (Haywood, Brooks, solution. and Burns, 1986a) is one o: the newest approaches for teaching young children. In this curriculum, considerable emphasis is placed on behavior man- PRINCIPLES OF CCYC BEHAVIOR agement, and the program gives tea:hers som: new MANAGEMENT insight about the solution to behavior problems. The CCYC asksteachersto view disruptive Medi' ion Teaching 'uthavior as a problem needing a solution and an opportunity to facilitate the development of self- The primary function of parents and teachers of control. Its theory about behavior management is young children is to help them understand and that young children :an and should be taught to interpret their world. Good :z.achersare good assume control of their behavior in the classroom. explainers, and the heart of the CCYC is on the See page 348 for ac;:nowledgmen , footnotes, and references. 284 2Sj Cognitive Approach to Behavi-g Management process of helping children understand. The entire and classroom participants. Because rules help or- CCYC curriculum model is guided by six princi- ganize behavior, teachers emphasize why rules are ples of mediational teriliing style: the ways in nem. :ary, how rules help to keep us safe. nave which teacher: influence and explain things to mor: fun, learn more, and get along better. children (Feuerstein, Rand, Hoffman, and Miller, 4. Feelings of competence. Teachers mediate the 1980). Applied to behavior management, the prin- process of problem-solving by giving feedback to ciples are: children about their behavior that is objective and very specific. In this way, children learn to dis- 1. There is a great emphasis on the thinking criminate between the correct and incorrect ele- process;childrenlearntothinkabouttheir ments of behavior and, therefore, are more in behaviors. control because they understand the impact of 2. Discipline pi.;blems are dilemmas needing their behavior upon others. Teachers in the CCYC solutions,andteachersuseaproblem-solving classroom seldom use "I like the way..." state- approach. ments, but are more likely to say, "When you 3. Children can learn general strategies for deal- sl' e your chair over,it makes more room for ing with behavior that apply in many situations. Cnarles and now you both can see." This kind ci 4. The model assumes that children are capable statement explains the cause and effect relation- of learning how to behave inacceptable and ships in children's behavior. productive ways. 5. Regulathm of behavior. Teachers shou_help 5. The primary role of the teacher is to facilitate children bring their behavior under self-control children's learning about behavior, not to control while explaining (mediating) the process. If a child their behavior from the outside. takes paper shapes from another child's set, the 6. The specific behavior problem and the way teacher lay combine both groups of shapes and the problem (and otLrs like it) have been solved count: "One for you and one for Charles." This are shared with other children so that everyone can helps demonstrate fair and equitable division of learn from the incident. materials yid, with further discussion, can explain why each child will need enough squares, triangles and rectangles to complete the activity. The Cognitive iviethod 6. Sharing. Solutions to behavior proble ms are viewed as learning opportunities not only for the Teachers in CCYC-based classrooms apply six children involved but for everyone. Therefore, so- criteria of mediated learning when teaching chil- lutions to behavior problems are described and dren how to solve their own behavior problems. communicated. Roles and responsibilities are de- These criteria are: fined so that the solution-seeking process is under- stood by all. At the beginning of the school year, 1. Intentionality. Teachers organize the curricu- teachers may even stop an ongoing activity to lum to provide opportunities for children to make "teach" a solution to the whole group before changes in the way they think about their behav- continuing the lesson. ior. Consequently, group games like "Duck, Duck Goose" or "Doggie, Doggie Who's Got the Bone" are selected because (1) they demonstrate APPLICATIONS IN THE CLASSROOM the principle of rules, and (2) allow teachers to explain reasons behind rules. Teachers intentionally The curriculum units of the CCYC model orga- planactivitiesthatallow children to practice nize the classroom content within these principles rules.** ar 1 criteria of behavior management. Curriculum 2. Transcendence. Teachers try to make solu- activities include games where the teacher points tions to inunediax behavior problems generic and out the rules and the need for rules. Rules for see.- applicable to similar problems. Teacher.; continu- regulation are then generalized to other classroom ously"bridge"bad-.wards toearliersituations performances, and games with more complex rules where a similar problem occurred or explain to are intr-duced. At every point, teachers explain children what to do if faced with this same situa- the reasons for rules; as a result, children should tion at a future time. begin to apply rules when problems arise. Usually, 3. Meaning and purpose. Teachers explain why reminding a child about one of these rulesis a particular solution is being used, and how it will enough intervention to help a child solve his/her help 2" If the children to become better learners own problem. 282 285 CHILD BEHAVIOR AND DISCIPLINE For example, in the self-regulation unit there have? What could we do to make sure everyone has are about 25 lessons to help children acquire self- the same number of blocks?" control. The long-range goal, of course, is to make 4. Discuss with the cl.,k1 (versus telling) possible rules that might apply and then,together,select an control intrinsic. The first several lessons use games appropriate rule."Curtis, what rules might help that most children know or can leaf,' quickly. Each solve this problem?" (Wait for a response.) "What of the lessons states the cognitive functions that are if we used a rule that says. Everyone works with their to be learned, e.g., thinking about one's behavior own mnerials?" or using precise language. The teacher is provided 5. Seek agreemen on a reasonable rule, and remind children about the rule if a similar situation reoccurs with a detailed main activity within the curriculum (bridging). "I will make sure that everyone has ten guide and several ideas for variations. The curricf.- blocks; we will each use our own blocks for the lum guide has pictures or other materials when game." needed. Thereisinformation on bridging and generalization, so that teachers can help children A key undersanding in a mediational approach see the immediate and long-range applications of to behavior management is that children should these cognitive functions to other situations. The think about behavior problems as just another curriculum guide ends each activity with a seated classroom problem to be solved. Disruptive behav- minimal level of mastery to make evaluation and ior is removed from its emotional context and monitoring of progress easier. The following exam- treated with intelligence and reason. ple describes this process. What is different about the cognitive approach in the CCYC model is that desirable behavior is In a small-group activity, children are working with individual sets of ten small wooden cubes. Curtis takes tat:zht as the ba c content of the curriculum. several blocks from Karen's set. Teachers select and plan activities that systematical- 1. Let the child know why the behavior is a problem. ly teach children how to perform and behave in "Curtis, everyone needs 10 blocks for this game." the classroom so children learn what they're learn- 2. Encourage the child to take another perspective by ing while they're learning. Children are active highlighting Karen's point of view. "Karen won't be able to play unless she has 10, and she wants to participants in solutions to behavior problems in play, too. How do you think she will feel?" exactly the same way they are involved in solving 3. Ask the child what the mot-e appropriate behavior learning problems. Strategies and rules then be- would be. "How many blocks should each child coe part of their self-regulating behavior. DISCUSSION QUESTIOad 1. How does contemporary cognitive theory provide a fresh way of viewing discipline and behaviormanage- ment in the classroom? 2. What are the principles 'f the cognitive method for helping children acquire self-control? 3.Does thinking about behavior result in more permanent control and behavior in the classroom? 4. How can positive classroom management be taught in the curriculum? 286 d tiesk.) 61. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT IN THE SCHOOLS by John H. Meier I just encountered an interesting paradox. On longer to remind them and others of theirtrans- one side of an official school district memorandum gressions. Irwin Hyman, a school psychologyspe- were suggested guidelines for administering corpo- cialist at Temple University, leads a growingmove- ral punishment in the schools and on the other ment toaboli;hcorporalminishmentinthe side the criteria for child abuse, inclucLng thenew schools; members believe such brutality to be the legal requirements for educators to reportsuspect- United States' officially sanctioned brand of child -d child abuse. The paper-thin line between corpo- abuse. ral punishment and child abuse is obviouslyan During the United States Bicentennial Year, I exquisitely fine one to draw. Consequently,many was serving as Director of the U.S. Office of Child teachers continue to teach to the tune of a hickory Development and Chief of the U.S. Children's stick. Bureau, the latter being a 60-year-old agen_, re- Another paradox-: On April 19, 1977, shortly sponsible for determining the best interests of the afterseveral professional symposia and bearings nation's children and youth. My testimony ad- declared corporal punishment to be generallycoun- dressed the abusive, inhumane and brutal aspects terproductive, the U.S. Supreme Court decided of such violence in both school and homeat a that children are not protected under the Eighth time when Sweden was outlawing corporal punish- Amendment to the Constitution, which forbids the ment in the home, having already banned it in the use of cruel and unusual punishment (Ingraham v. schools. It was pointed out that the public schools Wright, 1977,This was in spite of testimony are the only public institutions in the U.S. (includ- presented in opysition to the Court's finding by ing prisons) which permit and evenencourage such authorities .s Harvard's distinguished Profes- corporal punishment for a variety of misdeeds. sor of Psychology, B. F. Skinner. Dr. Skinner's Since the National Center for Child Abuse and pioneering work inthe shaping of animal and Neglect was an important part of the U.S. Chil- human behavior led him to assert that, although dren's Bureau, I had ready accessto the history of punishment does momentarily stop undesirable be- U.S. child abuse legislation.I was, however, al- havior, it is recommended only as a last resort and ready sensitized to the currentconcerns because of is not nearly so effective as systematically inforc- my familiarity with the public consciousness-raising ing or rewarding desirable behavior. American Humane 4ssociation and my experience A Universityof California Professor,Harold as a former member of the University of Colorado Hodgkinson, then Director of the U.S. National MedicalSchool'sPediatricsDepartment, whose Institute of Education, cited impressive statistics chairman, Dr. C. Henry Kempe, was instrumental showing a high positive correlation between the in alerting the medical community to the plight of use of cor!soral punishment in high schools and the the battered child in the early 1960s. extert and severity of vandalism therein. Although Moreover, my wife, a lay therapist in the Denver a correlation does not prove a cause-effect relation- treatment program, had informed me of the many ship,it was repeatedly pointed out that violence pernicious emotional and sexual zoncomitants of begets violence. the more dramatic and visible physical damage Other authorities from a variety Lf disciplines suffered by these abused children: Often, corporal cited shocking examples of brutality, including the punishment was the sole means parents relied use of electric shock apparatus,for iiisciplining upon to discipline their children because that was students. Opponents even exhibited gruesome in- alltheir own patents had used. struments such as 4-foot-long, 8-inch-wide paddles, This same approach is characteristic of many facetiously referred to as "Boards of Education," school personnel who truly do not know any better with holes drilled in them to reduce air resistance means of discipline than swatting, pinching, hair- and to produce painful welts that would prevent pullinp or the verbal sadism of humiliating, ridi- child-assault victims from sitting fora week or culing and indeed destroying the budding self- See page 348 for acknowledgment. 287 CHILD BEHAVIOR AND DISCIPLINE concepts of the children entrusted to them. Rather Paradoxically,the punishment for truancy in thzn being this battlefield for the use of sophisti- many school systems is suspension or expulsion. cated physical and psychic weaponry, the schools Judging from statistics about "Children Out of should instead encourage the most advanced and School in America," marshaled most cogently by effective methods of child management. Most the Children's Defense League, I wonder whether states now require all school personnel to report we are dealing with dropouts, I ,;shouts or "pun- suspected child abuse and neglect. These new laws, ish-outs." The delinquency data also reveal that then, should result in a marker: increase in early much of the vandalism in schools is committed by detection and reporting of child abuse within the those who have been driven out of school, often home, school and other institutions. This legisla- for trivial or capricious reasons. Adah Mauer, a tion should also help to prevent a great deal of pioneer in the Berkeley-based movement to end senseless corporal punishment and encourage the violence against the next generation, including the substitution of constructive alternatives. elimination of corporal punishment in the schools, Until the past decade, however, there was virtu- speaks of a David Copperfield syndrome as the ally no place to solicit help for an abused child, classic example of beating the dickens out of except to call the local Humane Society, whose children, who in turn predictably employ similar primary concern isthe prevention of cruelty to techniques for intimidating the weaker people in animals.Another paradoxisthealacrity with their world. which persons will report suspected or witnessed Equal rightsare forall human beings.For cruelty to cats, dogs and other animals but the schools to remain training institutions that sanction hesitancy with which they will report a neighbor violent techniques for dealing with children's be- whom they suspect of child abuse. As one bumper havior or learning problems only perpetuates and sticker puts it, "People are not for hittingand exacerbates the same societal tragedies of institu- children are people too." Another sticker advises, tional and domestic violence that the schools are "Children are to be seen and not hurt." allegedly attempting to eradicate. The recent de- Only recently has the Judeo-Christian legal sys- mar d by some Los Angeles teachers for permission tem begun to acknowledge formally the rights of to use corporal punishment in the schools, regard- children and to treat them as human beings rather less of the legal precautions and parental permis- than as property or chattels. The T:ccent adoption sions involved, is alarming. It ominously under- of model child abuse legislation by most states and scores a vindictive and inhumane mentality thewidespreadpublicawareness campaigns predisposed to using violent solutions to problems. launched by public and private sector organiza- Educational institutions should be, however, exem- tions, including I0I's Children's Village, U.S.A., plars of gentle, humane and more effective alterna- has unveiled the tip of an ugly iceberg. Child- tives for facilitating optimum human development. rearing infractions hidden behind closed domestic Must we continue to nurture our next genera- doors have been revealed to public scrutiny to tion, including our future leaders, on the curdled promote the best interests of children. Although it milk of humankind's unkindness? Contrary to the is agreed that a man's home is his castle, it is not above indications, most parents and teachers do agreeable that his children (or spouse) should x love children very much, but all too often they do tortured in the dungeon. It is sobering to re.w not love them very well. Those of us in education, the case histories of scores of battered children and however, must stop violating the educational pro- to realize that so many of them started out to cess by employing corporal punishment as an in- receive w.:11-intentioned spankings that degenerated ducement to learning since itlessens what the to incredible acts of brutal assault ar.d battery. victim learns and simply tells the student what not Ironically, when battered children who survive to do. Let those educators who live by the maxim are removed from their homes and placed in the "spare the rod and spoil the child" reinterpret the care of foster or group homes, they are guaranteed nod to mean a unit of measurement or a standard. a whole series of rights by public law', enforced by Rather than using the hickory stick whenever chil- the statelicensing agency,including the right dren misbehave, adults can set reasonable limits of "Not tc be subjected to corporal punishment, behavior and "catch children being good," re- humiliation, mental abuse, withholding of mone- warding them for desirable behavior until it be- tary allowances or punitive interference connected comes rewarding in itself. with the daily functions of living, such as eating or Ironically,education has become preoccupied sleeping" (California Administrative Code, Title withcorporalpunishment,whereasitsefforts 22, 8034). should be focused upon eliciting the pleasure of 288 Corporal Punishr.._ nt in the Schools discovery and mastery of new ideas and skills by our students continue to learn "never force any- the mind and developing a positive concept of thingjust get a bigger hammer," someday, when competence and compassion within the psyche. If they grow up and run our world, they may then we continue to teach violence in the schools and if teach us a lesson or two, with a violent vengeance. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Does the law enable or restrict the use of corporal punishment in schools? 2.If a teacher uses corporal punishment, is the teacher subjectto child abuse charges? 3.Does severe punishment produce the desired result? Whatare the negative consequences? 4. Do children have a right to a violence-free childhood? Howcan this right be assured? 89 1 1 62. CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT: PREVENTION AND REPORTING by Barbara J. Meddin and Anita L. Rosen Each year nearly 12 million children in the teachers (Education Commission..,ftheStates, United States are reported to be abus-d or neglect- 1976). In Illinois, for example, professionals who ed. Even more alarming is the possibility that more do not report are subject to loss of their license to than 2 million other cases are not reported to the practice the profession. Those who report suspected agencies whose responsibility it is to protect chil- cases are protected by law from any personal or dren from further abuse (U.S. Department of civil liability growing out of that report (Illinois Health and Human Services,1981). Public Law, 1979). Most of these situations are treatable, however, Teachers are not expected to know for sure and a great deal of harm to children is preventable whether a child has been harmed as a result of (Kempe and Helfer, 1972). Because teachers are abuse and/or neglect. It is up to the child welfare often the only adults who regularly see the child or child protection agency to concrm the exister,:e outside of the immediate family, teachers are often of abuse or neglect. Neither is the teacher expected the first to observe children who have been or are to take custody of the child. The child protection at risk for abuse and/or neglect (McCaffrey and agency or the police decide what action needs to Tewey, 1978). be taken to protect the child. Teachers of young children are an essential part Only about 13 percent of all child abuse reports of the professional team that can prevent abuse are made by teachers or other school personnel and neglect. What steps can you as a teacher take (The American Humane Association,1983).It to be alert to potential abuse or neglect? If indeed appears that teachers are reluctant to report sus- you believe a child has been harmed or is at risk of pected cases, especially when physical neglect or harm, how should it be reported? emotional abuse and neglect are in: olved. Som teachers may feel they should not interfere with family relationships or childrearing techniques, and thus do not report cases where children are at risk WHAT IS CHILD ABUSE AND (Underhill, 1974). However. 't is both a legal and NEGLECT? ethical responsibility for teachers to combine their knowledge of child development and their observa- Child abuse and/or neglectis any action or tion skills to identify children in need of protec- inaction that results in the harm or potential risk tion. of harm to a child. Includes physical abuse (cuts, welts, bruises, burns); INDICATORS OF ABUSE AND NEGLECT sexual abuse (molestation, exploitation, inter- course); Physical manifestations, child or adult behaviors, physical neglect (medical or educational ne- and environmental situations may indicate a child glect, and inadequate supervision, food, clothing, has [been a;)used] or may be at risk of abuse or or shelter); neglect. The factors that most often can be ob- emotional abuse (actions that result in signifi- served by teachers will be discussed here. cant harm to the child's intellectual, emotional, or social development or functioning); and emotional neglect (inaction by the adult to Child Characteristics meet the child's needs for nurture and support). Many of the characteristics described here occur Every state mandates that suspected cases of in contexts other than abusive situations. Rarely child abuse be reported by professionals such as does the presence or absence of a single factor See pages 348-49 for acknowledgment and references. 