NO. 1 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES 1
ISSN 0971-4170
Indian Journal of Landscape Systems and Ecological Studies
Volume : 41 z No.2 z December, 2018
INSTITUTE OF LANDSCAPE, ECOLOGY & EKISTICS, KOLKATA
Founded By Shibaprasad Chatterjee 2 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Acknowledgement
Grant-in-aid for maintenance and development to the Institute of Landscape, Ecology and Ekistics, Kolkata- 700 019, especially for its Journal – Indian Journal of Landscape Systems and Ecological Studies, received from Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), Government of India, New Delhi 110 067, is thankfully acknowledged. NO. 1 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES 3
Indian Journal of Landscape Systems and Ecological Studies
Volume : 41 No.2 December, 2018
CONTENTS
MARKETING OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES IN Abhijit Paul and 5 CHAKDAH C D BLOCK OF NADIA DISTRICT, Tanmoy Basu WEST BENGAL
TOWARDS A CHANGING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Aisharya Bhattacharjee 21 CASTE AND OCCUPATION AMONG VILLAGE SOCIETIES – A CASE STUDY OF VILLAGE AUDALI, UDHAM SINGH NAGAR, UTTARAKHAND
VARIABILITY OF LAND SURFACE TEMPERATURE (LST) Asraful Alam and 30 WITH REFERENCE TO LAND USE LAND COVER IN Arijit Ghosh KOTULPUR C D BLOCK OF BANKURA DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL
TRACING UNIFORMITARIANISM IN TERMS OF Debdas Ray 41 SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP
GENDER DISPARITY IN LITERACY: AN ASSESSMENT Dilip Kumar Chaudhary 45 OF KUSHINAGAR DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH and D. Gownamani
RESPIRATORY DISORDER AMONG BIDI AND TEA Jayati Das and 59 GARDEN WORKERS OF WEST BENGAL: Saibal Moitra A GEOMEDICAL ANALYSIS
GEOSPATIAL TECHNIQUES IN WATERSHED LEVEL Kavita Mishra 70 ANALYSIS OF LANDFORM FEATURES IN LOWER CHANDAPRABHA BASIN, EASTERN UTTAR PRADESH
URBAN SPRAWL IN BARRACKPORE SUBDIVISION OF Madhusudan Pramanick 81 NORTH 24 PARGANAS DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL
STATUS OF MICRO AND SMALL SCALE ENTERPRISES Malay Kumar Maiti 96 (M&SSE) OF HAORA DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL 4 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF TRIBAL PEOPLE: Mrinal Mandal, 105 A CASE STUDY IN AJODHYA GRAM PANCHYAT OF Partha Modak, Manas BAGHMUNDI C.D. BLOCK IN PURULIA DISTRICT Karmakar, Dayamoy Mandal, Susanta Mandi and Debasis Ghosh
ECONOMIC STATUS AND HOUSING CONDITIONS OF Mustafijur Rahaman 112 SLUMS IN KALYANI TOWN, WEST BENGAL
A STUDY OF NOISE LEVELS IN JHARKHAND: A CASE Nigar Alam 122 STUDY OF MILLION CITIES
CONTRIBUTION OF CRAFT HUBS IN DEVELOPEMNT OF Premangshu Chakrabarty 131 RURAL TOURISM: CASE STUDIES OF WEST BENGAL and Krishna Biswas
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEALTHCARE Pritam Ghosh and 142 INFRASTRUCTURE IN MALDA DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL Pratiama Rohatgi
LINKING QUALITY OF LIFE OF SLUM DWELLERS OF Rohit Singh and 156 KANPUR CITY WITH UN-SDGS AND INDIA VISION- 2020: V. K. Kumra A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
ENCROACHMENT OF LANDS FOR BHERI-FISHERIES AND Sipra Biswas 169 ITS ADVERSE EFFECTS ON THE LOCALITIES IN THE DISTRICT OF NORTH 24 PARGANAS, WEST BENGAL
TRENDS AND DYNAMICS OF FEMALE WORK Supriya Ghosh and 179 PARTICIPATION IN BACKWARD CLASS POPULATION: Sahina Khatun A CASE STUDY OF SCHEDULED CASTE FEMALES IN NADIA DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL
BOOK REVIEW
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN SINGALILA Debdas Ray 189 RANGE
ANNUAL REPORT 191 NO.Ind. J.2 of Landscape MARKETING Systems OF and AGRICULTURAL Ecological Studies COMMODITIES 41 (2) December IN - CHAKDAH2018, 5- 20 C D BLOCKISSN 0971-4170 5
Marketing of Agricultural Commodities in Chakdah C D Block of Nadia District, West Bengal
Abhijit Paul1 and Tanmoy Basu2*
Abstract : Marketing system may be considered as the ‘invisible hand’ of economic function of the rural livelihood. The present study has been done to understand the relationship and diversity of consumption scenarios of the selected agricultural commodities in some vegetable markets. To identify the diversity and consumption relationship of various vegetable products in the present study area, primary survey related databases of the seven principal vegetables in the two selected vegetable markets hold a major role. Besides, Simpson Index, correlation matrix, Analysis of Variance and significance test become helpful to justify the relationship. The output of the results shows that the consumption by the local buyers and the buyers from distant places in Chuadanga ‘hat’ is more consistence than Bishnupur ‘hat’. Moreover, the relationship (correlation coefficient is equal to 0.9141) of supply depends on demand of the vegetables in the two markets. The consumption by the local buyers is more diverse (Simpson’s Diversity Index is 0.9408) than the buyers from distant places (0.7936). Besides, the correlation in between the total consumption by the local buyers and the total consumption by the buyers from distant places is not significant which shows the moderately low coefficient of correlation (0.477)with the significance value (0.279 which is greater than 0.05). Finally, the study reveals the significance of further researches to find out the factorial variables which impact on the significance of the relationship in between the two mentioned variables in the two ‘hats’ as well as focuses on the future progress of the socio-economic conditions of the stakeholders.
Keywords : Agricultural marketing, Chakdah, Hat
Introduction Agricultural market in rural areas is commonly known as ‘hat’. The system of marketing may be considered as the ‘invisible hand’ (Smith, 1976) of economic function of the rural livelihood. It is the services that involved in an agricultural product from one agricultural farm to the consumer. ‘Hat’ is specially a place or ground where all agricultural commodities or other non-agricultural commodities are gathered for sell. This marketing system or ‘hat’ fully customer oriented and this has to provide by the farmers. The ‘hat’ mostly found in rural areas and some towns of India, Bangladesh like Asian developing countries. These ‘hats’ are conducted on regular basis, that is
1 M.A. in 2016, e-mail:[email protected], University of Kalyani, Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal 2 M.Sc. in 2016, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, e-mail:[email protected] * Corresponding author 6 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 once, twice or thrice in a week or every two weeks. This ‘hats’ support local economy and sometimes it converts rural areas to small towns. Venkatesh, et al., (2016) formulized in their study about the production and consumption diversity of Indian states using Simpson Diversity Index. Chauvin, Mulangu and Porto, (2012) identified the food production and consumption trends of the agricultural sector of states of sub- Saharan Africa to measure the relationship in between the income and food security problems. Sinha and Pradhan, (2009) identified, ‘the local markets of Goilkera in West Singbhum in Jharkhand markets are usually for direct sales of small quantities of produce by farmers to village traders and rural consumers.’ In their study Jayatillake and Mahalianaarachchi, (2007) traced out the unusual fluctuation of seasonal price in the fruits and vegetables markets of his study area which cause the effective problems of the consumers. The study by Barman and Bhattacharjee, (2016) reflected that ‘on the commodity structure of local origin as well as commodity brought from outside of Garo Hills Region’. Brown, Dury and Holdsworth, (2009) studied on the Motivations of consumers that use local, organic fruit and vegetable box schemes in Central England and Southern France; Locke, et al., (2014) mentioned in their study that ‘Epidemiologic investigations and public health interventions that examine the consumption of fruits and vegetables ought to consider the seasonal variation in consumption patterns, especially in agricultural communities.’
Objectives The objectives of the present study are as follows.
z To identify the consumption scenarios in 2015-2016 of different agricultural productions by the local Buyers and the buyers from distant places in Bishnupur and Chuadanga vegetable ‘hats’ in Chakdah C.D. Block in Nadia District, West Bengal.
z To examine the seasonal production differences of the local agricultural productions as well as the consumption diversity of the local buyers and the buyers from distant places in the two selected agricultural markets.
z To analyse the correlation of total consumption of local agricultural commodities by the local buyers and the buyers from distant places.
The Study Area This study is based on two agricultural ‘hats’, named Bishnupr and Chuadanga ‘hat’. These two are located in Bishnupur Mouza and Chuadanga Mouza respectively. These two mouzas are in Dubra Gram Panchayat under Chakdah C D Block. This is considered as the study area for investigating and understanding the interaction between growers of agricultural commodities with physical environment and also socio-economic development of that region depending on those ‘hats’. The agricultural products mainly coming from the surrounding villages and the area is mainly covered by fertile alluvial soil which is transformed by the river Hugli and Ichamati. With the influence of favourable climatic condition (mild winter and sufficient irrigation) and fertile alluvial soil the production is highly concentrated in the area. According to the Agriculture Market Directory NO. 2 MARKETING OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES IN CHAKDAH C D BLOCK 7 of the year 2011-2012 the area of the Chuadanga and Bishnupur ‘hats’ are 2.69 Bighas (a traditional unit of land measurement in India, 1 Hectare= 6.1772 Bighas) and 2 Bighas respectively, but now the area is increasing day by day. These ‘hats’ are very ancient and in present it is able to keep its significance by providing daily needs of rural and urban places around it. Bishnupur and Chuadanga ‘hats’ were established in 1940 and 1982, respectively. The area of Bishnupur market is 2 Bighas and Chuadanga market is 2.69 Bighas (Market Survey Report, 2011-12).These are morning time ‘hats’. The Bishupur ‘hat’ is held on Tuesday and Saturday and Chuadanga on Monday and Thursday. Both are managed by local Panchayats. In both ‘hats’ sellers usually come at around 6 am onwards. The buyers, commonly known as vendors (i.e. buyers coming from distant places) and the local buyers are also come around 7 am onwards. The sellers are mainly come from the neighbouring villages i.e. Dubra, Parari, Mathurgachi, Jagannathpur, Gangnapur, Ruppur, Kamarghola etc. In both ‘hats’ middlemen also take a major role for buying purpose. According to the farmers, when the buyers (called ‘dalal party’, who acts as representative of middlemen) is different from everyday buyers come in the market, the farmers become lucky because they give them a high rate but they are not regular. Both the ‘hats’ are situated on roadside and hundreds of vans, engine vans are gathered there. The crowd of sellers and buyers increasing with daytime and around 1pm to 2 pm all buyers packed their products and go to their destination. It is of course, that the ‘hats’ take major role in the economy of aforesaid villages.
Databases and Methodology Sources of Data The study has been conducted with mainly accomplishing primary survey techniques such as market survey, household survey, and perception survey through questionnaires. Besides secondary data sources and descriptive statistics have also been used to fulfil the pre-mentioned objectives from the various sources like Census of India, 2011.
Methods and Techniques The basic methods and techniques related to descriptive statistical analyses, usable formulae and worksheet (Microsoft Excel, 2016), ANOVA (Fisher,1925) in Statistical software (SPSS) and Quantum GIS (2.18) have been used. The descriptive statistics and formulae used are as follows.
∑α Mean = n
⎛⎞α −α Standard Deviation = ⎜⎟ ⎝⎠n 8 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Fig. 1(a). Nadia District in West Bengal Fig. 1(b). Chakdah C.D. Block in Nadia
Fig. 1(c). Dubra Gram Panchayet in Chakdah Fig. 1(d). Chuadanga and Bishnupur ‘hat’in Dubra Gram Panchayat
Fig. 1(a-d). Location of the two study markets NO. 2 MARKETING OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES IN CHAKDAH C D BLOCK 9
⎛⎞Standard Deviation Coefficient of Variation = ⎜⎟% ⎝⎠Mean
∑ d 2 Variance = n Where, ‘α’ is the percentage of area of the individual crop to the total cropped area ‘n’ is the no of crop to be considered Measuring the Diversity of Production and consumption Simpson Index (Simpson, 1949), has been used.
∑−nn(1) Simpson Index (D) = 1−∑n pi square or, i=1 ∑−NN(1)
Where, Simpson Diversity Index (SDI)= (1-D) Simpson Reciprocal Index (SRI)= (1/D) Pi is the proportion of ith food item consumed n= Number of Individual consumption of each commodity N=Total consumption of individuals of all commodities. To find out the correlation (Pearson, 1901) between demand and supply of the vegetable commodities in the ‘hat’ correlation coefficient has been formulate. nxyxy∑−∑∑. r = 2 nx∑−∑222() x ny ∑−∑() y
Where, r = Correlation Co-efficient x = Independent variable y = Dependent variable and n = No. of observations The ‘F’ value in the one-way ANOVA (Fisher, 1925)is calculated through the following formula,
Explained vatriance F = Unexplained variance 10 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Between– group variablity F = Or, Within– group variability
The ‘Explained variance’, or ‘Between-group variability’ is
K 2 ∑ni() Yi−− Y() K 1 i=1 Where,
Yi . Denotes the sample mean in the ith group ni is the number of observations in the ith group
Y denotes the overall mean of the data And K denotes the number of groups The ‘Unexplained variance’ or ‘Within-group variability’ is
nni 2 ∑∑()Yij−− Yi.( N K ) ij==11 Where, Yij is the jth observation in the ith out of K groups and N is the overall sample size. This F-statistic follows the F-distribution with K-1, N-K degree of freedom under the null hypothesis.
The test of significance (student’s t) (Fisher, 1925 followingStudent, 1908)test has been adopted to observe the relationship either strong or weak.
n − 2 tr= 1− r2 Where, t = Value of Significance r = Correlation Co-efficient r2 = Coefficient of determinants And n = No. of observations NO. 2 MARKETING OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES IN CHAKDAH C D BLOCK 11
Table 1: Selected Vegetables Consumed by the Buyers in the Selected Markets
Sl. No. Name of the Selected Vegetables Scientific Name
1 Pointed Gourd/Green Potato Trichosanthes dioica 2 Brinjal Solanum melongena 3 Tomato Solanum lycopersicum 4 Chillies Capsicum annuum 5 Lady’s Finger Abelmoschus esculentus 6 Ivy Gourd/Scarlet Gourd Coccinia grandis 7 Pumpkin Cucurbita pepo
Source: Field Survey, March 2016
To obtain information about production-consumption scenarios and their relationship seven vegetables are selected in the pre-mentioned two vegetable markets.
Results and Discussion
Consumption Scenario in the Locality The study has been conducted with the analysis of consumption scenarios of principal vegetables in the two-major vegetable markets in the study area. Here, consumption means the purchasing of vegetable commodities which the buyers sell in the other retail and non-retail markets with achieving profits. The purchasing scenarios of the vegetables indicate here the mediatory consumption related activities. The local buyers purchase the vegetables for selling it nearby daily markets and the buyers coming from distant places purchase the vegetables for supplying those commodities in the non-retail markets in the surrounding places even out of the district and state also. The scenarios of consumption vary based on the two different categories of consumers in the two agricultural ‘hat’ which impact on consumption relationship in between the local buyers and the buyers from distant places. The following table (2) shows the consumption scenarios by the consumers of the selected vegetables in the two different ‘hats’. From the above table (2) standard deviation, and coefficient of variation have been calculated in the case of consumption by the local buyers and the buyers from distant places in the two selected vegetable markets. To identify the consistency and variability of consumption by the local buyers and the buyers from distant places in the two ‘hat’ relative measures of dispersions have been used. Based on the consumptions of vegetables by the local buyers and the buyers from 12 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 distant places the Coefficient of variation has been applied on the consumption of selected vegetables are Pointed Gourd, Brinjal, Tomato, Chillies, Lady’s finger, Ivy Gourd and Pumpkin (based on the data shown in the table).
