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HONDO RIVER SITE: AN EARLY ISLAMIC SETTLEMENT IN TRINIDAD 64

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Introduction

After the global Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815), the British faced the problem of reducing its massive army, which had been recruited during those years to protect its world-wide empire. Of particular FRQFHUQZHUHWKH:HVW,QGLD5HJLPHQWVFUHDWHGWRJXDUGLWV1HZ:RUOGFRORQLHVDQGWRH[WHQGLWV holdings when the opportunity arose. When these regiments, consisting mainly of free Blacks were GLVEDQGHG WKH\ IDFHG JUHDW GLI¿FXOW\ UHVHWWOLQJ *LYHQ WKH FKDOOHQJH RI ¿QGLQJ KRPHV IRU VRPH 4,000 African-American war veterans from Virginia, Maryland and Georgia of the Anglo-American War of 1812–1815, with only British Honduras and Trinidad open for these newcomers, they were forced to settle in Trinidad. This paper discusses the historical and archaeological consequences of the Muslim veteran group of the West India Regiments, who were settled in an area of wilderness in north-eastern Trinidad, on the banks of the perennially watered Hondo River in the Quaré region of Valencia. The Muslims had apparently requested to be set aside from their Christian brethren to enable them continue their Islamic culture without molestation. The Anglican Clergy took up the conversion of these “heathens” as a special mission and set up institutions to wean the Muslims away from “mahometanism”. Their isolation of the settlement led to increasing hardships for them, later forcing them to accept Christianity, eventually causing them to abandon the settlement in search of more SUR¿WDEOHHPSOR\PHQW7KHIHZZKRSHUVLVWHGPRYHGFORVHUWRWKHVXEXUEVRI3RUWRI6SDLQZKHUH they linked up with small groups of Muslims. Others incorporated Islamic rituals in African-based UHOLJLRQVEURXJKWE\IRUPHUVODYHV7KH¿UVWSDUWRIWKLVSDSHUWUDFHVWKHKLVWRU\RIWKH0XVOLPVLQWKH Hondo River area in the Valencia forest of Trinidad and the second part describes an archaeological H[DPLQDWLRQRIWKDWVLWH

634 The Historical Background

In addition to the major dilemma of settling the large black military force which had mustered the ¿JKWVGXULQJWKH1DSROHRQLFZDUVZDVWKHQHHGWRGLVSRVHRIVRPH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVZKR had abandoned slavery during the Anglo-American War of 1812–1815 by joining the Royal navy to ¿JKWDJDLQVWWKHLUHUVWZKLOHVODYHKROGLQJPDVWHUVLQ(DVW&RDVW$PHULFD0RVWRIWKHVHUHIXJHHVZHUH settled in Canada but some 800 of them, former members of the Colonial Marines were settled in Southern Trinidad in what has, since that time, been named the “Company Villages” or the “Merikan Settlements”.a But this was only