ROMAN CIVILIZATION Founded – 27 B.C.E. The Roman Empire, at its height (c. 117 CE), was the most extensive political and social structure in western civilization. By 285 CE the empire had grown too vast to be ruled from the central government at Rome and so was divided by Emperor Diocletian (r. 284-305 CE) into a Western and an Eastern Empire. The Roman Empire began when Augustus Caesar (r. 27 BCE-14 CE) became the first emperor of Rome and ended, in the west, when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus (r. 475-476 CE), was deposed by the Germanic King Odoacer (r. 476-493 CE). In the east, it continued as the Byzantine Empire until the death of Constantine XI (r. 1449-1453 CE) and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE. The influence of the Roman Empire on western civilization was profound in its lasting contributions to virtually every aspect of western culture. ALL BUILDINGS MUST BE EXECUTED IN SUCH A WAY AS TO TAKE ACCOUNT OF DURABILITY, UTILITY & BEAUTY. VITRUVIUS

The most famous Roman architect is Vitruvius, principally because his On Architecture, a 10-volume study of architecture, has survived intact. We do not actually know much about his own work - only a basilica he constructed in Fano The ancient empire, centered on the city of Rome, that was established in 27 BCE following the demise of the Roman Republic and continuing to the final eclipse of the Empire of the West in the 5th century CE. A period of unrest and civil wars in the 1st century BC marked the transition of Rome from a republic to an empire. This period encompassed the career of Julius Caesar, who eventually took full power over Rome as its dictator. After his assassination in 44 BCE, the triumvirate of Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian, Caesar’s nephew, ruled. It was not long before Octavian went to war against Antony in northern Africa, and after his victory at Actium (31 BCE) he was crowned Rome’s first emperor, Augustus. His reign, from 27 BCE to 14 CE, was distinguished by stability and peace. The Roman Empire, at its height (c. 117 CE), was the most extensive political and social structure in western civilization. By 285 CE the empire had grown too vast to be ruled from the central government at Rome and so was divided by Emperor Diocletian (r. 284-305 CE) into a Western and an Eastern Empire. The Roman Empire began when Augustus Caesar (r. 27 BCE-14 CE) became the first emperor of Rome and ended, in the west, when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus (r. 475-476 CE), was deposed by the Germanic King Odoacer (r. 476-493 CE). In the east, it continued as the Byzantine Empire until the death of Constantine XI (r. 1449- 1453 CE) and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE. The influence of the Roman Empire on western civilization was profound in its lasting contributions to virtually every aspect of western culture. Expanse of the Roman Empire Roman Architecture

Roman architecture differed fundamentally from the slab and lintel tradition of the previous Etruscan and Greek Periods because of the discovery, experimentation and exploitation of concrete, arches and vaulting (a good example of this is the Pantheon, c. 125 C.E.). Thanks to these innovations, from the first century C.E. Romans were able to create interior spaces that had previously been unheard of. Romans became increasingly concerned with shaping interior space rather than filling it with structural supports. As a result, the inside of Roman buildings were as impressive as their exteriors. Roman Architecture The Romans used these new techniques and materials to produce a whole range of new architectural structures such as the basilica, triumphal arch, monumental aqueduct, amphitheater, granary building, and residential housing block. Roman Architecture - Orders

Roman architects continued to follow the guidelines established by the classical orders the Greeks had first shaped: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Corinthian was particularly favored and many Roman buildings, even into Late Antiquity, would have a particularly Greek look to them. The Romans did, however, add their own ideas and their version of the Corinthian capital became much more decorative, as did the cornice.

The Arch of Septimius Severus at the northwest end of the Roman Forum is a white marble triumphal arch dedicated in 203 to commemorate the Parthian victories of Emperor Septimius Severus Roman Architecture - Orders

The Romans also created the composite capital which mixed the volute of the Ionic order with the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian. The Tuscan column was another adaptation of a traditional idea which was a form of Doric column but with a smaller capital, more slender shaft without flutes, and a moulded base. The Tuscan column (as it came to be known in the Renaissance period) was especially used in domestic architecture such as peristyles and verandahs. The Romans also favoured monolithic columns rather than the Greek approach of using several drums stacked on top of each other. Roman Architecture - Orders Temple OF Fortuna Virillis

Late Republican and Early Imperial Roman building Built c. 120-80 B.C.E., this temple is tetrastyle standing on a podium, having fluted columns, base and Ionic capitals.

Structure is travertine and tufa, stuccoed to look like Greek marble Roman Architecture

Greek influence can also be seen in the oldest surviving dome building, the frigidarium (cold room) of the Stabian Baths at Pompeii (2nd century BCE). As with many other areas, the Romans took an idea and pushed it to its maximum possibility, and the huge imperial bath complexes incorporated soaring arches, arches springing directly from column capitals, and domes which spanned seemingly impossible distances.

Roman Architecture - Materials

Marble was slow to catch on in Rome during the Republican period since it was seen as an extravagance, but after the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.E. - 14 C.E.), marble became quite fashionable. The first all-marble building was the Temple of Jupiter Stator in Rome (146 BCE). The most commonly used marble was Carrara (Luna) marble from Tuscany (see, for example, the 30 BCE Temple of Apollo on the Palatine). Especially esteemed were the Parian marble of Paros in the Cyclades and Pentelic from Athens. Roman Architecture - Materials

Coloured varieties were also much favoured by Roman architects, for example, yellow Numidian marble from North Africa, purple Phyrgian from central Turkey, red porphyry from Egypt, and green-veined Carystian marble from Euboea. Foreign marble was, though, mainly reserved for use in columns and, due to the costs of transportation, imperial projects. Besides marble, travertine white limestone was also favoured because of its precise carving and inherent load-bearing strength. It was especially used for paving, door and window frames, and steps. Roman Architecture - Materials

Opus Incertum- wall facings done by polygonal pieces of masonary Opus Reticulatum-small Tufa stones cut pyramidically and set in concrete. Opus Testaceum-facing of fired brick over concrete core Opus Caementicum-construction in concrete. Roman Architecture - Materials

1) OPUS INCERTUM 2) OPUS QUADRATUM 3) OPUS RETICUTATUM 4) OPUS QUASI RETICULATUM Roman Architecture - Materials

Concrete rubble had usually been reserved for use as a filler material but Roman architects realised that the material could support great weight and could, therefore, with a little imagination, be used to help span space and create a whole new set of building opportunities. They called this material opus caementicium from the stone aggregate (caementa) which was mixed with the lime mortar. Also in the 2nd century BCE it was discovered that by using pozzolana (concrete made using volcanic sand, pulvis puteolanus), which had a high silica content, the concrete could set under water and was even stronger than normal concrete. Roman Architecture - Materials

By the 1st century BCE its use seems widespread in foundations, walls, and vaults. The Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia at Palestrina. Stucco was used to face brick and concrete walls and could be carved, like bricks could be, to reproduce the architectural decorations previously rendered only in stone. The stucco was made from a mix of sand, gypsum, and even marble dust in the best quality material. Succession of arches beneath The Temple of Jupiter These arches guarantee a perfect buttressing to the structure.

Largest Etruscan Temple Built in 6th century B.C. Painting of the Augustan period Dionysos in the lap of nymph. This work dating from 19 th B.C Illustrates the refinement of paintings during the imperial Augustan period The home of Augustus on the Palatine:this dwelling dating from 25 B.C.is decorated with paintings in SECOND Pompeian style, Depict theatrical scenes with a single vanashing point and strictly Symmetrical perpestives.