The Greenland experience 6 MAGAZINE Wek'eezhii herd management 11 No. 1 Windmill power: green energy or 2011 The Circle trampling traditional lifestyles? 19

Reindeer and Caribou: Herds and Livelihoods in Transition

PUBLISHED BY THE WWF Global ARCTIC PROGRAMME The Circle 1.2011

Contents EDITORIAL Monte Hummel Caribou: The Experience 3 IN BRIEF 4 Jeff Kerby Global warming: Timing is everything 6 Anne Gunn Fighting inertia to conserve caribou herds 8 Jody Snortland, Karin Clark Balancing Expectations: The Wek’èezhìi example of herd management 11 Leonid Baskin, Tobias Kuemmerle, Volker C. Radeloff Protecting wild reindeer in Siberia 13 Bruce Forbes A lesson in global warming and gas exploitation 15

Windmills v.s Sámi communities – Green colonialism? 19–22 Lars-Anders Baer Windmill colonialism: A threat to Arctic Indigenous people 20 Jonas Lundmark Wind power – Europe’s shining star? 21

Niklas Labba Muohta with the threat of climate change 22 Philip Burgess Long distance learning 25 THE PICTURE 28

What (herders) find harder to handle, and have little leverage to influence, is the progressive loss of traditional territories and resources they need to survive – grazing lands, campsites, sacred sites, fresh- water fish – to rapidly advancing gas development. “ Dr. Bruce Forbes, article page 15

rangifers Photo: Jeff Kerby Photo: Jeff

The Circle is published quarterly by Publisher: Editor in Chief: Clive Tesar, [email protected] COVER: the WWF Global Arctic Programme. WWF Global Arctic Programme, Editor: Becky Rynor, [email protected] A young Nenets boy leads his Reproduction and quotation with appro- 30 Metcalfe Street reindeer team across the new priate credit are encouraged. Articles by Suite 400 Ottawa, ON, Design and produc ion: railway being built on Yamal non-affiliated sources do not necessarily CanadaK1P 5L4 Film & Form/Ketill Berger, Peninsula, West Siberia, Rus- reflect the views or policies of WWF. Tel: +1 613-232-8706 [email protected] sia. The ancient territory of the Send change of address and subscrip- Fax: +1 613-232-4181 Printed at Merkur-Trykk AS Indigenous Nenets nomads tion queries to the address on the right. hold some of the largest un- We reserve the right to edit letters for Internet: www.panda.org/arctic Date of publication: March, 2011. tapped natural gas deposits in publication, and assume no responsibility ISSN 2073-980X = The Circle (Oslo) the world.

for unsolicited material. Photo: Bruce Forbes, University of Lapland, Finland

2 The Circle 1.2011 Editorial Caribou: The Experience This special edition of The Circle contains excellent migrating on ancient trails out of the mountains. They articles on the science, environmental threats, herd came right at us, down through the foothills, descend- management – or mismanagement – and conservation ing through a curtain of willows onto a coastal plain efforts for caribou and reindeer populations. But what to calve. They poured out of the landscape, emerging I found to be missing was the sense of what it is like to one after another seemingly without end. A tide of life experience these nomadic animals in the wild. For me, seeking renewal. the impressions are humbling and unforgettable. And how to describe that distinctive, From a cliff, I have observed some 10,000 animals lilting gait of the rangifer? Tireless and attempting to cross an Arctic river in spring flood, perfectly adapted to being on the move, being washed a kilometre or more downstream as they accompanied by the clicking of tendons struggled to reach that far shore. Imagine the pande- rubbing over foot bones as wide hooves monium – cows and calves calling for each other, little clack on shoreline stones. ones trying to keep up but often becoming separated, These are the sights and sounds sometimes on opposite sides of the river. Some turned we lose, if we lose caribou. And had I Monte Hummel is Presi- back midstream, while the bulls powered ahead – a written this even a year ago, that loss dent Emeritus of WWF- successful passage always culminating with that tri- seemed like a real possibility for many Canada, and co-author umphant shower of spray as they stopped to shake off herds. Since then, as you will read, we with Dr. Justina C. Ray of after scrambling out of the current. have had more bad news. Surveys show Caribou and the North; A Another time I experienced an obviously large herd that some formerly abundant herds Shared Future, Dundurn Press, 2008 without ever seeing it, evidenced by the mats of cari- are now in steep decline. Some may bou hair everywhere. Further proof of its passing was have disappeared. But we also appear the muddy gravel churned into rubble by thousands of to have hit bottom with others whose approaching and exiting hooves. numbers have stabilized and may even be increasing. Through a spotting scope one afternoon, we watched These more hopeful trends likely reflect popula- with resignation as a grizzly bear inexorably honed in tion responses to emergency management measures on a newborn calf, “hidden” in a dip in the hillside by implemented during today’s declines, whether natural its mother. She could only forlorn- or human-caused. These actions ly pace back and forth as we all imagine the peaceful have taken collaboration and witnessed the inevitable. panorama of 5,000 outright sacrifice by many parties. I have heard the croupy sound They have tested not just our of a caribou infected by botflies, animals spread out commitment to caribou, but to its coughs rising above the rush of each other. rapids flowing over the gravel bar as far as the eye To be sure, some herds need where it stood alone, weakly stag- can see, in ones and our help to recover. Now. But gering, and likely dying. in the long run, our goal should Then imagine the peaceful pano- twos on the greening be to sufficiently protect their rama of 5,000 animals spread out tundra, calmly environment so that popula- as far as the eye can see, in ones tions can fluctuate under natural and twos on the greening tundra, feeding or resting conditions. That way, there may calmly feeding or resting and and ruminating in the be many animals in some years, ruminating in the midsummer sun. fewer in others. But at least there I was privileged to witness the midsummer sun will always be the experience of magnificent spectacle of caribou caribou.

The Circle 1.2011 3 In brief

cumarctic is off limits to oil and gas exploration while the Canadian government con- sults on boundaries for a new national marine conservation area. Lancaster Sound in the Canadian High Arctic has long been considered a prime candidate for conservation, hosting populations of nar- whal, beluga and bowhead whales, walrus, polar bear, ringed, bearded and harp seals and migratory birds. http://www.panda.org/arctic/ news/lancaster WWF scores environmental

Photo:WWF Murmansk coup in Lofoten Russia's Kamenny gorod, or "Stone Town," gets protected status. and Vesteralen

a spawning place for many industry has to stop giving WWF Norway has applauded Stone town gets fish such as salmon, bulltrout the impression that oil recov- the Norwegian govern- and arctic char, and boasts ery equipment can protect ments decision to support special status 78 species of birds, such as vulnerable resources in harsh a petroleum-free future for lesser white-fronted goose and weather,” he says. The cargo one of the most significant The Arkhangelsk regional bewick swans, white-tailed ship spilled roughly 500 coastal areas in the country, government in Russia has eagle, peregrine falcon and tons of fuel oil into the icy namely Lofoten, Vesterålen approved the creation a new gyrfalcon. The new ‘Kamen- fjord when it ran aground in and Senja. National Protected Area of nyi gorod’ protected area will February. It has been a long political approximately 5000 hectares. also help preserve dwindling http://wwf.panda.org/arctic/news/ fight to keep the oil-industry “WWF has been working with reindeer habitats and grazing oilspill out of this unique global ma- the regional government on ranges. rine area and it will now not this for nearly three years,” be opened up for oil and gas, says Oleg Sutkaitis, head of Important Arctic at least if the current govern- WWF Barents Sea Regional Spill proves ment remains in office. Office. “We supported the area off limits WWF Norway is still deeply environmental assessment vulnerability concerned, however, about of Kamenny gorod, or Stone the government opening up Town, which is a biologically WWF –Norway CEO Rasmus to oil companies for more petroleum activities and historically rich area. It is Hansson says an oil spill off in the northernmost areas also a popular tourist attrac- the coast of Oslo, Norway is for now and new areas in the Barents tion with its unique, ancient further proof that oil cannot sea as a compromise. stone formations.” The area be effectively cleaned up in One of the most productive The Norwegian govern- around the Belaya River is also ice covered waters. “The oil marine ecosystems in the cir- ment has decided not to

4 The Circle 1.2011

undertake an environmental ues the concept of particu- impact assessment in the sea larly valuable and vulnerable areas outside the Lofoten areas as a management tool, archipelago, which in reality and this is an important step would have been a precursor towards better ecosystem- to oil/gas activities. The deci- based management. sion shows that the govern- WWF hopes this is also ment in some areas puts the the start of a stronger focus value of nature in front of the for a renewable Norway, development of oil and shows and future green jobs. The that it is possible to leave government has every op- valuable oil resources in the portunity to make Norway a ground. global example when it comes The decision stands until to renewable energy.

the next general election in http://wwf.panda.org/what_ Photo: WWF-Norway 2013. This shows that the we_do/where_we_work/arctic/ Opponents of drilling in Lofoten at a WWF-organized torchlit Norwegian government val- news/?199691 march in Oslo.