a partial solution. There was still the problem of the disposal of the members of the now disbanded West India Regiments who had done yeoman service particularly in the defence of Britain’s New World colonies. These regiments had been recruited from a variety of sources: Free Africans who had been “rescued” after the British ban on slave-trading from 1806, men who had been purchased from West Indian planters and Africans who had been recruited directly from Sierra Leone.b Our particular concern in this paper is with the Muslims who were re-settled in Trinidad and had no desire to see the dilution of their Islamic heritage by settling alongside the other (mainly Baptist) fellow travellers. Under their leader Abu Bakar, they bargained to be allowed to settle on the banks of the Hondo River in the well-watered Quaré area (Figure1). The Muslim request coincided with the colonial administration’s desire to develop the island’s East Coast area, which at that time was covered by almost impenetrable forest, rendering it virtually inaccessible for inspection or for the transport of forest products from that area to the towns towards the capital city. 7KHDUULYDORIWKH+RQGR5LYHUVHWWOHUVLQPLGZDVQRWWKH¿UVW0XVOLPDUULYDOLQWKH colony. By the time of the slave trade Islam had become widespread in West Africa, there were WKHUHIRUH0XVOLPVRQPDQ\VKLSVERXQGIRUWKH&DULEEHDQ,QIRUH[DPSOH&DSWDLQ6WXGKROPH Hodgson a soldier in the Queen’s 19th Foot Regiment in Trinidad met an 85-year-old Mandingo Imam named Slamank on the Marli estate near Port of Spain. Born around 1750, Slamank had been brought to Trinidad in the early 19th century since he reported that he had been enslaved at 35. Now at 85, he wanted to gain freedom and he was certain that the Mandingo community in Port-of-Spain would look after him.c There is also an account of Mohammedu Sisei who had been captured in the Gambia LQDQGEURXJKWWR7ULQLGDGLQZKHUHKHMRLQHGDQDOUHDG\H[LVWLQJ0XVOLPEURWKHUKRRG d Despite a very rigorous campaign to convert all Muslims to the Anglican or Roman Catholic faith, a number of Muslims challenged this hegemony by openly proclaiming their faith. Well into the 1840s, the imam Jonas Mohammed Bath and the co-leaders of their Port of Spain Jamaat wore “the ÀRZLQJZKLWHWXQLFRIWKH,PDP´ZKLOVWIROORZHUVZRUHWKH³FRPPRQUREHRIOLJKWEOXH´e In Trinidad as well as in other American settlements, Muslim slaves obtained copies of the Koran which they WUHDVXUHGWKH\RIWHQVLJQHGSHWLWLRQVLQ$UDELF WKHVDFUHGODQJXDJHRIWKH.RUDQ f On the Hondo River settlement the Imam copied verses of the Koran on scraps of paper, which he then read to his jungle Jamaat, the members of which looked up to him “with the greatest reverence.”g

