FORESTRY PLANTATIONS OF Pinus caribaea IN VENEZUELA AS A SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTOR

Eduardo D. Greaves, Yelitza Marin, Francisco Visaez and José Vicente Hernández E.

SUMMARY

6 The Caribbean (Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis) is a 113×10 ton/year of atmospheric CO2 and the production of useful species that has demonstrated its capacity for successful dif- biomass make this species of special interest for its propagation fusion in areas which were originally extensive savannas with in tropical and subtropical areas of the north of Africa, the Mid- oligotrophic sandy soils of low fertility, acid pH, and a wide dle East and Asia. The infrastructure created in Venezuela for variety of soil and pluviometric conditions. A reforestation pro- the propagation of the Caribbean pine and the extensive expe- gram in Venezuela has planted a 550000ha artificial forest, rience gained in over 40 years of development are a resource significantly changing the ecology of the area and creating an that could be used to ‘paint in green’ the deserted areas of the important biomass resource by effectively harnessing the energy planet, in order to improve the land, collect the energy of the of the sun at a yearly collecting power of 1710MW. The change sun, sequester CO2, help reduce the greenhouse effect of the at- of the albedo of large areas of the territory, the sequestering of mosphere and produce social welfare to the inhabitants.

Introduction been accompanied by a great- America the disappearance of and semi deserted areas of er ability by humanity to ma- almost 5×10 6ha of tropical the world. To this end the Forests currently occupy nipulate the world environ- forest (Marín, 1997). To re- Caribbean pine has been suc- 4×10 9ha, representing 31% ment. In tropical countries, cover the energetic and other cessfully used in reforestation of the planet’s surface (FAO, the need for long-fiber wood benefits of the loss of natural programs in Latin America. 2010). They are one of the for the building and paper forest, requires a global level The Caribbean pine (Pinus natural mechanisms that gath- industries, and the lack of and aggressive reforestation caribaea) is a rapidly growing er the energy of the sun. tradition in forest plantations program that not only restores species originating in Central However, the progressive in- has led to a harmful impact the losses but also attempts to America, where it grows be- crease of the world population on natural forests. Recent increase the surface under tween 18º N (Belice) to 12º N and its economic activity has years have seen in Latin vegetation and reduce desert (Bluefields, ), at

KEYWORDS / Forestry Plantations / Pinus caribaea / Reforestation / Solar Energy / Venezuela / Received: 07/02/2014. Modified: 05/11/2015. Accepted: 05/15/2015.

Eduardo D. Greaves. B.Sc. in USB. Apartado 89000, Caracas Francisco Visaez. M.Sc. in José Vicente Hernández E. Physiecs, Rensselaer Polytechnic 1080 A, Venezuela. e-mail: Environmental Science, UNEG, Agronomical Engineer, Uni- Institute, USA. M.Sc. in [email protected] Venezuela. Specialist in versidad Central de Venezuela. Physics, Manchester University, Yelitza Marin. Agronomist, Economics of Environment and Doctor in Biology, USB, UK. M.Sc. in Extractive National Experimental Uni- Natural Resources, Universidad Venezuela. Address: Depar- Metallurgy and Ph.D. in versidad Nacional Experimental de Alcalá, España. PG degree tamento de Biología de Physics, Imperial College, UK. Francisco de Miranda, Vene- in Geography, ULA, Venezuela. Organismos, USB. Apar- Professor, Universidad Simón zuela. Professor, Universidad Manager, Maderas del Oriente, tado 89000, Caracas 1080A, Bolívar (USB), Venezuela. Nacional Experimental de C.A., Venezuela. e-mail: franvi- Venezuela. e-mail: jnandez@ Address: Department of Physics, Guayana (UNEG), Venezuela. [email protected] usb.ve

JULY 2015, VOL. 40 Nº 7 0378-1844/14/07/468-08 $ 3.00/0 457 PLANTACIONES DE Pinus caribaea EN VENEZUELA COMO RECOLECTOR DE ENERGÍA SOLAR Eduardo D. Greaves, Yelitza Marin, Francisco Visaez y José Vicente Hernández E.

RESUMEN El pino caribe (Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis) es una atmosférico y la producción de biomasa útil, hacen de esta especie que ha demostrado su capacidad para su difusión especie de interés especial para su propagación en áreas se- en áreas que eran originalmente extensas sabanas con sue- midesérticas tropicales y subtropicales del norte de África, el los arenosos oligotróficos, de baja fertilidad, de pH ácido, y Medio Oriente y Asia. La infraestructura creada en Venezue- con una variedad de condiciones pluviométricas y de suelos. la para la propagación del pino caribe y la experiencia ob- Un plan de reforestación en Venezuela ha creado un exten- tenida en mas de 40 años de desarrollo son recursos que pu- so ‘bosque artificial’ de unas 550000ha que han cambiado la dieran usarse para ‘pintar de verde’ las áreas desérticas del ecología del área y ha creado un recurso de biomasa impor- planeta, con la finalidad de mejorar las tierras, recolectar la tante que atrapa efectivamente la energía solar con una ca- energía solar, fijar el CO2, ayudar a la reducción de gases de pacidad anual de 1710MW. El cambio del albedo de grandes efecto invernadero que afectan la atmósfera terrestre y con- 6 áreas del territorio, el secuestrado de 113×10 ton/año de CO2 tribuir al bienestar social.