Table 2: Consumption of Vegetables by the Local Buyers and the Buyers from Distant Places in Selected Agricultural Markets
Sl. No. Vegetables Consumption by the Consumption by the buyers local buyers (in Tonnes) from distant places (In tonnes)
Chuadanga ‘hat’ Bishnupur ‘hat’ Chuadanga ‘hat’ Bishnupur ‘hat’
1 Pointed Gourd 0.75 0.9 180 216 2 Brinjal 0.86 1.15 68 54 3 Tomato 0.36 0.21 24.8 29.1 4 Chillies 0.18 0.22 75 102 5 Lady’s finger 0.36 0.31 15 21.4 6 Ivy Gourd 0.6 0.78 110 142.5 7 Pumpkin 0.25 0.31 95 62.3
Source: Field Survey, March 2016
In case of the buyers from distant places the mean of the both Chuadanga and Bishnupur ‘hats’ are 81.11 and 89.61 respectively. The Standard Deviation of consumption of both ‘hat’are 51.49 and 64.64 respectively which shows the deviation is maximum in Chuadanga ‘hat’. The Coefficient of variation of the consumption of Chuadanga and Bishnupur ‘hat’ are 63.48% and 72.14% which indicates that comparatively the consumption scenario in case of the buyers from distant places of Chuadanga ‘hat’ is more reliable, less variable and more consistent than t’hat’ of Bishnupur ‘hat’. The variance of the buyers from distant places for Chuadanga ‘hat’is 2651.05 and 4179.04 in Bishnupur ‘hat’. So, it can be said that the Bishnupur ‘hat’is more variable than Chuadanga ‘hat’. In case of the local buyers the mean of the both Chuadanga and Bishnupur ‘hat’are 0.48 and 0.55 respectively. The Standard Deviation of consumption of both ‘hat’ shares 0.24 and 0.35 respectively which shows the deviation is maximum in Chuadanga ‘hat’. The Coefficient of variation of the consumption of Chuadanga and Bishnupur ‘hat’ are 50.01% and 63.78% which indicates that comparatively the consumption scenario in case of the local buyers of Chuadanga ‘hat’is more reliable, less variable and more consistent than that of Bishnupur ‘hat’. The variance of the local NO. 2 MARKETING OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES IN CHAKDAH C D BLOCK 13 buyers for Chuadanga ‘hat’ is 0.057 and 0.125 in Bishnupur ‘hat’. So, it can be said that the Bishnupur is more variable than Chuadanga ‘hat’.
Seasonal Differences of Production and Rate of Consumption The actual production rate varies in the two-different seasonal orientation in the two selected vegetable markets. The scenario of this type of difference of production in the two ‘hat’ and rate of consumption in the case of the local buyers and buyers of distant places have been shown in the fig. (2 and 3) below.
Fig. 2 Seasonal differentiations of the production in both ‘hat’ and rate of consumption of the local buyers
In the fig.(2) The production difference between summer and winter and consumption of commodities by the local buyers of both ‘hat’ has been shown. From the above fig. (2), it is observed that the production of chillies and lady’s finger is high in winter season. The consumption rate of all vegetable commodities is more or less equal except Chillies. The buyers from distant places give more priority in those commodities which have high seasonal production. The fig. (3) depicts the same production scenario as of the previous fig. and the consumption of commodities by the buyers from distant places of both ‘hat’ has been shown. From this fig. (3), it is observed that the consumption rate is high in case of Pointed Gourd, Brinjal and Ivy Gourd in summer season and Tomato, Chillies in winter season. The local buyers also give more priority in those commodities which have high seasonal production. 14 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Fig. 3 Seasonal differentiations of the production in both ‘hat’ and rate of consumption of the buyers from distant places
Table 3: Demand and Supply per Day in Chaudanga and Bishnupur ‘hats’
Sl. No. Crops Demand per day Supply per day (in tonnes) (in tonnes)
1 Pointed Gourd 240 200 2 Brinjal 100 60 3 Tomato 50 30 4 Chillies 140 100 5 Lady’s finger 30 20 6 Ivy Gourd 100 130 7 Pumpkin 50 70
Source: Field Survey, March 2016
Demand and Supply Relationship The relationship in between demand and supply of the seven vegetables hold a major role in the two markets. The following table (3) shows the demand and supply per day and the fig. (4) NO. 2 MARKETING OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES IN CHAKDAH C D BLOCK 15
Shows the relationship in between demand and supply in the two agricultural markets in a conjugation.
Fig. 4: Relationship in between demand and supply in the two ‘hats’
Here the demand and supply of different commodities of the ‘hat’ has shown. Here the supplies of different commodities are less than the demand of the ‘hats’. In the cases of ivy gourd and pumpkin the supply is more than the demand. Here the relationships between the demand and the supply of selected agricultural commodities of the ‘hat’ have been observed. The demand of the commodities is considered as the independent
Table 4: Diversity Index of Consumption by the Local Buyers in the Two ‘hats’
Vegetables Total consumption in tonnes by local buyers n n-1 n(n-1)
Pointed Gourd 1.65 0.65 1.0725 Brinjal 2.01 1.01 2.0301 Tomato 0.57 -0.43 -0.2451 Chillies 0.4 -0.6 -0.24 Lady’s finger 0.67 -0.33 -0.2211 Ivy Gourd 1.38 0.38 0.5244 Pumpkin 0.56 -0.44 -0.2464
Source: Calculated by the authors 16 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 variable when the supply of the commodities is considered as dependant variable. Here the number of variables is seven, which are pointed gourd, brinjal, tomato, chillies, lady’s finger, ivy gourd and pumpkin. Here the calculated value of “t” is 5.04 and at the same time with 99.9% significant level where the value of correlation coefficient is and degree of freedom (N-2) is 5, the critical value of “t” is 6.86. So, it is clear to say t’hat’ the supply of the vegetables is significantly depended on the demand in both the ‘hats’. But, the number of variables is so small which effects on the calculation of significance value.
Diversity of Consumption of Vegetables by the Local Buyers and the Buyers from Distant Places In the two vegetable markets the consumption of vegetable commodities is diversified. In the tables (4) on the basis of Simpson’s Index of Diversity (SID), the calculated Diversity Index (D) of consumption by the local buyers in the two ‘hat’ is 0.0592, the SID is 0.9408 and SRI (Simpson’s Reciprocal Index) is 16.8926. The value of ‘SID’ indicate that there the diversity of consumption of vegetables by the local buyers is very high.
Table 5: Diversity Index of Consumption by the Buyers from Distant Places in the Two ‘hats’
Vegetables Total consumption in tonnes by the buyers from distant places n n-1 n(n-1)
Pointed Gourd 396 395 156420 Brinjal 122 121 14762 Tomato 53.9 52.9 2851.31 Chillies 177 176 31152 Lady’s finger 36.4 35.4 1288.56 Ivy Gourd 252.5 251.5 63503.75 Pumpkin 157.3 156.3 24585.99 N 1195.1 1188.1 294563.61
Calculated by the authors
On the basis of Simpson’s Index of Diversity (SID), the calculated Diversity Index (D) of consumption by the buyers from distance places in the table (5) in the two ‘hat’ is 0.2064, the SID is 0.7936 and SRI (Simpson’s Reciprocal Index) is 4.845. The value of ‘SID’ indicate that there the diversity of consumption of vegetables by the buyers from distant places is moderately high. With the comparison of the two values of Simpson’s Index of Diversity of consumption seven of vegetables in the selected ‘hats’, it is interpreted that the consumption of vegetables of the local buyers by the buyers from distant places is more diversified. In reality, a large number of local NO. 2 MARKETING OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES IN CHAKDAH C D BLOCK 17 consumers gathered in the two ‘hat’ and to buy the produced vegetables than the buyers from distant places.
Correlations in between the Consumption of Vegetables by the Local Buyers and the Buyers from Distant Places The correlation-regression model has been implemented to measure the relationship in between the total consumption of vegetables by the local buyers and the buyers from distant places. In the following tables (6-8) the results of the correlation-regression model have been shown with considering total consumption by the local buyers as independent variable.
Table 6: Model Summery of Correlation- Regression In Between the Total Consumption by the Local Buyers and the Buyers from Distant Places (The independent variable is total consumption by the local buyers)
R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate
.477 .227 .073 119.043
Calculated by the authors
The correlation-regression model in table (6) represents the value of correlation coefficient (R= 0.477) which signifies the moderately low relationship in between the total consumption by the local buyers and the buyers from distant places. Here, the resulted value of R square is 0.227. The adjusted r square value is 0.073 and estimated standard error is 119.043.
Table 7: Analysis of Variance(The independent variable is total consumption by the local buyers)
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. (p)
Regression 20865.123 1 20865.123 1.472 .279 Residual 70855.872 5 14171.174 Total 91720.994 6
Calculated by the authors
The analysis of variance in table (7) results the value of p (calculated probability =0.279) of ‘F’ statistics with (N-1) degree of freedom and 95 percent of significance level is greater than 0.05(0.279>0.05). So, the regression model statistically not significantly predicts the outcome variable. The p (calculated probability) value is 0.279 which is greater than 0.05, where, ‘t’ =1.213 (degree of freedom , N-2 =5) ultimately predicts the non-justification of consumption by the buyers from distant places from consumption by the local buyers as well as it determines t’hat’ consumption by the local buyers contributes statistically not significantly to the model ( as 0.279>0.05) in the table (8). 18 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Table 8: Coefficient and Value of Significance Test
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. (p) Coefficients Coefficients B Std. Error Beta
Consumption by thelocal buyers 92.736 76.426 .477 1.213 .279 (Constant) 74.813 90.955 .823 .448
Calculated by the authors
In the above fig. (5), the relationship in between the total consumption by the local buyers and the buyers from distant places has been represented. Here the independent variable is the total consumption by the local buyers and the relationship with linear trend in positive across the scatter points’ distribution. The relationship signifies that in the two ‘hat’ the total consumption of vegetables by the buyers from the distant places positively depends on the total consumption by the local buyers. But according to the significance test the mentioned relationship is not significant. Following the above discussion, it is interpreted that the two variables depends positively on each other in an insignificant way and in the two ‘hat’ the total consumption scenario of vegetables by the buyers Total consumption by the local buyers from distant places Total
Total consumption by the local buyers Fig. 5. Relationship in between the total consumption of vegetables by the local buyers and the buyers from distant places NO. 2 MARKETING OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES IN CHAKDAH C D BLOCK 19 from the distant places positively changes its activity with changing the total consumption by the local buyers and vice -versa.
Conclusion The more diversity of the consumption by the local buyers in Chuadanga and Bishnupur ‘hat’ than the consumption by the buyers from distant places supports the greater diversified participation related weightage of the local buyers in the consumption of vegetables in the locality. As the supply of vegetables significantly depends on the demand; so, the daily supply of vegetables would be consistent relatively depended on the consumption of vegetables by the local buyers. Moreover, the buyers from the distance places of the locality also create impact on the consumption diversity and reliability of the two ‘hats’. The relationship in between the consumption by the local buyers and the buyers from the distance places is shows the positive trend on correlation in between the two variables but the relationship is not significant.
References Barman, M. and B’hat’tacharjee, A.(2016). Market Mechanism and Functionaries of Local ‘‘hat’’s: An Empirical Study in the Garo Hills, Districts of Meghalaya.IBMRD’s Journal of Management & Research, vol. 5, issue 2, P. 11 Brown, E., Dury, S. and Holdsworth, M. (2009). Motivations of consumers t’hat’ use local, organic fruit and vegetable box schemes in Central England and Southern France. Appetite, vol. 53, pp. 183–188 Census of India (2011). Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, India Chauvin, N.D., Mulangu, F. and Porto, G. (2012). Food Production and Consumption Trends in Sub-Saharan Africa: Prospects for the Transformation of the Agricultural Sector. WP 2012-011. Regional Bureau of Africa, UNDP, vol. 1, P. 74. Fisher, R.A. (1925). Statistical Methods for Research Workers, Oliver & Boyd: London and Edinburgh (§4 and §42 (Ex. 41)). Fisher, R. A. (1925). Theory of Statistical Estimation. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. 22, pp. 700-725. Jayatillake, P. J. and Mahalianaarachchi, R. P. (2007). Behavioral Pattern of Fruit & Vegetable Consumers in the ‘Pola’ (Fair) System in Monaragala District in Sri Lanka. The Journal of Agricultural Sciences, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 33-42. Locke, E., Coronado, G.D., Thompson, B. and Kuniyuki, A.(2014). Author manuscript. J Am Diet Assoc., National Institute of Health: Public Access, P. 15. Market Survey Report of District Nadia (2011-2012). Agricultural Market Directory, The Directorate of Agricultural Marketing, Government of West Bengal, West Bengal. Pearson, K. (1901). On lines and planes of closest fit to system of points in space.Philosophical Magazine, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 559-572. Simpson, E.H. (1949). Measurement of Diversity. Nature, vol. 163, p. 688. 20 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Sinha, P.K. and Pradhan, P.K. (2009). Local Market and Environment: A Case Study of Goilkera Block in West Singhbhum District in Jharkhand. Jharkhand Journal of Social Development,vol. II, no. 1 & 2, pp. 149-155. Smith, A. (1976). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The Glasgow Edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith, vol. II, Edited by R.H. Campbell and A.S. Skinner, Oxford University Press, London, P. 744. Student. (1908).The Probable Error of a Mean. Biometrika, vol. 6, P. 25, Reproduced by the kind permission the Biometrika Trustees. Venkatesh, P., Sangeetha, V. and Singh, P. (2016). Relationship between Food Production and Consumption Diversity in India – Empirical Evidences from Cross Section Analysis. Agricultural Economics Research Review, vol. 29 (Conference Number), pp. 139-148.
Received : 20th May, 2018 Revised : 28th August, 2018 NO.Ind. J.2 of Landscape TOWARDS Systems A CHANGING and Ecological RELATIONSHIP Studies 41 (2) BETWEEN December CASTE - 2018, AND 21- 29 OCCUPATIONISSN 0971-4170 21
Towards a Changing Relationship Between Caste and Occupation Among Village Societies – A Case Study of Village Audali, Udham Singh Nagar, Uttarakhand
Aisharya Bhattacharjee*
Abstract : A village mirrors the intricacies that are associated with caste and occupation. However, over the years this marked relation between caste and occupation has broken down as the essence of modernization has crept in. In context of these, Audali village from Udham Singh Nagar District of Uttarakhand has been chosen to analyze the trend of occupational change among the social groups; and therefore, delve into the reasons that are so much instrumental in these changes. Research analysis have reflected that the general trend of occupational mobility is mainly from the agricultural to the manufacturing sector, which is much in tune with the notion of rural transformation.
Keywords : Audali, Occupational change, Caste
Introduction Just as the kernel of economic exploitation in the Marxian theory has its edifice on the production relations as manifested in the economic domain, the social exploitation of the lower castes is also embedded in the social relations that have in fact brewed up the very essence of economic exploitation among these deprived classes too. In fact, there are ample evidences of such exploitation especially in villages that mirrors more pristinely the intricacies associated with the caste based Indian society than anything else. However, in areas where the essence of modernization has crept in, there has been significant occupational change taking place among the social groups. (Mamgain, 2004) have highlighted the aspects of livelihood diversification associated with occupational mobility in hill economies. They are of the view that several waves of migration has been taking place in the past few decades from hilly regions encompassing a change of occupation from farm to non-farm livelihoods. The occupational mobility has been found to be the highest among the Scheduled Castes, especially the Chamars, Bhangis and Dhanaks who have been moving out from their village in search of new employment opportunities at Behror in Rajasthan (Mendelson, 1993). Even in the villages which are on their way of being transformed, the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have moved on to new occupations instead of being involved in the traditional * P.G Student, Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi - 110067. Email: [email protected] 22 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 ones. As a result of the change in occupational status among the social groups, the obnoxious caste ridden hierarchy and occupational structure is also being eradicated. Jodhka (2002) has asserted that Dalit communities of rural Punjab has used the new spaces opened up by the process of economic development, leading to a complete breakdown of the jajmani system. This paper basically focuses on such occupational changes among the social groups in a time framework of ten years in the context of Audali village located in Udham Singh Nagar District of Uttarakhand.
Study Area The study area (Figure 1) has been based on a tribal village i.e. Audali located in Sitarganj Tehsil of Udham Singh Nagar District of Uttarakhand. The village is governed by the Bharauni Gram Panchayat. The village population comprises chiefly of tribal, belonging to the Tharu community, who are supposed to have their ancestral origins in Chittorgarh in Rajasthan.