/LIHRQWKH+RQGR5LYHU6HWWOHPHQW The Hondo River settlement was situated in a very fertile undulating area at the foot of Trinidad’s 1RUWKHUQ5DQJHHYHQWRGD\WKDWIHUWLOLW\LVHYLGHQW,Q-XQHDQG-XO\RIDWRWDORISHUVRQV were initially settled. The breakdown was 233 men, 40 women and 34 children. In February 1825, a second contingent of 445 persons was introduced: 376 men, 35 women and 34 children. Governor Woodford who had sponsored the scheme, did his best to make his new wards comfortable. He DUUDQJHGIRUDGDLO\ZDJHRIòSHQFHWREHVHWDVLGHDVDSHQVLRQIRUHDFKRIWKHGHPRELOL]HGVROGLHUV WKLVSHQVLRQZDVWREHJLYHQRXWRQWKH¿UVWGD\RIHDFK\HDUIRUHYHU\GLVEDQGHGVROGLHUZKRZDVDOLYH on that day.h In the interim, efforts were made to stimulate development of the area. Each male settler 635 ZDVJLYHQDFUHVLIVLQJOHDFUHVLIPDUULHGIRUWKH¿UVWIHZZHHNV¶DFFRPPRGDWLRQZDVSURYLGHG and each landholder was given a supply of agricultural tools and seeds and neighbouring Amerindians were employed to clear the land. A major initial problem was the noticeable gender disparity among WKH4XDUpVHWWOHUV7KH&RORQLDO2I¿FHWRRNFRJQL]DQFHRIWKLVGLVSDULW\DQGRIWKHGLVWXUEDQFHVZKLFK FRXOGWDNHSODFHZKHQVLQJOHPHQVRXJKWWR¿QGSDUWQHUVIURPDPRQJWKHVODYHZRPHQRQWKHHVWDWHV In 1820 the Earl of Bathurst (Secretary of State) instructed the Governors of neighbouring islands to send to Trinidad all black women with whose disposal they might be concerned. In pursuance of this directive, 52 liberated females were sent from Antigua and “distributed” among the men at Hondo River.i These women no doubt would have been one reason for the cordial reception given, as we shall presently see, to the Reverend J. H. Hamilton when he visited the settlement. During the early years the settlement worked well. Theformer soldiers were divided into a military formation of four companies, each under the direction of a sergeant, the senior sergeant being the Imam Abu Bakar. They planted a variety of crops such as rice, which had been brought to the Americas on slave ships as food for the Atlantic crossing. The slaves from Guinea were specially UHTXHVWHG LQ 1RUWK$PHULFD EHFDXVH RI WKHLU H[SHUWLVH LQ ULFH SURGXFWLRQ 7KHVH ³*XLQHD %LUGV´ ensured its proliferation in suitable New World environments. In addition they grew abundant crops of yams, moko and plantain (other African imports), ginger, corn, coffee, pigeon peas and cocoa. An 1823 report on the progress of the settlement indicated that, during the previous season, the settlers had produced 500 barrels of rice, 500 barrels of yams, 100 barrels of corn, 3,000 pounds of ginger and 5,000 pounds of plantain.j These products were sold at the Arima market. By 1841, the Imam Abu Bakar had changed his name to John Brooks but was still referred to as the “elderly sergeant.” Brooks now owned two cocoa plantations valued at two to three thousand dollars, an abundance of stock as well as $1,000 in cash.k Whilst the Imam Abu Bakar had done well for himself, the Hondo River settlement suffered rapid deterioration from the 1830s. The major reason for this decline was the fact that the colonial government had lost interest in the former soldiers and was slowly abandoning the area. A good idea of this neglect was given by Rev. J. H. Hamilton, the Anglican supervisor of the East Coast settlements. Hamilton had earlier worked in the Leewards and he came to Trinidad determined to spread the Anglican faith on an island in which the Roman Catholics had become too powerful. He was equally concerned (and worried) about the Hondo River settlement in which Islam was still being followed. He wanted the road to the settlement to be urgently repaired so that his horse could carry him thereto. The road into the settlement was “almost impassable, it is overgrown from Turure to Mt. Calabash with brushwood and is literally a continuation of mud through which even a powerful horse ZLWKGLI¿FXOW\PDNHVKLVZD\´l Hamilton begged for the road to be repaired because of his concern that Islam was alive and well among the settlers: From long neglect in so isolated a situation and an entire absence of clerical instruction even the outward form of Christianity has almost disappeared among them. Many of WKHPDUHQRPLQDOO\0RKRPHGDQVZKRDUHXQGHUWKHLQÀXHQFHDQGJXLGDQFHRI¿YH VR FDOOHG 0DQGLQJR3ULHVWVE\ZKRPWKH\DUHLQVWUXFWHGLQWKH.RUDQRQHRQO\RIWKH number can write, to whom they seem to look upon with great reverence.m