290 Child Abuse and Neglect signal child abuse. A pattern of these factors and abuse. behaviors will more likely indicate harm or risk to Older children may also discuss harmful events the child. with classmates. Help children feel comfortable Teachers of young children often observe bruises enough to confide in you because of your shared or wounds on children that are in various stages of concern for a child. Susan, age 8, told a friend she healing. This indicates the injuries occurred at had been molested by her father. The classmate different times, and may have been inflicted on a confided in the teacher, who made a report. Susan regular basis. Physical abuse can be suspected, for had indeed been molested. Through counseling for example, if injuries appear a day or so after a the family, the molestation stopped. holiday or long weekend (bruises take a day tt, Children who take food from others may be show up). Injuries that occur on multiple planes of suffering from neglect. One agency investigated a the body or that leave a mark that looks likea case where a preschool child constantly took food hand ortool shouldalsobecons' 1ered from other children's lunches. The child was re- nonaccidental. ceiving one-half of a peanut butter sandwich a day Children naturally use their hands to protect at home and needed the additional food for themselves. Usually when a child falls, the hands survival. go out to stop the fall and protect the face. Another common sign of neglect is children who Children's hands, knees, or foreheads are usually come to school inappropriately dressed for the injured when they attempt to brew( their fall. If weather. The child who wears sandals in the winter children report their injuries were caused by a fall, or who doesn't wear a coat on a cold snowy day but the injuries do not include these areas, you meets the definition of neglect and can be seen as should be suspicious. at risk of harm. When children fall, they also arc most likely to Young children cannot be expected to sit still fall on one side or plant of the body. Therefore, for long periods.However, some children who multiple injuries, such as a head injury coupled have trouble sitting may be experiencing discom- with a bruise to the ribs or buttocks, should be fort in their genital areas as a result of sexual considered suspicious because more than one plane abuse. Children whose knowledge of the sexual act of the body is involved. is much more sophisticated than that of peers or For example, a first grade teacher noticed that a for their level of development may also be indicat- child in her class returned from the Christmas ing they have been sexually abused. For example, a holiday with bruises on the right side of her face child might engage in inappropriate sex play with and on the back of her bt.rt arm. Although the dolls or with other children in the dramatic play child said she had fallen, the teacher contacted the area or at recess. statechild welfare agency. The child's mother Radical behavior changes in children, or regres- initially contended the gill bad bccn roughhousing sivebehavior, should be viewed as a possible with her brothers. Further investigation revealed indicator of abuse or neglect. For example, chil- that she had been hit twice by her grandfather dren who suddenly become extremely hostile or who had been visiting and allegedly could not withdrawn should be considered to be possible tolerate the girl's loud noises. victims of abuse or neglect. Regression often indi- Burns often leave clues as to their originOval cates that children are attempting to protect them- bums may be caused by a igarette. Stocking or selves or to cope with the situation. Typical of such doughnut - shaped bums may indicatethatthe a behavior change might be the 5 -year -old child child was put into a hot substance. Any burn that who developstoilcting problems. Likewise,the leaves an imprint of a:, item, such as an electric child who strives to do everything exactly right, or stove burner on a child's hand, may indicate that fears doing anything wrong, may be trying to the injury was not accidental. The natural response avoid incurring the anger of adults. of children is to withdraw when a body partcomes A nother behavior that is a possible clue to abuse in contact with a hot object; thus onlya small or neglect isthechild who always stays in the section of skin is usually burned if the burn is background of activities. This child usually watches accidental. intently to ve what adults are doingpossibly to School -age childr. n who come to school early keep out of tie way of adults in order to prevent and leave late may be indicating they have a being harmed. reason not to go home. Likewise, young children who are abused frequently expect such who say they have bccn harmed should be be- abuse from all adults. Do you ! now children who lieved. Rarely do children make up reports cower when you lift your hand in the air? Are 2S 291 CHILD BEHAVIOR AND DISCIPLINE there children in your group who hide broken dren have fewer occasions to observe parents, but crayons rather than asking for tape to repair them? can still be aware of parent behaviors through Discussion, stories written by children, drawings, responses to notes, questionnaires, or phone calls. or sharing time may also reveal episodes of abuse There are a number of indicators of an adult's and neglect. inability or unwillingness to care for and protect It is important to stress that teachers should be children. The parent who has unrealistic expecta- alert to a pattern of characteristics and behaviors tions for the child can be seen as placing the child that indicr.te child abuse or neglect. at risk. For example, a parent may believe a 6- month -old child can be toilet trained, or that a 5- year -old should be able to read, or that an 8-year- Indicators of child abuse old should always act like a lady. Adults who look to their children to meet some of their own social or emotional needs can also be Child seen as a high-risk parent. The teenager who keeps bruises or wounds in various stages of healing her baby to have someone to love her is likely to be very disappointed! injuries on two or more planes of the body Whenever possible, observe the parent and child injuries reported to be caused by failing but which do interacting with one another.Parents who lack not inciude hands, knees, or forehead basic childrearing knowledge or skills place chil- oval, immersion, doughnut-shaped, or imprint burns dren at risk. For instance, a parent who doesn't reluctance to leave school know about nutrition or health care, or who has a serious physical illness, may be unable to ade- inappropriate dress for the weather quately care for a child. Parents who are substance discomfort when sating abuserseither drugs or alcoholplace their chil- sophisticated sexual knowledge or play dren at risk. Because most parents don't deliber- ately harm their children,all the parents with radical behavior changes or regressive behavior these types of problems need support to help them child withdraws or watches adults function in healthier ways with their children. child seems to expect abuse At the same time, when teachers observe parent- ing styles, they must be aware of and sensitive to revealing discussion, stories, or drawings social and cultural differences.Child protection services are not designed to impose middle-class Adult parenting standards on everyone, but are aimed at ensuring a minimum standard of careforall trealistic expectations for child children so they are free from harm. reliance on child to meet social or emotional needs While none of the above factors automatically indicates child abuse, the presence of any of them, lack of basic childrearing knowledge or skills along with other clues or patterns of suspected substance abuse abuse, may indicate harm or potential harm for children. Stress Stress in the Environment positive or negative changesmoving, new baby, un- employment, divorce Adult stress can often be the cause of one-time or chronic harm to children. Therefore, whenever a family is under str.-.,ss, the likelihood that abuse or neglect may occur is increased. The source of stress can be either positive or negativea move, the ADULT CHARACTERISTICS birth of a new baby, unemployment, death, inade- quate housing,divorce. Any stressor can affect Parent (or other prime caregiver) behavior may parents' ability to care for their children and to also give clues that children are at risk of harm. maintain their own self-control. Most preschool program staff see parents twice a Once again, however, stress should be consid- day, and occasionally during parent conferences or ered as just -ne indicator that may produce a home visits as well. Teachers of primary-age chil- potentially dangerous situation for children. 292 Child Abuse and Ncecct PREVENTING ABUSE AND NEGLECT always be made in accordance with those policies and procedures, and should be done factually and Teachers of young children have many opportu- without emotion. nities to aid in the rrevention of child abuse and Depe...ding upon the state,a reportis made neglect. Certainly ea.,., teacher is a role model for either to a central or a local field office of the parents. Many of your actions, such as your way of child welfare agency. That agency must begin its greeting children when they return from an illness investigation by contact with the child, the child's or vacation, your mtthods for handling misbehav- family, and the alleged perpetrator of the harm. ior, and your expectations for children, can help This contact is usually initiated within 24 hours, parents see positive ways to guide children. but can begin immediately if it appeas the child For teachers who are not in contact with chil- is currently in danger. dren's parents every day,itis more difficult to While the family will not be told who initiated serve as a role model. However, you can talk with the action, the agency may ask for your name, parents often by phone, hold discussion groups asidress, and phone number when you make the about common concerns such as discipline or early report. This identification is necessary in case the reading, and encourageparentstovisityour agency needstoget back to you for further classroom. information. Once you are familiar with the clues that indi- cate children and families may be at risk, you can Program directors and principals should offer in- spot potential problems early. If a family is going service training to teachers to keep them abreast of to move, for example, you can talk with them tlh: state's reporting law, the specific practices of about how to make a more comfortable transition the state child welfare agency, and the school's for their children into their new school (Ja longo, policy and procedures. Familiarity with the proce- 1985). dure, and the implicit support for reporting sus- If you sense a potential danger to the child, you pected abuse, can help teachers to follow through can help the family link up with appropriate with their responsibility. supports, such as counseling services or material Filing a report of suspected child abuse begins a assistance, before their need becomes overwhelm- process through which the child welfare agency ing and children are harmed. determines whether or not the child has actually been harmed or is at risk of harm from abuse or neglect. When harm has occurred, then the agency WHAT HAPPENS WHEN works to protect the child and help the family A REPORT IS MADE? protect thechild. The emphasisisalways on treatment, not punishment. Teachers are an im- In most states, one child welfare agency receives portant part of a multidisciplinary team to help and investigates reports of suspected child abuse or prevent and treat victims of abuse and neglect. neglect. The main purpose of the agency is to While teachers m Ly hesitate to report suspected protect children from harm or from further harm, cases of abuse or neglect for fear of straining the not to punish parents. These agencies work on the parent - teacher relationship, that fear is often un- assumption that the best context for childrearing is founded(Jirsa,1981).Most parents lovetheir in the child's own home (Kadushin, 1978). children and are concerned about their welfare. When abuse or neglect is a reality, children will Abuse and neglect rarely occur asa result of not necessarily be removed from their parents. The deliberate intent to harm a child. Rather, it occurs agency will strive to take the appropriate action to when a parent temporarily lacks control or judg- protect the child at home in the short run, while ment, orlacksthe knowledge orresourcesto working with the parents to solve the problem for adequately care for the child. After their initial the future. All services are aimed at enhancing the and appropriate anger at the intervention of the parents'abilitytocarefor and protecttheir agency, most parents feel a sense of relief that the children. problem has been identified, and they are usually Before calling your local child protection agency. very willing to work toward a solution. review the polic and procedures established for In cases where on :y the potential for abuse or your program or school. These policies may help neglectexists,thelink with the child welfare you determine when itisbest to report, may agency can provide parents with the resources or support you in making the report, and may stipu- referrals needed to create a more effective home late channels for reporting. The report should environment. 293 9 I- CHILD BEHAVIOR AND DISCIPLINE Like teachers, child welfare professionals'first When in doubt, report. Only then can we all allegiance is to the child. Teachers of young chil- work together to intervene on behalf of the child, dren are in 1. unique position to both report and work toward solutions, and enhance the quality of help prevent child abuse and neglect through their life for children and families. daily contact with children and families. When in doubt, report. Steps to take in reporting suspected child abuse or neglect. 1. Carefully observt children and parents for any patterns of cirrumstances or behaviors that may indicate an abusive, neglectful, or potentially harmful situation. 2. Review the policies and procedures for your pro- gram or school so you can make the report in accor- dance with them. 3. Call to report your concerns.* *Fill in with local numbers, clip out, and place near your program's phons. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.What is the nature of child abuse and neglect in our society? 2. How can teachers know if a child is being abused or neglected? 3.What are the obligations of the teacher for reporting? 4. How can the school program reduce and prevent abuse? 294 29j Section Ten: The Future Editor's Overview 295 63.Societal Influences on Children, by Joan Isenberg 296 64.Developmental and Experiential Programs: The Key to Quality Education and Care of Young Children, by Barbara Day and Kay N. Drake 302 65. Upon What Can We Build Our Children's Educational Future? by Walter Hodges 305 66. BACK to Basics or FORWARD to Fundamentals? by Alice V. Keliher .. 309 67. The Future of Education, by Wilson Riles 311 68.Early Schooling and the Nation's Future, by Ernest L. Boyer 314 EDITOR'S OVERVIEW It is always risky to speculate or even attempt to not the preferred path where the future of our forecast the future. This is particularly true about children is concerned. And Riles shows how Cali- early childhood education in the schools, since the fornia has attempted to move forward in a state- field is influenced by forces from within the pro- wide commitment to better schools through early fession and shaped by many external pressures and education.Finally, Boyer urges readers toface trends. So we step lightly by presenting a few some present realities and to solve social problems reasoned views. with his hypothetical "Basic School," where policy First, Isenberg describes the social pressures on produces excellent education in response to present the children and families of today that will influ- and future social needs. ence the children entering schools tomorrow. Next, It might also be noted that some of the previous Day and Drake take us into a setting that repre- sections in this publication anticipate that more sents much of what should be included in school children younger than five will attend the public programs for younger students.Then, Hodges schools, that the schools will have to expand the brings the reader through the last 30 yearsa time range of services and opportunities for these chil- of rapid change for the human race as he de- dren and their families, and that teaching younger scribes the important events and dynamic prece- children ought to be qualitatively and perhaps dents that set the stage for today and tomorrow. quantitatively different from the stalidard elemen- Keliher reminds us that ping back into history is tary offering. 292 63. SOCIETAL INFLUENCES ON CHILDREN by Joan Isenberg Today's youth live in a fast-paced, changing social pressures affecting those needs and provide world characterized by social pressures that push suggestionsforbalancingsocialprioritiesfor them to grow up too fast. They are pressured to children. adapt to changing familypatterns,toachieve academically at early ages, and to participate and compete in sports and specialized skills. Moreover, CHILDREN'S SOCIAL NEEDS they are pressured to cope with adult information in the meci;-.. before they have mastered the prob- Despite the fact that children have their own lems of childhood. Such pressure places increased unique personalities, all children have basic social responsibility and stress on children while simulta- needs that must be adequately met to develop a neously redefining the essence of childhood itself healthy sense of self (Erikson, 1963; Bronfenbien- (Berns, 1985; Postman, 1985; Damon, 1983; Sur- ner,1979). Such needs form the necessary and ansky, 1982; Elkind, 1981). basic conditions for children from birth through Both educators and psychologists are expressing the elementary years and enable them to better concern over the impact of these changes on meet the lifelong challenges of productive social children. In examining the pressures of contempo- interaction. Figure 1 outlines the critical ages and rary society, Elkind (1%1) labels today's child "the conditions for developing children's needs and hurried child," pushed by adults to succeed too their subsequent personality outcome. soon, thereby increasing the likelihood of failure. Others (Winn, 1983; Postman, 1982) contend that the media have contributed to the disappearance SOCIAL PRESSURES of childhood through "adultification" of children AFFECTING CHILDPSN'S NEEDS in television, films, and literature. And Suransky (1982) believes the very concept of childhood is eroding through the institutionalization of early Family learning environments thatdeprivechildren of their right to discover, create and invent by impos- As the United States has moved toward urban- ing preschool curricula unrelated to their develop- ization, industrialization and the information age, ment and interests. significant changes have occurred in the structure Because children are shaped and molded largely and function of families (Bronfenbrenner, 1985a; by the expectations of the institutions society cre- Elkind, 1984; Umansky, 1983). We have witnessed ates for them, the social context in which they a rise in single-parent homes, divorce, blended grow deeply affects their development. Erikson's families and working mothers, as well as a decline (1963) theory of studying individuals in their social in extended family homes and the birthrate. Today, approximately 20 percent of our youth live contextsillustrates the importance of children's interactionsandinterrelationshipswithcritical in single-parent families. Moreover, each year more agents in their social environment. Within these than one million children experience divorce in their families (National Center for Health Statis- agents of the family,school,peer group and media, children acquire social skills and behaviors tics,1983; Wallerste:n and Kelley,1980). Yet enabling them to participate in society.Recent while the structure of families may have changed, changes in the patterns of these swings, however, the needs of children are still the same. The family push children out of childhood too fast and threat- remains their primary socializing agent. en their basic social needs at all ages and stages of development. Consequences To best understand how today's youth are influ- enced by these societal agents, this [chapter] will The dissolution of the family places additional identify children's basic social needs, describe the pressure on childrento adjust. Many of these See pages 349-50 for acknowledgment and references 296 29J Societal Influences on Children Figure 1Social Needs Critical Need Age Necessary Conditions Personality Outcome Love, Infancy Parents and caretakers pro- Develop strong sense of trust and belief Security, vide consistent, regular and in security of world. Foundation for self- Stability predictable care. confidence. Independence Toddlerhood Parents and caretakers pro- Grow self-confident and develop auton- vide encouragement, free- omy as they begin to find their own per- dom and choices for chil- sonality and self-will. dren to practice newly developed skills. Responsibility Preschool All family members pro- Develop sense of purpose, goal-directed- vide opportunities and en- ness, willingness to try new things. couragement for children to .elf-initiate exploration and discovery of their envi- ronment through projects, role-playing and taking time to answer "why" questions. Competence Elementary Family, neighborhood and Develap self-esteem and sense of self. and Success School school provide opportuni- Sense of competence and order. ties for children to learn how things work and be- come competent and pro- ductive "tool-users" in their society. children experience pressure to mature and assume separation issues (Papalia and Olds, 1986). increased adult responsibility (Berns, 1985; Elkind, In addition to family changes precipitated by 1981; Hetherington, 1979). single parenting, the increase in women in the Preschool children, the most vulnerable to di- labor force has contributed to the pressure on vorce, often do not understand the reasons given children to grow of too early. A major problem and have a stmg need to identify with the absent for working mothersand, therefore, child'en is parent. Consequently, they often feel guilty and the availability of adequate child care. The lack of responsible for the divorce and think that the adequate child care has given rise to a group of parent left because they were bad. Elementary unsupervised children, commonly referred to as children may be very frightened, experience an "latchkey" children. At least 7-10 million children acute sense of shame and display anger at one or between the ages of 7 and 13 are left unattended both parents. They may engage in acting-out be- after school (Seligson et al., 1983). These children havior(stealing,cheating) or develop physical spend part of each day alone and take responsibil- symptoms (headaches, stomachaches). Early adoles- ity for themselves. Such lack of supervision may cents also feel anger and depression and may act lead to physical or psychological harm, contribute out sexually or quickly assume adult roles and to delinquency, or produce feelings of abandon- responsibilities (Wallerstein and Kelley, 1976). No ment and fear through lack of adult contact and matter what the age, children experiencing divorce security (Galambos and Gabarino, 1983; Herzog often face additional challenges along with the and Sudia,1973). As the number of working usual tasks of growing up. Their ability to resolve mothers increases, the need for adequate child care these tasks depends, in part, on their own resil- alsoincreases.Without adequate supervision, ience and, in part, on parental handling of the "latchkey" children are placed at risk. 297 2 94 THE hJ11JRE Because the family is the child's first introduc- only because there is no research base to support it tion to societal living, it has primary responsibility but also because it may impede development of for children's socialization. I:N children learn to other equally important skills (Spodek, 1986; El- relate within the family context strongly affects kind,1986;Seefeldt,1985). Some argue that their developing values,personalities andbasic formal instruction at early ages makes unnecessary social needs. demands on children and places them in unnatural learning modes. Others argue that undue emphasis SehoGling on early formal learning has the potentialto diminish children's long-term motivation to leant In additiontoaffec,ingthe family,societal changes have affected the shape of early education. by interfering with the natural development of Today's parents are pushing their children to learn their need for self-directed learning. It places chil- as much as they can earlier than ever ( Spodek, dren at intellectual risk by interfering with their 1986; Newsweek, 1983; Elkind,1981). Anxious developing reflective abstraction and at social risk parents, influenced by mass media, believe that by forcing them to rely on "adults for approval and the earlier children begin learning academics, the ..social comparison for self-appraisal"(El- kind,1986, p. 636). more successful their school and life experience will be. Publishers are producing popular books such as Pressure for academic achievement can encour- Teach Your Child To Read in 20 Minutes a D v age school failure. Maturity, one' factor of develop- (Fox, 1986) and Teach Your Child To Pead in u0 ment virtually ignored in past years, is now the subject of considerable attention.According to Days (Ledson,1985),better baby videosand "teach your child at home kits." All :ocus on Friesen (1984), there is the "possibility that much developing children's intelligence at the expense of of the failurein our schoolsisthe result of their personal and social adjustment. Advertise- overplacement, and that we might reduce the rate ments promote anxiety in parents, which is then of failure by finding a better match between a imparted to ,thildren: "And by the time they are 2 youngster's grade assignment and his or her devel- or 3 years o'd, another miracle can occurif you opmental age"(p.14).Research supports he proposition that overplacement can be a significant allow itto. rhey can begin readit." (Moncure, cause of school failure. 