PLANTAÇÕES DE Pinus caribaea NA VENEZUELA COMO COLETOR DE ENERGIA SOLAR Eduardo D. Greaves, Yelitza Marin, Francisco Visaez e José Vicente Hernández E.

RESUMO

O pinheiro caribe (Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis) é uma ano de CO2 atmosférico e a produção de biomassa útil, fa- espécie que tem demonstrado sua capacidade para sua difu- zem desta espécie de interesse especial para sua propagação são nas áreas que eram originalmente extensas savanas com em áreas semidesérticas tropicais e subtropicais do norte da solos arenosos oligotróficos, de baixa fertilidade, pH ácido, África, o Oriente Médio e Ásia. A infraestrutura criada na e com um leque de condições pluviométricas e de solos. Um Venezuela para a propagação do pinheiro caribe e a expe- plano de reflorestamento na Venezuela tem criado um extenso riência obtida em mais de 40 anos de desenvolvimento são ‘bosque artificial’ com aproximadamente 550.000ha que tem recursos que poderiam ser usados para ‘pintar de verde’ as mudado a ecologia da área e tem criado um recurso de bio- áreas desérticas do planeta, com a finalidade de melhorar as massa importante que captura efetivamente a energia solar terras, coletar a energia solar, fixar o CO2, ajudar à redução com uma capacidade anual de 1710MW. A mudança do albe- de gases de efeito estufa que afetam a atmosfera terrestre e do de grandes áreas do território, o sequestro de 113×106ton/ contribuir com o bem-estar social.

850masl and mean rain of in 1961 and 1965, when the 950-3500mm per year, exhibit- Ministry of Agriculture initi- ing a dry season of two to ated trials in Cachipo (north three months and temperatures of Monagas state) with between 24 and 27°C. Three from and from varieties of the species exist: Brazil. P. caribaea var. hon- Pinus caribaea var. honduren- durensis was the variety that sis from Honduras, P. carib- showed the best results due to aea var. caribaea from its adaptability and fast and P. caribaea var. bahamen- growth in the savannas of the sis from Bahamas (Salazar and Monagas and Anzoátegui Jøker, 2000). states (Visaez, 1988). The The properties of this spe- success attained in these first cies have determined its mas- experiments resulted in a sive use in reforestation pro- large forestry development grams in Venezuela (CVG- program at Uverito in 1969 PROFORCA, 1996; Molina and at Chaguaramas and Figure 1 Plantation of Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis at Uverito, Peñaloza, 2006; Castillo, Centella in 1972 (both south Monagas state, Venezuela ( 6º39’57”N, 62º38’26”W). 2003; Maderas del Orinoco, of Monagas state) followed 2014) and Brazil (Pongitory et later at Coloradito and Mesa altitudes, the occidental PROFORCA, 2009). This pro- al., 2001), and in a smaller de Los Hachos (south of plains, Carabobo, Yaracuy and gram aims to extend the scale in plantations reported Anzoátegui state). See Guayana states, including 0.55×10 6ha of planted forest to in 28 other countries (Le Figure 1. These large planta- also the Caracas valley. 2×10 6ha, an increase of 350% Maitre, 1998; Ugalde and tions were followed in more In December 2009 the by the year 2029. Species Pérez, 2001). Caribbean modest scale in many other central government appro- contemplated are Pinus carib- pine plantations began in locations in the country: in ved the ‘Socialist Forestry aea var. hondurencis as well Venezuela with experiments the Andean states at different Program of Venezuela’ (CVG- as other species, notably

