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A Sociophonetic Study of the Urban Bahamian Creole Vowel System

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A Sociophonetic Study of the Urban Bahamian Creole Vowel System A Sociophonetic Study of the Urban Bahamian Creole Vowel System Janina Kraus M¨unchen2016 A Sociophonetic Study of the Urban Bahamian Creole Vowel System Janina Kraus Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Philosophie an der Ludwig{Maximilians{Universit¨at M¨unchen vorgelegt von Janina Kraus aus Augsburg M¨unchen 2016 Referent: Prof. Dr. Stephanie Hackert Korreferent: Prof. Dr. Jonathan Harrington Tag der m¨undlichen Pr¨ufung:02.02.2017 Contents List of Figures ix List of Tables xviii Abstract xix 1 Introduction 1 2 English, creole and the Bahamas 5 2.1 Terminological issues . 6 2.1.1 Creole languages . 6 2.1.2 Bahamian Creole . 11 2.2 A short sociohistory of the Bahamas . 14 2.3 Sociolinguistic variation in the Caribbean . 23 2.3.1 Modelling synchronic variation . 24 2.3.2 Language attitudes . 31 2.3.3 Studies of sociolinguistic parameters . 42 2.3.4 Phonological versus grammatical variation . 56 2.4 Creole phonology . 64 i ii CONTENTS 2.4.1 Origin of creole phonologies . 64 2.4.2 General characteristics of Caribbean creole vowel systems . 68 2.4.3 Sociophonetics and the analysis of vowels . 70 2.4.4 Acoustic studies of Caribbean creole vowels . 78 2.4.5 The Bahamian Creole vowel system . 81 2.5 Research objective and general research questions . 85 3 Methodology 89 3.1 Conversational data . 89 3.2 Map task and citation form data . 90 3.2.1 Speakers and recording conditions . 91 3.2.2 Elicitation materials and recording . 94 3.3 General analysis procedure . 100 3.3.1 Preprocessing of recordings . 100 3.3.2 Segmentation and measurements . 101 3.3.3 Vowel normalisation . 103 3.3.4 Statistical testing . 104 4 Diphthongs 107 4.1 FACE and GOAT . 107 4.1.1 FACE and GOAT in Bahamian varieties . 108 4.1.2 Monophthongisation of FACE and GOAT . 110 4.1.3 Research questions and hypotheses . 115 4.1.4 Analysis procedure . 116 CONTENTS iii 4.1.5 Results . 117 4.1.6 Summary . 134 4.2 MOUTH and PRICE . 137 4.2.1 MOUTH and PRICE in Bahamian varieties . 137 4.2.2 Voicing-conditioned alternation in MOUTH and PRICE . 139 4.2.3 Research questions and hypotheses . 145 4.2.4 Analysis procedure . 145 4.2.5 Results . 147 4.2.6 Summary . 163 4.3 CHOICE and NURSE . 165 4.3.1 CHOICE and NURSE in Bahamian varieties . 166 4.3.2 Non-rhotic pronunciation in North America . 168 4.3.3 Upgliding diphthong in NURSE . 170 4.3.4 Research questions and hypotheses . 171 4.3.5 Analysis procedure . 172 4.3.6 Results . 174 4.3.7 Summary . 191 5 Monophthongs 195 5.1 Nominal monophthongs in Bahamian varieties . 199 5.2 Spectral and temporal interactions . 203 5.2.1 Variation in vowel duration . 203 5.2.2 Spectral and temporal contributions to phonemic distinctions 204 5.2.3 Spectral and temporal overlap in Jamaican varieties . 207 iv CONTENTS 5.3 Research questions and hypotheses . 211 5.4 Analysis procedure . 212 5.5 Results . 215 5.5.1 Cross-comparison of vowel quality . 215 5.5.2 Cross-comparison of vowel quantity . 221 5.5.3 Variation in low vowels . 225 5.5.4 Variation in mid back vowels . 232 5.5.5 Spectral and temporal overlap . 237 5.6 Summary . 242 6 General discussion 245 6.1 System and variation in urban Bahamian speech . 246 6.1.1 Urban Bahamian vowel inventories . 246 6.1.2 Social variation and diagnostic vocalic variables . 254 6.1.3 Rhoticity . 259 6.2 Focus on the individual . 261 6.2.1 Across speech styles . 264 6.2.2 Phonological versus morphological variation . 269 6.3 Cross-varietal comparison of vowel variants . 271 7 Conclusion 281 Appendices 283 A1 Recording materials . 283 A2 Number of tokens per speaker . 288 A3 Linguistic ranking of speakers across speech styles . 320 Bibliography 323 List of Figures 2.1 From Creolisation to Advanced Second Language Acquisition: Con- tinuum of outcomes of group language shift, adapted from Winford (2007, 256) . 10 2.2 The Bahamas (Hackert and Huber, 2007, 281) . 12 2.3 Estimated growth of the Bahamian population and of the relative proportion of black and coloured Bahamians during the 18th century; see Hackert and Huber (2007, 281-282) and Craton and Saunders (1992a, 261) . 15 2.4 Census data (Department of Statistics of The Bahamas, 2012, 1-2) on the growth of the Bahamian population and of the relative proportion of Bahamians living on New Providence throughout the 20th century up to 2010 . 19 2.5 Four-tiered vowel system of Afro-American (Alleyne, 1980, 38, 76) . 69 2.6 Left: Primary Cardinal vowels after Jones (1962); right: The current IPA vowel chart (International Phonetic Association, 2015) . 