1985). Today public kindergarten is available in every "There is, of course, no evidence to support the state. Moreover, increases in availability of pre- value of such early pushing. There is, however, considerable evidence that children are showing school experiences have made the world of school- ing available to children earlier (Spodek, 1986). more and more serious stress symptoms than ever Unfortunately, in many cases elementary school before" (Elkind,1984,p.viii).Attempting to criter;:, and programming are being applied to force children at early ages to learn specific aca- progr,uns for young children ( Elkind, 1986; Sur- demic material or develop specific skills may pro- duce a negative attitude toward learning in gener- ansky,1982)Pressure to provide more formal learning and more rigorous academic content has al, with serious long-term effects evidenced in resulted in refocusing early education: from meet- increased dropout rates and a higS rate of cheating ing children's developmental needs in an environ- (Harris, 1986; Mind, 1982). ment generally free of social pressures to pressuring children to prepare for elementary school and later Peers life. The notion of the "competent infant"fits into our changing lifestyles, along with the idea Peer groups provide yet another critical agent of that children today are more sophisticated and socialization. Historically, children have relied pri- advanced because of the nature of their experiences marily on informal peer groups, formed and main- (Hunt, 1961; Bloom, 1964; Bruner, 1960). New tained by themselves, to develop social roles and importance has been attached to children's intel- cooperative interests. Today, however, more and lectual developments as children are placed in more children are engaged in formal group activi- high-pressure academic programs for "their own ties, organized and maintained by adults. Activity good" (Elkind, 1986). markers such as organized sports, beauty contests, graduations and specialized arts trainingonce re- served for the teen yearsare rapidly being pushed Consequences down to younger and younger children. Elkind The pressure for early academic achievement has (1984) suggeststhat much of this"premature been criticized by child development experts not structuring" stems from parental need rather than 298 0 0J Societal Influences on Children concern and understanding for the child. Children Consequences pushed too soon into tormal and adult organized groups often raise questions in adolescence: "Why The content of prime-time television program- am I doing this? Who alai I doing this for? When ming and advertising can cause children to increase seeking answers to these questions, children revolt their aggressive behavior in the short term (NIMH, in many ways when the answer is for the parent. 1982) and become desensitized to violence later in Delinquency, school dropouts, drugs, alcohol and life(Thomas,1982).Viewingviolentcontent refusalto performare some of thebehaviors through images, characters and plotswhether on evidenced by children forced to achieve too early" prime-time TV, cartoons, MTV or the nightly (Elkind, 1982, pp. 178-179). The shift of these newsdiscourages children from cooperating to activity markers from adolescencetochildhood resolve problems because they come to accept what createsunnecessarystressfor children,causing they sec as appropriate behavior (Papalia and Olds, them to develop parts of their personality and 1986; NIMH, 1982). leaving other parts undeveloped (Elkind, 1984). Advertisements, on the other hand, glorify in- stant gratification both explicitly and implicitly. Consequences New products and new fads constantly bombard viewers. Advertising directed explicitly at young Unsuccessful children pushed by parents into children can create resentment when parents refuse sports or specialized activities become discouraged to purchase products; for older children,it can and humiliated by not meeting parental expecta- create unrealistic fantasies that certain products will tions and may even end up hating the activity make them more popular. Postman (1985) argues that children view one itself. Although the range of pressureisgreat, some feel rejected by both parents and peers for million commercials before age 18 at a rate of not achieving (McElroy, 1982). 1,000 per week, most of them perpetuating a The notion of competition carries with h nega- youth culture, sex and materials as a way of solving tive aspects. Psychological damage can occur when problems instantaneously. Elkind (1981) suggests adults stress competition over learning skills and that by treating children as consumers before they view their children's victories, losses and perfor- are wage earners, children are pressured into a kind mances as indicators of their personal successes or of "hucksterism," causing "adults to treat them as shortcomings. more growl-up than they arc" and to assume they are able .o sec through the deceptions of advertis- ing and to make informed choices (p. 79). Television Thus, television programming and advertising continue to erode the dividing line between child- Because television-watching occupies more time hood and adulthood by opening secrets once only than any other single activity except sleeping (Bee, available to adults, eliminating the innocence of 1985; Gerbner and Gross, 1978; Stein and Frie- childhood, reducing the concept of childhood, and drich,1975),itactsasa powerfulsocializing making the adult's and child's world homogeneous influence. By the end of high school, the average (Postman, 1985, p. 292). In a world where chil- American child has watched over 20,000 hours of dren view adult programming and advertising, how television, more than the number of hours spent in well are our youth being nurtured? Indeed, "the school (Comstock, 1975). children of the 80's are growing up too fast, too Televisic n programs provide the same informa- soon. They are being pressured to take on the tionto everyone,regardlessof age (Postman, physical, emotional and social trappings of .adult- 1985). Information about violence, sexual activity, hood before they are prepared to deal with them" aggression, and physical and mental abuse is readi- (Elkind, 1981, p.xii). ly available and erodes tb:: dividing line between childhood and adulthood. It places BALANCING PRIORITIES FOR CHILDREN . .. childrenandadultsinthesamesymbolic world.... All the secrets that a print culture kept from childrenabout sex, violence, death and human aberra- Pushing children to grow up too early affects the tionare at once revealed by media that do not and very core of the social fabric that develops, sustains cannot exclude any audience. Thus, the media forced and connects healthy, competent children. There is the entire culture out of the closet. And out of the an urgent need to re-weave the unravelling social cradle. (Postman, 1981p. 68) fabric of significant social influences (Bronfenbren- . -. 299 M IIt; THE FUTURE net, 1985a, p. 10). This can be accomplished by Moreover, adults should talk to children about the attending to the following critical 'gents of social- programs and note the differences between make- ization at the family, school anti policy levels. believe and reality. They should discuss alternate ways to solve problems they see on TV, as well as Family the effect of commercials. Balance concern for academic achievement with School equal concern for developing feelings of compe- tence, confidence and self-worth. Establish balanced curricula that meet children's Children's successful adjustment to family life needs. affects their ability to adjust to the outside world. Teachers, administrators and parents must be The quality parent/child relationships isbuilt informed about what children are expected to learn from the means of communication used. As the and how they learn best. They need to set high structure of families changes, there is greater need but realistic expectations for children and encour- for positive communication about issues that affect age them to do their best work without pressuring children's self - respect and self-regard. Through em- them to perform beyond their level. We need to pathic listening, talking, and respondingset.ing employ sensitive teachers who promote children's realistic and honest expectations and talking about abilities and who recognize the power of their fearsfamilies can build a strong foundation for pedagogic task. children's positive feelings about themselves. One contort for this communication is the fam- Provide inservice support for teachers and adminis- ily meeting, which provides opportunities for par- trators about school and community resources. ems and children to talk about concerns, make Schools must take responsibility for educating decisions and suggest ways to solve problems. school personnel about realistic expectations for Children can assume responsibility as family mem- children and changing familypatterns.School bers as well as have a time for "hurried lives" to counselors must be able to support teachers and engage in constructive "family time." help children and families through thevaried transitions of schooling and family patterns. In Balance the need for structured and professional- providing thisstability and support,counselors ized activity with opportunities for play. must understand current literature and research on Probably the least understood childhood need is the changing fabric of societal institutions. the need for play.Playisvitaltochildren's intellectual, social and physical development and is Provide courses,workshops and training sessions "seen as a primary mode for a child who is for parents and educators. involved in becoming" (Suransky, 1982, p.12). Both colleges and communities must provide Families contribute to childiis optimal devel- parenting courses And teaching courses in response opment by assuring opportunities for children to to the stresses of contemporary society. Educating generate their own play with peers. In so doing, parents about parenting is no longer a luxury; it is "they are fulfilling a fundamental human activity an imperative. of intentionality and purposiveness"(Suransky, 1982, p. 173). Denying children the right to play Policy denies them their primary means of learning about themselves and their world.Lack of adequate Advocate for quality and appropriate child care. opportunities to engage in genuine play is evident Families with children must demand high-quali- in our hurried :hildren today (Elkind,1981, p. ty child care that takes into account the needs of 193). children and theirfamilies. Whether thecare occurs in or out of the home, children's social Help children become critical TV-viewers. patterns and I,ehaviors continue to form in these Children can develop proper TV-viewing habits settings. Young children need settings that inte- with simple guidelines. Adults can view programs grate play naturally, encourage their active explora- with children and talk with them about what thy tion and foster a sense of trust and security. They see. In viewing TV, adults should notice those also need caregivers who enjoy working with young behaviors children can iminte; for example, TV children, understand their growth and develop- characters who model caring behaviors and pro- ment, have realistic expectations for their behavior grams that depict women as being competent. and are responsive to parents. 300 Pi 4. Societal Influences on Children School-age children need safe and supervised CONCLUSION care in which they are involved in activities appro- priate to their stage of development. They also Pressuredby each of thecriticalsocializing need teachers who understand them, their families agents in their lives, today's children are experienc- and their needs. ing shortened childhoods. The sources and conse- Parents and community members must be advo- quences of such pressures are clear. Also clear is cates for quality, comprehensive child care settings. the urgent need to direct our efforts toward bal- An informed community must develop appropriate ancing priorities for children at the family, school programs for children, its most vulnerable group. and policy levels. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are the universal social needs of children? 2. How can the institutions of society, including the school, help to meet these social needs? 3.Can good early education programs compensate for negative changes in familystructure and operation? 4. Do early childhood education programs in the schools reduce thepressures and problems for children or do thy contribute to these negative influences? 5.Can the teachers, parents, and policymakers achieve balance in future programs that will improve the devel- opment and learning potential for young children? How can this be achieved? 301 A. 1 k...) 64. DEVELOPMENTAL AND EXPERIENTIAL PROGRAMS: THE KEY TO QUALITY EDUCATION AND CARE OF YOUNG CHILDREN by Barbara Day and Kay N. Drake At the heart of the educational process lies the science, encouraging physical growth, and creating child. No advances in policy, no acquisitions of communicationrpportunitiesthatenhance the new equipment have their desired effect unless child's use and understanding of symbols. they are in harmony with the nature of the child, The second major area concerns teachers and unless they are fundamentally acceptable to him. :;tall.the teachers' knowledge of the physical, Knowledge of the manner in which children social, and cognitive development of children is develop, therefore, is of prime impor once, both in essential, as is the interaction between teachers and avoiding educationally harmful pra cu, es andin students. Phyfe-Perkins (1981. ` showed that where introducing effective ones ( Plowden et :I 1966). teachers participated more with the children and Given the well-established fact tnat young chil- were less directive, the children exhibited higher dren learn differently, the conclusion that educa- levels of cognitive play,task involvement, and tors must draw is a straightforward one: the educa- verbal interaction. tion of young children must be in keeping with Third, academics have an important place in the their unique modes of learning (Elkind 1986). quality program. Children between the ages of two The Plowden Report and the Elkind statement, and seven are in the concrete stage of cognitive written 20 years apart, succinctly summarize the development. They learn from concrete experi- rationale for developmental early childhood educa- ences. Thus stories, dictating to the teacher, and tion programs. The reality of such programs ... is a counting can be used creatively .o expose children complex learning environment designed to support to reading, writing, and mathematics. First and the intellectual development or the young child. second graders also need to continue tolearn The basic philosophy for developmental early through concrete ex.riencesas they make the childhood education is built on two beliefs: that transition into primary school. each child is unique and needs a flexible program The fourth major area considered in planning a to develop as an individual and that interaction, quality program is the physical setting. Develop- understanding, and cooperation in a group arc mental classrooms are designed to encourage chil- fundamental requirements of society. Developmen- dren to be independent and to have hands-on tal programs allow for a flexible and varied curricu- learning experiences. Learning centers for math, lum designed to meet a broad range of dmelop- science, reading, writing, art, cooking, listening, mental, socioeconomic, and cultural needs (Deeper and so on can engage children in experiences that etal.1984). allow them to use their hands, eyes,cars, and minds. Through them children learn about them- selves and the world around them. ASPECTS OF A DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAM ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT Four major areas should be considered when Consideration also must be given to curriculum planning a quality developmental program. The organization and classroom management (Day and first involves children's opportunities to practice Drake 1933). Curriculum organization is made up developmental tasks (Tryon and Lilienthal 1950), of three componentslearningcenters,skills including gainingappropriate dependence-inde- groups, and units of studythat are organized to pendent.; patterns, establishing healthy patterns for teach specific topics such as self-concept or animal giving and receiving affection, developing a con- habitats. See page 350 for acknowledgmen. and references. 302 299 Developmental and Experiential Programs Classroom management components include col- Type 4. Five-yea:-old children in classrooms that or coding, which is the systematic use of color to had multiple activity segments operating all day. organize games,books,andactivitiestohelp Type 5. Five- and six-year-old children in class- young children manage a multitask environment; rooms that operated multiple activity segments all contracts, which are pictorial (later written) plans day and used written contracts as a management for the child's day to ensure that each child stays technique. t 1Isk; and external and internal methods of Children in Type 5 classrooms were grouped in discipline. External discipline refers to how the five-year-old kindergarten programs (Type 5a), six- classroom environment influences the child's be- year-old first grade programs (Type 5b), and mul- havior. Internal discipline refers to the child'sown tiaged five- and six-year-old programs (Type 5c). ability to behave in appropriate ways. Clear expec- Table 1 shows the on-task behavior rates gener- tations, consistent use of rules, and frequent feed- ated by each type of classroom. back are techniques educators can use to help a young child develop internal discipline. Types1,2, and 3, which had little or no simultaneous activity, had similar on-task behavior rates of approximately 78 percent. Small positive changes in on-tazk behavior were produced by EFFECTIVENESS Type 4 classrooms (82 percent). Type 5 classrooms, however, generated on-task behavior rates as high We recently conducted a study using the Wasik- as 92 percent. Day Open and Traditional Learning Environments These results suggest that a complex early child- and Children's Classroom Behavior Instrument. hood environment featuring learning centers in We found that children had an on-task behavior conjunction with an appropriate management sys- rate of 92 percent when their classrooms featured tem can achieve rates of on-task behavior higher eight or more learning centers, were multiaged than those achieved in less complex classrooms that (five- and six-year-old children were grouped to- rely on large- and small-group instruction and seat- get} er), and used contracts (Day and Drake 1983). work assignments. Because of their exceptional on-task behavior, the Additionally, five- and six-year-olds had higher children in the developmental classrooms actually on-task behavior rates when working in learning received 120 mote hours of schooling (20more centers than when engaged in seatwork activities. school days) c er the entire school year than did This suggests that young children need classrooms children whose classrooms did not include learning that feature a variety of learning experiences. centers or contracts. We noted a particularly interesting example of Our intent was to investigate the relationship the interaction between the developmental readi- between various types of early childhood classroom ness of children for an activity and the on-task environments and the on-task behavior ratesgener- behavior rates generated by that activity. Five-year- ated by the children in each program. For this olds had on-task rates of 29 percent, and six-year- purpose the classroom environment was defined in olds had an on-task rate of 93 percent. Reading terms of the number of simultaneous activity seg- centers,as they are typically designed in early ments operating at any one time (Wilson 1983). childhood classrooms, often do not involve five- We observed 18 kindergarten and first-grade year-old children, most of whom are nonreaders. classrooms and categorized them into five different There appears to be a need to reorganize reading organizational patterns. centers for five-year-olds to include stimuli other Type 1. Six-year-old children in classrooms that than print. For example, books with tape record- operated for most of the school day with onlyone ings of their content might interest five-year-olds or two simultaneous activities. more than books alone. Type 2. Five-year-old children in classrooms that Table 2 presents interesting contrasts in how operatedmultipleactivitysegments (including time isactually spent in kindergarten and first- eight or more learning centers) for the first hour of grade classrooms. The typical first-grade day in this the school day, then operated only one or two studyisclearlystructureddifferently from the simultaneous activities for the rest of the day. typical kindergarten day. Type 3. Six-year-old children in classrooms that Life is a spectrum of all types of overlapping operated multiple tivity segments during the skills and activities. A developmental teaching ap- morning. The afternoon included only one or two proach helps the child to see how new skills could simultaneous activity segments. fit into a broader realm of experience, thus provid- 303 3 u 0 IIIIIMa MI THE FUTURE Table 1 Percentage of On-Task Behavior by Classroom Type On-Task Type Activities Time Contract Behavior 1 1-2 no 79% 2 mull' )le 1 hr/day no 79% 3 multiple 1I2day no 78% 4 multiple ai. day no 82% 5a multiple all day yes 85% 5b multiple all day ves 87% 5c multiple all day yes 92% Table 2 Percentage of Time by Place Activity Centers 11111 6-Year-Olus - 5-Year-Olds Hon abase Circle Homebase Other Study Area Other 5 10 15 20 25 30 3! 40 45 50 Percentage of Time ing a reason for learning. This method, involving most effective approaches to total child develop- center-oriented,simrltaneousactivitysegments ment. within the learning environment, is one of the DISCUSSION QUES77ONS 1.Are there some fundamental factors that must be present in future early education programs? 2. How does the developmentally appropriate classroom operate? What is the role of the teacher? 3. How do children respond to a well-planned classroom r.agram and schedule? What are the results? 304 301 65. UPON WHAT CAN WE BUILD OUR CHILDREN'S EDUCATIONAL FUTURE? by Walter Hodges Twenty-five years ago changes in the perceptions to chronicle these past 25 years by calling to mind of early childhood development were beginning to some of the landmark events that mark the evolu- influence the types of programs available forpre- tion of modern early childhood education. school and primary children. At least three major A good place to start is 1961. J. McV. Hunt ets of reliefsmaturationism, behaviorism, and (1961) published his very important challenge to cognitivismwere being used to guide the devel- the hereditarians in Intelligence and Experience. opment of these new programs. Many believe that He argued that experience had not been given its these different sets of beliefs lead to incompatible just place in the theories of human development programs. Maturationists believe in the primacy of and incorporated a readable interpretation of the the child and the child'sability to learn and work of Jean Piaget reviving the argument about develop given an appropriate but non-coerciveen- what is most importantheredity or environment. vironment. Behaviorists believe that many children In that same year, 1961, a national survey of needthesystematicinput from well-designed Aid to Families with Dependent Children revealed teaching programs in order to master the skills an average annual per person income of $408. Did necessary for survival in the schools and in society. these children go to school? Yes, they did, but The cognitivists believe that children build their probably for no longer than they were forced to do own intelligence based on their interactions with a so. Susan Gray's Early Training Project was begin- richly furnished world while guided by knowledge- ning in Tennessee (Gray, Ramsey, and Klaus, able adults. 