458 JULY 2015, VOL. 40 Nº 7 Eucalypt (Eucaliptus urophyl- socioeconomic, industrial and Swahili: Msindano; Trade rock), referring to the habitat of la), Acacia (Acacia mangium) environmental effects it has name: Honduran yellow pine. the pine. and Teca (Tectona grandis). had, and to propose a program The plan contemplated the increasing the spread of this Distribution and habitat and description production by year 2014 of species in arid land, particular- 5×10 5ton of paper pulp, ly in tropical and subtropical Native to The seed is about twice as 2.5×10 5m3 of sawn timber and areas of Africa, the Middle and the Caribbean, widely - long as broad, triangular and 5×10 5ton of boards. There are East and Asia as a way to har- ed throughout the American, pointed at the ends. (Figure 3). currently two seed orchards ness solar energy with envi- Asian and African tropics and On average less than 6mm with an area of 194ha for ronmental, economic and so- subtropics. P. caribaea var. long, 3mm broad and black to Caribbean pine seeds, with cially positive effects. caribaea is confined to Cuba grey or brown. The membra- national production of 2000kg/ and the Isla de la Juventud, P. nous wing is up to 20mm year of improved seeds Caribbean Pine caribaea var. bahamensis is in- long, sometimes fused with capable of providing the na- digenous to certain islands of the seed coat but becoming tional and international market and nomenclature and the Caicos detached when moistened. and production in nursery (Salazar and Jøker, 2000; groups, and P. caribaea var. There are 35-40 seeds per (Figure 2) of 42×106 nurse ICRAF, 2012). hondurensis can be found in the cone and 59000-72000 /year. eastern half of Central America dewinged seeds/kg, depending The planted area is currently Family: south-east from the Yucatan on the variety. In natural con- increasing at a rate of 40000ha/ peninsula. It grows best in frost- ditions the seed has aerody- year (CVG PROFORCA, 2012). Varieties: Pinus caribaea var. free areas up to 700masl on namic properties retarding its This program has turned large bahamensis (Griseb.) W.H.G. more fertile sites with good fall to the ground and helping parts of Venezuela’s savannas Barrett & Golfari, P. caribaea drainage and annual rainfall of dissemination by the wind. that were underutilized in one var. caribaea, P. caribaea var. 1000-3000mm. However, in certain areas of the largest solar energy col- hondurensis (Sénéclauze) W.H.G. (such as eastern Venezuela) lectors artificially created in Barrett & Golfari. Botanical description there is asynchrony between the planet. These plantations female and male strobili, im- constitute a large anthropogen- Current name: Pinus caribaea Pinus caribaea is a tree 20- peding the pollination process ic production of biomass. The Family: Pinaceae. Authority: 30m tall, often reaching 45m, and resulting in no production wood volume production is Morelet. with a diameter of 50-80cm of seed. Due to this the seed estimated at 5.5×106m3/year. and occasionally up to 1m. orchards of Maderas del The yearly solar energy cap- Synonym(s): Pinus bahamensis Trunk generally straight and Orinoco C.A. are located in ture (see below) if converted (Griseb.), Pinus hondurensis well formed; lower branches Santa Cruz de Bucaral (Falcon to wood and biomass that (Seneclauze). Pinus recurvata large, horizontal and drooping; state) and San Antonio de could be used as fuel, has a (Rowlee), Pinus taeda var. upper branches often ascending Maturin (Monagas state). heat content estimated at heterophylla (Elliott), P. recur- to form an open, rounded to 5.39×1016J/year equivalent to vata, (Rowlee). pyramidal crown, young trees Propagation 1710MW collected every year. with a dense, pyramidal crown. These Caribbean pine planta- Vernacular/common names. Leaves needlelike, crowded and When considering possible tions capture an estimated English: Caribbean pine, spreading at ends of twigs, re- areas for the spread of 113Mton/year of CO2 (Emilio Caribbean pitch pine, Cuban maining attached for 2 years, Caribbean pine the most im- J. Vilanova, personal commu- pine, Honduras pine, Nicaragua in fascicles of 3-5, mostly 15- portant aspect are the ecologi- nication) and release pine, Pitch pine, Slash pine; 25cm long, 1.5mm broad or cal conditions of the area: 82.2Mton/year of O2, which French: Pin jaune, Pin mate; less, rigid serrulate, dark or weather conditions such as pe- helps reduce the concentration German: Karibische kiefer; yellowish-green, slightly shiny, riods of rainy season and of greenhouse gases associated Spanish: Ocote blanco, Pino with stomata in whitish lines with global climate change. amarillo, Pino caribaea de on all surfaces. Strobili appear The purpose of this paper is Honduras, Pino colorado, Pino before the new leaves; male to describe and publicize inter- cubano, Pino de cuaba, Pino strobili many and sessile in nationally the Venezuelan ex- de la costa, Pino macho; whorled, short, crowded clus- perience in this field, the Venezuela: Pino caribe; ters near ends of twigs, mostly in lower part of the crown; mature cones usually reflexed, symmetrical; cone scales re- flexed or wide spreading, thin, flat, dark chocolate-brown on inner surfaces; seeds narrowly ovoid, about twice as long as broad, pointed at both ends, three angled, averaging less than 6mm long, 3mm wide, black, mottled grey or light Figure 3. 1: mature male strobili, 2: female strobili at receptive sta- brown. ‘Pinus’ is from the Figure 2. Forestry research station at El Merey, Monagas state, showing ge, 3: female strobili two months a Pinus caribaea nursery (left) and young trees growing in the alluvial Greek word ‘pinos’ (pine tree), old, 4: mature cones, 5: cone sca- weathered soils savannas of the Mesa formation at Uverito, Monagas possibly from the Celtic term les, and 6: seeds. Reproduced state (right). ‘pin’ or ‘pyn’ (mountain or from ICRAF (2012).