Book review

n The World in 2050 – Four Forces Shaping Civilization’s Northern Future Laurence C. Smith 336 pages Dutton Books rendal, www.grida.no/photolib/ A This is an interesting book about the circumpolar world mostly because it does not focus solely on

Photo: Lawrence Hislop, GRID the circumpolar world. rates. An already water- Ice from Jakobshavn Glacier, Ilulissat Icefjord, Greenland. Smith, a geography rich area gains even more professor from the Univer- water (except in Canada’s sity of California at Los south-central prairies contributor to projected rising Angeles, first explores and the Russian steppes). New melt record sea levels in coming decades. demographic trends, cli- Crushingly cold winters “Sea level rise is expected mate change, the demand ease off; it’s not always for Greenland to top one metre by 2100, for natural resources and shirt-sleeve weather, but largely due to melting from globalization around the the successive weeks of ice sheet ice sheets,” says WWF climate world with projected im- minus 40 become a thing specialist Dr. Martin Som- pacts to 2050. The picture of the past. In addition, A study jointly funded by merkorn. “And it will not stop that emerges is disturbing the north holds a pool of WWF, the US National Sci- there – the longer we take to for much of the world – untapped oil and gas for ence Foundation and NASA limit greenhouse gas produc- parched, overcrowded, which the rest of the world shows 2010 set new records tion, the more melting and chaotic and scorched. is increasingly thirsting. for the melting of the Green- water level rise will continue.” When he gets to the http://www.panda.org/arctic/ land Ice Sheet, a phenomenon http://www.panda.org/arctic/news/ Arctic, the picture amelio- review_worldin2050 that is expected to be a major greenland_melt

The Circle 1.2011 5 Climate Global warming: Timing is everything A hundred miles from Greenland’s west coast, craggy tundra gives way to an ice sheet that stretches across the horizon. Every June, caribou gather here to give birth to their calves just as they have for over 4,000 years. For almost two decades, Professor Eric Post and his graduate students from Penn State University have preceded this migration with one of their own – arriving before the caribou to set up and conduct one of the Arctic’s longest running ecological studies. Jeff Kerby joined the project in 2009.

I spent most of last summer camped thousands of hours of careful observa- Every day until the caribou finish giv- on the Greenland tundra documenting tion and record-keeping. ing birth and leave the area, I note the the lives of caribou, muskoxen, and the A field-season spent capturing the growth phase of every plant species in plants they both details of an Arctic summer is a field- a scattered web of plots, some of which depend upon. With season spent in stages. Upon arrival, are artificially warmed while others are each passing year, the landscape is drab, seemingly dead fenced to keep out large herbivores. In this annual ritual where it is not covered with snow. De- between vegetation plots, I pause to offers irreplaceable void of trees, it glows deep into the night count and observe caribou and muskox- Jeff Kerby is a observations on under oblique Arctic sunlight. In the en, noting their group-size and makeup, Phd candidate in the how species survive evenings when temperatures dip below particularly if any calves have been Ecology program at in the far north. freezing, the echoes of calving glaciers born or have died. My fellow research- Pennsylvania State The overwhelming roll through the valleys, their rumbles ers track pulses of insect emergence University where he story these data tell a constant reminder of the forces that and growth, and and use sophisticated studies the impacts is clear: for life in carved the east-west scars across the sensors to to determine carbon dioxide of climate change on the Arctic, timing is landscape. Aside from the lengthening fluxes in the tundra. Each aspect of data large herbivores and everything. days, the first signs of spring appear collection complements the other, and ecological commu- Since this project when scattered grasses begin emerging as the project grows in scope each year, nities in the Arctic. began in 1993, far from ice-caked soil still firm enough to we are able to answer more complex His research back- northern latitudes deflect the testing jab of a pocketknife. questions that bridge numerous scales ground has combined have warmed In a few short weeks, however, this of observations, from individual plants fieldwork and remote faster than any- initial trickle of growth erupts into a to the entire ecosystem. sensing approaches where else on the green wave that overwhelms the tundra, While the ecological implications of to study the ecology planet. At our site, a flush of nutrients accompanied by the climate change in the Arctic are diverse, and conservation of this warming has sudden sights and sounds of myriad consistent narratives emerge from al- herbivores in Ethiopia various effects on Arctic fauna. By early June we are most twenty years of data collection. For and Mongolia. flora and fauna. For treated to the first glimpses of preco- example, nearly all species at the site, caribou popula- cious, pale-white caribou calves. from shrubs to mosquitoes, in some tions, the most way adjust the timing of their growth consequential of these changes occur to the changes in climate. But most everywhere across the landscape, yet to importantly from an ecological perspec- a casual visitor they are almost impos- Caribou populations tive is that the size of these adjustments sible to spot. Namely, how the timing differs for most species. Over successive of insect emergence and plant growth are declining years, these slight differences in timing changes each year with the fluctuations throughout their magnify, thus fundamentally changing in climate. This understanding, and the very nature of how certain species the detailed analyses that support it, is Circumarctic Range. interact. Changing species interac- made possible by many summers and tions, rather than the direct influence

6 The Circle 1.2011 and researchers alike. While not as abundant as mosquitoes in Siberia, where swarms can suck more than five pounds of blood from a single caribou over a summer, caribou in west Green- land still actively seek sanctuary by fleeing to ridge tops where the wind is stronger but the forage is poor. Earlier mosquito emergence means caribou spend more time roaming and less time feeding. Looking back through last summer’s field notes, my own frustrated memories with the mosquito swarms resurface. Splotches of blood cover the pages where unfortunate mosquitoes landed as I was shutting the covers, patterns most noticeable from late May through June, inadvertent but precisely dated notes on the progression of an Arctic summer. Many questions about the future of Arctic ecosystems and communities remain unanswered, but research at this site and others like it provides the rendal

Wild caribou and reindeer herds (Rangifer) A essential on-the-ground data needed to Increasing populations Decreasing populations make these advances. My own research Unknown status will continue to focus on the timing of Reindeer husbandry species interactions, both between other

Areas where reindeer husbandry is practiced hlenius, UNEP/GRID- A Arctic herbivores, such as the muskox- Sources: International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry, Carma Network en, and the vegetation communities,

Map: Hugo but also between this site and others of a warmer climate itself, will have has become locked away inside older in Greenland. In the coming decades, the greatest influence on which species plants that are more difficult to digest. If this increased focus on the timing of persist and which species disappear as lacking in proper nutrition during these ecological interactions, rather than just the Arctic continues to warm. critical early weeks of growth, a caribou their severity, will add clarity to the im- Caribou, for example, appear to be in calf will struggle to survive. plications of an Arctic that is warming trouble. Their populations are declin- Mosquitoes also emerge earlier with faster than at any point in its recorded ing throughout their circum-Arctic warmer temperatures and their pres- history. range, and climate, through its effect ence is more than a nuisance to caribou on species interactions, is in large part responsible. This holds true for our site, Santa's reindeers where a mismatch in the timing of plant growth and caribou calving has seen calf Saami legend says their nation will die when the god Groma, son of the devil, fires a survival plummet. Young plants are full third arrow into Meandash the man-reindeer he is pursuing. Reindeer appear promi- of nutrition and are very easy to digest, nently in Saami folklore and mythology. Part of the Santa Claus myth is believed to an ideal food for nursing mothers and be rooted in Saami legend because reindeer regularly graze on and get high from Fly recently weaned young that must bulk Agaric (Amanita Muscaria) toadstools with a red cap and white spots. The reindeer up before the onset of winter. In warm become frisky and leap around after eating the mushrooms, giving rise to the story of years, plants emerge earlier, whereas Santa’s flying reindeer. caribou births occur over a very narrow Another ancient Saami legend tells of a cursed woman who is transformed into a range of dates every year regardless white reindeer. She wanders the snowfields of the Midnight Sun luring all hunters who of temperature. This means that after cross her path to their deaths. She cannot be stopped by bullets, but the spell is finally a warm spring, caribou are effectively broken when her husband attacks and kills the White Reindeer with cold steel. born after much of summer’s nutrition

The Circle 1.2011 7 Rangifiers at risk?