1980) and David Weikart was initiating the Perry 1965, early childhood educators holding one PreschoolProjectinMichigan (Weikart and or.e other of these various views were beginning Schweinhart,1980).Bereiterand Engelmann to confront one another. It was a time when new (1966) were also de7cloping their direct instruction ideas of child development, child care, and early model with 4- and5 -year -oldchildrenatthe childhood education were being testedinthe University of Illinois. crucible of public programs, seriously debated in In1962,Michael Harrington published The professionalsocieties,and vehemently argued Other America, a book that ,aptured the growing among early childhood practitioners and leaders. awareness that poverty in America was not a trivial, From then till now, public programs have been isolated problem but rather a large-scale, serious stringently tested, professionally debated, and ar- concern as well as a threat to all of us. gued extensively, albeit sometimes acrimoniously. In 1963, a friend of education was lost when Due to such acrimony, the field has often been John Kennedy was assassinated but the Report of divided and unable to serve children as wellas the President's Panel on Mental Retardation pre- could have been done with fewer polemics. sented a new look at the relation of poverty to The thesis here, however, is that these differ- retardation. At Indiana, the Experimental Pre- ences among points-of-view, while often destruc- school ProjectA Diagnostically Based Curricult in tive, have, nevertheless, produced a rich body of forPreschoolChildrenwasbegun (Hodges, understanding about different approaches to early McCandless, and Spicker, 1971). Studies were pub- childhood. It is possible that this knowledge could lished questioning the efficacy of special classes for be used to generate a second or third wave of truly mildly retarded young children (Dunn, 1960). sophisticated approaches to the interrelated prob- Then a bill that fostered a revolution in early lems of child-rearing, child care, and child educa- childhood passed Congress--the Economic Oppor- tion similar to those which were developed in the tunity Act of 1964out of which came Head Start late sixties. Such new waves are certainly needed. and,later,Follow Through, two programs for While celebrating the past is justified for the press tool and primary children still operating in point to which it has broue: ' us, it is also useful 1986, Unfortunately, as far as ore can surmise, See pages ?50-51 for acknowledgment and references. 305 THE FUTURE these two programs have yet to be fully appreciat- (3) Bertha and Englemann published their book ed for the knowledge they have revealed concern- on Teaching Disadvantaged Children in the Pre- ing how besttoencourageyoungchildren's school (1966) in which they advocated the direct growth. teaching of basic school readiness skills. (4) Maya During this period, (1) the Montessori method Pines' book on the Revolution in Learning: The was being rediscovered; (2) early prevention was Years from Birth toSix (1966) described the being recognized as better thanlater remedial revolution taking place in early 'ducation where efforts; (3) achievement in academic and cognitive the "new mind - builders" were using "pressure areas was coming to take precedence over social cooker,"talking-typewriter,and other"new" adjustment and general socialization in the pre- methods in attempts to halt the downward spiral school;(4) intelligence was now thought to be of children's intellectual development. And, final- modifiable; (5) development was believed to be ly, (5) the Educational Policies Commission of the more seriously subject to environmental influences; NEA published a small pamphlet entitled Univer- (6) parents were becoming more educationally visi- sal Opportunity for Early Childhood Education in ble; and (7) poverty and intelligence were !inked which it was proposed that four-year-olds be given in a powerful inverse relationship. the opportunity for early schooling. Furious action broke loose on several fronts at In 1966, the battle among those who advocated once in 1965. The war in Vietnam escalated tre- various solutions to the problem of children at iisk mendously, the War on Poverty here in the states in education was made public through these and expanded, and the battles for civil rights raged in other books, pamphlets,articles, and speeches. places like Watts and Selma. Behaviorists, maturationists, and cognitivists were A major front for the war on povertyHead in conflict. Some thought the pressure cookers too Startbegan in the summer of '65 for preschool hot for children. Others thought the child-centered children from low - income homes. A second major approach was negligent of the needs of children at front was the passage of Public Law 89-10, The risk.Still others thought it impossible to imple- Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, ment the often abstruse ideas of Piaget in pre- which marked the beginning of compensatory edu- school programs. cation. Heber (1978), at the University of Wiscon- In 1967, Follow Through and the Parent-Child sin, began a massive interventionproject with Centers were authorized. "Open education" was high-risk infants and their mothers which became introduced to this country by Joseph Featherstone known as the Milwaukee Project and Phyllis Leven- (1967) and this idea added more heat to the stein began a much more modest, but important, differences among those who would cook under intervention through her Mother-Child Home Pro- pressure and those who would use a simmering gram of Verbal Interaction (Madden, O'Hara, and technique. B.F. Skinner (1968) published The Levenstein, 1984). Technology of Teaching, which further expanded In 1966, the whole early childhood movement the role of behaviorism in early education.In got another boost from an unexpected source when Arkansas, the first Office of Child Development in the Coleman Report on Equality of Educational the nation was established. Opportunity (Coleman et al., 1966) was published. In 1968, the bubble of enthusiasm for Head Its emphasis on family variables made it apparent Start was burst when studies indicated that it was that the family part of the educational equation extremely difficult to distinguish the academic per- accounts for more variance than most people had formance of children who had been in Head Start been willing to admit. Early childhood educators from similar children who had not been. But were not surprised. They had recognized and capi- Follow Through was starting just because Head talized on this phenomenon for years. Starthad beta deemeda"failure."Follow Other major events marked the year: (1) the Through became an :xperiment in primary (K-3) President appointed a Multidisciplinary Task Force education for children at risk. For the first time in on Early Childhood Development chaired by J. the history of education in this country, differences McV. Hunt, to decide what to do next. (2) Harold among philosophies of education were made ex- Skeels published a monograph entitled Adult Sta- plicit in a variety of models of early childhood tus of Children with Contrasting Life Experiences educationDirect Instruction, Cognitive Curricula, (Skeels, 1966). This monograph reported dramatic Behavior Analysis Classroom, Reponsive Environ- evidence that massive intervention in the lives of ments, Open Education, Bank Street, Parent Edu- young children who were at risk for mental retar- cation, Behavior Oriented Prescriptive Teaching, dation can lead to great changes in life chances. and others were all sent to the field to be imple- 306 Building Children's Educational Future mented by real teachers, with real children, in the flections on a Decade of Early Intervention"; the real context of local school districts. The model confusing Follow Through Planned Variation ex- builders had to convince others to do the model, periment (Stebbins et al., 1977) results were pub- train them in doing it, monitor their progress, and lished; and, most important, the Developmental collect research data at the same time. Needless to ContinuityLongitudinalStudies(Consortium, say, these tasks were enormois and, perhaps, unre- 1978) of follow-ups of children in the experimental alistic, in retrospect. But everyone wanted to show preschool programs of the 1960s and the mono- that their model was the one which could solve the graphs documenting the follow-up of Weikart's problem. Perry Preschool Project (Berrueta-Clement et al., Arthur Jensen's (1969) article entitled "How 1984) children (then in their teens, now in their Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achieve- 20s) appeared. Children in most of the experimen- ment?" opened with the catchy phrase: "Compen- tal preschool projects seemed to be doing slightly satory education has been tried and it has failed." better than their stay-at-home counterparts. At And now the arguments shifted from among those least fewer of them were behind in grade place- advocating different approaches to early childhood ment or in special education. And, for some, their educatiot' to the batty against those who said that achievement in school was somewhat improved. the approach made no difference since children at Still, there was no cure for the problem of progres- risk were that way because of their genetic inheri- siveachievement decrements among highrisk tance. Ti'e heredity-environment issue is on the children. table again. Since 1977, the world of early childhood educa- In 1969, the Office of Child Development in tion has been less volatile although young children the Department of Health, Education, and Wel- are still at risk. The topics of concern seem to have fare was opened and Head Start was transferred shifted: child abuse, child pornography, latchkey from the Office of Economic Opportunity to the children, single-parent families, parenting, industry Officeof Child Development whileFollow supported child care, family day care, and day care Through was moved to the Office of Education. In scandals wherein children have been found to be spite of these major moves at the federal level, the sexually molested by adult caregivers, and a hand- idea of legislation in support of comprehensive ful of other problems and programs have been child care was never implemented. Congressman given much of the popular press time devoted to John Brademas and Senator Walter Mondale of- children and families. fered many child care bills in the late 1960s. They It wasn't until 1984 that Weikart and his col- finally succeeded with Congress in 1971 only to be leagues were able to persuade the major print and frustratedbyPresidentNixon'svetoonthe video media that there is still a problem of chil- grounds that such support of child care was anti- dren at risk for educational disability in this coun- family and thus in some sense anti-American. try and that there are programs which work and In early childhood, the 1970s were less exciting which aredesigned to reduce therisk.These by comparison to the 1960s, but many battles were programs have spanned the range of programs still being fought: (1) for public kindergartens; (2) developed during the 1960s and 1970sbut not for more quality child care; (3) for better prepared all programs are equally successful. Quality counts child care workers; (4) for better quality Head Start for a great deal. And quality is usually embodied programs. in people. But quality people need quality train- From 1973 to 1977, several major projects were ing, quality materials, quality environments, and completed and reviewedin the literature:the effective support from directors, leaders, pareni.s Child Development Associate credentialing process and community. was begun; Sheldon White (1973) and his col- The diversity and resulting conflicts of these 25 leagues prepared a massive and discouraging report years have been difficult and wearing. Polarizations on Federal Programs for Young Children; the have separated people whose goals were the same. disappointing Head Start Planned Variation experi- There have been intelligent, compassionate, and ment results wereublisheci in several papers; Uric caring people on both ends and in the middle. Bronfenbrenner (1974) published a famous mono- The downside is that we have not used our re- graphentitledIsEarlyInterventionEffective? sources as well as we might have. The benefit is wherein he proposed a system of child education that those programs which have survived have based on his understanding of the research litera- sharpened their approach. They have gotten both ture; The National Day Care Study was commis- more theoretical and more practical, which is just sioned; J. McV. Hunt (1975) published his "Rc- what should happen, since good theory leads to 307 3114 THE FUTURE good practice. In some ways, early childhood has children. There is also much to learn from a wide become more professional, especially in the sense array of other theoretically based programs from that early childhood work is based on the theory the behaviorists, from the maturationists, and from that is known. In other ways, some of the narrow- the direct learning and teaching models to the ness characteristic of the early Montessori move- interpersonal skills models. It is too early to cease ment has been retained. Some early childhood experimenting with these models since the solu- professionals have not been open to those who tions to our problems of educating those at risk are propose programs from alternativeperspectives. not yet manifest. That is not professional;itis suicidal. Where good people diverge so dramatically in Early childhood education as a profession is at a their solutions to problems there is probably some point where a carefully planned integration of merit in each of their approaches. The problem is approaches is possiblenot probablejust possi- to determine just what it is in each of the solutions ble. Piaget, as interpreted by Kamii and De Vries that makes a difference and then, where possible, (1978), suggests three different types of knowledge to blend the forces of each. or ways of knowingsocial, physical, and logical- formal. Social knowledge is that which we gain by Since there are known differences in the kinds being told. It is embedded in the culture. These of things children learn, and there are different are societal conventions"This group of letters approaches to learning among us, a reversion to makes a word. We call that word 'cat.' Cat refers the overall position of the Gestalt psychologists, to a particular type of animal and I will show you i.e., behavior is a function of the person and the some examples of animals to which we apply the environment,isrequired. The formula can be appellation of .:at.' " This is, of course, much too modified to fit early childhood teaching and learn- simple, but the point is clear. Such social knowl- ing as follows: (a) a teaching strategy must change edge is often taught best by direct instruction. according to (b) the child and (c) the content, Physical knowledge can be taught directly, too, skill, or attitude to be learned. In most instances, but not by telling.Physical knowledge isthat social learning is taught by direct instruction with which is gained by seeing, feeling, hearing, feed- no apology necessary.Physical knowledgeisa ing, cleaning behind, being scratched by, and contact sport, learned by exploration. And logical- loving through cuddling and other machinations mathematical knowledge is taught by experiment, (i.e., hands-on experiences). One may even argue guidance, and telling. Thus, we become neither that such physical knowledge must precede the behaviorist,maturationist,norcognitivist,but social knowledge that this thing we have s. -n, felt, rather a theoretical realist, whose purpose is not to and so on is a "cat." Either way, it is no longer convince others of the "way," but to help children reasonable to argue that there is only one way to acquire the wide array of tools that competent skin the cat (of learning and teaching) as many in learners use. These tools are not limited to memo- early childhood education are wont to do. rization, copying, questioning, observing, experi- Logical-formal knowledge can be taught directly, meneng, or exploring, but include all of these too, but, again, not by telling, even though in skills and more. colleges,universities,highschools,elementary And since this [chapter] was to celebrate the schools, and yes, even preschools we pretend that past, it is possible to propose an agenda for the when we have to'd, someone has understood (i.e., next 25 yearsthe continuation of the search for learned). There is much to be learned from the ever more effective ways to help children construct, "experimental" learning and teaching as exempli- acquire, and accept the kinds of tools thgc they fied in the programs of Weikart, or De Vries, or need to live a decent life built on the ability to Foreman and others who have translated Piagetian care for themselves and their families, to love and theory into activities for young (and not so young) to laugh, and to learn. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are the implications of the recent past for the future of early childhood education in the schools? 2.Has all the action of the past 25 years produced new knowledge and insight about early education? 3.Have the inappropriate and ineffective practices been eliminated? What universal themes have emerged? 4.Will programs in the future be significant improvements over the experiments and trials of the past? 5. What can the teacher do to make progressive changes in programs for young children for the future? 308 313 66. BACK TO BASICS OR FORWARD TO FUNDAMENTALS? by Alice V. Keliher Once again we ax hearingthatfour-letter aise. These concerns contribute to underlying peri- wordBACK! Do the proponents of Back to Ba- ods of anxiety. There are too many uncontrolla- sics think their appeal is new? bles, we feel. We wake in the gray hours of the In1933,Iprotested, "We alsoconfronta morning and cannot get back to sleep. Something general move on the part of an uncomprehending is wrong but what can we do about it? Where can lay public aided and abetted by reactionaries... to we find certainty? Maybe the "good old days" retrench to the three R's" (p. 278). were safer, more secure, more predictable? In 1954, I warned, "Actually the 'three R's' are W (writing, A (arithmetic), and R (reading).... BACK TO WHAT? Sadly enough...theseletters spell WAR"the cause of many dropouts. But they also spell the So, let's take our children BACK to those good RAW materials of learning when used with mean- old days. Let's make them conform to the old ways ingful experiences. of doing things. Let's have the children read the Again in 1962, I scolded, "Imagine the mem- same books, do the same math workbooks, memo- bers of a community who honestly thought it was rize the same spelling words, obey the same strict best for the children to go BACK to the McGuffey rules of discipline, even wear the same uniforms. Readers (1836) Li an age when the movement in And the state legislators will follow right along and every important field is FORWARD" (p. 62). mandate that children must pass the same profi- Also that year I tried to get people to see how ciency tests from first grade up. real learning takes place. What if these anxiety-ridden parents, teachers, The world is so full of a number of things that there or legislators suddenly sough to go back to basics should be no difficulty in maintaining a rich,vital, in medicine and publichealth? Suppose they active,challenging environmentinevery classroom. wanted to go back to the 1800s. In the 20th World news, activities in space, new scientific materials century alone we would missmetallic radium for home and school....Add to these TV programs (1910), insulin (1921), penicillin (1928), polio vac- about exciting ideas ano :Hcs from near and far parts of the world, fun and facts from 1700 new books cine(1955),and manyotherpublichealth written for children and youth each year....The possi- victories. bilities are limited only by the imaginations of teacher In those same years of the 20th century, a great and children. deal of fundamental research about child develop- But some school people (and parents) say, "Yes, all ment, growth, and learning has taken place. Just this richness of experienceis available, but we don't have time left over for it." Left over from what? The as no sensible person would want to bypass the three R's? This is truly upsidedown thinking. The three burgeoning medical knowledge of the 20th centu- R's (the RAW materials) are best learned and remem- ry, none should ignore the wealth of information bered through rich, meaningful experiences. (pp. 1-8) we now possess about children and youth. Instead of BACK to basics we should hoist the So here we are again, facing the same old cry banner FORWARD to fundamentals: Today's chil- BACK to Basics. Take our children back to the dren will be the adults of the 21st, not the 18th, "good old days." century! We owe them the kind of education that Why these recurrentcycles? The dates men- will prepare them for the years ahead, not the tioned here were years of profound anxieties the years behind. Great Depression with its hunger and unemploy- ment, the Russian success with Sputnik, the Mc- Carthy witch hunts, the Korean "police action" FORWARD TO FUNDAMENTALS with its thousands of deaths, the proliferation of What would take us ahead to fundamentals? atomicdevices, and now today, more hunger, The first fundamental is that each child in unique. unemployment, feelings of helplessness and mal- Each child possesses differentabilities,interests, See page 351 for acknowledgment and references. 309 3t6 THE FUTURE talents, and ways of learning, and each child has The fourth fundamental is a good teacher. A her or his own pace. This is the immutable law of person who likes people,especially children,is nature. Parents who have more than one child interestedin them, intrigued by their ways of know this is so. Every research study confirms it. doing things, likes to watch them grow in mind The second fundamental is that each child has a and body, and enjoys their emerging accomplish- range of differences within. An average mental age ments. A good teacher knows about the rough or an average IQ tells little. A high mental age edges of growth, that children need help and score may be the result of excellent math skills, guidancethat thisis one reason for teachers. but only moderate language ability. Some children Early each year this good teacher takes all the time may have a lopsided mind, with very special ability needed to get to know each child as an individ- in one fieldmusic, science, mechanics, electron- uallistens carefully to her or his dreams, hopes, icsbut not necessarily in others. Taylor, a re- fears, and sizes up areas of strength and weakness, searcher in creativity, said, makes notes of these, and plans ways to meet the The brain which underlies the mind is far too complex individual child's needs. This teacher uses ways of to hope that all of itsintellectualactivities can be teaching that are truly diagnostic. represented by only a single score or by only a handful This wise teacherissensitiveto needs and of dimensions. In fact it might be considered an insult values. The school day has peak experiences with to the brain and human mind to do so. (1961) rich feelings and deep meanings. There are mo- The third fundamental is that learning that lasts ments of rare beauty in sharing poetry, music, is embedded in meaningful experiences. Hess once dance,literature,dramatics. Time schedules are said, "The meaning of deprivation is the depriva- flexible to permit fleeting moments of high value tion of meaning" (1965). In the wonderful French to be enjoyed. Children are helped to know that film Passion for Life, the harried schoolboy trying some parts of life are more important than others. :I do well on his oral exam blurted out, "What I Time is the servant, not the master, in this teach- utderstood, I remember!" er's day. Children feel good about seeing this Children who have followed their mail through teacher each day. So do parents. the post office, who have greeted new giraffes at The fifth fundamental is the relationship be- the zoo, and who have experienced farm life, will tween parents and teachers. Real partnership comes certainly find meaning in reading material portray- when parent and teacher recognize that each has a ing these areas of life. If children help count the rolevital but differentand that together they money for a picnic, it they keep the class accounts can accomplish more than just twice as much. for milk money, if they help turn in daily atten- They give the child the security of feeling that dance records, they are learning that arithmetic has these important people in their lives are pulling substance they can understand and use. together. Feeling is also embedded in learning. Success is So let us resolve to help parents and children a great supporter of effort. Fun gives a lift to a job prepare for the real and changing demands of what to be done. Happiness sets the glands to work. is left of the 20th century and what may lie ahead Confidence moves things steps ahead. Lcarnings in the 21st. Surely the one certainty for the years underwritten by these feelings will endure and find ahead is change. Let's build the fortitude to live their use in the years ahead. with it. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.What is the most promising direction for the future? 2.Is history the best source of guidance for planning excellent programs for young children in the schools? 3.What are the fundamental qualities that must be present in any future program? 4.How can early childhood professionals provide a high-quality education now that will equip the child for ef- fective living in the uncertain future? 310 67. THE FUTURE OF EDUCATION by Wilson Riles When asked about the future of public educa- century later, over 80 percent of the youth cor2- tion in America, as I frequently am, I recall a ;tory plete the 12th grade; the high school graduation of a young lawyer being interviewed for a high- rates for blacks have increased eightfold. The num- level position in a major corporation. "How much ber of students who attend college, moreover, has is two plus two?" asked the Chief Executive Offi- doubled: not only the affluent, but the poor as cer in an obvious attempt to determine how the well, are finding the doors of higher education young applicant would handle a simple problem. open. Unquestionably, progress toward providing After getting up and locking the office door equality of access to public schools has enhanced from the inside, the lawyer re-seated himself and the prospect of upward mobility in society. leaning close to the CEO queried, "How much Although increased numbers of children are would you like it to be?" being educated, the quality of educational attain- There is an oldsaying among more cynical ment has not chopped. I say this notwithstanding politiciansthata democracyreflectsthe worst much of the current rhetoric that would have us government a people will tolerate. This maxim believe otherwise. Students today (including those may be applied to schools. When parents and the less motivated who would have dropped out had general public demand standards of excellence in they gone to school in an earlier era) score better their schools, and when they are willing to back on the identical reading tests given their counter- that demand with full support of and involvement parts in the 1940s. in their schools, then educators will know that I am always reminded of Will Rogers when I nothing less than the best is acceptable. ff, howev- hear people bemoaning the diminution of quality er, demands are minima: and scant support is in education. Rogers said, "Schools ain't what they provided, the future of public education will be used to be and they never wuz." Thousands of dismal indeed. In short,it is we who determine youngsters in previous generations were forced out the future of the schools. of school because they did not fit into the system. Unfortunately,someuninformedindividuals Thousands more left because they fell behind, and condemn public education as just one more expen- few schools had programs designed to overcome sive, failed and flawed governmental intrusion into their deficiencies. Still others, by the thousands, private choice. They accept the charge of failure failed to complete even one year of high school without examining the contrary evidence. They because early in their lives teachers and administra- rush to find private sector alternativesalternatives tors conveyed the message that little was expected they propose to subsidize with public funds. of them. We need only look at public school systems across the United States to know that the reasons A BRIGHT FUTURE for school failure are now recognized and are in FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION the process of being eliminated. Schools are con- tinuously adapting to the needs of society for The public school system is not, however, a socially and technologically literate citizens. Ameri- failed or fatally flawed idea whose time has passed. ca is still welcoming millions of immigrants lacking In truth, the future of public education has never the basic skills required to function in an industrial been brighter. or post-industrial society and, through the alchemy In the United States, schools now provide mo'e of the public school system, turning these immi- education for a greater percentage of the popu La- grants into productive members of society. don than ever before and the percentage of ym trig Not all problems are solved. Not all reasons for people in school has increased dramatically. As failure have been eliminated. Not every school recently as1950,less than half of the youth offers the quality of education we feel to be the graduated from high school; only 10 percent of right of each child. Beyond a doubt, however, blacks graduated. Slightly more than a quarter of a changes are occurring--changes that will bring us See page 351 for acknowledgment. 311 303 THE FUTURE closer to the goal of quality education with equali- parents share responsibility for goal-setting in the ty of access for every child. schools their children attend. To support the contention that public school Those critics who say that rarents have no voice systems are improving, I would like to cite a few of and no choice inthe education their children the outstanding shifts in school operation in Cali- receive simply have not been inside the rapidly forniaandthebenefitsaccruedfromthose evolving parent involvement movement, an impor- changes. tant component of thesuccessof California's school improvement program. Other statesare moving in a similar direction. CALIFORNIA, A CASE IN POINT The second most important development in making the future of public education bright is the Perhaps the most important new development in renewed emphasis on improving education in the California':, schools over the past decade is parent early years. In California we started our reform of involvement. Since parents are the first and most public education nearly a decade ago with our ECE continuous teachers of their children, they should Program covering the primary years. have a placein the decision-making processes Briefly, for both philosophical and practical rea- involving the education of their children. Ten years sons we started where the children start. Philosoph- ago, they rarely had such a place; now they do. ically, we were convinced that quality early child- The movement began inCalifornia in1966 hood education addresses the critical years of a when the state pioneered in parent participation. child's growth and developmentthe years before We required schools with state or federal compen- age 8, when 80 percent of that development takes satory education programs toestablishadvisory place. Practically, we were convinced of two things: committees composed of parents of disadvantaged children to advise the district's board of education. First,that programs for the disadvantaged, The federal government followed in our footsteps particularly ESEA Title I programs, penalized suc- three or four years later with similar requirements. cess because of the way they were funded (if We expanded advisory committees by encouraging children do well, funds are taken away). Further, parents to volunteer as tutors and classroom aides. they depended on the goodwill of the majority for Bridging the moat that once surrounded the for- meeting minority needs. tress called the school, we made the schools part of the community. Second, that children who failed to leave the From this beginning, parent involvement ex- 3rd grade with a solid foundation in the basic panded to include the parents of all children: first skills often did not recover from that failure re- under Early Childhood Education (ECE) and now gardless of extensive remediation received in the under the School Improvement Program (SIP). upper grades. Itis simply more economical and Over 60 percent of our schools have councils on more effectivetogivechildrenthebeststart which parents participate as equal partners with possible. teachers in determining student needs and devising instructional strategies to meet them. Throughout Our ECE Program reflected those practical con- the state, approximately 40,000 parents and com- siderations. Funding rewarded success.As each munity members currently serve on schoolsite district started programs in limited numbers of councils, and about 200,000 volunteers assist in the schools, expansion to all schools was contingent actualimplementationofschoolimprovement upon the success of those first programs. No school programs. lost funds because children learned. Programs were I lead my discussion of important changes in not limited to the disadvantaged minority. ECE public education with parent involvement because coveredallchildrenintheschool'sprimary I am convinced that parents are truly concerned gradesmajority and minority, advantaged and about their children's growth and development, disadvantaged.Success depended upon meeting both preschool and in-school. They also usually every child's needs. All parents had an equal stake know more about tl,eir children's needs than any- ai d voice in working as partners with teachers and one else. When parents are involved and informed administrators to plan and implement programs of the importance of appropriate "home start" that focused on the learning needs of each child. activitiesfortheir childrenbefore they attend Achievement test results now reflect the wisdom xhool, these children, in turn, succeed more readi- of our decision to begin reforms by concentrating ly in school. Children do better in school when on early years education. Test scores for the prima- 312 The Future of Education ry grades have been increasing each year since the IMPORTANT ISSUES program's inception in 1973. Test scores at the 6th-grade level have likewise been increasing each ButI am alltoo aware thatthecriticism, year for the past five years, reflecting the sound deserved or not, will not diminish. Voucher sys- foundation acquired in the K-3 grades. And for tems, tuition tax measures and similar proposals to the past two years scores at the 12th-grade level provide government subsidy to private schools are have reversed the previous decline and are now essentially proposals to eliminate public oversight moving up.Starting reform where the children of publicly supported education. start affects the entire system. I strongly believe in a dual system of education, The success of our systemwide improvement public and private. I think it would be wrong to effortsis based on the following principles: weaken either. However, since public money has to Parent involvtrnent at the school-site level be followed by regulation to ensure accountability, Inclusion of all children the ability of private schools to be masters of their Focus on individual needs own destiny would be impaired. No longer would Identification of strengths and weaknesses of they be able to innovate freely, to establish their current programs own rules for admission or exclusion, and to teach Planned activities that build on strengths and particular moral and spiritual values. correct weaknesses Public schools, because they are public, provide Evaluation of results youngsters with a common core of experience and Modification of activities that are not effec- education. Separating students into diverse private tive. schools would only encourage schools to be social- ly,racially and philosophically isolated. The School Improvement Program has fewer Both voucher schemes and tuition tax credits are pupil restrictions but greater demands for formal costly endeavors. They would substantially reduce school planning and parent involvement than the the amount of revenue available to support public traditional programs experienced by previous gen- education at a time when school support is barely erations of students. SIP schools reflect the working adequate. partnership between parents and teachers achieved Moreover,I sense no real groundswell in the by the establishment of school site councils that United States supportive of either tuition tax cred- have legal program responsibility and ability to its or educational vouchers. These ideas are being evaluate and remedy ineffective educational efforts. promoted by a few academic theorists and a few Today's SIP schools reflect the public school legislators. In fact, the only experiment with edu- system's capability of self-renewal. They respond to cational vouchers, undertaken in the Alum Rock community values; they give parents that voice and district in California, proved a total failure. Fur- choice they thought were available only in private thermore,ininstanceswherevouchersystem schools. They demonstrate the old axiom: when schemes have been placed before voters, the pro- people care enough to demand the very best, the posals have been overwhelmingly defeated. This ',try bec,t is what they will attain. occurred in Michigan and, most recently, in the The changes achieved in our public schoolsys- District of Columbia where voters turned down a tem have stemmed from Californians' concern for voucher proposal by a vote of 9 to 1. Even those public education. Californians have formed coali- parents with childreninprivateorparochial tions of diverse interest groups to lobby for legisla- schools voted 4 to 1 againstthe proposal.In tive authority and funding for programs designed California, a two-year effort by a group to raise to make public schools better for all children. They money and secure signatures for a ballot proposal have banded together to resist ballot measures that on vouchers was recently abandoned due to lack of would erode school support. They have shown, citizen support. year after year, that they would permit neither I am optimistic about the future of public media criticism nor dwindling resources to kill the education because I believe that most parents want institution that made America a great nation. a strong, responsive, quality public education sys- Because of the faith and the confidence of these tem for their children. concerned citizens,Iknow that the future of And in the end it will be exactly what they public education has never had brighter prospects. really want it to be. 313 310 THE FUTURE DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Is a comprehensive early education program essential to the future of the public schools in America? 2. How can school systems make changes to meet the dynamic needs of children and their families? 3. How did California respond to the need for early education in the schools? 4. What elements of success should be used in other situations to plan excellent early education programs? 68. EARLY SCHOOLING AND THE NATION'S FUTURE by Ernest L. Boyer For almost four years education has been high Philadelphia the dropout rate is 38 percent; and in on the nation's agenda. Thirty governors have Boston it's 43 percent. Almost half of the Mexican- named school reform commissions, and legislators American and Puerto Rican students who enroll in have enacted programs. The corporate sector has our public high schools drop out before they adopted schools. College presidents have spoken receive a diploma. How are we to achieve excel- out for public education, and colleges and univer- lence when students aren't even in the building? sities have raised graduation requirements. Districts In Chicago over half of the students failed to have raised teacher salaries at twice the inflation graduate in 1984, and only a third of those who rate. And publicattitude toward teachers has did were reading at the twelfth-grade level. Last turned around dramatically. year, in the Cleveland Public Schools, there was During these years, we've had more constructive not a single semifinalist in the National Merit action on behalf of public education than during Scholarship competition. Boston and Detroit each any comparable period in recent memory. Still,I had only one high school with semifinalists. see a dark lining to the silver cloud. "Advan- What's disturbing about these statistics is that taged" schools are getting better, but many oth- they show how little the school reform movement ersespecially those in our major citiesremain is confronting the core of our educational dilem- deeply troubled institutions. These schools differ ma. An enormous gap separates rhetoric and re- not just in degree, but in kind. The social patholo- sults. The breakup of the home, communities gies that surround them arc so great and the wrenched by crime, poverty, and loss of good problems so complex that current efforts are inade- teachers threaten to overwhelm our most troubled quate ..) their needs. schools. To require a failing student in an urban ghetto to take another unit in math or foreign language without offering a better environment or EDUCATION AND POVERTY better teaching is like raising a hurdle for someone who has already stumbled without providing more Twenty years agothis nation launched a cru- coaching. And the problems are increasing. sade to improve ,;. Sianeducation. The centerpiece By the year 2000 in America, one of every three of the plan vies:segregation. Elaborate "reme- public school pupils will be nonwhite. Approach- dies" were des; ,;L., d, and agonizing battles were ing the educational system is a group of children fought out in the! lurts and sometimes in the who will be poorer and more ethnically and lin- streets. The crusade of the 1960s, which today is guistically diverse, children who will have more but a faded memory, has not been followed with handicaps that surely will affr.ct their schooling. new ideas, but with disillusionment and neglect. Unless we deepen our commitment, the crisis in In some city high schools on any given day, at urban education will increase. The gap will widen leastfour out of ten students areabsent.In between the haves and the have-nots. Within our See page 351 for acknowledgment. 314 311 Early Schooling and the Nation's Future major cities we will be left with an educational unitthat would includekindergarten through Third World. In these scho';, the battle of Amer- grade three. ican education will be won o; lost. If urban schools The Basic School would make languagethe do not become a national priority, the promise of sending and receivi, of messages that makes us excellence will remain sadly unfulfilled. truly humancentral. Language is imprinted in There are no panaceas. If there were obvious the genes, and by the time children march off to answers to the problems of urban education, we school, they are already linguistically empowered would have found them long ago. If failureis not with a vocabulary of several thousand words. Any to become a way of life for many urban youths, we child who can speak and listen, I believe, can also must recognize that poverty and schooling are be taught to read and write. connected. What we see as poor academic perfor- The goal of the Basic School would be to assure mance may be related to events that precede that every child reads with understanding, writes schooling and even birth itself. with clarity, and speaks and listens effectively. In a school saturated with rich language, children, from their first entry, would be speaking, writing, talk- HUNGER AND BRAIN DEVELOPMENT ing about words, listening to stories, and building a vocabulary. If a child is not linguistically empow- The growing fetus requites a diet rich inpro- ered in the early years, it is almost impossible to tein, vitamins, and minerals, and yet most poor compensate for the failure later on. It's like play- mothers do not have adequate nutrition. Further- ing tennis with a broken racquet. more, the human brain grows most rapidly during Further, the Basic School would blur rigid grade the first year of life, and yet 40 percent of all levels in the early years. It's foolish for teachers to persons in America today classifiedas poor are fret over the curious question of whether to "fail" children. Malnutrition affects almost a half-million a student in grade one or two. Some children children in this nation. develop more slowly than others, and whethera The implications for schooling are dramatic. A student is in first grade or second grade is *riconse- major report by the Physicians Task Force on quential. What is important is not the akbut Hunger in America revealed that children who are each child's linguistic progress. The school would deprived of adequate nutrition during the critical ensure that students would read and write with years of brain growth risk"cognitive deficits," confidence and handle math accurately before they which obviously restrict later learning. A recent move to the next level, at which the focus would Louisiana study compared poor children who had be on the core of common learning. This is the received food supplements during the first year of only way to assure that students in the upper life and whose mothers had received nutritional grades will succeed academically. support during pregnancy with children who were denied good nutrition. Those in the first group showed higher IQ, longer attentionspan, and CLASS SIZE AND RESULTS better grades in school. It is ironic that at the very time when better In the Basic School, dass sizeisalso crucial. schools are being pushed, funds for federal child Primary school teachers sometimes have 30 or more nutrition programs are restricted. Babies andpoor students in a single class. Even under the best health may appear to be disconnected from the conditions these teachers can give only a minute or school reform agenda, but the evidence to the two to each child per hour. This is simply not contrary is overwhelming. Our educational prob- enough. The State of Indiana recently compared lems cannot be divorced from the problems of the the achievements of first-graders in large classes poor. If good schooling is our goal, all mothers with those in classes with fewer than 20 students. and young children must have good nutrition. The evidencewas overwhelming:smallclasses bring more academic gains. Thus,this nation should move quickly to implement the recommen- LANGUAGE AND THE BASIC SCHOOL dation of the recent report of the National Gover- nors' Association, Time for Results, which advises We must give top priority to early education, one teacher for every 15 students in kindergarten especially to language. I propose that every school through grade three. district, certainly those with high dropout rates, Smaller classes mean more money, and recent organize what might be called the Basic School,a polls show that Americans are willing to spend 315 3.12 THE FUTURE more for education if they feel the investment will for learning. We cannot magically turn off chil- pay off. Further, it's my own conviction that a dren's needs when school is out. good Basic School would reduce the cost of high school special and remedial education, which is expanding at an alarming rate. On the other hand, THE EXTENDED SCHOOL the recent High Scope study of the long-term impact of quality early education concluded that I see emerging prekindergarten programs, after- for every dollar invested, the payoff is more than hour workshops, and summer sessions to fit what four to one. families and children need today. The danger is that affluent families will find their own summer camps, private lessons, and youth clubs, for exam- WORK AND THE SCHOOL CALENDAR ple, while poor children will be allowed to drift. In 1983, 53 percent of upper- and middle- If we are to reorder national education priorities, income families had their preschool children in we also must adjust the school schedule to chang- special programs, but only 29 percent of at-risk ing family and work patterns. This national chal- three- and four-year-olds were enrolled. If we are lenge goes far beyond the crisis of the poor. When to narrow this gap, new enrichment programs today's school calendar was set almost a century which I will call an Extended Schoolshould be ago, with nine months of study and three months an option for all students, not just the privileged off, over 90 percent of all school-age children were few. Families who can pay for these extra services living on a farm with two parents, working hard, should pay for themat fees that will make the and staying home in the summer to tend the activities self-supporting. crops. The school calendar mirrored national work For those who cannot afford the cost, I urge a and family patterns. state-financed plan that would give poor families a Today, the world has turned upside down. Less certificate of eligibility, linked to the federal Chap- than 3 percent of today's families are on farms. In ter 1 guidelines, to be redeemed at the preschool, most households both parents work away from after-school, or summer program of their choice. home. Moreover, nearly one in five families is Several states provide a precedent for this proce- headed by a woman, two-thirds of whom work dure. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and South Caroli- outside the home. About half the children now in na have state-financed enrichment programs, in first grade will have lived in one-parent homes by which the eligibility is based on Chapter 1. While the time they graduate from high school. these projects focus on remediation, the procedures I'm convinced that the school schedule needs to could be applied to the Extended School as well. match both family and work patterns as it did 100 Furthermore, financing this enrichment program years ago.Already,because of the number of jointly, through parent payment and through the working parents, over 40 percent of the nation's state, would relieve local budgets and assure equity children are in prekindergarten programs. in public school financing. For the core school Increasingly schools will be called upon to pro- program, however, current funding patterns would vide prekindergarten sessions to serve young chil- be kept in place. dren who need care outside the home. In fact, the A school district that chose not to conduct nation's governors, in their new report, urge states enrichment programs intcmaily could contract with to provide quality early education for at-rick four- a college, a youth club, local artists, or computer year-olds and "where possible" for three-year-olds centers, for example. Most important, the enrich- as well. This recommendation touches real life. ment programs would provide the option for chil- Today, one out of ten children comes home to dren from allsocial and economic backgrounds, an empty house or apartment. And as this "latch- and perhaps from both public and private schools, key" problem grows, schools should operate on a to participate together. longer day, offering after-hour programs such as special studies in science, computers, music, or athletics, for example. I'm also convinced that we LEARNING ABOUT INTELLIGENCE should lengthen the school calendar. A three- month summer recess is anachronistic now, espe- In the days ahead it is urgently important that cially at a time when most parents work outside we find our more about how children learn. The the home year-round. Rather, we need an optional attention we .re giving to education has done little summer term for children, not for babysitting but to teac1us about learning, and we are still igno- 316 Early Schooling and the Nation's Future rant about how to measure the results. We have ter of how well schools are doing, but our tests do good schools and good teachers; butmy optimism not come close eneugh to individual children or about the future of schoolingisbased on the provide teachers with sufficient information. By conviction that, in the days ahead,we will become reducing students to numbers we may be telling more knowledgeable about learning and about children that they are failures before they've hada how we can assess the potential of all children. chance to discover what they might become. The most exciting work, in my opinion, is being done by Howard Gardner at Harvard. Gardner, in If our goal is to educate all children,we must his provocative and insightfulbook, Framesof broaden our definition of "potential." We also Mind, reminds us that childrennot only have must honor the full range of talent that contrib- verbal intelligence,but they also have logical, utes to our civility and, perhaps, to our survival, mathematical, spatial, bodily, arid personal intelli- too. To achieve excellence in education we must gence.I suspect they have intuitive and social confront the problems of poor children, give prior- intelligence as well. ity to early education, affirm the centrality of Gardner suggests that we should findways to language, provide enrichment programs that reflect understand the many dimensions of intelligence in the changing work and family patterns of the our children. Regrettably, paper-and-pencil tests nation, and learn more abo'it how children learn. focus on a limited range of verbal andcomputa- As we move toward a new century, we must tional skills,representing a meager sampling of answer an urgent question: Will America continue selected words and numbers. to believe in education for all children, or will it We need yardsticks toassure that our $140 separate winners from losers, educate them accord- billion annual investmentinpublic schoolsis ingly, and in so doing become a more divided paying off. Tests are useful in providinga barome- nation? DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.Is early childhood education an effective toolto address problems of poverty, health, and families? 2. What are the negative consequences to children, families, and society if comprehensive early educationef- forts are not implemented? 3. Does excellent early childhood education makea durable and continuing contribution to the child? 4. Can early childhood educationprograms contribute to the transformation of society? 314 317 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, FOOTNOTES, AND REFERENCES Section One: Historical Perspectives of Early Childhood Education 1. Early Childhood Education's Past as Prole. gue: Belts of Contemporary Concerns, by Bernard Spodek, pp. 10-13. Young Chi'lren, July 1985, pp. 3-7. Copyright © 1965 by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. Reprinted with permission. Clark, B. (1970). The distinctive college: Antioch, Reed and Ross, E.D. (1976). The kindergarten crusade. Athens, OH: c'..oartirmore, Chicago: Aldine. Ohio University Press. Kaestle, C.F., and Vinovskis, M.A. (1978), rom apror strings Spodek, B. (1982). The kindergarten: A retrospective and to ABCs:Parents,children end schoc-ingin nineteenth- contemporary view. In L. Katz (Ed.), Currrent topics in early century Massachusetts. In J. Demos, and S.S. Boocock (Eds.), childhood educatiow (Vol. 4. pp. 173-191). Norwood, NJ: Turning points:Historical and sociological essays on the Able family. American Journal of f .iology Supplement, 84. Strickland, C.E. (1982). Paths not taken: Seminal models of May, D., and Vinovskis, M.A. (1977). A ray of millenial early childhood education in Jacksonian America. In B. Spo- light: Early education and social reform in the infant school dek (Ed.), Handbook of research in early childhood education movement in Massachusetts, 1826-1840. In T. Harty= (Ed.), (pp. 321-340). New York: Free Press. Family and kininurban communities,1700-1930 (pp. Zigler, E., and Anderson, K. (1979). An idea syhose time had 62-99). New Yolk: New Viewpoints. come: The intellectual and political climate. In E. Zigler and Mittenthal, S. (1982, November 11). A trend to more se.ious J. Valentule (Eds.), Project Head Start: A legacy of the war on preschool subjects. The New York Times, p. Cl. poverty (pp. 3-19). New York: Free Press. 2. The European Roots of Early Childhood Education in North America, by Gary Woodill, pp. 14-22. International Journal of Early Childhood Education, vol. 18, no. 1, 1986, pp. 6-21. Copyright © 1986 by the International Jon. sod of Early Childhood Education. Reprinted with permissior. Anderson, K. (1985). Commodity exchange and su,...ndina- Chicago: Un;versity of Chicago Press. ,..ion: Montagnais-Naskapi and Huron women. Signs: journal Kurtz, J. (1976). John Frederic Oberlin. Boulder, Colorado: of Women in Culture and Society,11(1), 48-.62. Westview Press. Aries, P. (1962). Centuries of childhood: A social history of Munroe, W. (1907). History of the Pestalozzian movement in family life. New York: Knopf. the United States. Syracuse, N.Y.: C. W. Bardeen. Bagnell,K.(1980).Thelittleimmigrants.Toronto: Omwake, E. (1971). Preschool programs in historical perspec- MacMillan. tive. Inter... ange, 2(2), 27-40. Braun, S. and Edwards, E. (1972). Hutory and theory of early childhood education. Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones. Osbom, D. K. (1980). Early childhood education in historical perspective. Athens, GA: Education Associates. Corbett, B. (1968). The public school kindergarten in Ontar- Pollock, L. (1984). Forgotten children: Parent-child relations io,1883 to 1967. Doctoral Thesis. Toronto: University of Toronto. from 1500 to 1900. Cambridge University Press. Cremin, L. (1970). American education: The colonial experi- Postman, N. (1982). The disappearance of childhood. New ence, 1607-1783. New York: Harper and Row. York: Dell Publishing. Cubberly E.(1920).Thehistory of education.Boston: Quincy, L. (1982). A Canadian orphanage in the nineteenth Houghton Mifflin. century:Theorphan's home of theCityof Ottawa, 1864-1893. Master's Thesis. Toronto: University of Toronto. Deasy, D.(1978).Education under six.London: Croom Helm. Rooke, P. and Schnell, R. L. (1983). Discarding the asylum: From Child Rescue to the Welfare State in English-Canada deMause, L. (1974). The history of childhood. New York: The (1800-19.50). Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Psychohistory Press. Ross, E. (1976). The kindergarten crusade: The establishment Elkind, D. (1970). The case for the academic preschool: Fact of preschool education in the United States. Athens, Ohio: or fiction? Young Children, 25, 132-139. Ohio University Press Elkind, D. (1976).Child development and education: A Schulz, P. (1978). Day care in Canada: 1850-1962. In Kath- Piagetiag perspective. New York: Oxford University Press. leen Gallagher Ross (Ed.), Good day care. Toronto: Women's Evans, B. and Waites, B. (1981). IQ and mental to :mg: An Press. unnatural science and its social history. Atlantic highlands, Shapiro, M. (1983). Child's garden: The kindergarten move- New Jersey: Humanities Press. ment from Froebel to Dewey. University Park, PA: Pennsylva- Fein, G. and Clarke-Stewart, A. (1973). Day care in context. nia State University Press. New York: John Wiley. Steinfels, M. (1973). Who's minding the children: The history Kamin, L. (1974). The science and politics of L Q. New York: and politics of day 4,are in America. New York: Simon and John Wiley. Shuster. Kuhn, T.(1967).The structure of scientific revolutions. Vandewalker, N. (1971). The kindergarten in American edu- 318 3i5 Acknowledgments, Footnotes, and References cation. New York: Amo Press. Weber, E. (1970). Early childhood education: Perspectives on Weber, E.(1969). The kindergarten:Itsencounter with change. Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones. educational thought in America. New York: Teachers' College Young, R. (1932). Comenius in England. London: Oxford Press. University Bess (Reprinted by Arno Press, New York, 1971). 3. A Mini-History of Early Childhood Education, by Blythe F. Hinitz, pp. 23-24. Young World, vol. 19, Winter-Spring 1981. Copyright © by the New Jersey Association for the Education of Young Children. Reprinted with permission. For Further Reading on the History of Early Childhood Weber, Evelyn. The Kindergarten, Its Encounter with Educes- Education tional Thought in America. New York: Teachers College Press, 1969. Braun and Edwards. History and Theory of Early Childhood Education. Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones Publishing Company, 1972. Early Childhood Texts with Excellent Chapters on the History of Early Education Greenleaf, Barbara. Children Through the Ages. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1978. Maxim, George. The Very Young: Guiding Children from Grotberg, Edith. 200 Years of Children. Washington, D.C.: Infancy through the Early Years. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1977. Publishing Company, 1980. Osbom, D. Keith. Early Childhood Education in Historical Morrison, George S. Early Childhood Education Today, 2d Perspective. Athens, Georgia: Education Associates, 1975. Edition. Columbus, Ohio: Charles Merrill Publishing Compa- Snyder, Agnes. Dauntless Women in Childhood Education. ny, 1980. Washington, D.C.: Association for Childhood Education In- Seefeldt, Carol. Teaching Young Children. Englewood Cliffs, ternational, 1972. NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 1980. 4. The Kindergarten in Historical Perspective, by 3.Dianne Lawler and Jerold P. Bauch, pp. 25-28. Barto lini, L., and Wasem, L. The Kindergarten Curriculum. Lawler, D. "A Comparative Study of Kindergarten and First- Illinois Store Board of Education. Springfield: Illinois State Grade Teachers' Use of Instructional Time." Doctoral disserta- Board of Education, 1985. ED 260 832. tion, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, 1987. Belgrad, S. "Teacher and Parent Roles in the Development of Lazerson, M. Origins of the Urban School: Public Education Kindergarten Curriculum." Omar School Research and De- in Massachusetts, 1870-1913. Cambridge: Harvard University velopment 20 (1984): 7-8. Press, 1971. Bloom, B. All Our Children Learning. New York: McGraw Naron, N. "The Need for Full-Day Kindergarten." Educa- Hill, 1981. tional Leadership 38 (1981): 306-9. Ctuike' .4nk, 5. "The All-Day Kindergarten Curriculum: What Ransbury, M."Friedrich Froebel, 1782-:982." Childhood Doe 'More' Mean?" L...v Years 16 (1986): 33-35. B.' nation 59 (1982): 104-5. Davis, H. "Reading Pressures in the Kindergarten." Child- z.....reldt,C. "Tomorrow's Kindergarten: Pleasure or Pres- hood Education 57 (1980): 76-79 sure." Principal 64 (1985): 12-15. Elkind, D. The Hurried Child. New York: Addison-Wesley, 1981. Sheehy, E. The 3s and 6s Go to School. New York: Henry Holt, 1954 Elkind, D. Miseducation: Preschoolers at Risk. New York: Knopf, 1987. Snyder, A. Dauntless Women in Early Childhood Education, 1856 -1931. Washington, D.C.: Association for Early Child- Etheridge, G. "Should Education for the Young Child Focus hood Education International, 1972. on the Whole Child or on Specific Skills?" Tennessee Educa- tional Leadership 13 (198t 23-25. Spodek, B. "The Kindergarten: A Retrospective and Contem- porary View." Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Document Reproduction Federlein, A. "Kindergarten -to Read or Not to Read." Service, 1981. ED 206 375. Eastern Educational Journal 16 (1984): 23-25. Gullo, D.; Bersani, C.; Bayless, K.; and Clements, D. "All- Vandewalker, N. The Kindergarten in American Education. New York: Macmillan, 1908. Day Kindergarten Makes a Difference: The Effects of Three Kindergarten Schedules on Academic Achievement and Class- Washington, V."Trends in Early Childhood Education." room Social Behaviors." Paper presented at the Annual Con- Dimensions 16 (1988): 4-7. ference of the National Association for Education of Young Webber, D. "How Are Today's Children Different from Children, New Orleans, 1985. Yesterday's?" Tennessee Educational Leadership 13 (1986): Hewes, D. "Compensatory Early Childhood Education: Froe- 13-16. belian Origins and Outcomes." Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Docu- Webster, N. "The 5s and 6s Go to School Revisited." ment Reproduction Semite, 1985. ED 264 980. Childhood Education 45 (1984): 325-30. Hewes, D. "Looking i3ackward: Fascinating Facts About ECE Werner, L. "A View of Today's Kindergarten Across the in the1800's." National Association of Early Childhood United States." Illinois School Research and Development 20 Teacher Educators Bulletin 26 (1987): 9-19. (1984): 1-2. 319 3 1 6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, FOOTNOTES, AND REFERENCES Section Two: Policy Decisions About Present and Future Issues 5. Policy Options for Preschool Programs, by Lawrence J. Schweinhart, Jeffrey J. Koshel, and Anne Bridgman, pp. 30-35. Phi Delta ICappan, vol. 68, no. 7, March 1987, pp. 524-29. Copyright CD 1987 by Lawrence J. Schweinhart. Reprinted with permission. 1. For ms.re detail on the issues treated in this [chapter] and (Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of for a description of the early childhood initiatives in specific Young Children, 1986); and Craig Coelen et al., Day Care states, see Lawrence J. Schweinhart and Jeffrey J. Kosher Centers in the U.S.: A National Profile, 1976-77 (Cambridge, Policy Options for Preschool Programs (Ypsilanti,Mic... Mass.: Final Report of the National Day Care Study, Vol. III, High/Scope Early Childhood Policy Papers, No. 5, published Abt Associates,1978). in collaboration with the National Governors' Association, 9. Analysis of the FY 1987 Federal Budget for Children 1986). (Washington, D.C: Children's Defense Fund, 1986), p. 355. 2. Investing in Our Children (New York: Research and Policy 10. Unpublished data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Committee of the Committee for Economic Development, U.S. Department of Labor, based on the March 1985 Current 1985). Population Survey. 3. This editorial appears in a collection of material titled The 11. Richard Ruopp, JAFtey Travers, Frederick Glantz, and American Millstone (Chicago:Contemporary Books,Inc., Craig Coelen, Children at the Center: Summary Findings an. 1986), p. 297. Their Implications (Cambridge, Mass.: Final Report of e e 4. The Crisis in Infant and Toddler Care (Washington, D.C.: National Day Care Study, Vol. I, Abt As-xiatts, 1979'. Ad Hoc Day Care Coalition, 1985). 12. James L. Hymes, Jr., Early aldhoo,Education. The 3. Lawrence J. Schweinhart and David P. Wei kart, Young Year in Review: A Look at 1983 (Cannel, Calif.: Hacienda Children Grow Up: The Effects of the Perry Preschool Pro- Press, 1986) gram on Youths Through Age 13 (Ypsilanti, Mich.: High/ 13. Lawn -ice J. Schweinhart, David P. Weikart, and Mary B. Scope Press, 1980). La.-ner, "Consequences of Three Preschool Curriculum Models 6. John R. Berrueta-Clement, Lawrence J.Schweinhart, W. on Youths Through Age 15,"EarlyChildhood Research Steven Barnett, Ann S.Epstein, and David P. Weikart, Quarterly (Norwood, N.Y.: Ablex Publishing Corporation, Changed Lives: The Effects of the Perry Preschool Program on 1986). Youths Through Age 19 (Ypsilanti, Mich.: High/Scope press, 14 Hymes,EarlyChildhood Education:TheYear in 1984). Review.... 7. Meeting the &timid Mandate: Chicago's Government- 15. Of the 452,300 children who were served by Head Start Funded Kindergarten Programs, Fiscal 1984 (Chicago: Depart- in 1985, at least 90% (407,070) met poverty guidelines. But ment of Research and Evaluation, Chicago Public Schools, those 407,070 children accounted for only 24% of the 1985). 1,702,000 preschoolers who were living in poverty in the U.S., 8. DraftStatementonCompensation and Affordability according to a 1984 Current Population Survey. 6. Early Childhood Development Programs: A PublicInvestment Opportunity, by Lawrence J. Schweinhart and David P. Weikart, pp. 36-43. Educational Leadership, vol. 44, no.3, November 1986, pp. 4-12. Reprinted with permission of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development and Lawrence J.Schweinhart and David P. Weikart. Copyright © 1986 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. All rights reserved. Barnett, W. Steven. The Perry Preschool Program and Its Theoretical Perspective on Delinquent Behavior." Journal of Long-Term Effects: A Benefit-Cost Analysis. High/Scope Ear;y Research in Crime and Delinquency 16 (January 1979). Childhood Policy Papers, No. 2 Ypsilanti, Mich.: High/Scope Epstein, Ann S., Gwen Morgan, Nancy Curry, Richard C. Press, 1985. Endsley, Marilyn R. Bradbard, and Hakim M. Rashid. Quality Berrueta-Clement, John R., Lawrence J.Schweinhart, W. in Early Childhood Programs: Four Perspectives. (High/Scope Steven Barnett, Ann S.Epstein, and David P. Weikart. Early Childhood Policy Papers, No.3.) Ypsilanti,Mich.: Changed Lives: The Effects of the Perry Preschool Program on High /Scope Press, 1985. Youths through Age 19. (Monographs of the High/Scope Educational Research Foundation,8.)Ypsilanti,Mich.: Guttmacher Institute. Teenage Pregnancy: The Problem That High/Scope Press, 1984. Hasn't Gone Away. New York: Guttmacher, 1981. Congressional Research Service and Congressional Budget Of- Hill, Martha S., and Michael Ponza. "Poverty and Welfare fice. Children in Poverty. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govern- Dependence Across Generations." Economic Outlook USA. ment Printing Office, 1985. Institute for Social Research (Summer 1983): 61. Consortium for Longitudinal Studies. As the Twig Is Bent Hohmann, Mary, Bernard Banet, and David P.Weikart. ... Lasting Effects of Preschool Programs.Hillsdale, NJ.: Young Children in Action: A Manual for Preschool Educators. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1983. Ypsilanti, Mich.: High/Scope Press, 1979. Education Commission of the States, National Assessment of Hymes, James L., Jr. Early Childhood Education: The Year in Educational Progress. The Third National Mathematics Assess- Review: A Look at 1983. Cannel, Calif.: Hacienda Press, ment: Results, Trends, and Issues. Denver: Education Com- 1986. mission of the States, 1983. Lazar, Irving, Richard Darlington, Harry Murray, Jacqueline Elliott, D. S., S. S. Ageton, and R. J. Canter. "An Integrated Royce, and Ann Snippet. "Lasting Effects of Early Educa- 320 317 Acknowledgments, Footnotes, and References tion." (Monographs of the Society for Research in Child 1). Cambridge, Mass.: Abt Associates, i979. Development, 47) (1-2, Serial No. 194, 1982). Schweinhart, Lawrence J., Early Childhood Development Pro- Loeber, Rolf, and T. Dishion. "Early Predictors of Male grams in the Eighties: The National Picture. (High/Scope Delinquency: A Review." 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Burton White, The First Three Years of Life (Englewood lenges of the 80's," U.S. News and World Report (October Cliffs, N.J.: Prer ice-Hall, 1975); J. McV. Hunt, Intelligence 15, 1979): 45-80; M. Cetron and T. O'Toole, Encounters with and Experience (New York: Ronald Press,1961); Benjamin the Future. A Forecast of Life into the Twenty-First Century Bloom, Stability and Change in Human Characteristics (New (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982); Lawrence J. Schweinhart, York: Wiley, 1964); F.D. Horowitz, ed., Review of Child Early Childhood Development Programs in the Eighties: The Development Research (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, National Picture(Ypsilanti,Michigan: ligh/ScopePress, 1975): John Berrueta-Clement, Lawrence Schweinhart, William 1985). Barnett, Ann Epstein, and David Weikart, Changed Lives (Ypsilanti,Michigan:High/Scope Research Foundation, 10. Marce Verzaro-Lawrence, Dcuise LeBlanc, and Charles 1984). Hennon, "Industry-Related Day Care: Trends and Options," Young Children (January 1982): 4-10; Dana Friedman, En- 2. Uric Bronfenbrenner, "The Changing Family in a Chang- couraging Employer Support To Working Parents (New York ing World: America First?" Peabody Journal of Education 61 Center for Public Advocacy Research, 1981); Kathleen Perry, (Spring 1984):52-70; Ellen Galinsky The New Extended Employers and Child Care: Establishing Services Through the Family (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977); Kenneth Keniston, Workplace (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, All Our Children: The American Family under Pressure (New Women's Bureau, 1982). York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978). 