Despite this appalling display of heathenism, Hamilton reported to the governor that he had been well received in the settlement in 1841: ,KDGWKHJUDWL¿FDWLRQRIVHHLQJEHWZHHQDQGKXQGUHGRIWKHVHWWOHUVDVVHPEOHGIRU Divine services at the Mico School House (which is a government building). To the prayers and a plain discourse on their moral and religious duties they paid (including 636 WKHSULHVWV WKHPRVWPDUNHGDQGJUDWLI\LQJDWWHQWLRQ,DIWHUZDUGVPDUULHGFRXSOHV there were more applicants for the sacred rite.n

Hamilton’s plea for an improved roadway coincided with Abu Bakar’s request to the governor for the same facility so that the settlers could transport their produce to the market centres. Hamilton also asked for regular visits by a physician as well as a resident pastor from the Church of England. He ZDVFOHDUO\DSSUHKHQVLYHRIWKHLQÀXHQFHRIWKH,VODP³6HUJHDQW%URRNLVD0DKRPHGDQ3ULHVWDQG DSSHDUVWRSRVVHVVDQH[WUDRUGLQDU\LQÀXHQFHRQVHWWOHUVRIWKDWIDLWK´%\WKLVWLPHKRZHYHUWKH &RORQLDO2I¿FHKDGKDGHQRXJKRIWKHVHVHWWOHUVDQGWKHLUSUREOHPV7KHJRYHUQRUZDVLQVWUXFWHGWR JLYH³QRIXUWKHUHQFRXUDJHPHQW´H[FHSWVRIDU³DVHQFRXUDJHPHQWPD\EHJLYHQE\WKHVWULFWIXO¿OPHQW of the obligations into which we have entered”.o7KH&RORQLDO2I¿FHZHQWIXUWKHUWRGLUHFWWKDWWKH establishments maintained for the superintendence of the people “should be broken down as soon as that can be done without any injustice to the persons employed on that service”. By 1843, the Hondo River settlement had been reduced to a shell of its former self. Many of the settlers, because of their SUHYLRXVPLOLWDU\H[SHULHQFHZHUHDEVRUEHGLQWRWKHFRQVWDEXODU\RWKHUVPRYHGWRWKHGHYHORSHG areas such as Sangre Grande, Arima and Arouca. An 1839 register of settlers indicated that a number of them had even moved to the Naparimas. A few who remained Muslim moved to the suburbs of Port-of-Spain where they joined other followers of Islam. It is from these communities that oral history has been preserved to support the archaeological search.