Fighting inertia to conserve caribou herds ndJoanieMcGuffin.com / WWF-Canada A 8 The Circle 1.2011 Photo: Gary

Are wild reindeer and barrens caribou at risk in the Arctic? Without question herds are faced with rapid global warming, increasing industrial development and growing num- bers of people encroaching on migratory routes, calving grounds and the very tundra they rely on for survival. Canadian wildlife biologist and internationally recognized cari- bou expert Anne Gunn says we do have options to protect these herds if we act quickly to collaborate on innovative strategies for conservation.

We still have time, if we do not waste example, will leave a trail of fecal pellets and, slightly, in Alaska. At least three time because the human foot-print on on lake ice. When the ice melts, the Canadian herds are at historic lows the Arctic tundra is still relatively light pellets break down and feed mosquito possibly because of gaps in monitoring. despite the cumulative effects of global larvae, which, in turn, feed the fish. The Most herds, however, have stabilized in warming. Responses to recent declines adult female mosquitoes will then feed northern Canada, albeit at low numbers, of caribou herds reveal an awareness of on the caribou’s hide if they don’t be- because government and Indigenous the strength of collaborative conserva- come food for tundra-dwelling birds. peoples organizations worked collabora- tion. The real question then, is whether tively to restrict hunting. we are aware that the time to act, to im- Management inertia Global warming will have far-reach- plement conservation measures, is now. In the last 20 years, many herds have ing and complex effects on caribou and Migratory tundra caribou and wild declined in Arctic Canada and Russia reindeer herds. In addition, there are reindeer are woven into the culture and the relatively small but relentless steps existence of the Arctic’s many Indige- of increasing industrialization in the nous people. These migratory herbivores «Caribou and wild Arctic. The network of roads is creeping underpin much of the tundra’s biodiver- northward and the push to exploit oil, sity through a complex web of relation- reindeer depend on gas and minerals is accelerating. Roads ships. Caribou and wild reindeer, for "safety in numbers” inevitably and literally pave the way for pipelines, hydro-electric corridors and increased human presence that disrupt

Caribou from the George River area, Labrador, Canada. The Circle 1.2011 9 ancient migratory routes. Migration is also diminished or even halted when the numbers of caribou or wild reindeer decline to the point that there are too few individuals to maintain the level of gregariousness essential for migratory behavior. Caribou and wild reindeer depend on “safety in numbers.”

Collaborative planing, access to information essential Innovative and collaborative plan- ning – the sharing of information and decisions between groups with some- times divergent interests and expertise – is essential for both maintaining enough caribou or wild reindeer to sustain migratory Anne Gunn has been behavior as well studying caribou for as a landscape for more than three dec- unhindered migra- ades, spending much Kerby Photo: Jeff tory corridors to the Increased human presence disrupts ancient migratory routes, calving grounds. of her professional life herds’ core spaces as a wildlife biologist such as calving in Canada’s Northwest grounds. collaboration. The Internet is trans- ment. CARMA is a collaborative body Territories. She says Collaborative forming the flow of information – even of co-management boards, university she was “fortunate to planning is already that which was previously hoarded in researchers and government agencies have lived and worked underway and find- government files. Sharing information that are pooling information, building in the Arctic, spending ing acceptance in and coordinated approaches is starting databases and encouraging standardiza- much time with car bou wild reindeer and but needs strengthening. An example of tion of monitoring for wild reindeer and and the aboriginal caribou conserva- initiatives underway includes organi- caribou. people who depend on tion in those parts zations such as CAFF – Conservation On the global scale, wild reindeer them.” of the Arctic where of Arctic Flora and Fauna -- which and caribou are less well-served in co-management oversees networks like the CircumArc- nations that are not signatories to the boards are working tic Rangifer Monitoring and Assess- Bonn Convention on Migratory Spe- with the knowledge and perspectives of cies, an international treaty under the First Nations. You will read of one ex- United Nations Environment Program cellent example of this in the following “Roads inevitably and which promotes the conservation of article about the Wek’èezhìi Renewable wildlife and habitats. Links with other Resources Board (WRRB), the first ever literally pave the migratory terrestrial mammal conser- combined land claim and self-govern- vation networks for saiga antelope, for ment agreement in in Canada's North- way for pipelines, example, would foster the synergy of west Territories defining boundaries, hydro-electric cor- shared ideas. Saiga antelope were once land, resources and jurisdiction for all renowned for their huge numbers and levels of government. ridors and increased migration on the Eurasian steppes but However, besides consultation with are now restricted to parts of Mongolia, subsistence and commercial hunters, di- human presence that Kazakhstan and Russia. alogue is also needed with industry well before positions are entrenched during disrupt ancient mi- Building resilient herds environmental assessment hearings. gratory routes.” A more adaptive and collaborative Access to information is essential for approach accepting the reality and

10 The Circle 1.2011 uncertainties of climate and increas- Subsistence harvesting: ing human presence should focus on the adaptability of wild reindeer and caribou to build resilient herds that can buffer environmental changes and help create a resilient landscape. For exam- Balancing Expectations: ple, young herds with high calf survival and high pregnancy rates are typically resilient to environmental changes. Yet planning resilient landscapes that The Wek’èezhìi example are able to withstand changes without losing essential features such as caribou or wild reindeer migration is the most undeveloped aspect of conservation. of herd management It requires tiered levels of accessibil- ity through a network of protected The T îchô people in Canada’s Northwest Territories de- areas that consider both land users pend on subsistence-based harvesting of wild animals. and wildlife. The seasonal ranges of wild reindeer and caribou often cross Fish, moose, waterfowl and small mammals are all hunted jurisdictional boundaries, further com- to greater or lesser degrees, but none are as important to plicating the requirements of diverse the Tå chô way of life as barren ground caribou. and legitimate land users. A proactive approach would use the annual range Both the Bluenose East and the Bathhurst herds have their for each herd as the unit for collabora- winter ranges in Wek’èezhìi, and the T îchô people have tive land-use planning. Through time- relied on them for centuries. In recent years the herds sensitive thresholds, levels of accept- able risk to ensuring wild reindeer and have been in decline but in 2009, the Government of the caribou access to core seasonal ranges Northwest Territories (GNWT) reported a drastic reduc- and unhindered migration corridors tion in the Bathurst caribou herd, from a high of 472,000 would be maintained. The emphasis would be on minimizing disturbances in 1986 to 32,000 in 2009. The cause was reported as caused by human activities and habitat likely due to increased cow mortality from over-harvesting changes especially during calving and combined with reduced calf survival. post-calving seasons. But the hurdles to planning resilient landscapes are daunting. Innovative The Wek’èezhìi Renewable Resources of territorial and federal government partnerships that inspire and empower Board (WRRB), was established appointees. will take land use planning to the level through the Tåîchô Agreement, signed When making decisions, the WRRB needed to create a resilient Arctic land- by the Government of Canada, the is mandated to consider the inter-relat- scape. Government of the Northwest Territo- edness of wildlife, land and people, con- We have choices. But we have to ries and the Tåîchô in 2005. It is the first servation, the precautionary principle choose soon so that our legacy is not a ever combined land claim and self-gov- and use of the best information avail- quieter and stiller Arctic tundra lack- ernment agreement in the Northwest able. The Tåîchô agreement requires ing that breathtaking sea of bobbing Territories defining boundaries and the Board to consider both science and antlered heads accompanied by the dis- providing greater certainty regarding traditional knowledge in its decision- tinctive smell and soundscape of click- land, resources and jurisdiction for all making. It promotes a “parallel process” ing, grunting, bleating caribou or wild levels of government. It also established for research and monitoring programs reindeer by the hundreds, thousands the WRRB as a co-management board considering both Tåîchô knowledge and and tens of thousands. Without those responsible for the management of wild- science to be conducted simultaneously seemingly endless mass migrations of life and habitat including forests, plants and then reported to the WRRB. The abundant caribou and wild reindeer, it and protected areas in Wek’èezhìi. WRRB is then able to make balanced would not be the Arctic tundra – or at The board consists of eight members, decisions supporting the Tåîchô philoso- least not the one that was our legacy to half Tåîchô citizens appointed by the phy of “Strong Like Two People”. protect and nurture. Tåîchô Government and half made up To allow the Bathurst herd to recover,