11. "Day Care," Newsweek, p. 20. 3. Greta Fein and Allison Clarke-Stewart, Day Care in Con- 12. S. Fesburg, Family Day Care in the United States (Wash- text (New York; John Wilzy and Sons, 1973); Uric Bronfen- ington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Public Services, brenner, The Ecology of Human Development (Cambridge, 1981). Mass: Harvard University Press,1979). 13. Helen Blank, "Early Childhood Education and the Public 4. Edward Zigler and Edmund Gordon, Day Care: Scientific Schools," Young Children (May 1985): 52-55. and Social Policy Issues (Boston: Auburn House, 1982). 14. EileenLinder,MaryMattis,and J.Rogers,When 5. Sheila B. Kamerman, Child Care: Options for the 80'r Churches Mind the Children (Ypsilanti, Michigan: High/S- (New York: The Association of Junior Leagues, 1982). cope Press, 1983). 6. Robert Halpern, "Assuring Quality Early Childhood Ser- 15. Ibid. vices," Child Welfare 61 (June 1982): 325-343. 16. "Day Care," Newsweek. 7. Helen Blank, Child Care: The States' Response (Washing- 17. Blank, Child Care. ton, D.C.: Children's Defense Fund, 1984). 18. Bettye Caldwcand Ma Hilliard,III, What is Quality 8. Ibid. Child Care? (Washington, D.C.: National Association for the 9. Sharon Kagan and Roger Neugebauer, "What's Ahead: Education of Young Children, 1985). Directors Speak about the Future of Child Care," Child Care 19. Jane Stallings and Mary Wilcox, "Quality of Day Care: Information Exchange (January 1984):15-18; "What Price Can It Be Measured?" in Child Care and Public Policy, eds., Day Care?" Newsweek (September 10, 1984): 14-21; "Chal- Philip Robins and Samuel Weiner (New York: Lexington 323 320 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, FOOTNOTES, AND REFERENCES Books, 1978). 22. Richard Roupp, Children at the Center (Cambridge, 20. National Association for the Education of Young Chil- Mass.: Abt, 1979). dren, AccreditationCriteria and Procedures (Washington, 23. Paula Jorde, Avoiding Burnout in Early Childhood Educe- D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Chil- non (Washington, D.C.: Acropolis, 1982). dren, 1984). 21. David Elkind, The Hurried Child (Reading, Mass.: Addi- 24. U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Projections and son-Wesley,1981); Mary Miller, Chi Id:tress (Garden City, Training Data (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing N.Y.: Doubleday, 1982); Neil Postman, The Disappearance of Office, 1984); "Wanted: Experienced Teachers," Child Care Childhood (New York: Delacorte, 1982). Employee Newt (Fall 1984): 2. 11. Educating the Very Young: A Call for Clear Thinking, by David Elkind, pp. 65-70. NM Today, vol. 6, no. 6, January 1988, pp. 22-27. Copyright © 1988 by the National Education Association of the United States. This is true only when the initiative for reading instruction comes "A number, as a use unit, is hie every other number in the sense from the adult, not from the child. Children who spontaneously that it is a number, yes different from every other number in its order evidence an interest in reading (i.e., have a structural imperative for of enumeration. Three islikeall other numbers in that itis a it) should of course be helped when they ask for assistance and be number, but different from all others in that it is the only number encouraged by the provision of ample, appropriate books and of that comes after two and before four. unhurried time to explore them. Early Schooling: The National Debate. Sharon Lynn v.a,gan teachers in training as well as those who work with young and Edward Zigler. Yale University Press, 1r7. children in noneducational settings. Early childhood education experts discuss political, practi- cal,social, economic, and philosophical issues involved in Miseducation: Preschoolers at Risk. David Elkind. Knopf, providing out-of-home programs. They also review and evalu- 1987. ate related research. Education is not always beneficial. This book deals with the Engaging the Minds of Young Children: The Project Ap- tendency of today's parents and schools to miseducate young proach. Lillian G. Katz and S. Chard. Able', forthcoming. children. After dealing with the parental, historical, and social A comprehensive discussion of teaching practices and strat- dynamics responsible for this widespread miseducation, the egies relating to young children. Solidly grounded in research book dealswiththerisks of miseducation and provides and experience, this text provides up-to-date material for guidelines for healthy education. 12. Preschool Children in the Public Schools: Good Investment? Or Bad? by Deborah Burnett Strother, pp. 71-75. Phi Delta Kappan, December 1987, pp. 304-8. © 1987, Phi Delta Kappan, Inc. 1. U.S Bureau of the Census, Who's Mindi.sg the Kidr? College of Education of Memphis State University and the (Washington, D.C.: Current Population Reports, Household Barbara K. Lipman Early Childhood Research Institute, 22-23 Economic Studies, Series P-70, No. 9, 1987). The figure! , cited May 1987. were calculated from this and other sources by Amaru Bachu, 9. Herbert Zimiles, "Rethinking the Role of Research: New a statistician with the U.S. Bureau of the Census. Issues and Lingering Doubts in an Era of Expanding Preschool 2. Children in Need: Investment Strategies for the Education- Education,"EarlyChildhood ResearchQuarterly,vol.1, ally Disadvantaged (New York: Committee for Economic 1986, pp. 189-206. Development, 1987). 10. Carolyn Morado, "Prekindergarten Programs for 4-Year- 3. Select Committee on Children, Youth, and Families, U.S. Olds: Some Key Issues," Young Children, July 1986, p. 62. House of Representatives, 98th Congress, Second Session, 11. "Prevention Strategies for Healthy Babies and Healthy Families and Child Care: Improving the Options (Washing- Children," 30 June 1983. ton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984), p. xviii. 12. Children in Need .. p. 6 4. Time for Results: The Governors' 1991 Report on Educa- 13. Grubb, p. 47. tion (Washington, D.C.: National Governors' Association, 14. See, for example, Lawrence J. Schweinhart and David P. 1986), p.3. Weikart, "Evidence That Good Early Childhood Programs 5. W. Norton Grubb, "Young Children Face the States: Work," P h i D e l t a Kappan, April 1985, pp. 545-53; C o n s o r - Issues and Options for Early Childhood Programs," Center for t i u m f o r Longitudinal Studies, A l t h e T w i g I s Bent ... Lasting Policy Research in Education (CPRE) Note Series, sponsored Effects of Preschool Programs (Hillsdale,N.J.:Erlbaum, by the U.S. Department of Education in conjunction with the 1983); and Donald E. Pierson, Debor` Klein Walker, and Eagleton Institute of Politics at Rutgers University, the Rand Terrence Tivnan. "A School-Based Program from Infancy to Corporation, and the University of Wisconsin-Madison, May Kindergarten for Children and Their Parents," Personnel and 1987. Guidance Journal, April 1984, pp. 448-55. 6. David Elkind, "Formal Education and Early Childhood 15. Lawrence J. Schweinhart, David P. Weikart, and Mary B. Education: An Essential Difference." Ph: Delta Kappan, May Lamer, "Consequences of Three Preschool Curriculum Models 1986, pp. 631-36. Through Age 15." Early Childhood Research Quarterly, vol. 7. Select Committee, p.viii. 1.1986, pp. 15-45. 8. Remarks by Jane Stallings at a symposium hosted by the 16. Remarks by David Weikart at a symposium hosted by the 324 321 Acknowledgments, Footnotes, and References College of Education of Memphis State University and the 18. Telephone conversation with Fern Marx. 10 September Barbara K. Lipman Early Childhood Research Institute, 22-23 1987. May 1987. 19. Telephone conversation with Anne Mitchell. 10 Septem- 17. See, for example, Edward F. Zig ler, "Formal Schooling ber 1987. for Four-Year-Olds? No." American Psychologist, Match1987, 20. Telephone conversation with Edward Zigler. 15 September pp. 254-60. 1987. 13. Day Care and the r ublic SchoolsNatural Allies, Natural Enemies,by Bettye M. Cale..'.', pp. 76-80. Educational Leaden Sip, vol. 43, no.5, February 1986, pp. 34-39. Reprinted with permission of the Association for Supervision and Cunicuhun Development and Bettye M. Caldwell.Copyright © 1986 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Developrwmt. All rights reserved. Bowlby, J. Maternal Care and Mental Health. Geneva, Swit- Stern, E. Eddy, R. Drachman, and A. Rothman. "Mother- zerland: World Health Organization, 1952. Infant Interaction in Monomatric and Polymattic Families." Caldwell, B. M. "Impact of Interest inEarly Cognitive American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 33 (1963): 653-664. Stimulation." In Perspectives in Psychopathology, edited by H. Rie. 293-334. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton, 1971. Caldwell, B. M., and J. B. Richmond, "Programmed Day Care for the Very Young Child: A Preliminary Report." Caldwell, B. M., L. Hersher. E. Lipton, J. B. Richmond, G. Journal of Marriage and the Family 26 (1964): 481-488. 14. Let Children Start School When They're Ready! by CynthiaParsons, pp. 81-82. Phi Delta Kappan, September 1985,pp. 61-62. © 1985, Phi Delta Kappan, Inc. 15. It Depends on Your Aim, by Raymond S. Moore,pp. 82-83. Phi Delta Kpan, September 1985, pp. 62-64. © 1985, Phi DeltaKappan, Inc. 1. John Dewey, "The Primary Education Fetish," Forum, vol. Schooling and the Acquisition of Conversation," Child Devel- 25, 1898, pp. 314-28. opment, vol. 38, 1967, pp. 39-52; Harold M. Skeels et al., 2. Arnold Gesell, The Normal Child and Primary Education "A Study of Environmental Stimulation: An Orphanage Pre- (New York: Ginn, 1912). school Project," University of !owe Studies in Child Welfare, 3. Raymond S. Moore, School Can Wait (Provo, Ut.: Brigham vol. 15, no. 4 (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1938); and Young University Press, 1979). Marcel Geber, "The Psycho-Motor Development of African Children in the First Year, and the Influence of Maternal 4. Pascual D. Forgione and Raymond S. 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Copyright © 1987 by the National Education Association of theUnited States. 25. Prekindergarten Programs for Four-Year-Olds: State Involvement in Preschool Education, by CarolynMorado, pp. 127-29. Young Children, vol. 41, no. 6, September 1986, pp. 69-71. Copyright © 1986 by the National Associationfor the Education of Young Children. Reprinted with permission. 26. Safeguards: Guidelines for Establishing Programs for Four-Year-Olds in the Pub!ic Schools,by The National Black Child Development Institute, pp. 130-31. Pages Copyright 1987, The National Black Child Development Institute, Washington, D.C. Reprinted with permission. Coleman, Madeleine, ed. Black Children Just Keepon Grow- Five Communities. Newton, MA: Education Development ing: Alternative Curriculum Models for Young Black Chil- Center, Inc., 1978. dren. Washington, DC: Black Child Development Institute, 1977. Moore, Cveityn K. "Day Care: A Black Perspective." In Day Hale, Janice."Black Children: Their Roots, Culture, and Care: Scientific and Social Policy Issues. Eds. Edward F. Zigler Learning Styles." In Understanding the Multicultural Experi- and Edmund W. Gordon. Boston: Auburn House Publishing Co., 1982. ence in Early Childhood Education. Eds. Olivia N. Saracho and Bernard Spodek. Washington, DC: National Association National Association for the Education of Young Children. for the Education of Young Children, 1983. "NAEYC Position Statement on Developnentally Appropriate Hale, Janice. Black Children: Their Roots,Culture, and Practice in Programs for Four and Five Year Olds." June, Learning Styles. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press, 1986. 1982. National Black Child Development Institute. Beyond the Honig, Alice S. Parent Involvement in Early Childhood Edu- Stereotype .,: A Guide to Resources for Black Girls and Young cation. Washington, DC: National Association for the Educa- Women. Washington, DC: National Black Child Develop- tion of Young Children, 1975. ment Institute, 1986. Hymes, James L. "Public Schools for Four Year Olds." Notes and Comments, Fall 1986. National Black Child Development Institute. Child Can in the Public Schools: Incubator for Inequality? Washington, Levine, JamA. Day Care and the Public Schools: Profiles of DC: National Black Child Development Institute, 1945. ABOUTNBCDI The National Black Child Development Institute was estab- publications, and the annual conference. lished in 1970 to improve the quality of life for Black children NBCDI's affiliate network serves as a catalyst for change on and youth. A national, nonprofit, charitable, and educational the local level.Affiliates engage in a variety of program organization, NBCDI focuses on the issues of health, educa- activities beneficial to Black children and youth. For example, tion, child welfare, and child care. NBCDI is composed of they have addressed the issue of competency testing, tutored dedicated volunteers who help to educate their communities children and youth, and provided leadership training through about national, state, and local issues facing Black children conferences and workshops. Membership in NBCDI is open to and youth. NBCDI's public education component is imple- all interested persons. mented through [its] quarterly newsletter, periodic updates, 27. Public School for Four -Y'at -Olds, by James L. 14: nes, Jr., pp. 131-32. Young Children, vol. 42, no. 2, January 1987, p. 51. Copyright © 1987 by the NationalAssociation for the Education of Young Children. Reprinted with pennasion. 28. Full-Day or Half-Day Kindergarten? by Dianne Rothenberg, pp. 133-34. ERIC Digest, 1984. ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education,University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. Evans, Ellis D., and Dan Marken. Longitudinal Follow-up Finkelstein, Judith M. 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Reprinted with permission. 340 317 Acknowledgments, Footnotes, and References The data for the Petry Preschool Project are included in the tables, Early Childhood Education," by Lawrence J. Schweinhart, John R. but we will limit our discussion here. For a more detailed description Betrueta-Clement, W. Steven Barnett, Ann S. Epstein, and David P. of the evaluation of the Petry Preschool Project,see "The Promise of Welart, pp. 222-25. 1. Rupert A. Klaus and Susan W. Gray, The Early Training of 3- and 4-Year-Olds by Race /Ethnic Category (Washington, Project for Disadvantaged Children: A Report After Five Years D.C.: National Center for Education Statistics, 1982),p.13. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Society for Research in Child Development, Monograph No.120, 1968);and David 4. Lying Lazar, Richard Darlington, Harry Murray, Jacqueline P. Weikart, ed., Preschool Intervention: Preliminary Results of Royce , and Ann Snippet, Lasting Effects of Early Education the Perry Preschool Project (Ann Arbor, Mich.:Campus ( Chicago: Society for Research in Child Development, Mono- Publishers, 1967). graph No. 194, 1982). The investipy.rs of the Early Training Project,the Harlem Study, and the Mother-Child Home 2. Westinghouse Learning Corporation, The Impact of Head Program also belonged to th,Consortium. Start: An Evaluation of the Effect of Head Starton Children's Cognitive and Affective Development,Vols. I-II (Athens: 5. Craig T. Ramey, Donna M. Bryant, and Tanya M. Suarez, Ohio University, 1969); and Arthur R. Jensen, "How Much "Preschool Compensatory Education and the Modifiability of Can We Boost I.Q. and Scholastic Achievement?," Harvard Intelligence: A Critical Review," in Douglas Dettennan, ed., Educational Review, February 1969,pp. 1-123. Current Topics in Human Intelligence (Norwood, NJ.: Able:, 3. This focus on early childhood education for low-income 1984). blacks has left ;23 mark. In 1980, for 3- and 4-year-olds in 6. Lawrence J. Schweinhart and David P. Weikart, Young families with annual incomes under ;15,000, the preschool Children Grow Up: The Effects of the Perry Preschool Pro- enrollment figures were 37 percent for black children but only gram on Youths Through Age 15 (Ypsilanti, Mich.: High/ 25% for white children. See Gerald Kahn, School Enrollment Scope Press, 198'1. RECENT REPORTS ONTHE SEVEN sr JIES Early Training Project. Susan W. Gray, Barbara K. Ramsey, As the Twig Bent... , pp. 201-36. and Rupert A. Klaus, From 3 to 20-The Early Training Project (Baltimore: University Park Rome Head 'start Program. Eleanor Monroe and M. S. Mc- 'ress.1982). Donald, "1 Follow-up Study of the 1966 Head Start Pro- Perry Preschool Project. John R. Berrueta-Clement, Lawrence gram," Rome City Schools, Rome, Ga., 1981. J. Schweinhart, W. Steven Barnett, Ann S.Epstein, and David P. Weikel, Chaired Lives: The Effects of the Perry Milwaukee Study. Howard L. Garber and Rick Heber, "The Preschool Program on Youths Through Age 19 (Ypsilanti, Efficacy of Early Intervention with Family Rehabilitation," in Mich.: High/Scope Press, 1984). Michael J. Begab, H. Carl Haywood, and Howard L. Garber, Mother-Child Home Program.PhyllisLevenstein, John eds., Psychosocial Influences in Retarded Performance, Vol. II: O'Hara, and John Madden, "The Mother-Child Home Pro- Strategies for Improving Competence (Baltimore: University gram of the Verbal Interaction Project," in Consortium for Park Press, 1981), pp. 71-88. Longitudinal Studies, As the Twig Is Bent... Lasting Effects of New York Prekindergarten Program. David J. Irvine, "Evalua- Preschool Programs (Hillsdale, NJ.: Erlbaum, 1983),pp. 237- 64. tion of the New York State Experimental Prekindergarten Program," paper presented at the annual meeting of the Harlem Study. Francis H. Palmer, "The Harlem Study: Effects American Educational Research Association, New York, N.Y., by Type of Training, Age of Training, and Social Class," in 1982. 48. The Promise of Early Childhood Education, byLawrence J. Schweinhart, John R. Berrueta-Clement, W. Steven Barnett, Ann S. Epstein, 2nd David P. Weikart,pp. 222-25. Phi Delta Kappan,vol.66, no. 8, April 1985. copyright 1985 by Lawrence J.Schweinhart. Reprinted with permission. 1. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). Series P60, No. 133, Tables 1,2. 5. Superintendent's Early Childhood S#..:dy Group Report 2. Martin Chorvinsky, Preprimary Enrollment 1980 (Washing- (Lansing:Michigan Department of Education, September ton, D.C.: National Center for Education Statistics, 1982). 1984). 3. These findings are more fully described inour monograph, 6. Lawn nice J. Schweinhart and David P. Weikart, Young Changed Lives: The Effects of the Perry PreschoolProgram 03 Children Grow Up: The Effects of the Perry Preschool Pro- Youths Through Age 19 (Ypsilanti, Mich.: High/Scope Press, gram on Youths Through Age 15 (Ypsilanti, Mich.: High/ 1984). A four-year grant from the U.S. Department of Scope Press, 1980), pp. 17-19. Education provided funding for themost recent phase of the 7. Ibid., pp. 21-24. research. The Levi-Strauss Foundation and the Rosenberg 8. C h a n g e d Lives..., pp. 181-86. Foundation of San Francisco provided matchinggrants for the economic analysis and for a dissemination project. The views 9. David P. Weikart, Linda Rogers, Carolyn Adcock, and expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do Donna McClelland, The Cognitively Oriented Curriculum: A not necessarily reflect the official positions of the funding Framework for Preschool Teachers (Urbana: University of Illi- agencies. nois, 1971). The curriculum has continued to evolve since then;itscurrentstatusisdescribedin Mary Hohmann, 4. Report by the Congressional Research Service ofthe Library Bernard Banet, and David P. Weikart, Young Children in of Congress to the House Select Commiweon Children, Action: A Manual for Preschool Educators (Ypsilanti, Mich.: Youth, r nd Families, Federal Programs Affecting Children High/Scope Press, 1979). 341 3 :1 8 ACKWIWLEDGMENTS, FOOTNOTES, AND REFERENCES 10. David J.Irvine,"Evaluation of the New York State the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Experimental Prekindergarten Program," paper presented at Association, New York, N.Y., 1982. 49. Early Childhood Evaluation: What? Whc7 Why? by Doris Bergen Sponseller and Joel Fink, pp. 226-29. Studies in Educational Evaluation, vol. 8, 1983, pp. 209-14. Copyright 1983 by the Pergamon Press, Inc. Reprinted with permission. Bentley, R. J., Washington, E. D., and Young. J. C. Judging and education of young children in America. 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Phi Delta Kappan, Feb. 1986. are to develop academically, socially, and emotionally. Teach- Today's children feel increasing societal and personal pres- ers who are sensitive to both the developmental needs of their sures. By making caring an essential part of their curriculum, students and to the goals and aspirations of their students' schools can help students build a character strength thatcan parents can facilitate positive learning by designing their only come from a sense of belongingsomething often lack- curriculum and classroom interactional environment to address ing in the hurried, complex, modern American life. those needs and goals. "Education for Community." James Comer. Common Decen- cy. Alvin Schorr, ed. Yale University Press, 1986. "Integration of Mental Health Principles in the School Set- ting." Barbara Biber. Prevention of Mental Disorders in True educational reform should help students achievea acne of community and purpose both now, within their Children. Gerald Caplan, ed. Basic Books, 1961. Increasing evidence documents the close connection be- school and in the future, in adult society. Teacherscan play a icy role in helping students develop a sense of belonging tween learning functions (cognitive development) and person- that is so necessary for overall life success. Parents, teachers ality formation (social/emotional development), showing that and administrators must work together to design educational teachers and school environment play an important role in programs that meet spe,:fic needs of children in a caring, influencing students' mental health as well as their academic democratic environment. success. Effective, caring teachers greatly aid development of students' positive feelings about themselves; realistic percep- The Feeling Child: Affective Development Reconsidered. Nan- tions of themselves and others; independenc:-, curiosity, and cy Curry, ed. Haworth Press, 1986. creativity; relatedness to the world around them; and strength Through the writings of several educators and psycholo- to cope with whatever comes their way. Without attention to gists,this volume emphasizes that knowledge ofa child's these skills, student academic growth is limited. emotional life can help teachers better understand and educate that child. Today too much emphasis is placedon cognitive The Learning Child. Dorothy Cohen. Pantheon Books, 1972. skills and strategies. By consulting ever-increasing researchon This book describes the developmental and educational how infants and children grow emotionally, educatorscan stages of 5- to 11-year-olds in the context of home and school, reassess their classroom interactions and curriculums and adapt and offers practical guidelines for parents and teachers. It child-oriented approaches to achieve more successfuloutcomes. stresses the importance of both the role of the teacher over "Home-School Relationships as They Affect the Academic classroom methods or materials, and of understanding the Success of Children." James Corner, Education and Urban dose interconnections between emotional/social and cognitive Society, May 1984. development. Because children's interpersonal and psychosocial experi- Lucy Sprague Mitchell: The Making of a Modern Woman. ences have great impact on their ability to succeed in school Joyce Antler. Yale University Press,1987. 