Archaeological Study

After its virtual abandonment from the 1840s the Hondo River site reverted to its original jungle character. However, some markers remained and these were very useful in the relocation of the site some 150 years later. Such markers were the coffee trees, which continued to barely survive under the forest cover, the drainage system around what appears to be the “town center” and a number of mounds, which seem to be Muslim graves. In 1998, the History Department at St. Augustine was able WRVHFXUHWKHFRRSHUDWLRQRI3URI.R¿$JRUVDKDUFKDHRORJLVWDW3RUWODQG6WDWH8QLYHUVLW\2UHJRQ whose pioneering work on African heritage sites in the Caribbean was well known.p Agorsah came to Trinidad with a team of his students in March 1999 and was joined by a team from the History 'HSDUWPHQW6W$XJXVWLQHIRUDEULHIVWXG\DQGH[FDYDWLRQWKDWZDVH[WHQVLYHO\UHSRUWHGLQWKHORFDO press.q 7KH+RQGR5LYHU6LWH Historically the Hondo River site, located between the Hondo and the Turure Rivers in the Valencia Forest Reserve on Trinidad, 10º 36” N and 61º 07” W (Figure1 ), is believed to have been inhabited by African-Caribbean Muslims some 200 years ago after the British-American wars of 1812–15. Much RIWKHVLWHFRQVLVWVRIDPRXQGZKLFKPHDVXUHVDSSUR[LPDWHO\E\PHWHUV,WVORSHVGRZQWRWKH valleys of the Hondo River to the southwest and into the forests in the east and north (Figure 2). The site was discovered by Sharif Fida Hosein, more popularly known as Suliman, a Muslim descendant of 7ULQLGDGZKRUHSRUWHG¿QGLQJJODVVVKDUGVFRORQLDOERWWOHVDQGRWKHUDUWLIDFWVGHHSLQWKHIRUHVW+LV UHSRUWZDVFRUURERUDWHGE\DUHFRUGRIDSHWLWLRQDWWKH%ULWLVK5HFRUGVRI¿FHLQ/RQGRQ$FFRUGLQJ WR'U6DPDURRZKRLGHQWL¿HGWKHUHFRUGLWZDVDSHWLWLRQIURPDJURXSRIVHWWOHUVVLJQHGE\RQH Abu Bakr, requesting a bridge over the Quaré River to enable them gain access to the Sangre Grande market and adjoining areas. Dr. Samaroo speculated that the site might have been settled by one of the several Muslim factions, who defected from their main military companies of the disbanded West India regiment after the 1812–15 British-American war. 637 Excavation 7KHWZRPDLQREMHFWLYHVRIH[FDYDWLQJWKLVVLWHZHUH  WRGHWHUPLQHZKHWKHURUQRWWKHORFDWLRQZDVD KXPDQKDELWDWLRQVLWHLQZKLFKFDVHZHH[SHFWHGWRUHFRYHUDEDQGRQHGKRXVHKROGDUWLIDFWVDUFKLWHFWXUDO IHDWXUHVVXFKDVZDOOVRUZDOOIUDJPHQWVKRXVHÀRRUVUXEELVKGXPSVRUPRXQGVSRVWKROHVDQG   whether there would be any evidence indicating that it was a Muslim site, often marked by foundations of a mosque or prayer court marked out by stones, nonalcoholic drink bottles or ablution containers, pieces of prayer beads possibly of gem or other stones, though not on the strings, and if animal bones were recovered, these would not include pig bones as it was taboo for a Muslim to eat pork. It was DOVRH[SHFWHGWKDWDQ\EXULDODVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHVLWHZRXOGQRWEHEXULHGLQDFRI¿QDV0XVOLPFXVWRP requires. Use of furniture and furnishings by and in Muslim homes and mosques are very minimal. $OWKRXJKQRWH[SHFWHG RZLQJWRWKHVKRUWSHULRGRIRFFXSDWLRQDVLQGLFDWHGLQKLVWRULFDOGRFXPHQWV  DPRVTXHLQWKH,VODPLFVW\OHZRXOGKDYHEHHQDYHU\JRRGLQGLFDWRUDQGDUHDOFRQ¿UPDWLRQRIWKH speculation that the site was occupied by Muslims. (QYLURQPHQWDOVWXG\RIWKHVLWHGXULQJD¿UVWDUFKDHRORJLFDOWULSWRWKHVLWHUHYHDOHGDIDLUO\ open area in the Valencia forest with such trees as are locally known trees. Thicker gallery forests run DORQJWKHPDLQULYHUVWKDWGLGQRWDSSHDUWREHÀRZLQJVZLIWO\RZLQJWRWKHWKLFNIROLDJHWKDWFKRNHG VRPHSDUWVRIWKHULYHUYDOOH\V7KHH[FDYDWLRQZDVPDLQO\SUHOLPLQDU\DQGDEDFNJURXQGVHDUFKIRU MXVWL¿FDWLRQVWKDWZRXOGKHOSVHFXUHIXQGLQJIRUPRUHH[SORUDWLRQRQDODUJHUVFDOH3UHFHGLQJWKH H[FDYDWLRQZHUHVHYHUDODXJXUWHVWKROHVVXQNLQVHDUFKRIDQ\VWUXFWXUDOIHDWXUHVLQWKRVHYDULRXV