The Circle 1.2011 11 the GNWT and the Tåîchô Government Sahtu submitted a joint management proposal to the WRRB in November 2009 and a revised joint management proposal in May 2010 propos- Nunvut ing limitations to all aboriginal and non-aboriginal har- vesters. Following

Jody Snortland Pel- a required Pro- Wekweeti ceeding, including lissey has lived in the Gameti Northwest Territories for public hearings, the more than a decade. WRRB concluded Akaitcho She has a degree in that there is a con- Dehcho Whati Environmental Science servation concern Wek’èezhìi boundary and a certificate in for the Bathurst Behchoko Wildlife Technology. caribou herd and Following ten years that management Yellowknife Bathurst herd as Executive Director actions – including Blunose East Herd 0 50 100 150 km of the Sahtu Renew- harvest restrictions Great Slave Lake Map: Ketill Berger, Film & Form Map: Ketill Berger, able Resources Board, – are vital for herd Jody has been the recovery GNWT are now working collaboratively of the current harvest target of 300, an Wek’èezhìi Renewable In its final report to implement the recommendations, increase in or removal of the allowable Resources Board’s Ex- to the GNWT and primarily in remote Indigenous commu- harvest of cows, a reinstatement of ecutive Director since Tåîchô government nities. Subsistence lifestyles are fraught resident, sport and commercial harvests January 2010. in 2010, the WRRB with times of plenty and times of scar- and possibly a decrease in support for outlined 60 recom- city, so adapting to caribou abundance comprehensive scientific and Tåîchô mendations related cycles is not new to the Tåîchô. Unfortu- knowledge monitoring programs. to monitoring and nately, government-imposed restrictions From a biological standpoint, there is management ac- on caribou harvest are also nothing new. no sustainable harvest of a declining tions required for What is new in this case is that the Tåîchô herd, yet there are expectations for Karin Clark has the herds. The people themselves, through their own harvest to meet subsistence needs. The lived in the Yukon and board recommend- government and a legislated co-manage- challenge for the WRRB and other co- Northwest Territories for ed the establish- ment process, have been a part of recog- management partners is how to balance the last 23 years with a ment of a harvest nizing and assessing the situation and stakeholder expectations with the need short stint down south target of 300 developing a solution all the way through to allow the recovery of the herd. studying ecology. She Bathurst caribou, to making it work on the ground. has worked in environ- selective towards The WRRB recommended conserva- mental consulting and bulls. In addition, tion measures based on a ‘snapshot’ in as a wildlife technician all commercial, time using information from 2009 as A lesson in sharing and environmental outfitted, and the baseline for decision-making. But assessment specialist resident harvesting the situation is dynamic and the board North American First Nations folk- with the Government in Wek’èezhìi was has to adapt to changes while managing lore says the Barrens Caribou herds of the Northwest Ter- closed. The Board public expectations. New information became so large that they threatened ritories. Karin is now further recom- was brought forward based on aerial the existence of all the plants and other the wildlife manage- mended detailed surveys of the Bathurst herd calving creatures that lived in the Barrens. ment biologist with the scientific and Tåîchô ground in spring 2010. The informa- When the caribou refused to move or Wek’èezhìi Renewable knowledge monitor- tion suggests that the Bathurst herd share, the other animals asked the Resources Board. ing actions, conser- has potentially ‘bottomed out’ but there Creator for help. Since that day, swarms vation-education is no statistical difference between the of mosquitoes and flies force the programs as well as 2009 and 2010 data. However, the caribou to move to other pastures and the development and implementation of public will interpret that new data to so we witness one of the longest yearly a Bathurst caribou management plan. mean the herd is recovering. Stakehold- migrations of animals on earth. The WRRB, Tåîchô Government and ers may expect an increase or removal

12 The Circle 1.2011 Industrialization: Protecting wild reindeer in Siberia The northern parts of Western Siberia contain gigantic deposits of natural gas. In partic- ular, the Yamal, Tazovsky and Gydansky peninsulas have large gas fields that supply most of the demand for natural gas in European Russia, Central, and Western Europe. Here, Leonid Baskin, Tobias Kuemmerle, and Volker C. Radeloff speak to the critically urgent need to identify, protect and preserve reindeer migratory routes and calving grounds that are threatened by industrialization.

Before 1964, when the first gas fields bers peaking at 650,000. Conservation urgently were discovered, the remote Yamal, However, the gas boom caused wild needed Tazovsky and Gydansky peninsulas reindeer herds to collapse and many are During the annual cycle of reindeer were virtually untouched and pristine. now under imminent threat of being migration, the calving grounds – those For centuries, the only land use was by wiped out. There are three reasons for places where reindeer find good condi- four Indigenous groups – the Nentsy, these declines. The first was poach- tions for birthing and calf survival Entsy, Khanty, and Kety – who have ing and the destruction of reindeer during their first three weeks – play a practiced reindeer herding, hunting, pastures. Many of the newcomers to critical role in the survival of wild rein- and fishing for centuries. the region in the wake of the develop- deer populations. Calving grounds are In decades past, wild reindeer were ment of the gas industry were much unique in many aspects. Reindeer prefer still thriving in these areas. The devel- less connected to the natural environ- them to be at least 50 kilometres away opment of infrastructure and settle- ment of this unique region and lacked from the forest line, an anti-predator ments during the natural gas boom in an understanding of its vulnerability. strategy to avoid wolves, for example, this region was favorable for domestic That resulted in an overuse of natural which typically spend the summer in the reindeer herders, because they suddenly resources, and their often uninten- forest. Reindeer also favour hilly places had access to larger markets while the tional destruction. The other reason for for calving, because the snow melts demand for reindeer products also in- decline were the gas pipelines and roads sooner in those places. Moreover, gentle creased. As a consequence, the number that sometimes caused severe fragmen- slopes appear to be an important char- of herders tripled while the number of tation of reindeer herd ranges and inter- acteristic for reindeer calving grounds. domestic reindeer doubled with num- rupted traditional migration routes. As the exact locations of many rein-

Following university, Leonid Baskin Tobias Kuemmerle holds a Ph.D. in Volker C. Radeloff holds a Ph.D was director of a reindeer farm in Kam- Geography and is currently a researcher in Forest Ecology and Management. chatka. He is widely published on the at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Im- He now teaches Forest and Wildlife subject of reindeer ecology, behavior, pact Research, Germany. His research ecology at University of Wisconsin – husbandry and populations. Since 1994 now focuses on Eastern Europe and the Madison. His main scientific interests he has been chief scientist at the Insti- former Soviet Union to explore how the are the use of remote sensing meth- tute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian drastic changes in land use and natural ods in evaluating the impact of land Academy of Sciences resource exploitation have affected the use changes on biodiversity. region’s wildlife populations.

The Circle 1.2011 13 Wild reindeer population ranges and reindeer calving ground suitability index

Chichagov Belyi Island Shore in Taymyr (~ 2000) Peninsula (a few Yavay Mamonta Sibiryakov hundred) Peninsula Peninsula Island (a few hundred)

Yamal Peninsula

Gydan Peninsula Wild reindeer Gydansky population Peninsula ranges

Gas field Agapa River (a few hundred) Gydansky Nature Reserve

Reindeer calving ground suitability Shchuch’ya High River in the Nothern Western Taymyr Urals Mountains. (~ 100) (~ 70,000) Nadym-Pur Rivers Pur and Taz Rivers (in 2005, ~ 30,000); (~ 1,500-2,000) 0 50 100 150 km Low

Map: Ketill Berger, Film & Form deer calving grounds are not known, ground characteristics and to predict grounds of populations that were not partly because some populations are now calving grounds across the region. Our known before. For example, our results reduced to very low numbers, we used map shows that areas suitable for calving suggest that the Nadym and Pur River species distribution models and a set of may be more widespread than previously population migrates north after wintering known calving grounds to study calving thought, shedding new light on calving and birth their young in the hilly areas of the Tazovsky Peninsula. These likely calv- ing grounds are also the site of the largest gas fields in the region. Conservation ac- Productive meatings tion to safeguard and restore these popu- lations of wild reindeer is urgent. Our Rival gas producers Russia and Qatar have found common ground over reindeer meat. first mapping of calving grounds in the Reuters reports Russia has promised to export and butcher reindeer meat according north of Western Siberia shows potential to Muslim dietary law. The news wire says exporting halal reindeer meat to the desert conflicts between reindeer conserva- kingdom first surfaced when the governor of the USSR’sA rctic Yamal Nenets region tion and industrial activity. The solution was in Qatar for investment ta ks. “We told the Qatari leadership that we don’t only could be a nature reserve in Tazovsky have oil and gas. We also have reindeer. And then a She kh asked, ‘is reindeer halal? Peninsula similar to that in the Arctic Can Muslims eat it?’ It turns out they can,” Yamal’s governor Dmitry Kobylkin told Reu- National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska, where ters. Upon returning home to Russia, Koby kin arranged for ritual Islamic slaughter and industrial activity is limited for three to trial production of 1,000 cans of halal reindeer meat. “Our plan is to build a separate five weeks during reindeer calving and slaughter house, canning and sausage factory,” says Sergei Uramayeve, a spokesman where the coexistence of the oil industry for the Reindeer Co. and reindeer populations appears at least so far to be successful.