Fig. 1 Location Map NO. 2 TOWARDS A CHANGING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CASTE AND OCCUPATION 23
Database Primary Survey using a structured questionnaire, encompassing a sample size of 116 households from Audali Village has been considered for analysis. The primary survey was done in a time span of 20 days from 2nd December 2017 to 22nd December, 2017. Other than the use of questionnaires for primary survey, detailed information about the village life, resources, their society and economy as well as aspects of political participation were taken by conducting Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRAs) and Focused Group Discussions (FDGs) in Primary Schools, Anganwadi Kendras and Women groups. Apart from this, a transect walk across each village has been performed to meticulously note the site and situations associated with the rural resources.
Aims and Objectives z To assess whether any change in occupation has taken place in the village among the four different social groups viz. General, SC, ST and OBCs in the last 10 years.
z To determine the general trend of occupational mobility among the four social groups in the three surveyed villages, taking into account the gender dimension.
z To trace out the reasons associated with a shift in occupation among the four social groups.
Research Methodology In order to assess the shift from one occupation to another among the social groups, occupation transition matrix has been used with the rows denoting the past occupation of the person (maximum 10 years back) and the columns denoting the present occupation of the person. Secondly, Multivariate Logistic Regression (MLR) has been used to assess the most important factors associated with a change in occupation of the people.
A Brief Glimpse of Audali The change in the occupational structure among the social groups first necessitates a brief glimpse on the social and cultural lifestyle of the village. As already mentioned, the village is dominated by tribal households, belonging to the Tharu community and they reside in small hutments made of mud and bricks and the walls being decorated with a myriad of floral and faunal designs. Survey reports have entailed that only 3.45% of the sampled households in Audali belong to SC category consisting of Jatavs and Mauryas and these people have mostly migrated here in the late 1980s or 1990s from Uttar Pradesh. These people are mainly casual agricultural labourers and do not own any land. The proportion of OBC communities is also small, encompassing only 14.66% of the sampled households of Audali. These people have settled down here mostly 60 – 70 years ago after the partition of India. They have migrated here from Punjab, while some have had their native place in Pakistan also. These communities belong to mostly Khambhoj sub-caste and are presently not much involved in agrarian activities. The General/Caste population is very less in Audali i.e. only 0.86% of the sampled households. They have vast acres of land, amounting to at least 10 – 15 24 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 acres. Although the older generation among these communities is engaged in crop production on self-owned land, the younger generation has moved on to new occupations in industries. The most spectacular feature of Audali village is the vast number of Tribal households (Figure 2). These people own land and are mainly engaged in crop production and livestock farming. Other than this, they have small household industries attached to their dwelling units where women manufacture turmeric powder. They also make beautiful handicrafts.
Occupational Change among Social Groups Nearly 21.55% of the sampled households in Audali village are associated with a change in their occupational status of at least one member of the family in the last 10 years. However, this occupational change is much pronounced here in case of the tribal households (Figure 3). This is not only because of the fact that is a tribal village, with lesser proportion of people belonging to other social groups, but also because tribal women here have taken an active role in engaging themselves in small household industries manufacturing turmeric powder and the like for bringing about self dependency as well as supporting the family. They have formed a self help group Fig. 2 Share of social groups in Audali (in %) consisting of 100 members assisted by the Institute of Social Development which imparts them knowledge pertaining to use of resources, health and the like.
Comparison of Occupation Status Transition among Different Social Groups In Audali however, the change in occupation among SC households is relatively less and among these few, people have moved from the primary sector to secondary sector. This is directly a result of the opening up of Fig. 3 Occupational change associated with different social groups in State Industrial Development Audali (in %) Corporation of Uttarakhand NO. 2 TOWARDS A CHANGING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CASTE AND OCCUPATION 25
Limited (SIDCUL) in 2002. Among the Scheduled Tribe households in Audali, males who were otherwise engaged as agricultural laborers, small manufacturing centers or were unemployed, have moved to the tertiary unskilled sector engaged as casual laborers. A good proportion have also moved from the primary sector and those who were otherwise inactive to the manufacturing sector which is also a direct result of the opening up of SIDCUL. People engaged in the tertiary sector with uncertain and negligible income have bought land and started cultivating it themselves. Among the OBC households in Audali, the trend of occupational shift among the males is mainly oriented to the tertiary skilled sector, especially in private companies and the like from the primary sector where these people cultivated their own land. Such type of mobility is more pronounced among the younger generations who were previously engaged in the agricultural operations of the family but have presently moved on to skill based jobs attained through technical degrees or the like. In Audali, the proportion of occupational shift among the general households is much less while in case of females no occupational shift has been noted. Some of the males who were formerly engaged in the tertiary unskilled sector as casual labor have acquired technical skills and moved on the tertiary skilled sector.
Fig. 4 Occupational Mobility among different Social Groups in Audali (in %) 26 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Table 1: Occupation Status Transition Matrix (As percentage of the total population associated with a change in occupation over last 10 years)
Scheduled Tribe Primary Secondary Tertiary Tertiary Un- Inactive Skilled Unskilled employed MFMFMFMFMFMF
Primary 0 0 12 4 0 0 12 0 0 0 4 0 Secondary 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 Tertiary Skilled 4 0 0 1 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tertiary Unskilled 8 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Unemployed 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Inactive 0 0 4 4 0 16 4 0 0 0 0 0 OBC Primary 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Secondary 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tertiary Skilled 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tertiary Unskilled 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Unemployed 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Inactive 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Scheduled Caste Primary 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Secondary 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tertiary Skilled 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tertiary Unskilled 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Unemployed 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Inactive 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 General Primary 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Secondary 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tertiary Skilled 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tertiary Unskilled 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Unemployed 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Inactive 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Source: Data compiled from Primary Household Survey in Audali village of Uttarakhand from 2nd December 2017 to 22nd December, 2017 NO. 2 TOWARDS A CHANGING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CASTE AND OCCUPATION 27
In order to assess the occupational mobility among the social groups in the village, four classes as categorized in Figure 4 has been chosen. Although a large proportion of the sampled households in all the social groups have remained stable in their occupation status, there have been, however, significant upward shifts noted among Scheduled Tribe households. This is because after the opening up of SIDCUL, people formerly engaged in crop production have moved on to industries. The same applies for other social groups too. There has been horizontal occupational mobility occurring especially in the services sector.
Table 2: Distribution of Sampled Households (%) according to reasons for Occupational Change
Variables SC ST OBC GEN Ranking
Health Issues 4 6 High Dependency Ratio 16 2 Declining Returns 20 8 1 Access to Credit 4 12 2 Access to Technical Skills 44442 Decreasing Land holding size 4 6 Raise Standard of Living 12 5 Voluntarily Inactive 4 6
Source: Data compiled from Primary Household Survey in Audali village of Uttarakhand from 2nd December 2017 to 22nd December, 2017
It is evident from the primary survey in Audali, that the major reason put forth by the households regarding their change of occupation pertains to the declining returns of either their wage as agricultural laborers or decrease in the productivity of the soil. This is especially predominant among the Tharus as well as the OBCs who have their hutments located along the river side and most of their farmlands have been gradually engulfed by river bank erosion leading to high water content in the soil and declining productivity. The other important factors are access to credit, technical skills and high dependency ratio. While the access to technical skills has been instrumental among households of all the social groups in moving to a better occupation, Among the ST households, the high dependency ratio has also been a driving factor both for males and females to change their former occupational status. Moreover, access to credit from banks and cooperatives has also aided especially the youths to move into newer occupations. In order to delve into the reasons behind the occupational change, the Logistic Regression Model has been used and the Z values as denoted in the table shown hereby gives a glimpse on the significance levels of the variables used. The choice of the variables has been done in accordance 28 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 with the views given by the respondents. Therefore, this model has been used to test as to whether the variables so mentioned have had actually a significant effect on the occupational change.
Table 3: Multivariate Logistic Regression Results
Coding Coefficient Standard z P>z Error
Occupational Change (Y) Yes = 1; No = 0 Social Category (X1) Gen 1 0 OBC 2 0.18 0.71 0.25 0.81 SC 3 0.77 1.04 0.74 0.46 ST 4 0.37 0.23 1.97** 0.03 Land Holding Size (X2) Semi Medium (2 to 4 hectares) 1 0 Small (1 to 2 hectares) 2 -0.13 1.1 -0.11 0.91 Marginal (Below 1 hectare) 3 0.05 0.95 0.06 0.95 Access To Credit (X3) Yes = 1; No = 0 1.69 1.05 1.6 0.11 Internet Connection (X4) Yes = 1; No = 0 0.3 0.57 0.52 0.6 Technical Training (X5) Yes = 1; No = 0 1.8 0.6 2.99*** 0.003 Household Size (X6) Below 4 1 0 4 to 10 2 -0.13 0.54 -0.24 0.81 Above 10 3 0.62 1.03 0.61 0.54 Dependency Ratio (X7) Below 0.33 1 0 0.33 to 0.66 2 1.02 0.58 1.76* 0.08 Above 0.66 3 0.19 1.19 0.16 0.87 _cons -0.38 1.4 -0.27 0.79
Source: Data compiled from Primary Household Survey in Audali village of Uttarakhand from 2nd December 2017 to 22nd December, 2017 1 Confidence Levels *** 99%, **95% and *90% NO. 2 TOWARDS A CHANGING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CASTE AND OCCUPATION 29
Concluding Remarks It must be mentioned at the very outset that occupational change among the social groups in the village is one of the major highlights in the broader spectrum of rural transformation. The results have revealed that there is a marked shift in the occupation of the male members from crop production to being engaged as workers in SIDCUL. This is entirely a result of the declining returns in agriculture that makes it difficult to sustain a proper living. The MLR results show that the variable that positively and significantly determines the likelihood of the village population to change their occupation is technical training. Other important factors at varying probability levels include dependency ratio, implying that families with a higher number of dependents necessitates better and secure jobs rather than uncertainties associated with agrarian activities. In fact, those households with a higher family size of more than 10 members are nearly 62% more likely than households with less than 4 members in having a changed occupational status.
Acknowledgements This work has been supported by the Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi as part of the course work. I am immensely grateful to Prof B. S. Butola, Dr. Elumalai Kannan and Dr. Purva Yadav for their constant guidance throughout the work. I am also indebted to my classmates who provided insight and expertise that assisted the work.
References Jodhka, Surinder (2002).Caste and Untouchability in Rural Punjab. Economic and Political Weekly 37: 1813 - 1823 Mamgain, Rajendra P (2004). Employment, migration and livelihoods in the Hill Economy of Uttaranchal. PhD Thesis, Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi Mayer, Adrian C (1960). Caste and Kinship in Central India. Berkeley: University of California Press,. Mendelson, O (1993). The Transformation of Authority in Rural India. Modern Asian Studiesm 27, no. 4: 805 - 842.
Received : 26th June, 2018 Revised : 25th September, 2018 30Ind. J. of Landscape INDIAN Systems JOURNAL and Ecological OF LANDSCAPE Studies 41SYSTEMS (2) December AND ECOLOGICAL- 2018, 30 - 40 STUDIESISSN 0971-4170 VOL. 41
Variability of Land Surface Temperature (LST) With Reference to Land Use Land Cover in Kotulpur C D Block of Bankura District, West Bengal
Asraful Alam1* and Arijit Ghosh2
Abstract : Satellite-based Land surface temperature (LST) can be determined from thermal emission at wavelengths in either infrared or microwave which is called the “atmospheric windows”. Remote sensing technologies use the thermal infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum in order to observe LST. Vegetation coverage has a significant role on the Land Surface Temperature (LST) distribution. The aim of this work is to study the spatial and temporal distribution of natural and cultural features, land surface temperature investigated, and the relationships among these factors. The selected study area is Kotulpur block of Bankura, which is located in the southwest part of Bankura district, West Bengal, India. In the study LST values have been calculated from the thermal band of the Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper (TM), Landsat 5 ETM+ and Landsat 8 OLI and TIRS from three different years 2000, 2010 and 2017 respectively. LST has been derived from satellite images, and the change of the LST pattern in response to landscape pattern has been explored from using GIS and remote sensing techniques and field investigation with the help of GPS to verify the ground reality. Three remote sensing indices have been compared in terms of their effectiveness in LST estimation. Effects of spatial variation of land-use/cover distribution on LST have been examined and results from this study can expand our understanding of the relationship between LST and natural and cultural variables in the study area.The overall results indicated a strong relationship between LST and the landscape variability (natural and cultural). Hati, Kotulpur and Laugram show similar kind of thermal signatures of land use, whereas Chatra, Jibtaand Raghunathpur differ from that, and their ground temperature ranges between 25.25°C to 24.90°C and 19.82°C to 20.52°C respectively.
Keywords : LST, LULC, Kotulpur
Introduction Land surface temperature (LST) is one of the most important factors controlling physical processes responsible for the land surface balance of water, energy and CO2 (Vlassova et. al, 2014). Surface temperature is a common, non-specific term referring to the aggregate temperature of all
1 ICSSR Post-Doctoral Fellow, Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, email:[email protected] , Mob: 7602475681 2 Research Associate, Department of Geography, Sidho- Kanho-Birsha University, Purulia *Corresponding author NO. 2 VARIABILITY OF LAND SURFACE TEMPERATURE (LST) 31 objects, comprising the existing surface. LST is maintained by the incoming solar and long wave irradiation (Li et al., 2013). It is the skin temperature of the Earth’s surface and it can be the result of the thermal infrared remotely sensed data (Weng et al., 2014). LST is an important parameter of chemical, physical and biological processes of the ecosystem and it is one of the indicators of surface-energy balance (Voogt and Oke, 2003; Xian and Crane, 2006; Weng, 2009). Usually high LST is a result of increased area of solid surfaces which absorb solar energy, reduced areas of vegetation and water, land-cover patterns, high building densities and constructed areas (Patz et al, 2005; Fung et al, 2009; Nichol, 2005; Nichol et al, 2009). The relationship between landscape metrics and LST is dependent on different land-cover features, study scales, and variations among regions (Li et al, 2010, 2011; Su et al, 2012). The impact of spatial patterns on LST is directly associated with land-cover features (Xie et al, 2013). LST has been repossessing by the generalized single-channel process using a number of parameters, as well as at-sensor radiance, brightness temperature, radiation wavelength, and emissivity (Jiménez-Muñoz and Sobrino, 2003). The spatial resolution of remote sensing thermal data can be defined as the average temperature of surface obtainable features represented on pixel scale that delineate the transform in emissivity of the land surface (Anbazhagan and Paramasivam, 2016). LST can provide significant information about the surface physical properties and climate, which plays a vital role in many environmental processes (Dousset and Gourmelon, 2003; Weng, et al, 2004). In order to monitor the rapid and recurrent changes of the global environment, LST, as the prime and basic physical parameter of the earth’s surface, has been studied for over a decade. It plays a vital role in modeling the surface energy balance (Kalma, et al, 2008; Cammalleri, et al, 2012). The relationship of landscape patterns and LST has also been assessed by various methods and mathematical processes which have been formulated to retrieve from the remotely sensed data (Liu and Weng, 2008; Sobrino et al, 2004). Based on these established methods of LST the present study firstly aims to assess the LST across various land cover types at macro scale, generating the spatial distribution of natural and cultural features. Traditionally, LST was referred to standard surface-air temperature measured by a sheltered thermometer 1.5–3.5 m above a flat grassy, well-ventilated surface. With satellite technology, another type of LST, satellite-based surface temperature called skin temperature, is becoming available globally (Dickinson, 1994).This is an important parameter in land surface processes, not only acting as a indicator of climate change, but also due to its control of the upward terrestrial radiation, and consequently, the control of the surface sensible and latent heat flux exchange with the atmosphere (Aires, 2001; Sun, 2003). It aims also to study the spatial and temporal distribution of natural and cultural features in relation to the land surface temperature. Kotulpur C D block has been selected as the study area, which is located in the southwest part of Bankura district, West Bengal, India. In the study LST values have been calculated from the thermal band of the Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper (TM), Landsat 5 ETM+ and Landsat 8 OLI and TIRS from three different years 2000, 2010 and 2017 respectively.
The Study Area Kotulpur is located at 22°54’12" to 23°5’43"N of talitudes and 87°30’37" to 87°42’22"E logitudes and this block covers 250.38 km2. This block has a total of 8 Gram Panchayets. It is basically located 32 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 The Study Area The Study Fig. 1: NO. 2 VARIABILITY OF LAND SURFACE TEMPERATURE (LST) 33 in the eastern part of the district, which is bounded by Indus block on the north, Golghat block, (in Hooghly district), on the east and in the south, and Joypur block on the west. As per the 2011 census this block had a total population of 188,775 persons of which 180,292 were rural and 8,483 were urban.