locations, particularly in all the corners of the long north-south and east-west units marked across WKHPRXQG1REXLOGLQJVWUXFWXUHVZHUHREVHUYHGEXWWKHDXJXUSUR¿OHVSURYLGHGDSLFWXUHRIWKH VWUDWLJUDSKLFVHFWLRQVDFURVVWKHPRXQGDOWKRXJKWKHFKDQJHVLQWKHH[FDYDWHGXQLWVYDULHGLQGHSWK as one moved down northward or southward from the middle of the mound, with soil color changing from top black to brown soil through brown to yellowish brown with lots of roots and rootlets to yellowish clayey to very clayey soil. It was within the brown to yellowish brown layer that majority of the artifacts were derived. 7KUHHIXOO[DQGWZRKDOIXQLWVZHUHH[FDYDWHGYDU\LQJLQGHSWKLQFPOHYHOV0RVWRI the material recovered derived from two units (P36 and P38) These units contained glass and metal fragments, a kaolin pipe bowl and stem, as well as a few large quartz stones suspected to mark the location of a temporary Muslim prayer area.r But these stones were too few. It appears the some of the stones would have been removed for other purposes during the abandonment of the site or may have been gradually washed down into the stream valley. The stratigraphy mostly consisted of fairly thin top levels with lots of surface material and a bottom level of very clayey soil with no artifacts, which consisted mainly of glass, metal and a few ceramic artifacts. Among the glass were light green ERWWOHVWKRXJKWWREHRI)UHQFKRULJLQDQGWRKDYHFRQWDLQHGROLYHRLODFOHDUJODVVZLWK³JODGLDWRU´ HPERVVHGGHFRUDWLRQRQWKHEDVHOLJKWSKDUPDFHXWLFDOERWWOHVHPERVVHGZLWK³&2%RFN7ULQLGDG HR-1”, bottle fragments of light green colour marked on the broad side and embossed “oriental Hair Tonic” and on the narrow side was marked “Inaman & Kemp” and a rectangular light green bottle embossed at the front with “RR/WAY & Co, New York” and on the side with “ENTD ACCORD HR- 3”. Metallic artefacts included fragments of cooking pot, chain, horse shoe, hammer head, spike, musket ball, machete, stirrup, nails, spoon and an enamel coated plate marked “Made in Yugoslavia”. Although all these items were imported, they belong to the early 19th century, the period mentioned in the historical records regarding the arrival of the disbanded service people in Trinidad. That the ORFDWLRQZDVDKDELWDWLRQDUHDLVFRQ¿UPHGE\WKHSUHVHQFHRIKRXVHKROGFRRNLQJXWHQVLOVSODWHVDQG working tools such as machetes, nails, stirrup and a hammerhead. Unlike many archaeological sites of the period, which are characterized by green glass wine bottles, the bottles at this site were mainly 638 for olive oil and pharmaceuticals. One is tempted to interpret that as meaning the absence of alcoholic FRQVXPSWLRQDQGDFRQ¿UPDWLRQWKDWWKHVLWHPD\KDYHEHHQD0XVOLPVLWH,WDSSHDUVKRZHYHUWKDW the site may have been too short-lived to have been able to build an elaborate place of prayer. The VWLUUXSLQGLFDWHVWKH0XVOLPWUDGLWLRQRIKRUVHULGLQJRQLPSRUWDQWUHOLJLRXVRFFDVLRQV7KHH[WHQWRI the site is not certainly known, whether it was a cluster of Muslim quarters or one single settlement. It is possible that the project has not yet located the right part of the site where abundant data will help paint a clearer picture. As indicated earlier, archaeological studies in the Caribbean lack much evidence that clearly establish the presence, development and nature of Islamic settlements and material culture in the Caribbean region in historical times. Within a few years of arrival in the Caribbean, enslaved Muslims caught the eyes of Spanish governors leading to the passage of several decrees including the anti- Muslim royal decree of 1526 to control what was termed as their “rebelliousness”. Despite their LQÀXHQFHWKHHDUO\UHFRJQLWLRQRIWKHLUSUHVHQFHDQGOHDGHUVKLSUROHVDQGRSHQGH¿DQFHWRVODYHU\DQG