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Meandering Paths African Healers' Professionalisation and Popularisation in Processes of Transformation in South Africa, 1930-2004

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Meandering Paths African Healers' Professionalisation and Popularisation in Processes of Transformation in South Africa, 1930-2004 Kirsten Rüther Meandering Paths African Healers' Professionalisation and Popularisation in Processes of Transformation in South Africa, 1930-2004 Habilitationsschrift zur Einreichung bei der Philosophischen Fakultät der Universität Hannover Hannover, 11. Januar 2006 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 4 7 GLOSSARY 1 INTRODUCTION 11 SETTING THE FOCUS AND CONTEXT • Historical Orientations • Methodological Concerns: Processes of South African Transformation • The Focus: A Healer-Centred Perspective • Contexts: The Professional and the Popular • Explorations: The Mediating Materials 2 TROPES OF LEGITIMACY 39 DISCURSIVE ASSESSMENTS OF AFRICAN HEALERS • The Rule of Marginalisation, Social Pervasiveness and Academic Re-Enactment • The Furtiveness of African Healers' Activities • A Peculiarly African Culture Of Rural Abodes • Traditional Healing 3 ATTEMPTED PROFESSIONALISATION 65 FORMAL PRESENTATIONS OF HEALERS' ASSOCIATIONS TO THE AUTHORITIES • Reading the Archive • Sophiatown, 1937-1938: The South African Bantu Dingaka Herbalists Midwives Sangoma Society • Professional Associations • Urban Transformation and Increasing Racism: The Intended Professionalisation of South African Healers • The Certified Healer 4 HEALERS' POPULARISATION 124 REPRESENTATIONS OF IZANGOMA AND IZINYANGA IN NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES • Browsing Newspapers and Magazines • More than Transformation into a Commodity: Healers in Bona Magazine, 1979- 1986 • Popular Representation in Tabloids • Apartheid's Underground: Health and Popular Culture • The Popular Healer 5 COLOURFUL FIXATIONS 168 OVER-DETERMINATION AND NEGLECT • Wordless Worlds • Entertainment in Colonial Pietermaritzburg, and When "Times Immemorial" Pass By: A Random Sample of Images • Silence, Difference and Fixation • Denied Transformation: Alienations and Estrangements • The Tribal Healer 3 6 THE FANTASTIC WORLD OF DOCUMENTARIES 206 NOTIONS OF A NOT YET RECONCILED SOCIETY • Delayed Narratives • Soweto and Johannesburg at the Height of Apartheid, and 1993: A Healer in Suburbia • Encountering Difference and Post-Apartheid Transformation in South Africa • Coping with Change: Unsettled Paths into the Future • The Culturally Brokered Healer 7 SINCE THEN… 238 PARADIGMATIC CHANGES MORE RECENTLY? • Some Current Visibilities of Healers • Documentaries and Picture Publications Re-Visited • Newspapers and Magazines Further Explored • Back to the Original Objective 8 CONCLUSIONS 260 HEALTH-SEEKERS, HEALERS AND THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN STATE 9 BIBLIOGRAPHY 270 List of Illustrations 1. Correspondence of the South African Bantu Dingaka Herbalists Midwives 72 Sangoma Society of Sophiatown with the Minister of Public Health, 8 Nov 1938 (SAB, GES 1787 25/30K) 2. Certificate of the Cape Province Herbalist Association, 89 valid 29 Apr 1957-28 Apr 1958 (SAB NTS 9303 9/376) 3. Certificate of the Isambane African Medical Research Institute's Association, 89 valid 19 June 1958-19 June 1959 (SAB NTS 9303 9/376) 4. Healers' professional associations in South Africa 92 5. Motto of the African Dingaka Association printed in their stationery 95 (SAB NTS 9303 7/376) 6. Motto of the Orange Free State Herbalists Association, printed at the side of 96 their stationery (SAB GES 1788 25/30M) 7. Motto of the Natal Native Medical Association, printed at the side of their 97 stationery (NAB CNC 50A, CNC 43/25) 8. Membership card of the South African Native Bantu Dingaka 99 (SAB GES 1789 25/30s) 9. Letter of ngaka I. J. Ndhlovu, scientist and president of the Natal and Zululand 104 Inyangas and Herbalists Association, Durban, 16 Sept 1942 (SAB NTS 9302 1/376) 10. Motto of Isambane Medcines: Isambane above, like us, thrives on roots and 108 rests not on its laurels (SAB NTS 9303 9/376) 11. Stamp of the South African Bantu Dingaka Herbalists Midwives Sangoma 109 Society: To Introduce Native Custom (SAB GES 1788 25/30M) 12. Call for conference of the South African Bantu Dingaka Herbalists Midwives 117 Sangoma Society, scheduled for 11 December 1938 (SAB GES 1788 25/30M) 13. Call for conference of the Orange Free State African Herbalists Association, 118 scheduled for 10 Dec 1953 (SAB NTS 9305 12/376) 5 14. Mina Molebo Moleko, Beautiful Sangoma, Bona (March 1979); 131 photographer: Jenny Ntuli 15. Credo Mutwa, Bona (January 1976); 144 unknown photographer 16. Smiler with a burden (Samuel Bopha Mthakathi Gumede), Bona (August 144 1974); unknown photographer 17. Face to Face with Msamariya, Echo (18.06.1981) 149 18. Various letters to the editor, illustrated with photographs taken by the readers 150 themselves 19. Various reports: images and stories of the popular media 155 20. Tea and witches, illustration in Lady Barker's memoirs of her years in 174 Pietermaritzburg (Lady Barker. A Year's Housekeeping in South Africa. London 1883). 