Methodology We have taken Landsat 5 TM (6 band) of 2000, Landsat 7 ETM+ (6 band) of 2010, and Landsat 8 TIRS(10 &11 band) of 2017 images of 30 m resolution for fulfillment our research goal (Table 1).
Atmospheric Correction and Extraction An atmospheric correction method has been used because of its relatively high accuracy in data analysis. The whole processes of atmospheric correction is done with the help of ERDASIMAGINE 2014. The radiance measured through the sensors is affected by, and depends
Source Prepared by the Researchers Fig. 2: Flow chart of the methodology adopted 34 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 on, the existing atmospheric state at the time of taking the satellite image. Therefore, it is necessary to consider atmospheric conditions and to apply the required atmospheric correction (Rehman et al., 2015). Atmospheric correction basically removes the scattering and absorption effects from the atmosphere. This is arguably the most significant part of the pre-processing of satellite remotely sensed data. Such a correction is particularly important in cases where multi-temporal images are compared and analyzed (Hadjimitsis 2010).
Spectral Radiation Methods Spectral radiation methods have been applied for estimation of surface temperature of the year of 2000, 2010 and 2017. The whole processes of spectral radiation methods is done with the help of Arc GIS 10.1 platform. The Landsat 5 TM,Landsat 7 ETM+, Landsat 8 TIRSsensors acquire temperature data and store this information as a digital number (DN) with a range between 0 and 255. The detail step by step procedure (Landsat Data User Handbook) for Land Surface Temperature (LST) computation is given below- Step 1: Radiometric correction is necessitated for exchanging remotely sensed digital numbers (DN) to spectral radiance values and data equivalent. Conversion of DN to spectral radiance is executed by applying the equation (1)
Lλ= Lmin + (Lmax – Lmin) × DN / 255 …………………………(1)
Here, Lλ= Spectral radiance; Lmin = 1.238 (Spectral radiance of DN value 1); Lmax = 15.600 (Spectral radiance of DN value 255); DN = Digital Number Step 2: For conversion at sensor spectral radiance, in radiometric calibration, pixel values (Q) in the raw data and unprocessed image data have been converted into absolute radiance value and the following equation (2) is carried out for this conversion and satellite data are scaled into 8 bits (Qcalmax=255) values.
⎛⎞LMAXλλ− LMIN ……………………………(2) Qλ =−+⎜⎟() Qcal Qcalmin LMINλ ⎝⎠Qcalmax− Qcalmin
Here, Lλ= Spectral radiance at the sensor’s aperture [W/ (m2 sr µm)]; Qcal = Quantized calibrated pixel value [DN]; Qcalmin = Minimum quantized calibrated pixel value corresponding to LMINλ
[DN]; Qcalmax= Maximum quantized calibrated pixel value corresponding to LMAXλ [DN]; LMINλ=
Spectral at-sensor radiance that is scaled to Qcalmin [W/ (m2 sr µm)]; LMAXλ= Spectral at-sensor radiance that is scaled to Qcalmax [W/ (m2 sr µm)].
Step 3: For conversion to TOA reflectance (Lλ-to- ρp), LANDSAT TM Top of Atmosphere Reflectance (TOA), data are extracted and processed because of difference in solar zenith angles due to the time difference between data acquisitions. The TOA reflectance of the Earth is calculated based on the equation (3). NO. 2 VARIABILITY OF LAND SURFACE TEMPERATURE (LST) 35
πλ..Ld2 ρ = λ ………………………………………………..(3) ESUNλ. COSθS
Here, ρλ = Planetary TOA reflectance [unitless]; π = Mathematical constant approximately 2 equal to 3.14159 [unitless]; Lλ= Spectral radiance at the sensor’s aperture [W/ (m sr µm)]; d= Earth- 2 Sun distance [astronomical units]; ESUNλ= Mean exoatmospheric solar irradiance [W/ (m µm)] θs = Solar zenith angle.
Table 1: Meta Data of the Satellite Images
Sl. No. Data Type Resolution Band Contrast K1 Contrast K2 Year Source 1 LANDSAT 5 TM 30m 6 607.76 1260.56 2000 USGS 2 LANDSAT 7 ETM+ 30m 6 666.09 1282.71 2010 USGS 3 LANDSAT 8 TIRS 30m 10 774.89 1321.08 2017 USGS 11 480.89 1201.14
Source: United States Geological Survey (USGS), 2000-2017
Fig. 3: Graphical representation of LST in 2000, 2010 and 2017 in the study area
Results and Discussion The purpose of this study was to understand the contribution of micro-level spatial configuration on thermal conditions in natural and cultural landscape using remote sensing and geographical special system of the study area. The results suggest that the thermal contrast between 36 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Table 2: Ground Verification of LST and its Relationship with Natural and Cultural Variables of the area
Sl. Latitude Longitude Natural and Nearest Present Land Surface No. (North) (East) Cultural Features Places Temperature (12.11.2017)
1 23°00’56.21" 87°32’30.41" Vegetation Cover Chatra 19.82°C 2 22°56’17 23" 87°35’48.10" Water Body Kunarpur 21.54°C 3 22°55’32.10" 87°36’30.42" Water Body Joyrambati 21.82°C 4 23°00’42.09" 87°35’39.10" Built up Kotulpur 24.34°C 5 22°57’15.22" 87°34’35.08" Lateritic Expose Nandagram 23.25°C 6 22°54’41.40" 87°36’55.22" Agricultural Land Jibta 20.52°C 7 27°54’56.41" 81°34’45" Sparse Vegetated Raghunathpur 20.28°C Area 8 22°59’41.52" 87°40’24.34" Brick Field Laugram 25.25°C 9 23°02’53.73" 87°38’07" Brick Field Hati 24.90°C
Source: Calculated by the Researchers
Fig. 4: Status of LST in 2000, 2010 and 2017 in the study area Source: Prepared by the Researchers areas with different natural and cultural features surface fraction became lower, when the meteorological conditions favored a greater LST. Overall, it has been noted that the LST alteration is primarily driven by the fraction of natural, impervious and building surfaces. Fig. 4 reveals that NO. 2 VARIABILITY OF LAND SURFACE TEMPERATURE (LST) 37 the magnitude of LST has been higher in the upper northern side in case of identical elevation as a result of the enhanced natural surface fraction and cultural variables. On the other hand, the territories on the central portion and southern side have more complex surface structures in the from of water body, agricultural field, and fallow land, and consequently the track of LST presents a large variety within the region. Fig. 3 reveals that the highest, mean and the lowest temperatures of LST have been recorded 30.07, 32.44 and 26.81respectively in the year of 2000 on the other hand 41.71, 34.67 and 31.77 in the year of 2010 and 25.77, 21.33 and 19.82 in the year of 2017. The ranges of LST value gradually decreased from the year of 2000 to 2017 its 12.26 to 5.95 (Fig. 3).
Fig. 5: Ground Truth Verification of LST in the study area
Ground Truth Measurements of Surface Temperature Variability The research focused on examining associations between LST and spatial patterns of the natural and cultural landscape in the study area. The above analysis indicates that the region does have sharp contrast of LST change during the study period. Field investigation indicates that the surface of the study area can be viewed as composed of various natural as well as cultural landscape patterns, such as vegetation cover, water body, buildup, lateritic exposure, agricultural land, sparse vegetated area and brick field. Vegetation cover and agricultural field showed a significant negative relationship to LST, which indicates that larger amounts of green cover in locality could be positively related to decrease of surface temperatures and vice versa with the cultural features like builtup area, industrial area (brick kiln).The overall results indicated a strong relationship between LST and the landscape indices (natural and cultural). Hati, Kotulpur and Laugram show similar kind of 38 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 thermal signatures of land use, whereas Chatra, Jibta and Raghunathpur differ from that and their ground temperature ranges between 25.25°C to 24.90°C and 19.82°C to 20.52°C respectively. In the study Hati, Kotulpur and Laugram exhibit higher temperatures over brick field and residential areas in comparison with water body, vegetation and fallow land respectively (Fig. 5). There is a dominance of agricultural land in the northern part of the study area towards the farther eastern part which leads to higher temperatures. This analysis points to the general expected trend of temperature wherein temperatures are higher over man-made land covers and lower over natural surface (Table 2).
Conclusion This research had presents the technique for land surface temperature analysis with the data from Landsat-8 OLI/TIRS satellites for Kotulpur block of Bankura district, West Bengal.The characteristics of average LST and its variations have been simulated and analyzed according to the surface composition of the study area.From this study it can be concluded that estimation of LST with ground reality of landscape features and pattern, the correlation of LST with land cover pattern and year wise estimation of LST can able to classify the LST images.The major factors controlling the spatial distribution of LST were incoming solar radiation and variability of natural and cultural features. The results revealedthat natural and cultural features have strongly influesled LST of the study area. The strong differences in LST observed in the different vegetation cover, water body, builtup, lateritic exposure, agricultural land, sparse vegetated area and brick field are mainly related to differences in the structural properties of the landuse land cover (LULC0.
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Received : 31st July, 2018 Revised : 15th October, 2018 NO.Ind. J.2 of Landscape TRACING Systems UNIFORMITARIANISM and Ecological Studies IN41 TERMS(2) December OF SPATIAL - 2018, RELATIONSHIP41 - 44 ISSN 0971-4170 41
Tracing Uniformitarianism in Terms of Spatial Relationship
Debdas Ray*
Abstract : The term uniformitarianism is popularly known as ‘the present is the key to the past’. It implies that whatever geological events, which are operative in these days, were also operative during the geologic past, but may be not with the same intensity. In this discussion, it is envisaged that the signatures of such events are distributed in terms of spatial relationship.
Keywords: Uniformitarianism, Geologic events, Hutton
My journey with Geological Sciences started long back in July, 1969, when I enrolled myself as a first year undergraduate student of Geology Honours at Asutosh College in Kolkata. In the very first class, we were introduced with the concept of ‘Uniformitarianism’, as proposed by Hutton (1726-1797) in the form of the principle,‘Present is the Key to the Past’, which was popularized by Charles Lyell (1797-1875).Actually, from that day onward, it crept into my mind. Later on, gradually I had the opportunity to learn many different branches of Geology with very good exposure to Field Geology. As I became a Lecturer in 1979, my search to understand the geological phenomena in terms of spatial relationship grew. Magmatism, volcanism, the Ice Ages,extinction of the dinosaurs, metallogenesis, metamorphic imprints, marine transgression, tectonism in terms of plate movements, and every possible event have had evidence in terms of spatial relationship, I understood. To me Adirondack Anorthosite, Colorado Basalt, Karoo Doleriteand Singhbhum Granite bear their counter parts, distributed all throughout the globe, with the spatial distribution of the unconformity on the surfaces as well. This article envisages unveiling the uniqueness of ‘uniformitarianism’, originally proposed by Hutton in 1785. It was beautifully restated by Playfair (1748-1819) in 1802 and popularized by Lyell as quoted from W. D. Thornbury’s book entitled ‘Principles of Geomorphology’ (1984). Following Thornbury, we can consider that the Navajo sandstone of the Jurassic times had many other counterparts, spread across the globe. The solution-passages opened by groundwater in limestones to produce sinkholes during the Permian and Pennsylvanian periods continued to do so during the subsequent geologic periods. To be very specific, production of Karst topography is all pervasive in nature, and numerous examples are being cited in this book. These include Causse region of
* Retired Associate Professor of Geology, Asutosh College, Kolkata, Email: [email protected] 42 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 southern France, Spanish Andalusia, northern Yucatan and Tabasco in Mexico, Jamaica, northern Puerto Rico, western Cuba-apart from the classical area in Jugoslovia and adjacent portions if Italy, bordering the Adriatic Sea.To me, the words stated by Thornbury, ‘without the principle of uniformitarianism there could be a science of Geology that was more than pure description’ is quite significant. In the book, he cited numerous examples of uniformitarianism, which have geomorphic importance. One such example is related to solifluction phenomenon as evident in the Bear Island of the North Atlantic, the Stone Rivers of the Falk Islands, and furthermore in the high latitude areas of South Georgia, Graham Land, Spitsbergen and Scandinavia. Topographic effects of wind erosion are so much so conspicuous in nature that they represent significant similarities, in some of the examples recorded in many different parts of the globe. In his book, Thornbury (op.cit.) cited such examples, which include P’ang Kiang Hollow in Mongolia, Big Hollow in the Laramie basin of the Wyoming. In the book entitled‘Introduction to Sedimentology’ Sengupta (1994) mentioned many such examples of uniformitarianism. While mentioning about the limestones, he advocates that the lime stones occur in all ages, from the Precambrian to the Recent, but are abundantly recorded in the Late Precambrian (Proterozoic), as also in the early Paleozoic.In terms of reefal growth of carbonates, the classical examples include the Great Barrier Reef off the Australian coast and the coral reefs of the Florida-Bahama banks of the USA. The examples of Black Shales from his book are important documentation. He mentioned some of the largest euxinic deposits, such as the Precambrian pyritiferous and carbonaceous shales of the Iron Belt, Michigan; the Kuperschiefer of the West European Permian; the Permian Black Cherts; and the Phosphoria Formation of the Rocky Mountains, including the Pyritiferous Black Shale (Bijaygarh Shale) from the Indian context.Furthermore,he stated that the Evaporites are found in all geological ages, from the Precambrian to the Recent, but are prolific in the Permian. The Permian salt deposits of Texas, Mexico, New Mexico, Persian Gulf; and under the present day category, salt deposits of the Rann of Kutch of Western India, the Great Bitter Lake of Suez, the Death Valley of the USA need to be exemplified. In his book, ‘Petrography of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks of India’, Chatterjee (1974) provided ample examples of uniformitarianism. Such examples include the extensive presence of Tholeiitic Flood Basalt in the Western India, the Columbia-Snake river plains of the USA, the Keweenawan lava near the Lake Superior, the Stormberg lavas of South Africa, the Parana basalts of South America. Winter (2010), in his book entitled‘Principles of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology’, had incorporated many examples. Some of the important occurrences include Rattlesnake Ignimbrite of Southeastern Oregon; Remarkable Dyke of New Zealand, along with the host of LMI (Layered Mapic Intrusions) and LIPs (Large Igneous Provinces), which include Bushveld (Precambrian, South Africa in 66,000 Sq.Km.), Dufek (Jurassic, Antartica in 50,000 Sq.Km.),Duluth (Precambrian, Minnesota in 4700 Sq.Km.),Stillwater (Precambrian, Montana in 4400 Sq.Km.),Muskox (Precambrian, NW Territories Canada in 3500 Sq.Km),Great Dike (Precambrian, Zimbabwe in 3300 Sq.Km), Kiglapait (Precambrian, Labrador in 560Sq.Km.) and Skergard (Eocene, Eastern Greenland in 100 NO. 2 TRACING UNIFORMITARIANISM IN TERMS OF SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP 43
Sq.Km.).Regarding the occurrences of Carbonatites, Winter made significant observations. He writes, “…of the approximately 350 known carbonatites, over half occur in Africa and mostly in stable continental intra-plate settings” (p. 427).” A close look at the Fig.19.10 of the book (p. 428), it is revealed that the South Eastern part of South Africa dominate the carbonatite occurrences and these bodies record varying ages like 2047, 1750, 1040, 715, 655, 550, 491, 201, 126, 84, 63, 26 and 19 Ma, which remarkably establishes uniformitarianism.While tracing the metamorphic imprints in terms of uniformitarianism, he incorporated many important findings.These may be stated as follows: (1) In terms of Paired Metamorphism, the Sanbagwa and Ryoke metamorphic belts of Japan show remarkable resemblance with the Wakatipu-Tasman belt of New Zealand, the Pichilemu-Curepto belt of South America, Mt.Hibernia-Westphalia belt of Jamaica, the Franciscan-Sierra belt of Western part of the USA, as also the Shuksan-Skagit belt of Walla Walla of the USA. (2) In terms of UHP (Ultra High Pressure) and UHT (Ultra High Temperature) metamorphism, the White Schists (representing UHP in terms of the presence of Coesite) of Dora-Maira massif of the western Alps of Italy, as well as from Bohemia, Makbal, Erzgebirge, Maksutov, Kokchetov, Tian Shan, Qaidam, Sulu, Dabie, Atbashy are profund in about twenty locations in Europe and China, along with Mali in western Africa and in Brazil; while for the UHT, there are about forty locations, mostly prevalent in the Precambrian, but examples are known throughout the Earth’s history. This is generally identified by the presence of Sappihirine+ Quartz or Sillimanite + Orthopyroxene +_ Quartz; and the important occurrences include the Acadian Orogen in NE USA, the Garzon Massif in Columbia, the Anosyen Domain of Madagascar, the South Altay Belt of NW China, the Central Indian Tectonic belt, the Lapland Granulite belt of Kola Peninsula, Russia, and so on. Dutta and Mitra (1997) stated that the domains of metallogenesis and metallogentic epochs bear evidence of uniformitarianism. The following list provides the major resources of the globe, being produced by different mechanisms of ore deposit formations, e.g.: (a) Precambrian Iron ore deposits of the Lake Superior; (b) Phanerozoic Iron Ore deposits of New Brunswick; (c) Oolitic Iron Ore of New Mexico; (d) Vanadium Shale, Peru; (e) Uranium Shale, Sweden; (f) Uranium rich Conglomerate, South Africa; (g) Magnetite deposit, Utah; (h) Copper-Nickel ore deposit, Sudbury; (i) Chromium ore deposit, Bushveld; (j) Bauxite deposit of Arakan; (k) Vanadium-Uranium- Molybdenum-Graphite Phyllite, Alabama; (l) Gold Phyllite Schist, North Carolina; (m) Diamondiferous Conglomerate, India; (n) Skarn Deposits, Sweden; and (o) Nickeliferous Laterite, California. Thus, there are certain controls of mineralization in space and time. If we look at the Greenstone Belt mineral resources, we find that Nickel ore deposits are associated with Magnesium rich Komiatite and Serpentinite in the Superior region of Canada, and similarly Nickel Ore deposits of Yalgran, Western Australia are also associated with Dunite and Komiatite. There have been attempts to understand all such mechanisms in terms of Plate Tectonism. The geologists like Moorbath (1929-2016) and many others firmly believe that mineral deposits formed from the Palaeozoic period onward may be grouped as Convergent Plate Boundary and Divergent Plate Boundary movement-controlled deposits. But, whatever may be the connotation, there is absolutely no doubt that in nature, all the process mechanisms, be it internal or external, 44 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 kept on and would be keeping on repeating in terms of space and time relationship, and continue to show many such events in terms of repetitive phenomenon. It should be our concerted effort to understand such mechanisms and find out their respective signatures, distributed globally.Let this be our tribute to our pioneers like Hutton and Lyell.