JULY 2015, VOL. 40 Nº 7 459 droughts, amount of precipita- the interior, to poor in coastal and ‘barbacoa’ (Axonopus which produces massive cases tion during the rainy season, regions due to the low altitude compressus), among others of regressive death or sudden rainfall occurrences. Soils: and the frequent presence of (Quintero and Olivares, 1992). death (see below). Under con- horizons characterization, study impermeable clay subsoil. The ditions of hydric stress the of soils, fertilization, etc. Other reaction of the soil is acidic, Pests and diseases pine plantation becomes more important conditions are alti- with pH varying between 6.5 susceptible to this assault com- tude, latitude and wind speed. (Honduras) to 4.3 (Nicaragua) Caribbean pine shows ac- bined with the Scolytidae and according to Barret and ceptable survival and adequate phytopathogen fungus attack. Climate requirements Golfari (1962), quoted by growth rates, mainly due to Sierra and Hernandez (2011). improved production tech- Sudden death syndrome Salazar and Albertin (1973) In Venezuela, the Caribbean niques in nursery plants and (‘dieback’) set thermal limits and water pine usually grows on the allu- planting technology, even requirements in the areas of vial weathered soils of the when propagated in soils that This is a complex syndrome origin and areas of introduc- Mesa formations, highly are very poor (Fassbender et that has been reported in the tion of P. caribaea, identifying washed with a high sand con- al., 1979b). According to these Caribbean pine plantations in favorable behavior in annual tent, low moisture retention authors certain conditions such Uverito, Monagas State, temperature ranges between 24 capacity and scarce nutrients as water deficit, estimated at Venezuela. The disease occurs and 28°C, and only moderate in the surface layers an annual 2000mm, the exis- in Venezuela and in other growth in temperatures from (Fassbender et al. 1979a). The tence of extensive monocul- African countries (Holmquist, 20 to 24°C. Water limits are: potential transpiration exceeds tures and low soil quality, 1988). It manifests itself in a maximum of 1000-3000mm/ precipitation, resulting in a confers high fragility. In the variety of ways and with dif- year and minimum of 100- deficit of water for most of the case of P. caribaea tree plan- ferent symptoms: progressive 600mm/year. In its original year; winds in the area are tations in Venezuela several death, regressive death, general regions it grows on lands with moderate but steady, with an pest have been reported as a deterioration and sudden death, elevations below 800masl in average speed of 10km/h, limitation to the establishment as described by Gonzalez frost-free climates with a maximum monthly average and development of the pine (1980). Other symptoms re- marked, well defined dry sea- speeds occurring generally forest, in such way that some- ported are: widespread or son (Sierra and Hernandez, from January to June and in times pest impact may produce patchy yellowing, dry branches 2011). The range of tempera- December (MARNR, 1982). important economic damage. and poor growth in height and tures is between 24 and 27°C In the case of insects the diameter. Also, dead trees can in the coastal regions with Associated vegetation in most important are leaf-cutting be observed in isolation tropical climate, abundant Venezuela ants, specifically Atta laevigata (Holmquist, 1990). Holmquist rainfall up to 3500mm/year and A. sexdens (Hymenoptera: (1988) reports Lasidiplodia and a short period of 2-3 The areas where the pine Formicidae). A colony of these theobromae Patonillard months of drought (rainforest). has been planted are predomi- ants can destroy during a night (Botryodiplodiaceae) as the In the inner regions with a nantly natural savanna with up to 8ha of recently planted causative agent of the disease. subtropical climate average herbaceous vegetation of grass, pine trees. In the case of adult This is a fungal pathogen, not annual temperature 20-24°C shrubs and small trees with plantations <10 years old, they particularly aggressive, but and low rainfall ( 950mm/year predominance of hairy straw can diminish significantly the characterized by entering the with a long drought period of (Trachypogon plumosus) and volume of wood produced per host and remaining latent and 6 months), corresponding to ‘zaeta’ (Trachypogon sp.) surface area. However, in plan- pathogenic until the plant is in dry woodlands (Barrett and among others. Associated with tations of >10 years the pres- physiological stress. Factors Golfari, 1962). the mixture of grasses in the ence of this species of ants predisposing the disease in- savannas are various low-slung stimulates the production of clude high stand density, long Soil requirements tree components found in de- wood per surface area. This periods of drought or dry sea- graded soils that are highly phenomenon is a result of the son and poor soil quality. Pinus caribaea var. hondu- resistant to fire. The most rep- extra supply of nutrients to the rensis fits a variety of soils. It resentative of these species are soil and to the improvement of Impact of the Caribbean grows well in poor soils of Curatella americana (chapar- the physical structure of the Pine Plantations lateritic origin (red, brown, red ro), Bowdichia virgilioides (al- ground due to ant’s activities and yellow), which have been cornoque), (Anacardium occi- (Hernández and Jaffé, 1995). Biomass creation and developed on different parent dentalis) (merey), Byrsonima The second important group energy capture rocks, such as granite, shale crassifolia (manteco) and of pest insects belongs to the and sandstone (British (Piptadenia oblicua (yopo) order Coleoptera, family The mean annual (volume) Honduras), andesite (interior of among others. These areas Curculionidae, subfamily increment (MAI) is one of the Honduras) and dolomite also exhibit a vegetal forma- Scolytidae, commonly called useful indices for species se- (), however not in tion known as ‘morichal’, gal- ‘wood borers’ among which lection for reforestation. The shallow soils with poor drain- lery forests associated with the the most significant species MAI measures for a plantation age. In the coastal regions the course of rivers or stagnant are Xyleborus ferrugineus and the increase in the volume of grow on alluvial soils water outcrops; they are ever- X. afinis. Their fundamental wood per hectare per year. formed by fine sand some- green formations able to toler- importance is that they can MAI values for different spe- times with silt presence ate periodic flooding condi- make massive attacks on live cies vary greatly, between (British Honduras) or coarse tions. The most representative pines and furthermore, being 1-2m³·ha-¹/year to 25-50m³·ha-1/ sand (Nicaragua). The drain- species are moriche palm xilomicetofage insects, they year. Table I shows the value age varies from good, in the (Mauritia flexuosa), ‘palma are vectors for the phytopatho- of the MAI for different spe- region dominated by hills in llanera’ (Copernicia tectorum) gen Lasiodiplodia theobromae, cies in different regions.