21. A Zulu diviner singled out for study 176 (Duggan-Cronin, A. M. The Bantu Tribes of South Africa: Reproductions of Photographic Studies. Cambridge 1938). 22. A Zulu diviner with a party of pupils, posing as if involved in dancing 176 (Duggan-Cronin, A. M. The Bantu Tribes of South Africa: Reproductions of Photographic Studies. Cambridge 1938). 23. A divination session in Natal, 177 originally published in 1906, reprinted in a coffee table book published in 1968 (Tedder, Vivian. The People of a Thousand Hills. Cape Town 1968). 24. Drawing by Barbara Tyrrell entitled "Shangane witch-doctors", with much 178 adoring attention to detail (Tyrrell, Barbara. Tribal Peoples of Southern Africa. Cape Town 1968). 25. Drawing by Barbara Tyrrell entitled "Bhaca diviner" 178 (Tyrrell, Barbara. Tribal Peoples of Southern Africa. Cape Town 1968). 26. A Zulu diviner captured by Alice Mertens, creating the impression as if 180 running towards the viewer (Mertens, Alice/ Schoeman, Hilgard. The Zulu. Cape Town 1975). 27. Jean Morris' photograph of amatwasa, as if on display in a shop window 181 (Morris, Jean/ Levitas, Ben. South African Tribal Life Today. Cape Town 1984). 6 28. Face to face with two diviners in Peter Magubane's a post-apartheid 183 publication about "vanishing cultures" (Magubane, Peter. Vanishing Cultures of South Africa: Changing Customs in a Changing World. Cape Town 1998). 29. Photograph by Aubrey Elliott of an igqira captioned "Young Woman Witch- 198 Doctor" (Elliott, Aubrey. The Magic of the Xhosa. London 1970). 30. Photograph by Jean Morris of a diviner, caption reads "A bold look from a 198 youthful Zulu diviner" (West, Martin/ Morris, Jean. Abantu: An Introduction to the Black People of South Africa. Cape Town and Johannesburg 1976). 31. A photograph by Alice Mertens entitled "A herbalist at work – a variety of 199 medicines are kept in the containers" (Mertens, Alice/ Schoeman, Hilgard. The Zulu. Cape Town 1975). 32. A Zulu diviner as photographed by John Mack, taken from a chapter on the 200 significance of the ancestors in Zulu culture (Mack, John. Zulus. London 1980). Glossary God and the Shades uThixo Xhosa name for the High God/ Supreme Being/ God in Retreat modimo Tswana term for High God/ otiose Supreme Being/ God in Retreat badimo (plural of modimo) Tswana term for the shades and living elders idlozi (plural: amadlozi) Zulu term for the shades and the spirits of the ancestors The Art(s) of Healing ngoma Bantu term for the art of healing, refers to drums and therapeutics in which drums are used beni ngoma dance societies in Eastern Africa lemba healing association into which in particular the prosperous are initiated with the aim of redistributing wealth and favour Terms for African health practitioners isangoma (plural: izangoma) Zulu term for diviners; popularly used as a term of reverence for women and men who command the spirits in religious ceremonies; 8 popularly also used as a derogative term for particular men who smell out evil-doers. inyanga (plural: izinyanga) Zulu term for herbalist; popularly used for people who trade in medicines izinyanga zokwelalpha herbalists izinyanga zemiti herbalists izinyanga yokubula diviners beating the ground in collective action isanusi somebody who smells out abathakati (see below) igqira (plural: amagqira) Xhosa term for diviners, derived from San expression for trance healer; often used in anthropological discourse, and Eastern Cape discourse, whereas the term is hardly ever used in popular discourse ixhwele (plural: amaxhwele) Xhosa term for herbalist amagqira elinukayo Xhosa term for witch-finders amagqira aqubulayo Xhosa term for men and women specialised in removing harmful substances from the body amagqira ambululayo Xhosa term used for people skilled in discovering dangerous charms concealed in the homestead or cattle-byre 9 amagqira okuvumisa Xhosa term for diviners specially trained in therapeutics where patients clap their hands and chanted twasa (plural: amatwasa) Zulu for apprentice-diviners in the process of starting to make sense of a life-transforming illness ngaka/ dingaka Sotho term for diviner and herbalist; no sharp distinction between the two specialists of which much is made in Zulu language. dingaka tsa dichochwa Tswana word for herbalists dingaka tsa dinaka Tswana word for diviners tinyanga tenkhosi healers of the royal family in Swaziland nganga Swahili term for diviners and herbalists Other experts in the religious/ spiritual realm moruti (plural: baruti) Sotho term for teachers; used for missionaries umfundisi (plural: abafundisi) Zulu term for teachers; used for missionaries abathanzi faith healers iprofeti, umprofeti Zulu term for prophets; derived from the English expression "prophet" 10 Agents of evil,
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