345 342 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, FOOTNOTES, AND REFERENCES The educatiocod philosophy and strategies c r Lucy Sprague stare of development, from the sensori-motor levels of the Mitchell, founder of bank Street College of Education, are very young to the intellectual and moral development of older explored as the core of a comprehensive history of "progressive students. education" in the United States. Mitchell's approach, greatly New Lenses for Viewing _Elementary Schools." Allan Shed- influenced by the work of John Dewey, emphasizes the lir. PoN Delta Kapp/ifs, Oct. 1986. importrnce of children's emotion. 'social development, inter- The ben ckalcntary schools celebrate the uniqueness of active Darning -by -doing curriculums, and teacher-child cooper- individual students, teachers, and families, and strive to create atlon and !..spc-ct within the classroom environment. Effective environments where students and ari:lts respect and feel teachers show consistent warmth, understanding, gentleness, comfortable with one another. There is a balance between sense of humor, and insight into the social,emotional, caring about etch student as an individual and caring about physical, and cognitive needs of the children they seek to what the students are learning.Subjective(affective) and teach. objective (academic) factors must both be considered in deter- The Montessori Method. Maria Montessori. Schocken Books, mining the quality ,5 a school. 1964. Schools of Tomorrow. John Dewey and Evelyn Dewey. E. P. Like a loving, concerned parent, the school must offer Dutton & Co., 1962. young children a consistent, supportive environment geared to Teachers teach best if they are sensitive to their students' their particular level of development. Children learn by inter- growth patterns and needs. Schools would be more effective if acting directly -vith carefully selected learning materials pre- they trusted and respected children more,let them learn sented to them by teachers striving to move them toward naturally from play and other semi-independent activities, and independent, self-directed achievements. Teachers must b- helped them in their attempts to prepare fot an adult world sensitive to and understand the learning tasks faced at each of v..nrk and social responsibilities. 55. Making Conferences Work for Parents, Teachers, and Children, by Gail Bjorklund and Christine Burger, pp. 259-63. Young Children, vol. 42, no. 2, January 1987, pp. 26-31. Copyright .07 by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. Reprinted with permission. Berger, E. H. (1981). Parents as partners in education. St. meat Inve>.sory. Minneapolis: Behavior Science Systems, P.O. Louis, MO: Mosby. Box 1108, Minneapolis, MN 4 5440. Chinn, P. C., 'Winn, J., and Walters, R. H. (1978). Two-way Ireton,H., and Thwing, E.(1979). Minnesota Preschool talking with parents of special children: A process of positive Inventory. Minneapolis: Behavior Science Systems. P.O. Box communication. St. Louis, MO: Mosby. 1108, Minneapolis, MN 55440. ICamii, C., and DeVries, R. (1973). Piaget for Early Educa- Croft, D. J. (1979). Parents and teachers: A resources book for ton. In M. Day and A. Parker (Eds.), The Preschool in home,school,and communityrelate. is.Belmont,CA: Wadsworth. Action. Boston: Allyn & Eacon. Morrison, G. S.(1978). Parent involvement in the home, Hymes, J. L. (1974). Effective home-school relations. Carmel, school and community. Columbus, OH: Merrill. CA: California AEYC. Nedler, S.E., and McAfee, 0. D. (1979). Working with Ireton, H., and Thwing, E. (1972). Minnesota Child Develop- parents. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. 57. Literacy Environments: Bridging the Gap Between Home and School, by Jon Shapiro and Ray Loiron, pp. 266-70. Childhood Education, vol. 63, no. 4, April 1987, pp. 263-69. Reprinted by permission of Jon Shapiro and Roy Doiron and the Association for Childhood Education le :anal, 11141 Georgia Avenue, Suite 200, Wheaton, MD. Copyright © 1987 by the Association. Applebee, A. N. (1980). Children's narratives: New direc- ing Conference Yearbook, 44, 1-32. tions. The Reading Teacher, 34, 137-142. Hardy, B. (1977). An approach through narrative. In M. Silica Applebee, A. N. (1978). The csled's concept of story: Ages (Ed), Towcrds a poetics of fiction. Bloomington. 'N: Indiana two to se enteen. Chicago: U..ersiry of Chicago Press. University Press. Bissex, G. L (1984). The child as teacher. In H. Goelman, A. Harste, J., We Award, V., and C. Burke. (1984). Language Oberg and F. Smith (Eds.), Awakening to literacy.Ports- ston,..r arid literacy lessons. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. mouth, NH: Heinemann. Heath, S. B. (1985). Ctitkal factors in literacy development. Bissex, G. L. (1980). Guys at work: A child 1. .ms to t4Aile in K. Egan and A. Luke (Eds.), Literacy, society and school- and read. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ing. Nev York: Cambridge University Press. Cazder, C. (1983,. _.dull assistance to language development: Holdaw:ty, D. (1979). Foundations of literacy. Sydney, Austra- Scaffolds, models and direct instruction. In R. Parker and F. lia: Ash ton Scholastic. Davis (Eds), Developing literacy: Young children's use of Juliebo, M. F. (1985). To mediate or not to mediate? That is language. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. the questk,o. Language Arts, 62, 848-856. Chomsl,C. (1972). Stages in language development and Read, C. (1971). Preschool children's knowledge of English reading exposure. Harvard Educational Review, 42, 1-33. phonology. Harvard Educational Renew, 41,1-34. Downing, J. (1970). Children's concepts of language in learn- -tow, C. (1983). Literacy and language relationships during ing to read. Educational Research, 12, 106-112. preschool years. Hamard Educational Review, 53, 165-189. Goodman, Y. (1980). The roots of literacy. Claremont Read- Teale, W. H. (1984). Reading to young children: Its signifi- 346 3 .4 Acknowledgments, Foou.otes, and References cance for literacy development. In H. Goelman, A. Oberg and Wells, G. (1985).Preschoolliteracyrelated activities and F. Smith (Eds.), Awakening to literacy.Portsmouth, NH: success in school. In D. Olson, N. Torunce and A. Hildyard Heinemann. (Eds.),Literacy, language and learning.Cambridge, MA: Wells, G. (1986). Thesaving makers. Portsmouth, NH: Cambridge University Press. Heinemann. 58. Conur-micating with Parents About Beginning Reading Instruction, by Dorene D. Ross and Elizabeth Bondy,pp. 271-75. Childhood Education, vol. 63, no. 4, April 1987, pp. 270-75. Reprinted by permission ofDorene D. Ross and Elizabeth Bondy and the Association for Chi kinood Education International, 11141 GeorgiaAvenue, Suite 200, Wheaton, MD. Copyright C:)1987 by the Association. Allington, R. (1983). The reading instruction provided readers H. Goelman, A. Oberg and F. Smith (Eds.), Awakening to of differing reading abilities. Elementary School Journal, 83, literacy. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. 548-559. Holdaway, D. (1979). The foundations of literacy. Sydney, Anderson, R. C., Hiebert, E. H., Scott, J. A., and Wilkinson, Australia: Ashton Scholastic. I. A. (1985). Becoming a nation of readers. Washington, DC: National Institute of Education. Park, B. (1982). The big book trend-A discussion with Don Bondy, E. (1984). Children's definitions of reading: Products Holdaway. Language Arts, 39, 815-821. an interactive process.Paper presented at the annual Pellegrini, A., and Galda, L. (1985). Social dramatic play and conference of the American Educational Research Association, literacy. Dimensions, 13, 12-14. Chicago, IL. Roney, R. C. (1984). Background experience is the foundation Bussis, A. (1982). Burn it at the casket. Research, reading of success in learning to read. .Reachng Teacher, 38, 196-199. instruction and children's learning of the first R. Phi Delta Kappan, 64, 237-241. Rosenshine, B. (1980). Skill hierarchies in reading comprehen- sion. In R. Spiro, B. Bruce, and W. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical Butler, A., and Tuthill, J. (1984). Toward a reading-writing issues in reading comprehension: Perspectives for cognitive clawoom. Rozell, NcW: Primary English Teaching Associa- tion, Australia. psychology, linguistics, artificial intelligence and education. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Cazden, C. ( 978). Environments for language learning. Lan- guage Arts, 681-682. Smith, F. (1973). Psycholinguistics and reading. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Davy, B. (1983). Think aloud-Modeling the cognitive pro- cesses of reading comprehension. Journal of Reading, 27, S-mseller, D. (1982). Play and early education. In B. Spodek 44-47. (rAt.), Handbook of research in early childhood education. New York: The Free Press. Durkin, D. (1978-79). What classroom observations reveal about reading comprehension instruction. Reading Research Strange, M. (1978).Considerations for evaluating reading Quarterly, 14, 515-544. instruction. Educational Leadership, 36, 178-181. Elkind, D. (1986). Formal education and early childhood Taylor, J. (1977). Yzkitig sense: The basic skill in reading. education: An essential difference. Phi Delta Kappan, 67, Language Arts, 34, 668-672. 631-636. Teak, W. (1982) Toward a theory of how children learn to Goodman, Y. (1984). The development of initial literacy. In read and write naturally. Language Arts, 39, 555-570. Section Nine: Child Behavior and Discipline 59. The Banning of Corporal Punishment: In Child Care, School and Other Eductive Settings in the UnitedStates, by John R. Cryan, pp. 278-83. Childhood Education, vol. 63, no. 3, February 1987, pp. 146-53. Reprinted by permission ofJohn R. Cryan andthe Association for Childhood Education International, 11141 Georgia Avenue, Suite 200, Wheaton, MD. Copyright ©1987 by the Associat3. Baker v.Owen, 395 F.Supp. 294 (N.D.N.C. 1975) S.4.3, Hapkiewicz, W. G. (1975, April). Research on corporal pun- affirmed 96 S.Ct. 210 (1975). ishment effectiveness: Contributions and limitations. Paper Black, H. C. (1968). Black's law dictionary.St. Paul, MN: presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational West Publishing Co. Research Association, Washington, DC. Bongiovanni, A. (1977, February). A review of the effects of Hiner, N. R. (1979). Children's rights, corporal punishment, punishment: Implications for corporal punishment in the and child abut('hanging American attitudes, 1870-1920). schools. Paper presented at the Conferenceon Child Abuse, Bulletin of the menninger Clinic, 43 (3), 223-248. Children's Hospital, National Medical Center, Washington, DC. Hyman, I. A. (1978). A social science review of evidence cited in litigation on corporal puni., ...tient in the schools. Journal of Corcoran, C. (1975, July). Report on suspensions and corporal Clinical Child Psych :logy,7 (3). 195-199. punishment. Vermont State Department of F.ducation. Hyman, I. Glaser v. Marietta, 351 F.Supp. 555 (W.D.Pa. 1972) S.4.3. A., and D'Alessandro, J. (1984 Good, old- fashioned discipline: The politics of punitiveness. Pbi Delta Hall v.Tourney, 621 F.2d. 607 (c.a.4,1981). Kappan, 66 (1), 39-45. 347 344 ACKNOWLEDGMENT', FOOTNOTES, AND REFERENCES Hyman, I. A., and Lally, D. M. (1981). Corporal punishment Maurer, A., and Wallerstein, J.S. The influence of in American education: A historical and contemporary dilem- school corporal punishment on crime. A publication by the ma. In J. R. Cryan (Ed.), Corporal punishment in the schools: Committee To End Violence Against the Next Generation, Its use is abuse (pp. 8-15). Toledo, OH: The University of Berkeley, CA. Reprinted with permission. Toledo. Memoir of William Ellery Charming. (1851). I, 23. Boston: Hyman, I. A., and Wise, J. A. (Eds.). (1979). Corporal William Crosby & H. P. Nichols. punishment in American education.Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Montgomery, E. (1867). Reminiscences of Wilmington, Dela- Ingraham v.Wright, 97 S.Ct.. 1401 (1977). ware. American Journal of Education, 17 (September), 189. Lamberth, J. (1979). The effects of punishment on academic More fascinating facts FYI. (1986, January). Reader's Digest, achievement: A review of recent research. In I. A. Hyman and p. 172. J. A. Wise (Eds.), Corporal punishment in A-vericats educa- National Committee for the Prevention of Child Abuse. tion (pp. 384-393). Philadelphia: Temple University Press. (1983).Policy statement on corporal punishment inthe Manning, J. (1979). Discipline in the good oid days. In I. A. schools and custodial settings. Hyman and J. A. Wise (Eds.),Corporal fhosishmentrn National Education Ass xiation. (1972). Report or the task American education (pp. 50-61). Philadelphia: Temple Uni- force on corporalpunishment (Library of Congren No. versity Press. 22-85743). Walington, DC. Many states still condone corporal punishment in schools: More creative discipline urged. (1982, Augus:). Psychiatric Rose, T. L. (1984). Current uses of corporal punishment in News, 17, p. 21. American public schools. jou,nal of Educational Psychology, 76 (3), 427-441. Maurer, A. (1984). 1001 alternatives to corporal punishment, Vol. 1. Berkeley, CA: Generation Books. Rosenshine, B., and Furst, N. (1971). Research in teacher performance criteria.In B. 0. Smith (Ed.), Research in Maurer, A. (Ed.). (1985-86, Winter). The last resort, Vol. 14, teacher education (pp. 37-72). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- 2. Newsletter of the Committee To End Violence Against the Hall. Next Generation. Maurer, A. (1931). The case against physical punishment in Taylor, L., and Maurer, A. (1985). Think twice: The medical schools. In J. R. Cryan (Ed.), Corporal punishment in the effects of physical punisA .ent.Berkeley, CA: Generation schools:Its use is abuse (pp.16-25). Toledo, OH: The Books. University of Toledo. Van Dyke, H. T. (1984). Corporal punishment in our schools. Maurer, A. (1981). Paddles away: A psychological study of Clearinghouse, 57, 296-300. physical punishment in schools.PaloAlto, CA: R & E Watson, J. F. (1870). Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania Research. (pp. 290-292). Philadelphia: Larry Smart Co. Maurer, A., and Wallerstein, J. S. (1983). The influence of Williams, G. J. (1979). Social sanctions for violence against school corporal punishment on learning: A statistical study. A children: Historical perspectives. In I. A. Hyman and J. A. publication by the Committee To End Violence Against the Wise (Eds.), Corporal punishment in American education (pp. Next Generation, Berkeley, CA. Reprinted with permission. 25-40). Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 60. ACognitiveApproachto Behavior Management,byJerold P. Bauch,pp. 284-86. Dimensions, vol.15, no. 4, July 1987, pp. 25-27. © 1987, Southern Associationon Children Under Six, Little Rock, Arkansas. Reprinted with permission. For more information about this program, contact: Deborah Smith, *Editor's Note: For another view on this issue, see Kamii, C., and Outreach Coordinator, CCYC, Box 9, Peabody College of Vanderbilt DeVries, R. (1980). Group games in early education. Implications of University, Nashville, TN 37203. Piaget's theory. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Burets, S., Brooks, P., Haywood H. C., and Cox, J. (1983). New York: Haworth Press. Cognitive small croup units. Nashville, TN: Cognitive Educa- Haywood, H. C., Brooks, P., and Burns, S. (1986b). Cogni- tionOutreact 'roject;Peabody College of Vanderbilt tivecurets vlum for young children: Experimental version. University. Nashville, TN: Cognitive Early Education Group. Feuerstein, R., Rand, Y., Hoffman, M. B., and Miller, R. 1-kwood, H. C., and Weatherford, D. L. (1986). Cognitive- (1980). Instrumental enrichment. Baltimore: University Park mediatiooal behavior management. In H. C. Haywood, P. Press. Brooks, and S. Burns (Eds.), Cognitive curriculum for young Haywood, H. C., Brooks, P., and Burns, S. (1986a). Develop- children: Experimental version. Nashville, TN: Cognitive Early ment and evaltuaion of the cognitive curriculum for young Education Group. children. In M. Schwebel and C. Maher (Eds.), Facilitating Weatherford, D. L. (1986). Cognitive curriculum for young cognitive development: Principles,practices and programs. children. Human intelligence international newsletter, 7, 6-7. 61.Corporal Punishment in the Schools, by John H. Meier,pp. 287-89. Childhood Education, vol. 58, no. 4, March/April 1982, pp. 235-.1-. Reprinted bypermission of John H. Meier and the Association for Childhood Education International, 11141 Georgia Avenue, Suite200, Wheaton, MD. Copyright © 1982 by the Association. 62.ChildAbuseand Neglect: Prevention and Reporting, ry Barbara J. Meddin and 'Anita L.Rosen, pp. 290-94. Young Children, vol. 41, no. 4, May 1986, pp. 26-30. 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New York: Macmillan, Wilson, B. L."Effect of Task and Authority Structure on 1984. Students' Task Engagement." Paper presented at the meeting Phyfe-Perkins, E. An Ecological Assessment of Two Preschool of the American Educational Research .association, Montreal, Environments. Cited in E. Phyfe-Pr_kins, "Effects of Teacher Quebec, Canada, April 1983. (ERIC Document Reproduction Behavior on Preschool Children: A Review of Research." Service Number ED 230-416.) 65. Upon What Can We Build Our Children's Educational Future? by Walter Hodges, pp. 305-8. Dimensions, October 1987, pp. 4-7. © 1987, Southern Association on Children Under Six, Little Rock, Arkansas. Reprinted with permission. Bereiter, C. and Engelmann, S. (1966). Teaching disadvan- age 19.Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press. taged children in the preschool. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pren- Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974). A report on longitudinal evalua- tice-Hall. tions of preschool programs. Volume II: Is early intervention effective? Washington, DC: Department of Health, Education Berrueta-Clement, J. R.; Schweinhart, L. J.; Barnett, W S.; and Welfare, Publication No. (OHD) 74-25. Epstein, A. S.; and Weikart, D. P. (1984). Changed lives: Coleman, J. S., et al. (1966). Equality of educational opportu- The effects of the Perry Preschool Program on youths through nity. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 350 347 Acknowledgments, Footnotes, and References Consortium. (1978).Lasting effects after preschool.Washing- Kamii, C. and DeVries, R. (1978).Physical ,knowledgein ton, DC: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government preschool education.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Printing Office. Madden, J.; O'Hara, J.; and Levenstein, P. (1984). Home Dunn, L. M. (1960). Special education for the mildly retard- again: Effects of the Mother-Child Home Program on mother ed-Is much of it justifiable.Exceptional Children, 55,5-22. andchild. Child Development, 55,636-647. Featherstone, J. The primary school revolution it Britain: I. Pines, M. (1966).Revolution in learning: The years from birth Schools for children;II. How children learn; III. Teaching to six.New York: Harper & Row. children to think.The New Republic,August-September, Skeels, H. M. (1966). Adult status of children with contrasting 1967, 1-16. early life experiences.Maograpb of the Society for Research Gray, S. W.; Ramsey, B. R.; and Klaus, R. A. (1982).From 3 to Child Development, 31, 1-65. to 20: The early training project.Baltimore: University Park Skinner, B. F. (1968).The techno;ogy of %aching.New York: Press. Appleton-Century-Crofts. Harrington, M. W. (1962).The other America.Baltimore: Penguin Books. Stebbins, L. B.; St. Pierre, R. G.; Proper, E. C.; Anderson, R. B.; and Cerva, T. R. (1977).Education4.texperimentation: Hodges, W. L.; McCandless, B. R.; and Spicker, H. M. A planned variation model. Volume IV-A: An evaluation of (1971).Diagnostic teaching for preschool children.Arlington, Follow Through.Carr bridge, MS: Abt Associates, Inc. (Also VA: Council for Exceptional Children. seeVolume II-A National Evaluation: Patterns of effects. U.S. Hunt, J. McV. (1961).Intelligence a-Id Experience.New Department of Health, Education and Welfare.) York: Ronald Press. Weikart, D. P. and Schweinhart, L. (1980).Young children Heber, R. R. (1978).Sociocultural mental retardation-A grow up: The effects of the Perry Preschool program on youths longitudinal study. In D. Forgays (Ed.),Primary prevention of through age 15.Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press. psychopathology: Volume 2. Environmental influences.Hano- White, S.; Day, M ; Freeman, P.; Hartmann, S.; and Messen- ver, NH: Universi.,Press of New England. ger, K.Federal programs for young children: Review and Jensen, A. R. How much can we boost IQ and scholastic recommendations. Volume III: For Federal program planning. achievement?Harvard Educational Review,39,1-123. W2shington, DC: Superintendent of Documents. 66. BACK to Basics or FORWARD to Fundamentals? by Alice V. Keliher, pp. 309-10. Young Children, vol.41, no. 6, September 1986, pp. 42-44. Copyright © 1986 by the National Assoication for the Education of Young Children. Reprinted with permission. R. D.and Shipman, V. C. (1965). Early blocks to tion, 40,62-65. children's learning.Children, 12(5). 1.eliher, A. V. (1933). Where are the progressives going? Keliher, A. V. (1982). Back to basics or forward to fundamen- Progressive Education Magazine, 10(5),278. tals?SCOPE, Bulletin of the Arizona Association for Supervi- sion and Curriculum Development, 8(1), 3-6. Keliher, A. V. (1954, December).Educational Fundamen- tals-1954.Pap r presented .3t the United Parents' Associa- Taylor, C.(1961). A tentative description of the creative tion, New York. individual.Human Variability and Learning, Bulletin of the Keliher, A. V. (1962). Believing and doing.Childhood Educa- Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 67. The Future of Education, by Wilson Riles, pp. 311-14. Childhood Education, vol.58, no. 4, March /April 1982, pp. 202-5. Reprinted by permission of Wilsin stiles and the Association for Childhood Education International, 11141 Georgia. Avenue, Suite 200, Wheaton, MD. Copyright © 1982 by the Association. 68. Early Schooling and the Nation's Future, by Ernest L. Boyer, pp. 314-17. Educational Leadership, vol.44, no. 6, March 1987, pp. 4-6. Reprinted with permission of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development and Ernest L. Boyer. Copyright © 1987 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Ail rights rescued. 351 3 4 8 NEA POLICY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION Resolution C-3. Early Childhood Development and Kindergarten The National EducatioiAssociation supports the inclusion of prekindergarten childhooL education programs within the public school system. These programs should include prekindergarten screening, child care, child development, appropriate developmen- tal curriculum, and specia! educatiot.. The Association farther supports kindergarten programs that are developmentally appropri- ate and that adequately pt,pare the child for transition into first grade. The Association urges that federal legislation be enacted to assist in funding and organizing the imnlementation of such programs. The Association believes that early childhood programs must be staffed by trained and certified/licensed personnel and trained support staff.It supports training programs that will lead to credentials consistent with the educational standards in each state. The Association recommends that minorities, the poor, and the elderly be recruited to work in such programs. The Association advocates the establishment of fully funded, earlychildhoodspecialeducation programs.These programs should be readily accessible, make available those services necessary to assist handicapped children from birth, and be staffed by certified teachers, qualified support staff, and therapists. The Association urges its affiliates to seek legislation to ensure that early childhood developmental programs offered primarily through the public schools be fully funded and available on an equal basis and culminate in mandatory kindergarten with com- pulsory attendance. The Association supports regulations requiring students starting kindergarten to have reached five years of age by September 1 of that year. (75, 88) 352 3.j 1