460 JULY 2015, VOL. 40 Nº 7 TABLE I photosynthesis into a variety of In order to obtain a rough PRODUCTIVITY AND ROTATION LENGTH FOR PINE organic materials with greatly estimate of the total yearly PLANTATIONS IN SELECTED TROPICAL COUNTRIES different densities, composi- energy collection of the forest- tions and humidity content. ry plantations in Venezuela we Rotation MAI Species Region Country length Nevertheless, the MAI index is have used Eq. (3) with the fol- (years) (m³ ha-¹/year) not a physical unit but rather lowing values: the reported S. America Brazil 8-10 18-20 an economic unit referring to total area of the plantation in the actual rate of wood volume 2009 of At= 550000ha, a con- Burundi 8 1-2 3 Eucalypt Congo 7 30 production in m obtained in servative MAI index of Africa 3 -1 Rwanda 8 8.5 the plantations. Hence an esti- 10m ·ha /year and an air-dried South Africa 8-10 18-20 mation of organic mass collec- density of the wood (Table III) Brazil 16-25 15-25 tion rate based on published of ρ= 560kg·m3. Heating val- S. America Venezuela 10-20 12* MAI index values gives con- ues are reported in Jenkins Chile 20-30 24 Pine servatively lower values of the et al. (1998) as ranging from Malawi 20-25 17 actual rate of biomass produc- 15 to 20MJ·kg-1. We have Africa Madagascar 15-18 6-10 tion of a plantation. chosen a intermediate value Mozambique 18-25 11 of wood and biomass mate- -1 Bangladesh 60 2.6-3 Defining V: volume of wood rial at 17,5MJ·kg or Hv= Teak Asia India 70 2.5 (m3) created, A: unit surface 17,5×10 6J·kg-1. These values in Indonesia 50-70 1.3-2 area (ha), and t: time (years), Eq. 3 yield an energy accumu- * Source: Ugalde and Perez (2001) CVG - PROFORCA (2003). the MAI index is defined as lation rate of 5.39×1016J/year, which is equivalent to a yearly V MAI= m3·ha −1 / year collecting power of about Plantations of Pinus caribaea year as average for the whole At ( ) 1710MW. var. Hondurensis has been plantation has been chosen for This is a very large value reported in 28 different calculation purposes. and for a density of wood of ρ which may be placed in per- countries where the MAI The total timber volume di- (g·cm-3 or kg·m-3), the rate of spective by mentioning that shows ranges between 2 and vided by the number of mass collected is given by the yearly electrical energy 50m³·ha-1/year compared to growth years gives annual av- production of a large nuclear -1 power plant is about 1000 values of 10-20m³·ha /year for erage growth. The highest dm P. caribaea var. caribaea point of this value gives what = (MAI)ρ= MW. However, this is an esti- dt (Ugalde and Pérez, 2001). The is conventionally regarded as (1) mation of the potential heating MAI value depends on many the most appropriate time for Vρ value calculated only for the kg·ha-1 /year factors among which are char- harvest. At ( ) purpose of emphasizing the acteristics of the plant species, It is possible to convert energetic value of collecting environmental conditions such MAI values stated in volume sunlight with the use of Then, the total rate of mass as rainfall, altitude, soil fertil- (V) per unit area (A) per unit forestry plantations. In an en- collected in a plantation of to- ity and age of the sown field. time (t) in mass (m) values ergy rich country such as tal area A is The index is small for young using an estimation of the t Venezuela, with large oil pro- plants, increases with age density (ρ= m/V). However, duction and considerable hy- dm reaching a peak with the ma- estimating true density values = (MAI)ρA kg/year (2) droelectric power already de- turity of the plantation and is difficult because the sun’s dt t ( ) veloped, the heating value of then generally levels off or energy is converted through the plantation is a minor con- decreases. MAI index values In order to express this sideration of its value com- reported for Caribbean pine in mass collection rate in energy pared to its environmental im- Venezuela varies widely: 2 to TABLE II units it is possible to use, for pact or as a wood resource 3.9m3·ha-1/year (Molinari and MEAN ANNUAL VOLUME for industrial applications. 3 - estimation purposes, an aver- Jurado Blanco, 1994), 7m ·ha INCREMENT OF PINUS age heating value of wood and Nevertheless, just as the devel- 1year (SEFORVEN, 1993) and CARIBAEA VA R. opment of these plantations 3 -1 biomass. This quantity de- higher values of 4-14m ·ha / HONDURENSIS IN pends on a number of factors have produced welfare and year are also reported (IFLA, TRINIDAD, W.I., AS including the species, biomass living standards improvement 1991); Vilanova (2015) found RELATED TO AGE AND to the population of these ar- 3 -1 composition and various other 13,7m ·ha /year to be the aver- SITE QUALITY conditions of the conversion eas, the energy value of the age of 14 years. A value of biomass produced may be a 3 -1 Age MAI process or plant design 20m ·ha /year was quoted by (years) (m³·ha-¹/year) (Jenkins et al., 1998). valuable asset in other arid Schroeder (1992) for carbon Using a heating value (ener- regions of the world that do sequestration calculations. For Site I not enjoy such conditions. 10 14 gy per unit mass) of Hv (J/kg) economic evaluation of the the rate of energy collection plantation in eastern Venezuela 15 17 Creation of a resource for 3 -1 20 19 dE the value of 12m ·ha /year has 25 20 is construction and industry been selected by Maderas del dt Site II Orinoco (CVG - PROFORCA dE dm Caribbean pine wood is sim- (2003). Table II shows MAI 12 12 given by = H and, hence, ilar, but of lower quality be- dt dt v behavior vs time for a locality 18 14 cause of color, density, size 24 16 dE in Trinidad, . In (3) and orientation of the fiber, to = (MAI)ρAtH v (J/year) this work a value of 10m3·ha-1/ Source: Ugalde and Perez (2001). dt that of southern pines of the