their relations with the natives to whom they taught their “bad customs”, very little material evidence H[LVWVWKDWH[SODLQVWKDWUROH,Q7ULQLGDGDQG7REDJRWKHLQYHQWRULHVRIDUFKDHRORJLFDOVLWHVGRQRW record any site that could be categorized as a Muslim site. This deprives the country of the rich material culture associated with Islamic activities in the formation of the culture of the islands as mentioned in the historical records. The speculation that Hondo River site in the central rain forests of Trinidad may hold the key to the unraveling of the earliest manifestations of Islamic material culture on the island and perhaps in the region remains unanswered.s7KHDUFKDHRORJLFDOHYLGHQFHZDVH[SHFWHGWRH[SODLQ not only those roles but also the cultural formation and transformations of Islamic traditions on the LVODQGVEXWQRWPXFKH[LVWVDWWKHPRPHQW With many questions about Muslims in the Caribbean unanswered, one would think that a PXFKPRUHH[WHQVLYHORRNQHHGVWREHWDNHQDWWKHVLWHDQGDGMRLQLQJDUHDV$WWKLVWLPHZHODFN evidence to be able to reconstruct a meaningful picture. But one thing is clear – Hondo River site has opened a new window that will lead us back into the historical past not only of Muslim culture but also that of Trinidad and indeed of the Caribbean because it is part of the heritage of the entire region. What should we be looking for in the future? The walls of a mosque are traditionally made of sun- baked mud bricks called IHUH\, a mud based mortar, and are coated with a mud plaster, which gives the building its smooth, sculpted look. Long pieces of timber protruding a few feet out of the walls and giving strength to the building are used as ready-made scaffolding for periodic repairs. Such planks help reduce roof stress and prevent wall-cracking that could be caused by frequent and drastic changes in the weather. All the needed materials for building a mosque were available in the Hondo River area, leading to a question as to why an attempt was not made to build one at the time. But there is no DUFKDHRORJLFDOHYLGHQFHWRLQGLFDWHWKHSUHVHQFHRIDPRVTXH7KHH[SHFWDWLRQVPHQWLRQHGHDUOLHULQ WKLVSDSHUZLOOFRQWLQXHWRUHPDLQDVZHH[SORUH+RQGR5LYHUDQGRWKHUVXVSHFWHG0XVOLPVLWHVLQWKH &DULEEHDQ$OPRVWDKXQGUHGDQG¿IW\PRVTXHVH[LVWLQ7ULQLGDGDQG7REDJRWRGD\  EXWXQWLO fairly recently (the 1950s) the mosques were made of wood with a wooden dome on top, into which was carved a star and crescent design.207KLVLQGLFDWHVWKDWRQHVKRXOGQRWH[SHFWDVL]DEOHPRVTXH in those early days of the formation of Muslim societies on the Islands. As is currently the practice among many Muslims everywhere, an outline of a typical mosque marked by an arrangement of VWRQHVZRXOGEHVXI¿FLHQWDVDSUD\HUVSRW6XFKDSODQZRXOGLQGLFDWHVSHFL¿FVHFWLRQVRIDPRVTXH – the entrance for men, entrance for women, two pillars in the middle of the mosques showing the boundaries beyond which women cannot go, the position of the Imam, the spiritual leader and also WKHSRVLWLRQRIWKH0X]HQ )LJ :KHWKHURUQRWWKHSODQLVLGHQWL¿HGE\DQDUUDQJHPHQWRIVWRQHV such a place could serve as the prayer arena for a long time, as long as a mosque or a common meeting place has not been built. But there is no archaeological evidence to indicate the presence of such a feature, although a one-metre long line of stones in the northern side of the mound almost led us to 639 VXVSHFWWKDWRQHH[LVWHG$EULHIH[SORUDWLRQVXFKDVWKLVRQHLVFHUWDLQO\LQDGHTXDWHWRSURGXFHHQRXJK evidence for any conclusive statements. But one thing is certain. A new chapter has been opened in the archaeological reconstruction of the past of Trinidad and for that matter, the Caribbean. This is an indication that there is much out there that we do not yet know.