14 The Circle 1.2011 The Nomadic Nenets: A lesson in global warming and gas exploitation

The last several years have seen an explosion in public awareness of the potential im- pacts of Arctic climate change. Some regions are already experiencing a variety of effects, ranging from new species of fish in their waters to increased shrub abundance on rein- deer pastures. Many residents and scientists have concluded that we are in the midst of a warming phase outside the range of personal experience and historical measurements of temperature, precipitation, sea level and sea ice extent. However, in our rush to antici- pate and mitigate or adapt to a warmer North, we risk overlooking an important distur- bance regime that already presents greater direct threats to people and reindeer than climate change. Bruce Forbes writes that hydrocarbon extraction from Arctic regions is undergoing a major surge as prices for oil and gas have made even the most remote fields locked in permafrost or sea ice economically recoverable. ➽

The Circle 1.2011 15 Few people are aware of the scale of ing extensive gas development in recent countering increasingly intrusive infra- massive untapped gas deposits, such as decades. In the course of their annual structure associated with gas extraction those in Northern Russia. migrations between the winter lichen while coping with more frequent and The largest semi-domestic reindeer grounds near treeline and summer intensive extreme weather events. These herds in modern Russia are managed by pastures on the Kara Sea, herders travel include earlier thawing in spring, later nomadic Nenets, an Indigenous people hundreds of kilometres. They are en- freeze-up in autumn, excessive heat in whose territory straddles the Polar summer and warmer winters. Urals and whose herds number some “Herders complain 800,000 animals. Their situation is PROGRESSIVE LOSS OF worth a closer look. that gas workers are TRADITIONAL TERRITORIES The Yamal Peninsula, at the northern poaching fish, birds When rain falls on snow in winter and edge of Russia’s West Siberian Plain refreezes, reindeer have to struggle to has been both warming and undergo- and even occasional reach fodder at a time when herds al- reindeer.”

16 The Circle 1.2011 “the signals of a ready have overall low energy reserves. warming climate have essential source of protein for maintain- This is often cited among scientists as a become undeniable and ing a nomadic livelihood, particularly major concern for Rangifer populations during the long summer migration. and indeed herds on Yamal have lost the gas development Modern hydrocarbon fields have great- up to 25 per cent of their animals as a ly reduced their footprint over the past result of successive freeze/thaw condi- is spreading rapidly.” 30 years or so. Unfortunately, Russia still tions in recent years. So far herders lags far behind the West in its efforts to consider such losses within the normal of traditional territories and resources reduce the number and extent of direct range of what they have dealt with his- they need to survive – grazing lands, and cumulative impacts, as enforcement torically and accept this. What they find campsites, sacred sites, freshwater fish tends to be lax. This is despite relatively harder to handle, and have little lever- – to rapidly advancing gas development. progressive laws on paper for mitiga- age to influence, is the progressive loss For the Nenets, fish still constitute an tion and compensation. On Yamal it is

The Circle 1.2011 17 still distressingly common to see things MEANINGFUL CONSULTATION like large sand quarries with no appar- There is an urgent SORELY LACKING ent efforts at revegetation and off-road Given this potent cocktail of threats, we vehicles with tank tracks tearing up the need for more frank must ask where do the real risks lie if tundra. Herders complain that gas work- and open communica- Nenets and their herds are to thrive in ers are poaching fish, birds and even the 21st century? There is no one answer, occasional reindeer. tion between herders, given the myriad manifestations of rapid They observe that social and environmental change. How- feral dogs coupled workers and decision ever, the Nenets say meaningful consul- with loud noise, tox- tation is sorely lacking, alongside stricter ic spills and random makers. enforcement of existing laws governing Bruce Forbes is trash left behind all hydrocarbon extraction. Successful Professor of Global threaten the health begin production in 2013 and employ- adaptation to both climate change and Change at the Arctic and mobility of their ing thousands of new workers – may industrial development requires not only Centre, University of herds. Herders also soon overwhelm those state-owned and relatively unhindered access to lands and Lapland, Finland. His note that as soon private herding units that share the most waters, but conservation of the ecological research emphasizes as the new railway affected territories. conditions that allow fish, wildlife and social-ecological sys- line linked up to Through our extensive field research reindeer populations to remain viable. tems and resilience. the large Bovanen- on Yamal, my colleagues and I have Nenets have been conscious and effective Since1991 he has kovo gas field, fish found its tightly linked social-ecological stewards of their territories for centuries. conducted participa- migrated away from system to be remarkably resilient. Over Scientists and administrators have much tory fieldwork among lakes and streams the past 20-30 years the populations of to learn from them as the open tundra the Nenets people on in the vicinity of both herded animals and nomadic Ne- becomes ever more fragmented and the Russia’s Yamal Pe- the transport cor- nets have been increasing steadily, even space for nomadism inevitably contracts. ninsula on impacts of ridor, they believe though there have been tangible incen- There is an urgent need for more frank industrial development because of the tives for people to move into settlements and open communication between herd- and climate change. strong subsurface and cities. Interestingly, for the past ers, workers and decision makers. Nenets vibrations emitted half-century scientists have repeatedly have been careful observers during the by heavy train traf- warned that Yamal’s tundra pastures gas exploration and construction phases fic. Administrators are heavily ‘overgrazed’ and the reindeer on Yamal and have excellent ideas on are mostly aware of these and other populations are routinely predicted to how to manage a future in which reindeer problems and vow to improve the record crash. During this same time period, herding and gas production can co-exist. of prevention and remediation. Yet the the signals of a warming climate have At this point what they need most is to sheer scale of the Yamal enterprise - with become undeniable and the gas devel- be genuinely listened to in the fast-paced its huge pipelines to Europe slated to opment is spreading rapidly. dialogue surrounding development. Foto: Gazprom Gas treatment unit No.9 at Kharvutinskaya area of Yamburg field.

18 The Circle 1.2011 Windmills v.s Sámi communities

Green colonialism? n The Swedish government has recently granted approval to build what is being touted as one of the biggest wind farms in the world. The Markbygden wind park in northern Sweden will ultimately see more than 1100 turbines erected at a cost of $8.2 billion. While wind power is a priority for the Swedish government, the turbines will cut a swath through lands that have been used by Sami reindeer herds for centu- ries. The following two articles present conflicting viewpoints of the repercussions of this development. n Jonas Lundmark works for the Wind Power Centre owned by the mu- nicipality of Pitea. He writes that wind power development is needed in the region to meet the growing demand for sustainable energy. Sami parliamentarian Lars-Anders Baer says the Markbydgen project will cut a swath through reindeer calving grounds and winter herding pastures in the Sámi community of Östra Kikkejaur. He writes there is a green wind blowing and it smells of colonialism. ➽