JULY 2015, VOL. 40 Nº 7 461 TABLE III COMPARISON OF PROPERTIES OF CARIBBEAN PINE AND HARD PINES FROM SOUTHERN US* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Property Caribbean pine Shortleaf pine Slash pine Longleaf pine Loblolly pine Radiata pine** Average St. Dev. (P. caribaea) (P. echinata) (P. elliotti) (P palustris) (P. taeda) (P. radiata) cols 2-6 cols 2-6 Tree height (m) 20-30 20-30 18-30 30-35 30-35 24-30 28.2 5.5 Diameter (m) 0.6-1 0.6-1 0.6-1 0.6-1 0.4-1.5 0.6-1 0.83 0.3 Average dry weight (kg·m-3) 625 570 655 650 570 515 592.0 59.6 Janka hardness (N) 4.920 3.070 3.380 4.120 3.070 3.150 3.4 0.4 Rupture modulus (MPa) 92.0 90.3 112.4 100.0 88.3 79.2 94.0 12.6 Elastic modulus (GPa) 10.06 12.10 13.70 13.70 12.30 10.06 12.4 1.5 Crushing strength (MPa) 54.4 50.1 56.1 58.4 49.2 41.6 51.1 6.6 Radial shrinkage 6.3%, 4.6%, 5.4%, 5.1% 4.8% 3.4% 4.7% 0.8 Tangent. shrinkage 7.8%, 7.7%, 7.6% 7.5% 7.4%, 6.7% 7.4% 0.4 Volume shrinkage 12.9% 12.3% 12.1% 12.2% 12.3% 10.7% 11.9% 0.7 * Data from Mayer (2014). ** See also Scott (1954).