Bibliography Chatterjee, S.C. (1974). Petrography of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks of India, The Macmillan Company of India Limited, New Delhi. Dutta,A.K. and Mitra,N.D. (1997). Morphology of Ore Bodies,Classification, Origin and Source (A book written in Bengali vernacular, Khanijdeheraakriti, Srenibinyas, Udbhav o Utsa), West Bengal State Book Board, Kolkata. Sengupta,S. (1994). Introduction to Sedimentolgy, Oxford & IBH Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi. Thornbury,W.D. (1984). Principles of Geomorphology, Wiley Eastern Limited (First Wiley Eastern Reprint), New Delhi. Winter,J.D. (2010). Principles of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology, PHI Learning Pvt. Limited (Indian Reprint), New Delhi.
Received : 12th September, 2018 Revised : 3rd November, 2018 NO.Ind. J.2 of Landscape GENDER SystemsDISPARITY and EcologicalIN LITERACY: Studies AN 41ASSESSMENT (2) December OF - 2018, KUSHINAGAR 45 - 58 DISTRICTISSN 0971-4170 45
Gender Disparity in Literacy: An Assessment of Kushinagar District, Uttar Pradesh
Dilip Kumar Chaudhary1* and D. Gownamani2
Abstract : Literacy and education is considered as one of the important indicators of human development index and socio economic development of human. In Indian society, women have not been given equal opportunities when it comes to education as men has been given. The lagging behind of female literacy is one of the factors which kept the stagnation of technical, cultural, social and economic development of the society. There is a large gap in literacy between male and female found in most part of India. This paper has been prepered by using secondary data of two Census years 2001 and 2011 of Kushinagar district. The disparity has been calculated by using Sopher’s disparity index. This paper shows an insight between male and female disparity in literacy in Kushinagar district. The findings suggest a significant spatio-temporal variation in male and female literacies among the blocks of the study area. In spite of several initiatives by the government, there are many illiterate people still existing in the society in which female numbers are more in comparison to males. The findings show a clear gap and disparity between male and female literacy in Kushinagar district of Uttar Pradesh.
Keywords : Gender disparity, Kushinagar, Literacy gap
Introduction Education is the process to ease out learning, or acquiring knowledge and wisdom, ability, qualities, morality, beliefs and habits. Education is one of the most important factors of attaining the developmental goals. Education can bring the change in the success as well as growth of a nation. Education is not only important for a good social well-being but also a creative and productive well-being. Paternalistic culture, low level of economic opportunities and safety concern are the main barriers in female education (Roberts and Chittooran, 2016). Literacy is one of the most important indicators of socio-economic and political upliftment of a society. Patriarchy is one of the root causes for the bias in girls’ education in comparison to boys’ education, as parents prefer boys’ education over the girls’ education (Chaudhari and Roy, 2006).
1. Junior Research Fellow, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 2. Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Email: [email protected] * Corresponding author 46 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
The upper caste fare better than backward and lower caste when education for both boys and girls is concerned, but caste doesn’t appear to play a decisive role in the decision to make successive transition but classes do. Girls from lower caste and religious group do not encourage long term investment in education of girls than boys (Vaidya, 2004). Through educational attainment women can achieve self-confidence, self-respect and can also discover their own capability of new ideas and innovations which will help in resisting to their gender discrimination. Women’s education and employment are determining factors in fertility behaviour and help in job creation which will lead to family welfare (Heptulla, 2000).Education makes women independent and they can take their own decision. When we look at the entire human population, the share of educated women is much lower than men. Education could boost the women to come forward and contribute to the development of the country. If the women remain educationally lagging behind and economically dependent on men, their condition will not change much. So to become self-esteemed and self-reliant, they have to be educated so that they can take their own decision independently. Education makes women aware about their rights for justice. And this would lead in declining of violence and injustice against the women as dowry, forced prostitution, child marriage, female feticide, etc. every girl must be given equal opportunity to become a successful doctor, engineer, nurse, air hostess, administrative officer, cook, or whatever her choices would she choose to become. Among the social groups the dalits have lower literacy rate apart from the Muslim women but they will serve as a catalyst in development if they will be given equal opportunities in education (Benzamin, 2008). Literate women in Kushinagar are lagging far behind the men and they also lag behind in national average. There are several reasons for the low literacy of women in the Kushinagar district such as poverty, gender, unemployment, illiteracy, child marriage, and distance of school/ college from home, security of female child, patriarchal society (Limaye 2016). Literacy rate of schedule caste women and Muslim women are less in comparison to other category of women, social factors are more responsible for such disparity.
Study Area Kushinagar district is a part of Gorakhpur division in eastern Uttar Pradesh, its district headquarter is located at Padrauna town. The district is famous for the Mahaparinirvana of Mahatma Buddha. Since 13th May, 1994, the district came into existence, earlier it was a part of Deoria district. The district has an area of 2905 sq km, and it is bounded by Bihar State in the East, Deoria in the South, Gorakhpur district on the West and Maharjganj district in the North-West. The climate in the district remains extremely hot in summer and moderately cold during the winter season. At present, the district has been divided into 6 sub-divisions including Padrauna, Kasia, Hata, Tamkuhi Raj, Khadda and Kaptanganj. The district has been also divided into fourteen Community Development Blocks namely Kaptanganj, Ramkola, Motichak, Hata, Sukrauli, Khadda, Nebuwa Naurangiya, Vishunpura, Padrauna, Kasia, Dudhai, Fazil nagar, Tamkuhi and Sevarahi. NO. 2 GENDER DISPARITY IN LITERACY: AN ASSESSMENT OF KUSHINAGAR DISTRICT 47
Fig.1: Location map of Kushinagar district, UP 48 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
According to the 2011 census Kushinagar district has a population of 35, 64,544 persons in which 18, 18,055 are males and 17, 46,489 are females. The district has a sex ratio of 961 females per 1000 males. The district has a population density of 1226 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 23.08 per cent in which 23.37 per cent are male growth rate whereas female has a growth rate of 23.03 per cent. The district has made a slight progress in the field of education through various progressive steps. The district has a total literacy rate as 67.25 per cent in which female literacy rate is 52.36 per cent whereas male literacy rate is 77.71 per cent. The district has population majorly belonging to Hindu and Muslim religion consisting of 82.16 per cent and 17.40 per cent of population respectively. Agriculture is the backbone as far as economy is concern. People are engaged in agriculture because the industrialization is negligible in the district.
Objectives The objectives of this study are: z To assess the disparity in literacy between male and female population in Kushinagar district z To find out the factors determining the disparity in literacy in the district
Data Sources and Methodology This study is primarily based on secondary data sources mainly obtained from the publications of Census of India and other publications. The data of the decadal change from 2001 to 2011 has been collected from the District Census Handbook of Kushinagar District of 2001 and 2011, Primary Census Abstract, General Population Tables, several literature and books, articles, published as well as non-published materials has been dealt for the study. The blocks are considered as the basic unit of this study because it will give the best glimpse of thorough study for which data of block level is available. The data has been analysed in Microsoft Excel. The analysis and interpretation has been done through textual and tabular formats followed by the result and discussions. The block wise variation has been shown on the maps through Arc GIS 10.1. The maps have been collected from District Census Handbook of Kushinagar District 2011. To achieve the objectives of the study Sopher’s disparity index has been used to find out the block wise disparity of male female literacy of Kushinagar district from 2001 to 2011 Census. Sopher’s Disparity Index is well accepted measurement to identify the disparity in male female literacy. So according to Sopher’s Disparity
Index technique, if X1 and X2 represent the respective percentage value of the variables of group A and group B then the Disparity Index can be calculated as,
DI= log (X2/X1) + log {(100-X1)/(100-X2)} Where, DI= Disparity Index
X1= percentage of female literates
X2= percentage of male literates
i.e., X2 ≥ X1 NO. 2 GENDER DISPARITY IN LITERACY: AN ASSESSMENT OF KUSHINAGAR DISTRICT 49
Higher the value of Disparity Index will show the higher inequality in genders and lower the Disparity will show the lesser inequality between the genders. The perfect equality between the genders will be at zero Disparity Index. Hence, Sopher’s Disparity Index is very useful in measuring the relative disparity. This study mainly focuses on the rural population of the Kushinagar district because 95.7 per cent of the population reside in the rural area whereas only 4.3 per cent are the urban population. The factors affecting disparity in education has been fulfilled through observation method, interaction with people and through several literatures. Poverty, gender, unemployment, illiteracy, child marriage, and distance of school/college from home, security of female child, patriarchal society are the factors affecting educational disparity between the genders (Limaye, 2016).
Results and Discussion Spatio -Temporal Change in Literacy Rate of 2001 and 2011 in Kushinagar District India is a diverse country and diversity can be seen in every field. In literacy rate, variation can be easily observed in state to state and region to region. If we look at the literacy rate of Uttar Pradesh it has never been above the nation average till the last Census 2011. In Uttar Pradesh itself, a large variation can be seen in literacy rate among the districts. So as in the cause of Kushinagar Table 1: C D Block Wise Change in Literacy Rate in Kushinagar District, 2001-2011
Blocks Literacy rate (2001) Literacy rate (2011) Change
Khadda 34.1 58.0 23.9 Nebua Naurangiya 42.5 63.98 21.48 Vishunpura 41.5 61.71 20.21 Padrauna 49.1 66.07 16.97 Kaptanganj 50.0 68.5 18.5 Ramkola 45.3 64.79 19.49 Motichak 47.3 67.5 20.2 Sukrauli 50.8 68.56 17.76 Hata 54.0 69.88 15.88 Kasiya 52.6 68.9 16.3 Fazilnagar 52.6 69.88 17.28 Tamkuhi Raj 50.9 67.85 16.95 Dudhahi 35.1 57.28 22.18 Sevrahi 38.6 58.98 20.38 Total 45.8 64.75 18.95
Source- District Census handbook of Kushinagar, 2001-11 50 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Fig. 2: Spatio-Temporal Change in Literacy Rate in Kushinagar, UP, 2001-2011 NO. 2 GENDER DISPARITY IN LITERACY: AN ASSESSMENT OF KUSHINAGAR DISTRICT 51 district it has never been above the national or state average literacy rate. The total literacy rate of the study area in 2001 was only 45.8 per cent which has increased to 64.75 per cent in the year 2011 (Table 1). So, a significant change of 18.95 per cent bas been registered over a decade. Among the blocks, Hata (54 per cent), Kasiya (52.6 per cent), Fazilnagar (52.6 per cent), Tamkuhi Raj (50.9 per cent), Sukrauli (50.8 per cent), Kaptanganj (50 per cent), Padrauna, Motichak have high literacy rate 2001 whereas Ramkola, Nebua Naurangiya and Vishunpura has the moderate literacy rate while Khadda (34.1 per cent), Dudhahi (35.1 per cent) and Sevrahi (38.6 per cent) have the lowest literacy rate in the 2001 Census. The main reason behind the lowest literacy rate among these blocks was the unavailability of basic infrastructure and also these blocks also border with Bihar which has lowest literacy in the country that might be the reason also. But if we look at the 2011 Census Fazilnagar (69.88 per cent), Hata (68.9 per cent), Sukrauli (68.56 per cent), Kaptanganj and Motichak have the highest literacy rate The reason behind the improvement in literacy is establishment in of school/colleges and midday meal program in the primary schools. The other blocks also have improved significantly during these 10 years. The highest change can be observed in Khadda (23.9 per cent) and lowest (15.88 per cent) whereas the average change in the district was 18.95 per cent.
Literacy Rate and Gap between Male and Female, 2001-2011 There is variation in literacy rate and gap in male female can observed in all the blocks. In 2001, the highest male and female literacy rate can be observed as 72.7 per cent (Hata) and 36.5 per cent (Hata) respectively and the lowest male and female literacy rate found as 48.6 per cent (Khadda) and 18.2 per cent (Khadda) respectively whereas the average male female literacy rate was 62.8 and 28.33 respectively. The standard deviation can be observed as 7.61 and 6.42 in male female respectively (Table 2&3). So, a significant gap can be found in all the blocks. But if we look at the Census year 2011, there is significant improvement in all the blocks can be observed. The highest male and female literacy rate can be observed as 83.15 per cent (Hata) and 57.28 per cent (Fazilnagar) respectively. Whereas the lowest male and female literacy rate found as 70.07 per cent (Dudhahi) and 43.81 per cent (Dudhahi) respectively and the average male female literacy rate are found as 77.51 per cent and 51.595 respectively. When we look at the standard deviation of male and female
Table 2: Male-Female Statistics of Literacy Rate, 2001-2011
Literacy Rate Mean Standard Minimum Maximum Deviation
Male 2001 62.8 7.61 48.6 72.7 Female} 28.3 6.42 18.2 36.5
Male 2011 77.51 6.81 70.07 83.15 Female} 51.59 4.72 43.81 57.28
Source: Computed by the researchers 52 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 literacy rate, it is found as 6.81 and 4.72 respectively. So, we can find that there is improvement in all the blocks but difference in male to male, female to female and region to region is observed in all the blocks.