The Circle 1.2011 19 Windmills v.s Sámi communities Windmill colonialism: A threat to Arctic Indigenous people

ver the centuries, the Sámi change and to use and develop new tech- people have managed to survive nologies such as wind power. But today’s Omany changes without our cul- global climate debate focuses primarily ture being swallowed up and disappear- on the symptoms of climate change. ing. But current conditions are drastic From a Sámi perspective this is not good and extremely enough. Our holistic approach dictates threatening. In the that we all have to look at the underlying last 50 years rough- causes of climate change – the processes ly 25 per cent of the of industrialisation and globalisation, reindeer pastures our lifestyles, our consumption habits, of the Euro-Arctic and the continuing large-scale exploita- Lars-Anders Baer Barents Region tion of natural resources. It involves is a reindeer herder have been lost to asking uncomfortable questions and ditions for reindeer herding in Sweden and a former president development and making uncomfortable changes to our will be significantly affected by climate of the Saami Parlia- industrialization. In habits, lifestyles and routines. But every- change. The commission also predicts ment in Sweden. He Sweden, 35 percent one – individuals, authorities, govern- a risk of conflict regarding land use be- is also chairmen of of areas identified ments and industry – has a responsibil- tween reindeer herding infrastructure, Galdu, the Resource as locations for ity to take a hard look at the choices we mining, wind power, space operations Centre for the Rights wind power are make, to make change happen. and military exercises. of Indigenous Peoples, within core reindeer The final report from the Swedish Findings published in January 2011 established by an herding areas, and Commission on Climate and Vulner- by the Special Rapporteur on the situa- order of the Norwe- there are plans for ability35, 2007, concluded that the con- tion of human rights and fundamental gian government. As more than 2000 freedoms of Indigenous people, James a key figure in the windmills to be Anaya, also reflected on “the situation Saami Council, he was established within of the Sami people in the Sápmi region involved in establish- reindeer grazing Up to now the rights of Norway, Sweden and Finland.” He ing an Indigenous-to- lands. urged the Swedish government to recog- Indigenous develop- and interests of the We recognize nize the rights of the reindeer herd- ment aid programme that the Sámi are ing communities both when windmill in Latin America, Sámi people in general also part of the projects are planned and when permis- Asia and Africa. He global consump- sions are granted. has been involved in and the reindeer tion of energy due Up to now the rights and interests the United Nations to our lifestyles and herding community of the Sámi people in general and the Working Group on In- choice of products. reindeer herding community have been digenous Populations have been ignored and We also realize that ignored and neglected by the govern- since 1983. it is important to neglected ments of Sweden, Norway and Finland counteract climate as well as the companies hoping to de-

20 The Circle 1.2011 Kjøllefjord wind farm, Finnmark, Norway

Wind power – Europe’s shining star?

s we strive to reduce our envi- vironmentally hostile coal power plants ronmental footprint while main- The current favourable climate for Ataining current levels of service wind power is due to two factors: poli- and industry, various new sources of tics and improved technology. energy are being tried and tested. Politicians within the European Union In Sweden wind power is still a small have set a goal of 20-20-20 legally com- player in the power generating game, mitting nations to a providing only 2.4 per cent of the total target of 20 per cent energy consumption in Sweden. Even renewable energy though there was a 40 per cent increase sources by 2020. in installed wind power last year, Swe- The other favour- Photo: Statkraft den’s major energy sources continue to able factor is that Jonas Lundmark velop wind power in northern Sweden. be hydroelectricity which provides 45 technology has works for the Wind The Sámi Parliament is protesting the per cent of our energy needs and nucle- advanced so that it Power Centre in Markbydgen windmill project because ar power, which accounts for another 45 is now possible to the Barents region, of this lack of consultation, the disre- per cent of power requirements. build wind turbines which is owned and spect of the rights of the reindeer herd- But wind power has the most poten- that can function in managed by Piteå mu- ing communities and the absence of will tial to decrease energy generated by en- forested and near- nicipality. The centre's to give the Sámi villages fair compensa- arctic regions. objective is to help tion for loss of land and livelihoods. A decade ago develop wind power in After the fifteenth session of the the wind-towers the region and encour- Conference of the Parties to the United were too low to be Studies have shown age developments Nations Framework Convention on effective in forested such as the Markby- Climate Change in Copenhagen in De- that people who areas. Tree-tops gden wind farm. His cember 2009, it is expected that efforts create turbulence role is to further the to mitigate climate change by increased actually live close to when the wind growth of wind power. use of renewable resources, such as wind farms are less sweeps in, making windmills and hydroelectric dams, will the windmills less intensify pressure on grazing lands. negative towards effective. Now it is As an Indigenous nation, we also possible to build towers that exceed 100 expect and foresee an escalation in wind power than metres – a height where tree turbulence conflict between windmill proponents is much lower. Two of the turbines and the Sámi people because of this lack people who have no in Dragaliden, the first pilot-park of of recognition of our rights to land and wind turrets at all in the Markbygden 1101-project, have a self-determination. hub-height of 137 metres, and a blade their vicinity. height of approximately 180 metres at Lars-Anders Baer their highest point. Measurements show

The Circle 1.2011 21 that energy production is significantly indicates there is very little or no impact greater the higher you get. on wildlife. Weather forecast: The Barents region has the best wind Statistics and predictions for the conditions in Europe, namely large future development of northern Sweden areas with low population and regional show we are facing a tough challenge. authorities that are keen for new invest- New industrial projects are a vital ments to help battle unemployment and solution. We have to find new engines Muohta with migration. of growth to provide employment, edu- There is, however, one perennial cation, development and hope. Wind factor in these debates: the NIMBY phe- power is a new industry for the Barents nomenon – Not In My Back Yard. Most region with more than 10,000 turrets people agree wind power is an interest- planned and roughly 10,000 new jobs. ing and important way of producing This, in turn, will attract other industry green energy, but they don’t want to to the Barents region. see them or be close to them. Studies At Vindkraftcentrum, we are look- have shown that people who actually ing into every possible opportunity for live close to wind farms are less nega- growth connected to the wind power tive towards wind power than people industry and how we can promote this who have no wind turrets at all in their development. We believe it will have a vicinity. significant positive impact on employ- ment, education, entrepreneurship, So where should these tourism and regional self-esteem. windfarms go? Right now the focal point is Mark- Those of us working to promote wind bygden and the 1101 project. It will be power in the Barents region believe the template for future projects. There the expansion of wind power should are very few, possibly no other areas in happen here, while considering other Europe a wind park of this size could be factors and sensitivities. One of the built. I am convinced we must give wind most important considerations is how power a serious chance. The positive we can have wind power side by side spin-offs are too great to ignore. The Sámi languages have numerous with reindeer herding and tourism. terms to describe snow cover related to Most wind power projects in northern Jonas Lundmark migrations and transportation, hunting Sweden are slated to be built within and reindeer herding. The surface is Sápmi, the traditional lands of the Sami often described from a mobility per- people in northern Europe who have spective while the descriptions of snow been traditional reindeer herders for layers detail the ability of the animals to centuries. find grazing. The impact of wind farms varies. But Drooping sales The snow definitions are season- the 1101 project in Markbygden stands specific. During autumn, the first freshly out as the largest by far, and will have “Viagra has ruined everything,” ac- fallen snow is described by the ability to the biggest impact on the environment cording to reindeer herder Johan track animals, for hunting or herding, and those who occupy it – in a positive Mikkel Haetta. He recently complained and the ability to use skis or snowmobiles and maybe also a negative way. to NRK public radio in Norway that the to monitor herds. The transitional period, It will undoubtedly affect reindeer pharmaceutical has caused the bottom when the new snow becomes crustier, is herding, especially during the con- to fall out of the reindeer antler market. described in the context of understand- struction phase which will involve a The antlers were in great demand in ing the changes that will occur when substantial amount of heavy machinery the Far East to make aphrodisiacs, the snow thickness increases, and the working in the area. However, that will making them a significant source of reindeers’ grazing ability is affected. In occur mostly during the summer when supplemental income for the herders. wintertime, the terms vary to focus on herds are grazing elsewhere. Right now “The availability of synthetic aphrodisi- the thickness of snow and the snow layers the developers are in negotiations with acs such as Viagra has had a major that largely affect the reindeers’ access to the Sami and I am convinced they can negative impact on the market,” NRK forage. The definition and descriptions reach a solution. Once the turrets are reported. of the different snow layers depend on erected and in production, research where in the snow vertical profile the

22 The Circle 1.2011 the threat of climate change The reindeer-herding Sámi have adapted their way of life to seasonal snow cover, creating a profound base of accumulated knowledge and detailed definitions of snow cover and its changes. The knowledge passed from generation to generation is summarized in definitions describing “positive” and “negative” properties of snow cover critical for the survival of the reindeer herds and the Sámi themselves. He- reditary reindeer herder Niklas Labba says climate change will affect season-specific snow layers and create new and unknown challenges for the Sámi people.