US such as longleaf pine others planned for the future. species of birds (34 of them in Santa Cruz de Bucaral, (Pinus palustris), shortleaf Some examples are the pro- not previously observed in the Falcon state, and the other in pine (P. echinata), loblolly duction of resins and oils of region) and 22 species of rep- San Antonio de Maturin, pine (P. taeda); or the Chilean pine for the oil, agro-chemical, tiles; there have been in the Monagas state. They have an Monterey pine (P. radiata). cosmetics and paint industries area significant improvements available area of 194ha show- The physical properties of and the production of ethanol in water and air quality, with a ing a sustainable seed produc- Caribbean pine can be com- as a transport fuel. decrease of atmospheric dust. tion of about 2000kg/year. pared with the data from other It has also improved ‘morichal’ These orchards are involved in pine species and their average Changes in the ecosystem ecosystems. The presence of technological adaptation pro- and standard deviation, which plantations decreases soil ero- cesses, research, development are shown in Table III. Caribbean pine plantations sion, enhances the infiltration and innovation aimed at Caribbean pine has uses in the and other species in large areas of water into the soil and im- achieving greater efficiency in fields of construction, interior of semi-arid savannas have pro- proves the physicochemical the extraction and seed pro- and exterior carpentry, in fur- duced very significant changes properties of the ground. duction processes, so as to in- niture and toys, for dovetail in the ecosystems. Only a few crease seed production levels joints, moldings, hardwood indicators are mentioned here: Propagation capacity of and their quality. It is expected courts, pallet manufacturing, an average tree produces 100kg/ Caribbean pine in Venezuela that they achieve an increase packaging, shuttering and year of O2, equal to the require- in yields from 10kg/day to formwork. Its treated wood is ment of two persons (CVG The company Maderas del some 50kg/day in order to safe and reliable for use out- PROFORCA, 2012). Carbon Orinoco SA was established in supply 100% of current re- doors, or immersed in water. storage values per year for 2012. It absorbs projects of quirements and to ensure sup- In construction it can be ap- Pinus caribaea in Venezuela Caribbean pine forest in south- ply for the establishment of plied in bridges, docks, roof- from several sources are tabulat- ern Monagas and Anzoategui 40000ha/year from 2013. The ing trusses, beams, studs, ed in Vilanova (2015) and states, Eucalyptus urophylla Caribbean pine seed produced joists, posts and pilings. range from 53 (Bonduki and in southern Anzoátegui, by the Maderas del Orinoco It can also be used as interi- Swisher, 1995) to 59Mg·ha-1/year Caribbean pine in Bolivar, SA, is recognized internation- or finishing materials, cover- (Schroeder, 1992). Teak in Barinas, Acacia and ally as one of the best in ings and flooring. In the Taking an average value Saladillo in Apure, which were terms of quality and purity. Venezuelan market it has the of 56Mg·ha-1/year of C managed by the company advantages of standard dimen- gives an estimated value of CVG-PROFORCA since 1988. Seedling production -1 sions, known mechanical prop- 205.3Mg·ha /year of CO2 .Then, The new company has person- erties, remarkably affordable for the whole plantation of nel with forty years of experi- Since the year 2000 the prices, guaranteed durability 550000ha the amount of CO2 ence in the development, man- company CVG PROFORCA treatment according to interna- sequestered is estimated of the agement, protection and use of has been developing a series tional standards and immediate order of 113×106Mg/year. forest plantations. Therefore, it of changes in technology de- and long-term availability giv- Plantations have favored bio- is able to promote forest proj- signed to improve and opti- en the size of the plantings. diversity. The forest has be- ects in geographical areas sim- mize the production of seed- In addition to timber the come an ecological niche that ilar to the conditions prevail- lings in nurseries. The pro- plantations provide raw mate- contributes to the proliferation ing in forest Venezuelan duction system of bare root rial for a variety of other uses. of savanna animal species plantations. seedlings (planted gardens) The organic matter becomes such as partridge, the plains that had unsatisfactory levels raw material for other industri- pigeon, donkeys and deer. Seed production of seedling survival in savan- al products, some presently A recent study by Maderas nas was changed to covered implemented such as pulp for del Orinoco SA (CVG There are two seed orchards root systems (containers under paper and carton and for the PROFORCA, 2012) quantified to produce genetically im- controlled conditions). The domestic paper industry, and 44 species of mammals, 38 proved seeds. One is located benefits of this technology