(Endnotes)

Notes

1 J. M. Weiss. )UHH%ODFN$PHULFDQ6HWWOHUVLQ7ULQLGDG±. McNeish and Weiss, London. 1955. passim 2 K.O. Laurence. “The Settlement of Free Negroes in Trinidad before Emancipation”. &DULEEHDQ4XDUWHUO\ 9, 1963. Nos. 1 & 2, p.26. 3 S. Hodgson. 7UXWKVIURPWKH:HVW,QGLHV. London. 1838. p.151. 4 Carl Campbell. “Mohammedu Sisei of Gambia and Trinidad c. 1788 – 1839”. $IULFDQ6WXGLHV$VVRFLDWLRQRIWKH:HVW ,QGLHV%XOOHWLQ 7 Dec.1974, p. 29. 5 Sylviane Diouf 6HUYDQWVRI$OODK$IULFDQ0XVOLPV(QVODYHGLQWKH$PHULFDV. New York University Press. 1998, p.77 6 Ibid. p.113, 139. 7 National Archives. London. CO295/134 McLeod to Lord John Russel. 3 August 1841. Enclosure 15 p.160. 8 CO 295/129. Ag Gov. Mein to Lord John Russel 9th April 1840. 9 Laurence. p.36 10 CO295/134 McLeod to Lord John Russel. 3rd Aug 1841. Enclosure No.15. 11 Ibid 12 Ibid., No. 2607 13 Ibid. 14 Ibid. 15 Ibid. Minutes dated 22nd March 1842. 16 6HHIRUH[DPSOH(.$JRUVDK³$UFKDHRORJ\DQG0DURRQ+HULWDJHLQ-DPDLFD´Jamaica Journal 22 (1) 1992. Prof. Agorsah’s YLVLWZDVVXSSRUWHGE\WKH2I¿FHRI5HVHDUFKDQG6SRQVRUHG3URMHFWVDQGWKH'HSDUWPHQWRI%ODFN6WXGLHVDQG,QWHUQDWLRQDO6WXGLHV Portland State University. 17 6XQGD\*XDUGLDQ0DJD]LQH.14th March 1999. 18 A typical mosque would consist of a prayer wall. The TXLEODLVXVXDOO\GRPLQDWHGE\ODUJHER[OLNHminarets jutting out from the main wall often with buttresses. The architecture of this prayer hall is typically undifferentiated - often a forest of columns or a grid ¿OOHGZLWKDGMDFHQWGRPHVFRYHULQJWKHVSDFH7KHZDOORSSRVLWHWKHHQWU\LVWKH4LEOD wall, which should be properly oriented and set perpendicular to a line leading to Mecca (“Makkah”) such that as people kneel in rows parallel to the TLEODwall, they would be facing Mecca. A niche or depression called 0LKUDE, indicating that this is the TLEOD wall is located in the center of the TXLEODA PXH]]LQ calls the worshippers to prayer from the minaret (Arabic manara), the towers from where the callings are made constitute an important VHFWLRQ6RDUHablution fountains or other facilities for washing located in their entryways, which may be freestanding structures in the centre of a courtyard. The ablution area leads to an open room normally not furnished. Use of impressive forms such as large domes, towering minarets, and large courtyards are intended to convey power. A raised pulpit PKUDE for Friday services, is often to the side of the PLKUDEFew ritual objects are found in a mosque. Other features include GDNND a platform, from where the PXH]]Ln calls for prayer, after he has done this from the minaretNXUVL a desk and a seat, for the KoranDQGIRUWKHUHDGHUcarpets covering the ÀRRURIPRVTXHOLJKWVERWKFDQGOHVDQGODPSVXVHGIRULOOXPLQDWLRQEXWQRWXVHGULWXDOO\LQFHQVHSRWVDQGZDWHUFRQWDLQHULQWKH courtyard, both for ablutions and for drinking. Islamic architecture has been called the “architecture of the veil” because the beauty lies in the inner spaces (courtyards and rooms) which are not visible from the outside. Memories of the great mosques of Africa such as thse in northern Mali, Niger, Nigeria and Senegal remained on the minds of the enslaved and could certainly have enabled the Muslims to pass them on to later generations who served in those disbanded armies, to reconstruct this architecture.

19 Chauharjasingh, Archibald (1999) “Preliminary report on the Hondo river Archaeological Project”, Archaeology Laboratory, 8QLYHUVLW\RIWKH:HVW,QGLHV6W$XJXVWLQH7ULQLGDG'LRXI6\OYLDQH  7KH6HUYDQWVRI$OODK$IULFDQ0XVOLPVLQWKH$PHULFDV 1HZ

Acknowledgements 640 This project was supported by the Department of History, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad, Trinidad & Tobago, 7KH)RUHVWU\'HSDUWPHQWRI7ULQLGDGDQG7REDJR'HSDUWPHQWRI%ODFN6WXGLHV ,QWHUQDWLRQDO6WXGLHG3RUWODQG6WDWH8QLYHUVLW\ Special thanks to Sharif Fida Hosein, more popularly known as Suliman, a Muslim descendant of Trinidad still living in the Hondo River area. 641

Figure 1:

Figure 2: Maps by Archibald Chauharjasingh, Secretary, Archaeology Committee, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad, Trinidad & Tobago 642

Figure 3: Larabanga Mosque in Northern Ghana is one of the oldest in the West African region. Well preserved with strong local history and oral traditions, and still in XVHWKHÀRRUSODQWKLVPRVTXHEHDUVW\SLFDOIHDWXUHVH[SHFWHGRI+RQGR5LYHU if it there was one. (Courtesy: Ghana Museums & Monuments Board.)