Table 3: Literacy Rates and Gender Gap in Kushinagar District, 2001-11
Serial CD Blocks Literacy Literacy Literacy Gap Literacy Literacy Literacy Gap no. Total Male Female Total Male Female 2001 2011
1 Khadda 34.1 48.6 18.2 30.4 58 70.63 44.39 26.24 2 Nebua 42.5 61.3 22.5 38.8 63.98 77.63 49.63 28 Naurangiya 3 Vishunpura 41.5 58.1 23.3 34.8 61.71 74.52 48.32 26.2 4 Padrauna 49.1 65.1 32.4 32.7 66.07 77.85 53.75 24.1 5 Kaptanganj 50 67.6 31.4 36.2 68.5 81.04 55.57 25.47 6 Ramkola 45.3 63.1 26.5 36.6 64.79 78.08 50.8 27.28 7 Motichak 47.3 65.8 29 36.8 67.5 80.74 53.38 27.36 8 Sukrauli 50.8 69.7 31.9 37.8 68.56 82.25 54.96 27.29 9 Hata 54 72.7 36.5 36.2 69.88 83.15 56.75 26.4 10 Kasiya 52.6 69.5 35.1 34.4 68.9 80.98 56.38 24.6 11 Fazil Nagar 52.6 70.2 35.8 34.4 69.88 82.54 57.28 25.26 12 Tamkuhi Raj 50.9 68.8 33.4 35.4 67.85 80.86 54.93 25.93 13 Dudhahi 35.1 50.9 18.3 32.6 57.28 70.07 43.81 26.26 14 Sevrahi 38.6 54.4 22.3 32.1 58.98 71.67 45.63 26.04 Total 45.8 62.8 28.3 34.5 64.75 77.51 51.59 25.92
Source: District Census handbook Kushinagar, 2001 and 2011
Male-Female Disparity in Literacy, 2001-2011 The disparity between male and female is always been a case of concern and it has a past history of having a disparity gap between the two genders. According to Sopher’s disparity index there is no disparity when the value of disparity index will be zero and it will be high when the value will be one. Here, male-female disparity has been divided into three categories in the study area high, medium and low i.e. (0.691- 0.750), (0.641-0.690) and (0.590-0.640) respectively in the year 2001. In the year 2011, the disparity has been decreased in all the blocks in which high ranges between (0.546-0.576), medium (0.495-0.545) and low (0.476-0.494). Higher disparity index in 2001 was 0.741 in Nebua Naurangiya block whereas lowest disparity index was in padrauna (0.590) (Figure 4). But in NO. 2 GENDER DISPARITY IN LITERACY: AN ASSESSMENT OF KUSHINAGAR DISTRICT 53
2011, highest disparity index was in Sukrauli (0.576) and lowest was in Dudhahi (0.476). The reason behind decrease in disparity might be increasing number of schools/colleges, awareness among the people towards female education, government programmes like ‘Sarva Siksha Abhiyan’, ‘Sab Padhe Sab Badhe’, midday meal programme, etc.
Table 4: Block wise Disparity index in Kushinagar District, 2001-11
Serial Blocks Literacy Literacy Disparity Literacy Literacy Disparity no. Male Female Index (2001) Male Female Index (2011)
1 Khadda 48.6 18.2 0.627 70.63 44.39 0.477 2 Nebua Naurangiya 61.3 22.5 0.741 77.63 49.63 0.545 3 Vishunpura 58.1 23.3 0.658 74.52 48.32 0.494 4 Padrauna 65.1 32.4 0.59 77.85 53.75 0.481 5 Kaptanganj 67.6 31.4 0.658 81.04 55.57 0.53 6 Ramkola 63.1 26.5 0.674 78.08 50.8 0.537 7 Motichak 65.8 29 0.66 80.74 53.38 0.534 8 Sukrauli 69.7 31.9 0.69 82.25 54.96 0.576 9 Hata 72.7 36.5 0.665 83.15 56.75 0.573 10 Kasiya 69.5 35.1 0.624 80.98 56.38 0.517 11 Fazil Nagar 70.2 35.8 0.624 82.54 57.28 0.51 12 Tamkuhi Raj 68.8 33.4 0.641 80.86 54.93 0.534 13 Dudhahi 50.9 18.3 0.664 70.07 43.81 0.476 14 Sevrahi 54.4 22.3 0.617 71.67 45.63 0.478
Total 62.8 28.3 0.631 77.51 51.59 0.5
Source: District Census handbook Kushinagar 2001 and 2011
In 2001, Nebua Naurangiya has the high disparity index (0.691- 0.750) whereas Vishunpura, Dudhahi, Ramkola, Kaptanganj, Motichak, Hata and Sukrauli have medium disparity index (0.641- 0.690) and low disparity index (0.590-0.640) has been found in Padrauna, Kasiya, Khadda, Fazilnagar, Tamkuhi raj and Sevrahi. In 2011, high disparity index (0.546-0.576) was found in Sukrauli and Hata whereas medium disparity index (0.495-0.545) was found in the blocks of Nebua Naurngiya, Ramkola, Kasiya, Fazil nagar and Tamkuhi raj and low disparity index (0.476-0.494) was found in Khadda, Vishunpura, Padrauna, Dudhahi and Sevrahi blocks (Figure 4). Some blocks have improved in terms 54 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 Kushinagar District, 2001-2011 Source: Calculated by the researchers based on data from District Statistical Handbook, Comparison of Disparity Index in Kushinagar, 2001-2011 Fig. 3: NO. 2 GENDER DISPARITY IN LITERACY: AN ASSESSMENT OF KUSHINAGAR DISTRICT 55 disparity from high to low and these blocks are Nebua Naurangiya, Vishunpura and Dudhahi while some has move low to medium and high, these blocks are Sukrauli and Hata (medium to high) and Kasiya, Fazilnagar and Tamkuhi Raj (low to medium). But if we look at the overall blocks all the blocks has done better improvement in eliminating the disparity in literacy.
Fig. 4: Disparity index of Male-Female literacy Rate, 2001-2011 Source: Calculated by the researchers based on data from District Statistical Handbook, Kushinagar District, 2001-2011
Factors Affecting the Disparity in Literacy between Male and Female There are several reasons for the low literacy of women in the Kushinagar district such as poverty, gender, unemployment, illiteracy, child marriage, and distance of school/college from home, security of female child, patriarchal society, etc. some factors are as follow:
Poverty India is overpopulated country, so despite of several efforts of government, the literacy in rural areas have not improved much. Girls from poor family suffer the most when it comes to education as poor families do not focus on their education because they found it hard to provide facilities for which is costly now a days. Because of poverty parents could not provide the education for both male and female so they prefer boys’ education than girls’ education. Thus, poverty leads to disparity in male and female literacy. 56 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Gender When the parents cannot afford the education of children then they prefers son’s education at first over the daughter. It has been long lasting disparity prevailing in India. Girls always suffer the dropouts when parents do not provide education for both boys and girls. If we look at the national level there is 63.5 per cent drop out in adolescent girls. Indian families spend more on daughters’ marriage than spending on their education. In a poverty laden family, every penny is spent on basic needs and education of boys without any question, although the daughter perform better than son it will not matter they will prefer boys’ education first, so it is unfortunate that education is decided based on sex in place of ability. There is an African proverb “if you educate a man you educate an individual but if you educate woman educate a generation.” So, education of women is the need of the hour.
Education of Parents Education of parents play important role in literacy rate of female. Educated parents can take better decision to educate their children and they know the importance of education for better future. The education of mother and father also influences the schooling and post schooling of girls as mother’s education affect schooling and father’s education affect girl’s education (Vaidya, 2004). The literacy rate in the study are in the past was not good and that is one of the reason for the low literacy and disparity between the genders.
Accessibility Accessibility is also very important factor affecting the literacy of not only females but also males though it affects the female literacy particularly. The distance of school/colleges from home determines the educational enrolment of female child more in comparison to male child. With increasing the distance of school/college from home there is decreasing rate of enrolment found in the study area. Road transport plays important role in travelling as good road provide better accessibility but poor quality of roads in the district reduces the enrolment of female child in schools and colleges as most of the good schools are in towns. School premise also important as many schools doesn’t have the facilities of washroom for female, libraries, sitting facilities, playgrounds, water facilities, security, etc. Though these facilities have been improved at some extent but it still needs to be improved. There is difference in public and private schools as private schools provide good quality of education but it cost more for the parents to afford the education of female child. Also most of the good schools are in the towns so travelling is also determining the literacy of female and male child.
Child Marriage Child marriage is one the major reason that affects the literacy of the females. When a child girl is forced to marry she faces problem with immediate as well as consequences, there is hindrance not only in her education but also the chances of abuse and exploitation by her husband could be happen. According to National Family Health Survey-4 statistics, 31.6 per cent female of 20-24years NO. 2 GENDER DISPARITY IN LITERACY: AN ASSESSMENT OF KUSHINAGAR DISTRICT 57 age group married before attaining the age of 18 years in the study area. 3.9 per cent female of age group 15-19 years who are already mothers or pregnant at the time of survey in 2015-16 in the study area. So it is clear that child marriage has been quite prevailing. Apart from the reported data there are several cases are there in which child marriage are prevalent but the parents kept the age as secret because of the law. Parents presume daughters as burden and they want to marry them as soon as possible.
Society Patriarchy is the root cause of male-female disparity in literacy. The main perception of the society is that girls have to marry one day and they will leave for their in-laws home so they will not add any economic benefits so they do not think about the girls’ education much. In future, these girls will be known as illiterate mothers which might work as chain reaction for the future generation of daughters and they would be treated as same, which could again leads to female illiteracy.
Government Policy Though there are several government programs for improvement of female education like Sakshar bharat mission for female literacy (2008), Right to Education, Kasturba Balika Vidyalaya, National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary level, Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan, Dhanlakshmi scheme, etc. through these programs there is improvement in the female literacy rate but there is a huge disparity is there in male and female literacy is still there. There is need of improvement in female literacy from every home and it can be improved as:
z When each and every one do not consider female as burden and provide them equal opportunities to them.
z We should stop thinking that they should stick only to cooking, washing clothes and other household activities.
z They should be given equal opportunities and respect
z They should be set free to choose about their own career.
z We should encourage everyone to educate female child without any discrimination There should be holistic education where women should not only think of degree oriented study but they should attain career defining opportunities and start earning money through education.
Conclusion The study reveals that there is significant increase in literacy rate in the study area during the 10 years (2001 to 2011) from 45.8 per cent to 64.75 per cent so an increase of 18.95 per cent can be observed which is very good. But there can be variation in male and female literacy rate can be observed in all the blocks. The study also reveals that disparity between male and female has been decreased but it is still high in all the blocks of the Kushinagar district. There are several factors 58 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 which determine the literacy has to be looked to reduce the gap between male and female literacy. Government has implemented several plans and policies for the improvement and development of female education but we should also contribute in better way for the uplift of female literacy. The disparity has been reduced when each and every one do not consider female as burden and provide them equal opportunities to them. We should stop thinking that they should stick only to cooking, washing of clothes and other household activities. They should be given equal opportunities and respect. They should be set free to choose about their own career. We should encourage everyone to educate female child without any discrimination. There should be holistic education where women should not only think of degree oriented study but they should attain career defining opportunities and start earning money through education.
References Benjamin, J. (2008). Dalit and Higher Education in India, Indian Journal of Political science, Indian Political Science association, Vol.69, No.3, pp.627-642 Chaudhuri, K. and Roy, S. (2006). Do Parents Spread Education Expenditure Evenly across the Two Genders? Evidence from two North Indian States, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.41, No.51, pp.5276- 5282 Chaudhry, I.S. (2007). Gender Inequality in Education and Economic Growth: Case Study of Pakistan, Pakistan Horizon, Pakistan Institute of International Affairs, Vol.60, No.4, pp.81-91 District Census Handbook, Kushinagar District, Census of India, 2001-11 District Fact book, Census of India, Kushinagar, 2001-11 Heptulla, N. (2000). Role of Women in Population Stabilization, Yojna, Vol.44, No.8, pp.29-30 Kingdom, G.G., (2007). The Progress of School Education in India, Oxford Review Economic Policy, Oxford university press, vol.23, No.2, pp.168-195 Limaye, S. (2016). Factors Influencing the Accessibility of Education for Children with Disabilities in India. Global Education Review, 3(3), 43-56. Rao, Nitya (2005). Women’s Right to Land and Assets: Experience of Mainstreaming Gender in Development, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.40, No.44/45 Roberts, J. L., & Chittooran, M. M. (2016). Addressing Gender Inequities: the Role of an NGO School in Uttar Pradesh, India. Asian Education and Development Studies, Vol.5 (1), pp.121-131. Vaidya, D. (2004). Gender Inequality in Educational Transition, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.39, No.35
Received : 2nd September, 2018 Revised : 14th October, 2018 NO.Ind. J.2 of Landscape RESPIRATORY Systems and DISORDER Ecological Studies AMONG 41 BIDI(2) December AND TEA - GARDEN2018, 59 - WORKERS69 ISSN 0971-4170 59
Respiratory Disorder Among Bidi and Tea Garden Workers of West Bengal: A Geomedical Analysis
Jayati Das 1* and Saibal Moitra2
Abstract : Occupational hazard among bidi workers and tea garden workers is quite widespread. Using GIS for demographic analysis to estimate the demand for various types of services can benefit individual physicians. GIS has helped the health care industry manage resources and personnel in of the same ways it has helped other consumer service enterprises. The poor respiratory conditions of the bidi workers have been observed. Tea garden workers are in better shape as the environment is cleaner and airy. The methodology ranged from running questionnaires on the field, interactive sessions with the workers, lung function test of the workers, data entry to analysis of independent and dependent data and development of indices. Medical camps were conducted seasonally with spirometers for pulmonary function tests. Air samplers were used for studying environmental conditions. The observed and analyzed problems may be prevented from taking a hazardous form with proper diversification. The kendu leaves’ dust get air borne during bidi making and it is inhaled by the bidi binders, which affects their health and causes the respiratory impairments. The exposed male and female bidi binders showed lowered pulmonary function test values compared to the controls of the same sex. Among the tobacco exposed male bidi binders 36.29 per cent have found respiratory impairments in which 21.77 per cent are restrictive type, 4.03 per cent obstructive type and 10.48 per cent are combined restrictive and obstructive type. The garden workers had three times higher complaints of shortness of breath than the factory workers.
Keywords : Respiratory disorder, Occupational hazards, West Bengal
Introduction Unorganised sector, in India, comprises nearly 90 percent of its workforce and contributes about 60 percent of its GNP. Despite its enormous size and importance this sector remains neglected by the policy makers, planners and implementing agencies. Even the Indian trade union movement with a glorious history of nearly one century has not been able to make effective inroads into this sector. A large chunk of the workforce in the unorganised sector is still deprived of the benefits of government’s welfare schemes and legislative protections. The biri industry forms a vital part of this sector coming next only to the agriculture and handloom sectors in terms of employment.
1 Associate Professor, Shri Shikshayatan College, Kolkata, [email protected] 2 Medical Practitioner, Allergy and Asthma Research Centre, Kolkata, [email protected] * Corresponding author 60 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Today this industry provides both full time and part-time employment to nearly 75 lakh people of whom approximately 90 per cent are women. Biri industry emerged in the late 19th century and spread to most parts of the country in 1930s and 1940s. It is one of the few industries of the unorganised sector where the trade union movement took its roots as early as 1930s. The industry witnessed fierce trade union struggles during 1930s, 1940s and 1950s. Today it is undertaken on a large scale in different states of India. Within these states the biri production is centered in particular districts/areas due to various factors. The overall spread of biri industry in West Bengal are in the districts of Murshidabad, Purulia, Malda, Coochbehar, North and South 24-Parganas and Bankura. Tea has become quite popular as a beverage in the world and Indian tea has a special position in the world economy. Tea manufacturing processes comprise a series of stages. Workers engaged in tea industries are mainly categorized as the garden workers who are responsible for plantation of tea plants and plucking of tea leaves; the other group is engaged in the processing department. The garden workers remain exposed to a wide variety of airborne allergens including pollen grains, pesticides, microbes and microbial products such as endotoxins and glucans while processing of tea leaves in the production units which emits respirable dusts. Workers inhale these particles while the processing in on. The dust particles may contain a wide range of allergens and sensitizing agents which can attribute to various hypersensitivity reactions among the workers including respiratory ailments. Castellani and Chalmers (1919) coined “tea factory cough” as a common health impairment among the workers occupationally exposed to tea dust. Some studies also highlighted acute or chronic respiratory symptoms like cough, chest tightness, and rhinorrhea among tea workers during their work. In a case report by Ebihara (1975), two tea garden workers were found to have allergic diseases, while in another report, tea garden workers were found to have high prevalence of respiratory diseases. Exposure to tea dust is a common risk factor in this industry as the workers rarely use any protective measures to cover their noses and mouths and studies have identified respirable tea dust to associate with airway obstruction. It was also reported that tea industry workers who had atopy, exhibited sharp fall of ventilator capacity and also rapid fall of airway conductance after bronchoprovaction test.