462 JULY 2015, VOL. 40 Nº 7 change have led to increased CO2 into useful hydrocarbon Segunda Etapa, Términos de IFLA (1991) Pino Caribe. Pinus survival of seedlings in the products which are basic for Referencias Preliminares. CVG- caribaea (Morelet). Serie made- savannas from 80% (under the human industry and welfare. Productos Forestales de ras comerciales de Venezuela. Oriente, C.A.-Técnica Minera, Ficha Técnica Nº 22. Instituto bare root system) to 98%. The pine plantations trans- (CVG-TECMIN), Puerto Ordaz, Forestal Latinoamericano. This implies an increase in form areas which were semi- Venezuela. 56 pp. Mérida, Venezuela. 29 pp. timber production at end of arid unused lands with oligo- CVG-PROFORCA (2003). Estudio Jenkins BM, Baxter LL, Miles TR turn or harvest (15 years) of trophic sandy soils of low de Mercado del Programa de (1998) Combustion properties of 24% and a cost reduction in fertility, and create superior Desarrollo Forestal de Oriente biomas. Fuel Proc. Technol. the establishment of planta- ecosystems where the ground, Tercera Etapa (PRODEFOR 54: 17-46. III). CVG-Productos Forestales tions due to decreased con- air, water and original animal de Oriente, C.A. (CVG- Le Maitre DC (1998) Pines in culti- sumption of seeds and agri- population show clear indices PROFORCA). Ciudad Guayana, vation: a global view. In cultural inputs fertilizers, her- of improvement. The unusual Venezuela. 51 pp. Richardson DM (Ed.) Ecology bicides and insecticides (CVG ability of P. caribaea for ad- and Biogeography of Pinus. CVG-PROFORCA (2009) Plan Cambridge UniversityPress. - PROFORCA, 2003). aptation to a wide variety of Socialista Forestal de Venezuela, pp. 407-431. terrains and its fast growth Campaña Admirable. CVG- Discussion and Conclusions may be ideally suited for its Productos Forestales de Oriente. Maderas del Orinoco (2014) www. Ministerio del Poder Popular de maderasdelorinoco.gob.ve use as a sun energy collector (Cons. 06/2014). In this work we review the in reforestation programs for Agricultura y Tierras. Ciudad Guayana, Venezuela. 10 pp. Marín Y (1997) Biomasa y properties of Caribbean pine tropical and semitropical Desarrollo Radical y su (Pinus caribaea var. honduren- lands in regions of Africa, the CVG-PROFORCA (2012) Impactos Socioeconómicos y Ambientales Relación con el Síndrome de sis) showing that it has advan- Middle East and Asia. In del Programa de Plantaciones Muerte Súbita en Plantaciones tageous characteristics in rela- these regions it could trans- Forestales. Unpublished. de Pino Caribe en Uverito, Edo. Monagas. Tesis. Universidad tion to massive reforestation form large semi deserted and FAO (2010) Evaluación de los programs. We show how the unproductive areas, offset the Nacional Experimental Francisco Recursos Forestales Mundiales de Miranda. Venezuela. 75 pp. Caribbean pine plantations are effects of deforestation, re- 2010: Informe Principal. an effective instrument for the duce the pressure on the nat- Estudio Montes Nº 163. Roma, MARNR (1982) Esquema de Italia. Food and Agriculture Ordenamiento Territorial de la generation of considerable wel- ural forests and help to de- Faja Petrolífera del Orinoco. fare to society. The plantations crease the net anthropogenic Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy. www.fao. Estudio Hidroclimático. Direc- in Venezuela are a mechanism greenhouse gases that influ- org/docrep/013/i1757s/i1757s00. ción General de Planificación of storing the energy of the ence global climate change. htm (Cons. 01/2013). y Ordenamiento del Territorio sun which we estimate at a The pool of knowledge, expe- Ministerio del Ambiente y de Fassbender HW, Comerma J, Brito P. yearly rate of 1710MW. This rienced personnel and facili- los Recursos Naturales. Cara- Salas F (1979a) Estado nutricio- cas, Venezuela. 156 pp. calculated value has a very ties existing in Venezuela are nal de los suelos en la zona de considerable uncertainty range an asset that could help an plantaciones de Pinus caribaea Mayer Erick (2014) Pine Wood. An due to the uncertainty in the aggressive internationally sup- en el oriente de Venezuela. Acta Overall Guide. The Wood Cient. Venez. 30: 582-585. Database. www.wooddatabase variables that go into the cal- ported program of reforesta- .com/wood-articles/pine-wood-an- culation. A source of uncer- tion with Caribbean pine. Fassbender HW, Comerma J, Brito overall-guide/ (Cons. 03/2015). tainty is the MAI index re- P. Salas F (1979b) Estado nutri- cional de los suelos en las plan- Molinari L, Jurado Blanco JB ported by the various authors ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS taciones de Pinus cariveae en (1994) Crecimiento y Propie- for the Caribbean pine, which el Oriente de Venezuela. Acta dades de la Madera de las ranges widely from a low The authors thank Maderas Cient. Venez. 29(Supl.1): 47. Especies del Arboretum de la 3 -1 3 -1 Finca Santo Tomas después de 2m ·ha /year to 20m ·ha /year. del Orinoco SA, for the infor- González J (1980) Informe Técnico The wood density also has a mation provided in its publica- Siete Años de su Estable- CVG PROFORCA. Puerto cimiento. Informe de Investi- high uncertainty as there is tions, degree theses and in- Ordaz, Venezuela. gación Nº 11. División de the question of whether to use ternship reports which are the Hernández JV, Jaffé K (1995) Dano Investigación Forestal. Smurfit ‘basic density’, ‘air-dried den- basis for most of this work. econômico causado por popu- Cartón de Venezuela. Acarigua, sity’ or ‘tree wood density’, laçoes de formigas Atta laevi- Venezuela. 11 pp. values which range from 480- REFERENCES gata em plantações de Pinus Molina Peñaloza R (2006) La 980kg·m-3 (Molina Peñaloza, caribeae Mor. 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