layer is, how thick the layers are and wind and snow conditions, will deter- dig through the snow via intense herd- how much ice the layer consists of. These mine and influence herding decisions. ing, or as a last option allow the reindeer characteristics determine the ability of Due to climate change the autumn to disperse into the reindeer to access food beneath the snow. becomes longer and warmer, and the nearby mountains During spring, the surface becomes more frequency when the first snow falls on to search for suit- important than the snow layers, and the warm ground increases. When this oc- able grazing condi- definitions then describe the snow’s abil- curs it is the start for a snow condition tions individually. ity to carry animals and humans. that reindeers avoid – Bodneskárta, A general good Niklas Labba has This knowledge and understanding Bodnevihki, Skildži (16), and Cevvi snow condition is grown up as a tradi- of the properties of snow has facili- (6) (see table on following page).The defined as Seaŋaš, tional reindeer herder. tated and preserved the way of life for frequency of rain on snow during the (4). This condition Today he is also the the reindeer-herding Sámi people for late autumn and early winter has also makes it easy for leader of Gáisi Sámi centuries. increased. This is a severe problem for the reindeers to dig Language Centre in By nature reindeer always walk the survival of reindeer. It is not the rain through the snow. Tromso. He is involved towards the wind, continuously search- itself that creates the problem, but the The grazing craters in numerous projects ing for better grazing. A longer annual cold weather that follows the tempo- in the snow are monitoring the advent migration is based on the search for bet- rary warmer weather. Depending on defined as suovd- of climate change and ter snow conditions and growth seasons. the amount of rain, the length and the nji (12), and Fieski works as a researcher Shorter movements within a seasonal frequency of the warmer periods, the (13). Over time, at the Nordic Sámi grazing area is based on local wind effect on the snow cover can range from in the same snow Institute with a focus direction. The herders are aware of the moderately to completely impenetra- cover, the reindeer on reindeer herding ground conditions when the first snow ble, which is called Geardni (8), Gask- will dig more cra- economy and tradi- falls, the wind direction and how the ver- ageardni (18), Cuoŋu (9), and Jiekŋa ters and the snow tional knowledge. tical snow layers develop. Knowledge of (17). Depending on the condition of the will become more the grazing area and reindeer behavior, snow, herders can force the reindeer to packed. Finally the

The Circle 1.2011 23 Sámi snow categories and herding relevance

Sámi snow categories used in our fieldwork and their relevance for reindeer herding. Main informants: Nils Tomas Labba, Gustav Labba (Saarivuoma). Erik Anders Niia, Håkan Kuhmunen (Gabna)

Category Snow properties Herding relevance 1 Bihci ’Thin layer of icy frost on vegetation, ground, vehicles, windows, etc.’ May lead to stomach problems when icy vegetation is eaten. 2 Gutna guohtun ‘Ash snow’ or ’powder snow’ Very good grazing conditions for reindeer 3 Vahca ‘New loose snow’ 4 Seaŋaš ‘Granular snow at the base of a layer of snow or most of the snow The snow appears like coarse salt minerals. Reindeer can easily dig pack’, or ‘depth hoar’ through this layer. The granular snow does not encase the reindeer grazing plants or the lichens.

5 Skoavdi ‘Thin layer of snow with an “air pocket” between snow and ground’. Reindeer can kick and penetrate a snow layer such as sievlla (see Appears at the end of winter and the beginning of spring. below) above the air pocket.

6 Ceavvi ‘Hard-packed or hard-compacted snow’ developed during heavy Reindeer can normally dig through this snow freely (if locomotion con- snowfalls under relatively high temperatures and compressed by later ditions are difficult or if forced by herders). If it falls on unfrozen ground, snowfall‘ (Eriksson, 1976; Pruitt, 1979). this snow can promote the growth of mould which also prevents rein- deer from smelling lichens. It probably also facilitates the accumulation

of CO2 under the snow cover (Eriksson, 1976; Pruitt, 1979).

7 Čearga ‘Hard snowdrift’ Potentially severe grazing conditions for reindeer

8 Geardni ‘Thin crust on top of snow pack’ 9 Cuoŋu ‘Hard crust on snow’ Difficult for reindeer to get to ground level to forage. It forces reindeer to spread and search for more easily available forage. 10 Moarri ‘Sharp, non-bearing crust which may damage reindeer feet’. Cuoŋu Reindeer avoid walking into areas with such conditions. can turn into ‘moarri’, i.e. a hard snow cover starts to get softer, but when it re-freezes it is transformed into sharp crust. 11 Sievlla ‘Wet, non-bearing snow in spring (April-May)’ Herders cannot move the reindeer, i.e. they must migrate at night when this layer freezes. 12 Suovdnji Feeding crater More or less transformed snow due to grazing 13 Fieski ‘Area where grazing has occurred‘(slightly to moderately packed snow) The more grazing, the more packing and icing and consequently the 14 Čiegar ‘Area where a grazing herd has been for a longer period’ (moderately less accessibility for continued grazing. to completely packed snow) 15 Čiegargovvi ‘Large area where grazing has occurred several times over a long The snow is so heavily compacted that it is impenetrable for reindeer. period’ (completely packed to ice-covered snow) The animals are in danger of dying if not moved to accessible pasture

16 Bodneskárta Ice on the ground encapsulating plants and lichens Blocks access to vegetation. Ice on lichens and plants can lead to Bodnevihki stomach problems for the reindeer. Skilži 17 Jiekŋa Ice 18 Gaskageardni ‘Crust in the middle of the snow pack’ Several gaskageardni in a snow pack can prevent reindeer reaching the ground vegetation. (Riseth et.al 2010 Polar Record) snow becomes so packed that it is not ditional responses to changes in snow during the melting period decreases. possible to penetrate the surface. This grazing conditions. Warmer summers will create drier is known as Čiegar (14) and Čiegargovvi When spring comes earlier and the mountain areas and the perennial snow (15). This snow condition will occur melting period is shortened, it will have patches will melt with two adverse more often due to the concentration of a positive effect on reindeer grazing. The results: female reindeer won’t be able reindeer in areas with good snow condi- period with Skoavdi (5), comes earlier to produce enough milk for their calves, tions. By tradition, reindeer herders and the period with Moarri (10), and causing decreased growth, a delay in ear cannot deny another reindeer herder Seavlla (11), is shortened. Potentially marking and a reduction in slaughter access to a given area, if all the other this will allow the reindeer earlier access weights the following autumn. It also areas are blocked. The issue is whether to snow-free grazing and plants available means the reindeer can’t seek out those the modern governmental regulations of during the early growing season. For the cool snow patches for relief from para- reindeer herding will interfere with tra- herders this means herding intensity sitic flies and excessive heat.

24 The Circle 1.2011 Technology Long distance learning The rapid pace of advancing technology and its impact on teaching has opened up a new world of educational possibilities for those living in, or interested in, the Arctic. Philip Burgess says a unique, online course on reindeer herding is an excellent example of how a broad array of students, teachers, researchers and stakeholders can share ideas, knowledge and solutions on global issues, no matter what country they may be in.