The Study Area Bankura district of West Bengal is one of the study areas. Bankura CD Block - I (Fig. 1) consists of rural areas with six gram panchayats, and one police station. The other area of the study include Kurseong which is a much cooler area and belongs to northern part of the state of West Bengal. Two tea gardens located at Kurseong, Darjeeling district at an approximate altitude of 1,500 meters in the northern part of West Bengal, India. These farms had a plantation area of approximately 650 acres with one tea-leaf processing plant and a workforce of around 110 employees; females are mostly involved in plucking tea leafs from the tea gardens whereas males are mostly employed in the processing/production units. NO. 2 RESPIRATORY DISORDER AMONG BIDI AND TEA GARDEN WORKERS 61
Fig 1 : Location Map 62 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Objectives of the Study i) To assess the respiratory health conditions of the biri workers by analyzing the lung condition through Pulmonary Function Test (PFT). ii) Health mapping of the biri workers over the Prankura CD block. Kurseong tea garden workers in gardens as well as working indoor were brought under the preview of the health monitoring study. iii) Monitoring indoor air quality of biri factories, houses of binders and control population.
Methodology The above objectives have been achieved through the following steps.
z Interactive sessions: Interactive sessions and group discussions were held with biri workers and tea workers regarding their social, economic conditions and in order to get the level of awareness among the workers regarding the aids given by the government.
z Survey: A detail reconnaissance survey through questionnaire was done to generate data on aspects of family details, basic amenities, daily details, finance and health. The data obtained from these was quite significant and useful for the study.
z Lung Function Test: We further set the inclusion criteria as ability to perform an acceptable spirometry, not having any active medical condition and/or not receiving antibiotics. After all exclusions, we finally recruited 80 (~73 per cent of the population) workers in the study. We further stratified them as garden workers (n=34) and factory workers (n=46) based on their area of work in case of tea gardens and 85 per cent of biri workers including perennial and seasonal workers. The study was conducted according to the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Clinical Research Ethics Committee of Allergy and Asthma Research Centre (CREC-AARC), Kolkata and all the participants provided written consent before participating in this study
z Field Visits: Field visits were made to many villages where the biri working population was found. Data obtained from the observations were supplemented with data got through the questionnaires. The two tea gardens which were taken into consideration were surveyed keeping in mind the workers working in the field and indoor.
z Secondary Sources: Secondary sources used in this study included books, handouts, journals, reports as well as census data provided by trade union activists.
Results and Discussion Socio-Economic Background Biri workers usually belong to lower socio-economic strata. Even today the biri workers are found to be from the backward castes. They are socially and economically backward communities. NO. 2 RESPIRATORY DISORDER AMONG BIDI AND TEA GARDEN WORKERS 63
In Bankura C.D. Block I it was found that most of the biri workers belong to socially and economically backward communities. The workers are divided into yearly and seasonal basis. 93 per cent of the workers whole time involved in factories. They are either binding biris inside a factory or getting the kendu leaves and utilizing his/her home space for biri binding 7 per cent of the binders are seasonal in nature working on a part time basis. There is a group of middlemen who supply the
Fig 3 : Health Parameters in Comparison with Hours of Work of the Beedi Binders Village : Bhadul (JL. No. 207), Dist. Bankura 64 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 kendu leaves to the part time workers and are collecting the biri packet after process completion in exchange of very nominal charges or collecting the biri and selling them in the local market. Long hours of work (Fig 3) coupled with wrong postures have given rise to various health effects like back pain, shortness of breath, irritation, cough and some were diagnosed of coughing with blood. Average number of biri binders earn around Rs 900 per month. Very nominal percentage of them is earning Rs 1800 per month. Biri binders have medium health status as found in Bankati mauza, which is related to their poor economic status. Prolonged sitting with forward trunk bend lead to sustained static construction of the back muscle and workers often complain of joint pains and back aches (Fig 4)
Plate 1
The Maximum binders number of are having experience of around 11 to 20 years. Very nominal percentages have more than 40 years of experience. The long experience in this profession has an adverse effect on their health. Among the binders around 38 per cent are male binders who are smokers, while among the female binders 4 per cent are smokers. Cough, shortness of breath are common problems coupled with irritation and blood with cough. Around 70 per cent of the biri binders use gool* as a cooking fuel. Coming from economically
* Note : ‘gool’ is a domestic fuel produced from coal dust, and is popularly used by low-income category people. NO. 2 RESPIRATORY DISORDER AMONG BIDI AND TEA GARDEN WORKERS 65 backward community the binders are unable to afford better variety of fuel like kerosene or gas which give off very minute percentage of carbon monoxide gas that is harmful when inhaled.
Health Factors The first phase of this study covered 500 biri workers and 150 control population. The age group was between 11 years to 75 years . Their mean height and weight were 160.67 +/- 7.45 cm and 46.34 +/- 7.11 Kg respectively. About 33 per cent subjects were literate more in case of males. A large number of males as well as females were smokers and had addiction to “Tamak”. The biri workers were engaged in biri processing (duration of exposure) on an average for about 21+/- 15 years. Females had a higher mean duration. The average age of control subjects were 35+/- 11.2 years. Their mean height and weight were 157.23+/- 7.3 cm and 45.2+/- 8.1 Kg. Half of the male control population were smokers. Spirometry was conducted on the workers employed in bidi making industry of Bankura district. As the workers are exposed to inhalant pollutants from the raw materials used, so they are at increased risk of developing various respiratory ailments. Parameters we studied are FEV1, FVC and FEV1 per cent to any airflow limitation or restrictive ventilatory defect. The results of this study highlights the adverse effect of environmental particles inhalation by workers exposed during work in comparison with the unexposed group. With the exception of FEV1/FVC ratio, all other parameters revealed the significant damage. The graph indicates that the FVC predicted value of biri workers is much more than the actual FEV1 and FEV1 per cent of them The reason for this is obstructive airways of biri binders. Fig4 indicates that the male control population has a better lung function capacity than the female control population. This may be due to the fact that indoor air pollution has an adverse effect on the lungs. Female population spend more time indoor specially in kitchen where they inhale the gas given off by the fuel used, giving rise to respiratory problems. But Fig5 indicates that male biri binders are more prone to lung impairement as they spend 8 to 10 hours of the day in binding biris. The kendu dust which is present in the air in large quantity is inhaled that affects their health immensely. Indoor air pollution plays an adverse effect on the health status of a person. Indoor air of two main biri factories of Bankura was monitored. Monitoring was done thrice a day. First monitoring was done before the day’s work started, second one while the work was on and the third one was monitored after all the binders have gone home. The maximum amount of SPM was found while the work was on. The minimum was early in the morning before the work started. Indoor air was also monitored inside the house of a biri worker and houses of two control population. One residing beside a factory while the other was far away. Comparatively cleaner air prevailed inside the control population house while amount of SPM level above the permissible limit was assessed in the house of biri workers where women and children were also involved in biri making. 66 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 Fig 4 Fig 5 NO. 2 RESPIRATORY DISORDER AMONG BIDI AND TEA GARDEN WORKERS 67
The present study signifies the adverse effect of kendu leaves specially on the lungs of middle aged workers who are exposed to the suspended particles for more than 8 hours a day. A part of this reduction may be due to added contaminants to tobacco dust. In an environmental study in 3 tobacco-producing factories in Bankura, the level of SPM in the inhaling air was high. Humid climate is a good condition for growth of fungi, bacteria, mite and insects. Residues of pesticides in organic matters and inappropriate usage of pesticides may be causative factors in the reduction of lung capacities and airflows. In our study, the variance of the parameters in the control group was lower than in the case group; it can compensate for the imbalance in the sizes of the two groups. However, systemic error is possible and might have some effects on our findings, and so it is one of the limitations of this study. Although this study only investigated the effects of tobacco exposure in workers
Tea Garden Workers The demographic features of the tea garden workers show that females were predominantly (p<0.05) more involved in the garden works (73 per cent) than the factory works (28 per cent). Although the mean height of the factory workers was moderately higher than the garden workers, this difference was adjusted while estimating percentage predicted values of lung function variables. It was observed that the prevalence of having any respiratory symptom was very high and almost equal among both the garden and factory workers (64.7 per cent and 69.6 per cent, respectively). The garden workers reported a threefold higher prevalence of breathing trouble (26.5 per cent vs. 8.7 per cent, p=0.02) than the factory workers. Although the prevalence of wheeze among the garden workers was observed as much as double than the factory workers (35.3 per cent vs. 15.2 per cent) this difference did not yield to be statistically significant. However, in compared to the garden workers, prevalence of nasal allergy was found higher among the factory workers (41.2 per cent vs. 69.6 per cent, p=0.02). Other respiratory symptoms such as chest tightness and acute or chronic cough did not differ much between the groups. There was no significant difference in spirometric lung function parameters between the garden and the factory workers. Overall airway resistance (R5 per cent predicted) was found significantly higher among the factory workers than the garden workers (107.3 per cent vs. 92.9 per cent). Although there was no significant difference in central airway resistance between the groups, factory workers exhibited very high resistance in the peripheral airways in comparison with the garden workers (143.8 per cent vs. 61.1 per cent, p=0.005). Factory workers also had a significantly higher median resonant frequency than the garden workers, however median area of reactance was higher among the garden workers. It was observed that all the major respiratory complaints were inversely associated with the change of FEV1 ( per cent predicted) and FEV1/FVC while only shortness of breath was associated with per cent changes of FVC. Although respiratory symptoms did not have any strong association with airway resistance, we observed that shortness of breath was significantly associated with increased overall reactance of the airways. Stratifying the population based on atopic symptoms, we found that wheeze and shortness of breath were mainly associated with the fall of FEV1 ( per 68 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
cent predicted) while wheeze and cough were associated with the drop of FEV1/FVC. On the other hand, all the respiratory symptoms were found to have very strong association with the fall of FEV1 ( per cent predicted) among the non-atopic group. Although no significant relationship was observed between respiratory symptoms and airway resistance among the atopic workers, both wheeze and shortness of breath were found to increase overall reactance of the airways among the non-atopic workers. Exposure to tea dust is a major risk factor of occupational asthma among the tea workers. In this study, we observed that almost 78 per cent of the tea workers showed hypersensitivity to the allergens commonly present either in the plantation areas or in the indoor air. In this study, we found higher peripheral airway obstruction among the factory workers which was not detected by spirometry. This indicates an underlying mechanism of occupational exposure-associated changes in the peripheral airways which is subtle and may not be detected well in advance with spirometry. The study has some limitations also which should be kept in view. Assessment of airborne particulate matters inside the tea processing plant was not possible neither the measurement of air quality of the tea gardens where the workers could be exposed to various sources of allergens such as pollen grains, microbes, endotoxins or glucans due to some restrictions. Secondly, lack of a control group in this study may be criticized; however, a control group which could match the socio-economic condition, habitation and professional similarity was not found. Managerial staffs were not considered as a control group due to mismatched socio-economic conditions and physiques.
Conclusion Tobacco dust and tea dust contain various immunological active as well as toxic substances. Occupational exposure of the tobacco dust is associated with significant increase in the occurrence of mild obstructive ventilator disturbances. This disturbance is also found among the tea garden workers whether they are working outdoor or indoor. The spirometric assessment showed a tendency of restriction- and obstruction-type changes, especially in small airways of tobacco industry workers. In the present study, the respiratory impairments as a whole were found higher among the exposed subjects (23.53 per cent), in which 5.88 per cent were restrictive, 11.76 per cent were obstructive and 5.8 per cent were of the ‘combined restrictive and obstructive’ type. These types of pulmonary function impairments might be due to their exposure to tobacco dust during biri -making. Although the tea workers did not have any acute lung function impairment or other serious respiratory ailments, we observed very important clinically significant association between respiratory symptoms and involvement of obstructive components of the peripheral airways among the tea-processing workers which essentially accentuates possible impact of exposure to tea fluffs and other suspended particulate matters on respiratory health.
Acknowledgement The investigators of the biri project are grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, Government of West Bengal for its financial support to carry out this project. The authors thankfully NO. 2 RESPIRATORY DISORDER AMONG BIDI AND TEA GARDEN WORKERS 69 acknowledge the management of the tea estates for their kind permission to conduct this study in their estates. The authors also thank the workers who volunteered the study and the National Tea Research Foundation, Kolkata for funding the Tea project.
References Chattopadhyay B P, Kundu S, Mahata A, Jane Alam S K.( 2006). A Study to Assess the Respiratory Impairments among the Male Beedi Workers in Unorganized Sectors. Indian J Occup Environ Med 10:69-73 Ebihara I. (1975). Study on the Inhalative Allergy of Ciliae of Leaves: Inhalative Allergy of the Ciliae of tea Leaves. J Sci Labour; 51: 661-665. Mukhtar, M. S., Husman, K., Janvisalo, J., Karhonen, O., Kotimaa, M., Kuusela, T., Nordman, H., Zitting, A., Mantyjarvi, R. (1984). Extrinsic Allergic Alveolitis in the Tobacco Industry. Br J Ind Med , Pg 77 Suzuki, T., Tsushima, K., Kawata, N., Matsumura, T., Matsuura, Y., Ichimura, Y., ... & Tatsumi, K. (2015). Estimation using the Impulse Oscillation System in Patients with Pulmonary Sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis vasculitis and diffuse lung disease, 32(2), 144-150.
Received : 18th June, 2018 Revised : 1st November, 2018 70Ind. J. of Landscape INDIAN Systems JOURNAL and Ecological OF LANDSCAPE Studies 41SYSTEMS (2) December AND ECOLOGICAL- 2018, 70 - 80 STUDIESISSN 0971-4170 VOL. 41
Geospatial Techniques in Watershed Level Analysis of Landform Features in Lower Chandaprabha Basin, Eastern Uttar Pradesh
Kavita Mishra*
Abstract : Geospatial techniques have provided very powerful methods of surveying, identifying, classifying, mapping, monitoring, characterization, and to track changes in the composition, extent, and distribution of several forms of earth surface. Revolution in the digital world has enabled the geographers for mapping and analyzing complex problems of research even up to micro level unit of observations. Multidimensional nature of satellite based Remote Sensing (RS) data and techniques of interpretation are successfully being used in various fields of geographical researches. On the other hand, Geographical Information System (GIS) operations are applied in large scale mapping, updating and changing data and maps, and preparation of data base for different purposes. The paper attempts to present a comparative analysis of the landform features at macro (basin) and micro (watershed) levels investigation selecting two sites from Middle Ganga Plain like Ganga- Ghaghara Doab and lower Chandraprabha basin (Mirzapur-Chandauli districts), Eastern Uttar Pradesh. RS and GIS have been found vary suitable techniques at micro level study of landforms even of those features which are not detectable in the field by naked eyes because of the leveled terrain and anthropogenic activities.