72 2.7 Wave form and spectrogram for five words uttered in isolation by a participant of this study (Ben03) . 75 2.8 Mean F1 and F2 frequency values of rounded (red) and unrounded (blue) Cardinal vowels as uttered by Daniel Jones; adapted from Thomas (2011, 146) . 76 3.1 Example of cards used in the collection of citation form data . 95 v vi LIST OF FIGURES 3.2 Example of a pair of maps used in the collection of map task data (left: instruction giver; right: instruction follower) . 99 4.1 Smoothed formant trajectories (F1', F2') of FACE and GOAT for three speakers and speech styles; top row: all tokens considered jointly; bottom row: tokens separated by following voicing context (red for pre-voiced, blue for pre-voiceless) . 118 4.2 EDcentroid measures across time for FACE by voicing context and speech style; means and confidence intervals derived from smoothed speaker values . 119 4.3 EDcentroid measures across time for GOAT by voicing context and task; means and confidence intervals derived from smoothed speaker values . 122 4.4 ED for FACE by duration, voicing context and task; smoothed curves based on values aggregated by speech style . 125 4.5 ED effects plot for FACE by voicing context and duration . 126 4.6 ED effects plots for GOAT by voicing context, speech style and duration128 4.7 ED for FACE in pre-voiced and pre-voiceless contexts by speaker variables gender (left, lower-class speakers only) and social class and age group (right) . 129 4.8 ED for GOAT in pre-voiced and pre-voiceless contexts by speaker variables gender (left, lower-class speakers only) and social class and age group (right) . 131 4.9 ED for FACE in the map task (left) and citation form (right) data by voicing context and by speaker variables gender and social class . 132 4.10 ED for GOAT in the map task (left) and citation form (right) data by voicing context and by speaker variables gender and social class . 133 4.11 ED effects plot for GOAT by voicing context, task and social class . 134 4.12 Euclidean distances between the time point at 60% of a token of MOUTH to the means of TRAP (ed1) and GOOSE (ed2) . 147 LIST OF FIGURES vii 4.13 Smoothed trajectories of MOUTH and PRICE in pre-voiced (red) and pre-voiceless (blue) contexts for eight speakers and three speech styles (normalised F1, F2) . 148 4.14 Log ratios across time for MOUTH by voicing context and task; means and confidence intervals derived from smoothed speaker values 150 4.15 Log ratios across time for PRICE by voicing context and task; means and confidence intervals derived from smoothed speaker values . 152 4.16 Log ratios for MOUTH in the conversational dataset by time point, social group and voicing context; based on speaker means . 154 4.17 Log ratios for PRICE in the conversational dataset by time point, social group and voicing context; based on speaker means . 156 4.18 Log ratios for MOUTH in the map task dataset by time point, social group and voicing context; based on speaker means . 157 4.19 Log ratios for MOUTH in the citation form dataset by time point, social group and voicing context; based on speaker means . 158 4.20 Log ratios for PRICE in the map task dataset by time point, social group and voicing context; based on speaker means . 160 4.21 Log ratios for PRICE in the citation form dataset by time point, social group and voicing context; based on speaker means . 161 4.22 Smoothed formant trajectories (F1', F2') of CHOICE (red) and NURSE (blue) in post-labial (full lines) and non-post-labial (dashed lines) con- texts for four speakers and three speech styles . 176 4.23 Lrat measures across time for NURSE (top row) and CHOICE (bot- tom row) by preceding place of articulation and speech style; means and confidence intervals derived from smoothed speaker values . 178 4.24 Effect plots for significant three-way interactions (see table 4.33) in- volving the factor lexical set . 182 4.25 Log ratios (median and interquartile range) in the conversational data by preceding place of articulation, social group, time point and lexical set . 184 viii LIST OF FIGURES 4.26 Log ratios (median and interquartile range) in the map task data by preceding place of articulation, social group, time point and lexical set 187 4.27 Log ratios (median and interquartile range) in the citation form data by preceding place of articulation, social group, time point and lexical set . 191 5.1 F1' and F2' for all vowel tokens at vowel target in the conversational (above) and citation form (below) dataset; labels indicate mean values 216 5.2 Mean vowel durations and 95% confidence intervals for nine lexical sets by speech style and following voicing context .
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