On a recent occasion, I was sitting in have a special interest in the topic such mous amount in common. Reindeer hus- Toronto, Canada while a professor was as heads of hunting and fishing organiza- bandry is practiced in remarkably similar delivering a lecture in Tromsø, Nor- tions and other university lecturers. ways wherever it is found while reindeer way. Students were participating from It is this broad range of participants herding is an excel- Russia, Norway, Finland, Sweden, the from various disciplines and back- lent umbrella topic UK, the US and Canada. But we were grounds that illustrates the hunger to discuss the effects all together in a shared digital room across the Arctic for new approaches of globalization, for (although perhaps it should be called in sharing information, educating and example. The rush a digital lavvu, or chum). The profes- problem solving. The flexibility of the for resources in the Philip Burgess has sor was showing slides from his recent online environment allows students to Arctic fuelled by worked as an Adviser field work on the Yamal Peninsula and follow the course according to their own rising prices and to the International discussing the loss of pastures to oil and schedules (and time zones!) through climate change pres- Centre for Reindeer gas development on the peninsula. a weekly live lecture which is also ar- ents challenges that Husbandry in Kauto- Suddenly, a young reindeer herder chived for later viewing. affect all reindeer keino, Norway since following the course from Salekhard, There are many good reasons for a herders: loss of pas- 2007. He holds a Russia, piped in. “That’s my uncle!” he course that focuses on a single, traditional tures due to oil and Masters in Arctic Stud- excitedly told the virtual class as a slide of livelihood in a region as vast as the Arctic. gas development; re- ies from the University one of the herders flashed across screens. Despite significant differences in envi- lated installation of of Lapland, Finland The scene is a unique online Masters ronmental niches, languages, cultures, new infrastructures and has worked for level course, Adaptation to Globalisa- political and economic systems and recent such as pipelines, the Sami Council, the tion in the Arctic – the Case of Rein- histories, reindeer herders have an enor- roads and dwellings; Indigenous Peoples deer Husbandry. It is a collaboration the effects of forestry Secretariat, and the between the University of the Arctic, the activities across Eur- Association of World International Centre for Reindeer Hus- asia. Likewise, nearly “Reindeer husbandry Reindeer Herders bandry, the Sami University College, the all herders face amongst others on Thule Institute of the University of Oulu is practiced in economic challenges, Arctic related issues. and the Arctic Portal in Iceland. difficulties accessing He currently lives in remarkably similar markets and recruit- Toronto, Canada. A HUNGER FOR EDUCATION ways wherever it is ment issues. The range of students is impressively diverse. There are reindeer herders from found while reindeer A NOVEL Norway and Russia enrolled in the course, COMMITMENT TO EDUCATION as well as university students from across herding is an excellent The course is coordinated by the Uni- Scandinavia, Russia, Canada and the versity of the Arctic Thematic Networks. USA – including one Native American umbrella topic to Its goal is to focus on issues-based student. There are grad students from the discuss the effects cooperation by strengthening northern renowned Scott Polar Research Institute institutions through sharing resources, taking part along with numerous others of globalization.” facilities, and expertise. who are not students per se, but who Facilitating an online course on this

The Circle 1.2011 25 Wild reindeer and caribou on the circumpolar Arctic

The severe Arctic climate has shaped the appearance and behavior of arctic is- land caribou and reindeer to differ substantially from their southern cousins.

These small but tough denizens of the Arctic have a whiter winter coat, smaller stature and distinctly shorter faces and legs. They thrive in polar conditions despite the brief six- to eight-week plant growing season, sparse vegetation and New technologies bring herders, scientists and students together in a virtual classroom the long winter which can periodically restrict foraging to the point of death topic has meant collaborating with challenges to reindeer herders in all from malnutrition. High arctic caribou multiple institutions and organisations places they are found. Confronting these are typically dispersed in small groups such as the Association of World Rein- complexities will require new think- across the thinly vegetated ranges close deer Herders, Arctic Centre, Rovaniemi ing, new expertise and new tools. New to the climatic edge for plant growth. (Finland), the Norwegian Meteorological technologies will certainly play a role Novozemel’sk reindeer – Rangi- Institute and the University of Manitoba and by bringing herders, scientists and fer tarandus pearsoni – are Russia’s (Canada). This network of expertise was students together in a virtual classroom, distinct breed of arctic island reindeer made possible through the IPY EALÁT we hope to make new contributions to and are found on the Novaya Zemlya project, a vulnerability study examining the search for solutions in the Arctic. archipelago range. reindeer pastoralism in light of climate n For more information about the course Norway’s Svalbard reindeer – R.t change and the recent establishment of contact Philip Burgess (philip.burgess@ platyrhynchus – are noticeably dwarfed the UArctic Institute for Circumpolar reindeercentre.org) with a marked propensity to fatten Reindeer Husbandry in Kautokeino, Nor- n Virtual Learning Tools Homepage up for the long winter. The Svalbard way. It is a signal that this collaboration, http://www.vlt.is archipelago range has reindeer on most work and novel commitment to educa- n More information on the UArctic non-glaciated areas. tion will continue and thrive. Thematic Networks: http://www.uarctic.org/ Greenland has lost its distinct form There is no question that globalisa- SingleArticle.aspx?m=56&amid=68 of reindeer which ranged along the east tion is bringing complex and significant coast. R. t. egroenlandicus were small and short-faced with a white winter coat. By 1920, they had disappeared and ‘Nobody knows the way of the wind and the caribou.’ Old Chipewyan Proverb the few remaining museum skulls and dried hides aren’t offering any clues into CaptainThierry Mallet’s 1930 memoir contains a chapter “When the Caribou Failed.” A their extinction. veteran fur trader, he recounted one dramatic episode of what was to become all too Canada’s Peary caribou – Rangi- familiar in the Canadian Arctic in the depression years and after World War II: starva- fer tarandus pearyi – are found on tion among the inland Inuit. During a trek northeast from the Ennadai Lake area, he the north and central arctic islands, wrote, “...we were in plain sight of the whole band of Eskimos*. The igloos were built on including the northwest side of Victo- a rocky point, while the entire tribe seemed to be scattered a mile or so out on the ice. ria Island in the Arctic Archipelago. “Fishing,” was our thought, and at once we knew that our friends were in a bad way. No However, most of Victoria Island is Eskimo fishes inland through the ice in winter unless he has missed the herds of cari- the calving and summer range of the bou in the fall and has been unable to stock up with meat and fat until the next spring.” *Eskimos was once the common name applied to Inuit by outsiders. t is now generally considered impolite.

26 The Circle 1.2011 islands Photo: Wim van Passel/WWF-Canon Photo: Paul Nicklen/National Geographic Stock/WWF-Canada Svalbard reindeer – Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus Young Peary caribou – Rangifer tarandus pearyi

Dolphin and Union caribou which then 10,000 with re-occupation of ranges. islands disappeared altogether between migrate across the sea ice to winter on Novozemel’sk reindeer declined from 1980 and 1995. The Dolphin and Union the nearby continental mainland. The about 20,000 to 1,000 by 1933 and to a caribou, once about 100,000 strong, crossing of sea ice to seasonal ranges handful by 1950. Hunting was banned declined to a few hundred by the mid is typical of arctic island caribou either in 1934 and herds recovered despite 1920s. They slowly recovered about between islands or to the continental setbacks from winter icing. By the 1990s 27,000 caribou by 2007. mainland. numbers had rebounded to between The numbers are not encouraging. Arctic island caribou contend with 10,000-15,000 reindeer. Despite the efforts of Inuit and Inu- a short plant growing season, but gain The most abundant of this distinc- valuit hunters, recovery is slow or not from cool summers which means fewer tive group of arctic island reindeer or happening at all, while the threats to or even no parasitic and biting insects. caribou were the Peary caribou – a these sturdy arctic rangifers are grow- Svalbard reindeer have the additional reflection of the far greater land mass ing. Increased human presence is on the advantage of no wolves on their ranges which could support greater numbers. horizon and not just from oil and gas and only the occasional predatory polar But the overall trend for these herds is exploration, mining or tourism on the bear. However, arctic island caribou do steep decline. From 1961, their numbers land. Increased marine traffic will also periodically have to contend with dif- have dropped from about 48,000 Peary compound risks to caribou and reindeer. ficult foraging due to ice from fall rains to roughly 6,000 in 2010. While there When there is a single threat, the leading to malnutrition and deaths. were some recoveries aided by Inuit re- herds are resilient, proven by some of Trends for Svalbard and Novaya stricting their hunting, those gains were the recoveries that followed hunting Zemlya reindeer now indicate those lost during severe winters. restrictions. An exception to that is the herds are increasing following earlier On the Banks and Northwest Victoria Peary caribou on Banks and Northwest declines. A steep decrease on Svalbard islands, local hunters also restricted Victoria islands where recovery did was reversed when hunting was stopped their hunting. Declines halted but not follow hunting restrictions. This in 1928, although the herds still suffered numbers are only stable at about 90 suggests greater complexity in factors occasional setbacks, again due to freez- per cent less than the previous peak. driving that decline and the need for ing rain and ice restricting access to One large herd of approximately 6000 close monitoring. forage. By 2007, numbers were perhaps Peary on Prince of Wales and Somerset Anne Gunn

The Circle 1.2011 27 B-economique Return WWF Global Arctic Programme PO Box 6784 St Olavs plass, N-0130 Oslo, Norway

The picture Rangifer in the sky

The famous French as- tronomer Pierre Charles Le Monnier (1715-99), introduced the constel- lation Tarandus vel Rangifer to international star charts of the time. It was perhaps most notably present in the Uranographia published in 1801 by Johann Elert Bode. “Constellation of Tarandus vel Rangifer in Bode's Uranographia (1801)” was later re- moved from star charts as the constellation system was adapted to reflect Greek mythology.

Why we are here To stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature.

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