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Building the “Chinese Bridge” : Dynamics of Transnational Engagement Through Confucius Institutes in Southeast Asia

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Building the “Chinese Bridge” : Dynamics of Transnational Engagement Through Confucius Institutes in Southeast Asia This document is downloaded from DR‑NTU (https://dr.ntu.edu.sg) Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Building the “chinese bridge” : dynamics of transnational engagement through confucius institutes in Southeast Asia Ma, Sirui 2018 Ma, S. (2018). Building the “chinese bridge” : dynamics of transnational engagement through confucius institutes in Southeast Asia. Doctoral thesis, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. http://hdl.handle.net/10356/74194 https://doi.org/10.32657/10356/74194 Downloaded on 01 Oct 2021 01:03:13 SGT BUILDING THE “CHINESE BRIDGE”: DYNAMICS OF TRANSNATIONAL ENGAGEMENT THROUGH CONFUCIUS INSTITUTES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA MA SIRUI SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES 2018 Building the “Chinese Bridge”: Dynamics of Transnational Engagement through Confucius Institutes in Southeast Asia Ma Sirui School of Social Sciences A thesis submitted to the Nanyang Technological University in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2018 Acknowledgements It has been a challenging journey writing this thesis. Fortunately, I have enjoyed great mentorship and company along the way. My supervisor, Professor Liu Hong, took me on board and led me through this eye-opening and life-changing voyage. I am deeply grateful to his unconditional support and guidance, without which this thesis would not exist. His professional achievements and kind personality will always be a source of inspiration and encouragement. I owe a great debt to many who have helped me during the fieldwork. Their support is indispensable to this project. I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to Dr Neo, Dr Ho, Ms Yang, Dr. Yushan, Dr Sirinui, Mr Huang, Mr Cai, Ms Xu, Ms Li, Ms Han, Ms Liu, Mr Chen, Professor Ning, Professor Chen and so many others who are kind enough to talk to me and be my friends. They made my time in the field productive, fulfilling and memorable. My anonymous examiners and oral defence panel members, Professor Xiao Hong, Dr Els Van Dongen, and Professor Francis Lim, have offered enlightening comments and advice. I deeply appreciate their feedbacks, which pushed my thinking further and helped me to identify future research directions. I also thank my colleagues in NTU. We are comrades fighting together in the battle against self-doubt and weakness facing the formidable task of thesis writing. Last but not least, my beloved mother and father are my strongest backing in life. They are my sources of emotional support and intellectual inspiration; I am lucky to be their daughter. Gratitude also goes to my best companion, my husband, without whom life would be much less exciting. I appreciate all the meals he cooked for me when I was writing this thesis. i Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................... iii Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 1. Old Wine in a New Bottle? ................................................................................. 1 2. Doing Cultural Diplomacy Differently: from Independence to Joint Venture ... 5 3. Research Questions and Thesis Outline ............................................................ 11 Chapter One: Confucius Institutes Reassessed ........................................................ 15 1. Confucius Institutes in the Literature: A Critical Review ................................. 16 2. Between State and Society: Public Diplomacy Revisited ................................. 25 3. Rising in an Interconnected World: China’s Public Diplomacy Dilemma ....... 33 4. Finding a Third Way: as a Multi-Stakeholder Co-Production .......................... 36 5. A Summary: “Belong to China and Belong to the World” ............................... 43 Chapter Two: Theorisation from Bottom Up ........................................................... 45 1. A Constructivism Paradigm .............................................................................. 46 2. A Grounded Theory Approach.......................................................................... 47 3. A Southeast Asian Perspective.......................................................................... 51 4. A Summary: Strength and Limitation of Theorisation from Bottom Up .......... 61 Chapter Three: Building the Power of Language .................................................... 64 1. One Man's Meat is Another Man's Poison: Navigating the Divided Opinions . 65 2. From Soft Power to Network Power: Finding the Common Denominator ....... 69 3. Wielding the Power of Language: Road Leading to the Confucius Institutes .. 79 4. A Summary: Network Power in the Making ................................................... 103 Chapter Four: Keeping the Dynamic Equilibrium ................................................ 106 1. Striking a Balance Over Time: the Dynamic Equilibrium .............................. 106 2. Dynamic Equilibrium in Action: Keeping Multiple Stakeholders Engaged ... 112 3. A Summary: Keeping Engaged for Whose Benefit? ...................................... 152 Chapter Five: Crossing the “Chinese Bridge” ....................................................... 156 1. Evaluating Impact from Bottom-Up ............................................................... 157 2. Between the Rhetorical and the Real: The Making of Meanings ................... 161 3. A Summary: Crossing the “Chinese Bridge” .................................................. 189 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 192 Bibliography .............................................................................................................. 203 ii Abstract In 2004, China established its first Confucius Institute (CI) in Korea; and a decade later, with more than 500 Confucius Institutes and 1000 Confucius Classrooms worldwide, they now form one of the most extensive cultural networks on the international stage, and also the most controversial one. Whereas traditionally the credibility of cultural institutes is upheld by maintaining a formal independence from the government agencies, CIs made the Chinese government and foreign universities partners. With the joint venture structure and multi-stakeholder engagement unprecedented among its counterparts and predecessors, Confucius Institute has raised new questions to the old practice of cultural diplomacy through language education. This thesis focuses on the joint venture structure of Confucius Institutes and answers three questions, namely, on what ground is the transnational engagement based; how is it realised and sustained; and what has been produced for whose benefit? Using grounded theory approach and drawing on empirical data from Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and China, this thesis offers new approaches to understanding and theorising China’s most prominent cultural initiative so far, contributing to the CI literature as well as the discussions on transnational and multi-stakeholder engagement in public diplomacy. On the one hand, CI’s joint venture structure seems to be reflecting the cutting- edge trends in public diplomacy. On the other hand, CIs are initiated by the Chinese government to improve its global image. A gap is presented between the state centric view on CIs, emphasising them as a product of and solution to the problems encountered in China’s rise; and the relational approach to CIs, iii highlighting their global network structure and synergy. The former is the mainstream in the CI literature. Neither the state centric nor the relational approach has adequately reflected what is going on in Confucius Institutes. This thesis proposes that the power of language itself underpins the global CI network, providing a shared instrumental interest binding the partners together. The transnational engagement has been sustained by a “dynamic equilibrium”, reconciling potentially conflicting authorities in CI’s administrative structure. And the creation of discourses and meanings reproduces this engagement while empowering the institutionally embedded individuals. Together, they demonstrate the process of structuring in the transnational social space created by Hanban’s “Chinese Bridge” Project. As a language education programme, the impact of CIs and related projects on individuals may have more to do with the empowering effect of language learning in general. As a cultural diplomacy initiative, its ostensible success in generating a government sanctioned China image is more a product of, by and for the Chinese people themselves. However, by building the “Chinese Bridge” all over the world, it helps to strengthen the network power of Chinese language, grow the number of people who have vested interests in it, which could gradually render the Chinese government more power in shaping our shared form of social coordination, and, in turn, a structural advantage in international communication. iv Introduction 1. Old Wine in a New Bottle? In November 2004, the first Confucius Institute (CI) started its operation in Seoul, Korea. Since then, 525 Confucius Institutes and 1,113 Confucius Classrooms (CCs) have been established in 146 countries and regions, constituting one of the most extensive cultural networks on the international stage.1 The main tasks of CIs include supporting the host institute in Chinese language education, examination and teacher training; conducting cultural events
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