Keywords : Watershed, Geospatial techniques, Chandraprabha basin
Introduction Geospatial technologies deal with the generation, storage, management, retrieval, conversion, analysis, modeling and display of spatially related data in a systematic way (Nag, 2016). Geospatial technology plays unique role in analyzing various objects due to the fact that the data for such investigations come from satellite sensors, radars and mobile sensors (Stojic, 2017). As a matter of concerned, it needs a group of competent analysts or well trained technical skill who might have supportive knowledge of both sensors and computer systems. In India, tremendous progress have been made in the geospatial and aerospace technologies during the last three decades. Remote sensing (RS) observations from aerial and space platformsprovide a synoptic view of terrain features in images which are interpreted by thematic specialists to understand and extract information of specific interest from the images (Rao, 2002). RS and GIS have been found vary suitable for the study of landforms even of leveled plain where variations in the surface features are not easily
* Post Doctoral Fellow, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. Email: [email protected] NO. 2 GEOSPATIAL TECHNIQUES IN WATERSHED LEVEL ANALYSIS OF LANDFORM 71 detectable in the field by naked eyes because of the terrain condition and anthropogenic activities. Integration of the two modern techniques like Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) has brought up efficient explanation of facts in geographical investigation. RS and GIS have been found to be very appropriate techniques for micro-level mapping and analysis of remote areas or watersheds. The advantage of GIS is the easy use of digital remote sensing and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) which minimize the total time and cost of survey (Bocco et al., 2001). Drainage basins or watersheds are clearly defined topographic and hydrological entities that have been described as the fundamental spatial unit of landscapes (Chorley, 1969; Brierley and Fryirs, 2005). It is the surface area drained by a part or the totality of one or several given water courses and can be taken as a basic landscape element where land and water resources interact in a perceptible manner (Biswas, et al., 1999). Watershed Atlas of India ( CGWB,1990) defines watershed as natural hydrologic entity that cover a specific areal expanse of land surface from which the rainfall runoff flows to a defined drain, channel, stream or river at any particular point. Mapping and analysis at micro level investigation, i.e., micro watershed are significantly done using RS and GIS techniques. Multidimensional nature of satellite based (RS) data reception and GIS operations are successfully being applied in large scale mapping, updating and changing data and maps as well as preparation of data base for various fields of geographical researches. There are numerous studies devoted to the RS–GIS and geomorphic mapping. Mention may be made a few as presented by Chorley (1969), Verstappen (1977,1983), Rao (1978,2002), Sabins (1997), Lillesand and Kiefer (2000), Bocco et al. (2001), Campbell (2002), Mishra (2006), Mishra and Kumra (2007), Charlton (2008), Mishra (2010), Mishra and Mishra(2014). The RS and GIS techniques have also been applied in present paper for mapping and analysis of different landform features at two different scales, i.e., macro (basin) and micro (watershed) levels like Ganga-Ghaghara Doab and lower Chandraprabha basin from Eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Methodology and Data Base The remotely sensed satellite image of Landsat MSS (B4 and B7) at scale 1: 1000,000 and IRS P6 LISS III FCC products at scale 1: 50,000 have been largely utilized for small scale and large scale investigation respectively. The remotely sensed data has made it easier to prepare the maps for those parts of the area under study which have no proper means of communication and transportation because of their interior locations and unfavorable terrain conditions. The secondary data were collected from different sources like Pre-monsoon and Post-monsoon ground water table from Uttar Pradesh Ground Water Board, Lucknow, litho-log data from the Office of Executive Engineer, Tube Well Divisions, Chandauli and Mirzapur districts. Base map was prepared by using SOI toposheet. The demarcation of watershed and micro sub-watersheds were under taken with the help of Survey of India (SOI) toposheet numbers 63 O/3, and O/4 (Scale 1:50,000). This could facilitate a better and comparative analysis of different features at micro watershed levels. Observations made during pre field image interpretation in the laboratory were verified through selective field-checks. Final maps were prepared by incorporating information obtained during field checks with necessary corrections. The image was created with the help of digital data by using ERDAS IMAGINE 9.3 software and Arc GIS 10.1 software. 72 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
The Study Area The study belongs at two level observations like (i) macro region and (ii) micro region. The Ganga-Ghaghara macro region constitutes the part of Middle Ganga Plain of Eastern Uttar Pradesh consisting of Varanasi and some parts of Gorakhpur, Faizabad, Allahabad and Mirzapur administrative divisions. It is drained by river Ghaghara in the north and river Ganga in the south. In between these two, Gomati river (a prominent tributary of Ganga) drains along with its tributaries like Sai and many other small channels. The drainage pattern is mostly dendritic in nature and rivers meet at acute angles. The sediment fill of the Ganga Basin is marked as asymmetrical in nature which increases in thickness from south to north. It is assumed that the alluvial fill in the northern piedmont zone is 3-8 km thick and decreasing to about 0.5-1.0 km in the central part and a few hundred to tens of metres thick further south (Sastri et al, 1971).The region is mostly homogeneous in nature whereas local depressions and palaeochannels create the local level undulation. The micro level study area, i.e., Lower Chandraprabha basin constitutes the major portion of southern Chandauli district and some eastern most part of Mirzapur district. It accounts lower parts of two watersheds of India such as GHGT012 and GHGT013 ( CGWB,1990). Identification and delineation of basin were attempted through Survey of India (SOI) toposheets at a scale of 1:50,000, satellite data (Geocoded FCC) and field observations. Toposheet provides spatial location and extent of drainage network, arrangement of contours and spot heights while satellite data facilitates for updating the information related to water bodies, canals, drainage etc. Due to homogeneous terrain, it was very difficult to delineate boundary of micro watershed in a leveled plain but it was attempted with the help of canal networks and their nature of flow, local drains and spot heights available in the area under study. Geologically, the area under study belongs to Gangetic alluvium. The deposition of alluvium is considered to occur during Quaternary age. The older alluvium of Ganga valley forms slightly elevated land surface while newer alluvium generally occupies the lower elevation and is restricted to the flood zones of the present day rivers. It is believed that such deposits belong to the Middle to Upper Pleistocene age (Krishnan, 1960) (Table 1).
Table 1: Generalized Stratigraphic Sequence in Gangetic Alluvium Group System Series Lithology Water Bearing Properties
Quaternary Upper Pleistocene Newer alluvium Sand in different Coarse sediments to Recent grades, silt and yield moderate to clay abundant Middle to Lower Older alluvium Clay, clay with Kanker Pleistocene silt, fine, medium and coarse grained sand Unconformity Source: Krishnan, 1960 NO. 2 GEOSPATIAL TECHNIQUES IN WATERSHED LEVEL ANALYSIS OF LANDFORM 73
PLATE I: LANDSAT MSS BAND 7
PLATE II: LANDSAT MSS BAND 4 74 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
PLATE III: Palaeochannel (PC) of Ghaghara river near Barahalganj. (Source: Google Earth)
PLATE IV: Palaeochannel (PC) of Ganga river near Varanasi. (Source: Google Earth) NO. 2 GEOSPATIAL TECHNIQUES IN WATERSHED LEVEL ANALYSIS OF LANDFORM 75
The analysis of litho-log data clearly indicates the nature and characteristics of alluvium in Lower Chandraprabha basin. The alluvium is composed of clay, sand, Kankar and their mixtures in varying sizes and proportions. The succession and thickness of the beds vary from one place to other. Majority of tube well logs indicate that clay has been found at the surface followed by clay with Kankar. In general, medium and coarse sand beds, either alone or association with morrum / sandstone, occur at relatively greater depth below the ground whereas clay beds alone or in association with fine sand or Kankar, predominate at shallow depth.
Results and Discussion The small scale analysis of geomorphic features in Ganga-Ghaghara Region is mostly based on the image interpretation using techniques of Visual Image Processing (VIP). For this purpose, the Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) Band 4 (Blue Band) and Band 7 (Infrared Band) along with Google Earth (sub set of sample sites) images were taken into consideration. Infrared band provides a very clear information about soil moisture and water bodies. Because of this fact, geomorphic features like perennial rivers, new floodplain, old floodplain, palaeochannels, ox-bow lakes, local depressions, active shifting in river courses, point bars, channel bars, meander belt deposits have easily been identified through Landsat MSS B-7. These features are mostly noted on image. On the other hand, image of blue band (B-4) is not so promising for geomorphological information to be extracted in detail. Although, the active channels are not so clearly visible on B- 4 but interpretation of this image can efficiently be done for mapping old floodplain zones of different hierarchy. As a matter of facts, there are two types of old floodplain (OFP) that can clearly be marked on B-4 image like OFP type I and OFP type II depending on the tonal variations caused by variation in Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) features. Actually LULC is largely controlled by surface materials and availability of ground/surface water resources which may be reflected by the nature of alluviums brought by rivers in due course of time (Plate: I-IV and Fig.1). The large scale analysis of geomorphic features of Lower Chandraprabha basin has been attempted by satellite image interpretation at scale 1:50,000 . In this context, the Visual Image Processing (VIP) of IRS P6 LISS III FCC product has supported a great deal of information to be extracted for different geomorphic features of study area. These features are: new floodplain (NFP), old floodplain (OFP- types I,II,III), natural levee, back swamp, local depression, palaeochannels, residual hills, pediment. The characteristics of these geomorphic features in Lower Chandraprabha Basin can be explained as below (Fig.1, Tables 2 and 3): Floodplains are formed by the processes that are active both within the channel of the parent stream and during overbank flow. There are two processes like lateral accretion and vertical accretion who are involved in the formation of such plain. The lateral accretion takes place within the channel by movement of relatively coarse bed load and formation of bars while vertical accretion occurs on the floodplain surface due to deposition of finer material from the suspended load during overbank flow (Marriott, 2004). The floodplain can broadly be classified as (i) macroform and (ii) mesoform and (iii) microform (Marriott, 2004). The floodplain as a whole is considered as a macroform whereas component parts of the channel like bar forms, levees, crevasse channels, backswamps and oxbow 76 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Fig. 1 lakes are accounted under mesoforms. Microform features are the small scale structures such as riples dunes, shrinkage, cracks etc. Floodplain in the study area is mostly flat and located in about parallel mode of the two perennial rivers like Chandraprabha and Garai. It can be divided in two parts as (i) active floodplain or new floodplain (NFP) and (ii) old floodplain (OFP). The active floodplain (1.07 per cent area) is the area which is affected by annual flood during highest water discharge in rainy season. It is marked in a strip attached to both sides of Chandraprabha and Garai rivers consisting of two micro watersheds like SWC3(1.20 per cent) and SWGe (1.83 per cent) respectively. The geologic formation consists of fine to medium sand, silt and clay. It can easily be detected on satellite imagery by dark red tone and smooth texture due to intensive cultivation. Very NO. 2 GEOSPATIAL TECHNIQUES IN WATERSHED LEVEL ANALYSIS OF LANDFORM 77 Prospect (bgl) 5.08 Good PM AM Depth in metre Ground Water Condition Water Ground and 12.33 10.59 to Good gravel medium sand, clay with kankar 9.5 / Lithology ater logging ery good ery good ery goodery Sand, silt or 3.51 to 0.86 togood Very cultivation Mod. to good cultivation Land use Land cover Settlementcultivation Fine to to good Very Large Medium Mod.cultivation, Small W Small V Size Small V Small V Small to Indefinite Indefinite Small Shape exture Smooth Indefinite medium medium Coarse Linear Smooth Indefinite Smooth to Smooth Indefinite Coarse Cur. gray Coarse mixed Coarse Indefinite dark mix red water logging red cultivation to dark red red cur. cultivation red cultivationLight clay Litho-log Data from Tube Well Division, Chandauli and Mirzapur Districts. Well Tube Litho-log Data from OFP – Old Flood Plain, NFP New LD Local Depression, PC- Palaeo Channel,BS-Back Swamp, NL- Natural AM-Post-monsoon Levee, PM-Pre-monsoon, i)Author. Image Processing (VIP) of Satellite Imagery done by Visual ii) Board, Lucknow. Water Pre-monsoon and Post-monsoon ground water table from Uttar Pradesh Ground iii) LD Black OFP -II Gray OFP -III Dark PCBS dark Very Dark red OFP - Idark Very NFP Very Hydrogeo- morphicUnit Tone T Table 4.1: Image Characteristics and Ground Water Condition of Hydrogeomorphic Units in Lower Chandraprabha Basin Units in Lower Condition of Hydrogeomorphic Water 4.1: Image Characteristics and Ground Table Source: 78 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 good water potentiality has been marked in this zone. Thickness of alluvium is greater in northern lower courses of Chandraprabha and Garai rivers than their southern upper parts. Because of this facts, NFP in lower parts contain suitable sites for successful operation of hand pumps and tube wells. Natural levee, back swamp and paleochanels are visualized in this unit. The old floodplain (OFP) unit has been marked on the major portion of the basin covering 35.42 per cent area of the basin as a whole extended in two micro watersheds like 97.20 per cent area of CWC3 and 64.84 per cent area of SWGe micro watersheds.. The depth of ground water varies from 3.51 to 12.33 mbgl (Pre-monsoon period) and 0.86 to 10.59 mbgl (Post-monsoon period). It is further subdivided in three groups as OFP -I, II and III based on the local variation in their configuration, soil characteristics, land use / land covers (LU/LC) etc.. The nature of sediments brought by parent streams vary from place to place and that have also affected the human habitats. OFP-I features are prominently marked on the larger portion (16.90 per cent) of lower Chandraprabha basin observed in two micro watersheds of SWC3 (47.03 per cent) and SWGe (30.67 per cent). It is marked in a belt extending from north to the southern margin of hills. Ground water occurrence is very good to good and is very suitable for installing hand pumps and tube wells. Very good cultivation is noted in the areas covered by OFP-I because of fertile soils, good to very good ground water and facility of canal networks. On satellite image these areas are well delineated by very dark to dark red tones, smooth to medium textures. OFP-II features (12.10 per cent covered area) are located generally at far distance from the channels noted only in two micro watersheds like SWC3(27.27 per cent) and SWGe (24.65 per cent). It is differentiated from old floodplain-I by gray mixed red tone and coarse texture on satellite image due to high soil moisture content and water logging caused by canal seepage and insufficient drains to flush out rain water. Areas covered under OFP-II are characterized with moderate to good cultivations as well as very good ground water prospect. The OFP-III (6.42 per cent covered area) shows slightly lower surface than the OFP-II and often suffers water logging problem by rainwater. It is marked by dark gray mixed with red tones and coarse texture on satellite imagery. OFP-III is mainly found in eastern and north- western parts and a small patch in central part of lower Chandraprabha basin particularly in SWC3(22.90 per cent) and SWGe (9.52 per cent). Very good ground water prospect may be noted in this region with moderate to poor cultivation. Some minor features of study area are marked as local depression (0.12 per centarea), pediment (0.07 per cent area) and structural hill (0.03 per cent area). There are three prominent local depressions known as Tal denoted near the villages of Gauri (Chandrakha Tal ), Pirkhir (Katwa Tal ) and Barisalahpur (Baraila Tal ). Major portion of these Tals are captured by local villagers who utilize these lands for cultivation. They are filled with water during rainy season and sometimes are over flown in the form of flood during heavy rain. After rainy season, when the beds of these Tals become dry, very good cultivation especially of wheat is practiced. The palaeochannels are mainly observed in the northern portion of the study area especially after joining of Garai river with its master stream, i.e., Chandraprabha river. Such remnant of old channels are clearly marked on satellite imagery by serpentine shape with thin dark tones whereas they are not visible in the field by naked eyes. Due to its specific terrain characteristics and NO. 2 GEOSPATIAL TECHNIQUES IN WATERSHED LEVEL ANALYSIS OF LANDFORM 79
Table 3: Micro Sub-Watershed Wise Percentage Share of Area Under Different Hydrogeomorphic Units in Lower Chandraprabha Basin
SW SW SW SW SW SW SW SW SW SW SW Total Ca 1 Cb 2 Cc 3 C 4 C 5 C 6 C 7 Ga 8 Gb 9 Gc10 G11 Basin
O F P - I - - 47.03 ------30.67 - 16.90 O F P - II - - 27.27 ------24.65 - 12.10 O F P - III - - 22.90 ------9.52 - 6.42 Total OFP - - 97.20 ------64.84 - 35.42 N FP - - 1.20 ------1.83 - 1.07 LD ------0.35 - 0.12 Pediment ------0.21 - 0.07 SH ------0.10 - 0.03
Source: Visual Image Processing (VIP) of Satellite Imagary and GIS Application OFP – Old Flood Plain, NFP – New Flood Plain, LD – Local Depression, SH - Structural Hill, underlying materials, the earlier river courses are also denoted by their distinct appearance on imagery with dark red tone, linear to curvilinear shapes and smooth texture. The natural levees are ridge-like features that occur in those areas where the channel has stable bank with slow lateral movement. They are characterized with coarser materials of alluvium near the channel. The finer materials deposited away from the channel behind levee is called backswamp. Lithologically, levees have composition of fine to medium sand, clay with Kankar. Some prominent old natural levees are noted near Sikandarpur and Baburi villages marked by light tone on imagery.
Conclusion The comparative analysis of the landform features done at macro (R.F. 1:1000,000) and micro (R.F. 1:50,000) scales clearly indicates that modern techniques of RS and GIS play a very crucial role to identify, delineate and classify the spatial variations in geomorphic features and their actual extent in the study area. But these techniques have certain limitations that should necessarily be followed otherwise the results may not be satisfactory. One should keep in mind that remote sensing can never be compensated with the fieldwork and as such it is not possible to construct detailed geomorphological map alone. The results of the present investigation reveals that the spatial resolution and scale of RS data play a significant role for extracting geomorphological information from imagery . For example, Landsat MSS at scale 1:1000,000 can be very useful for constructing small scale maps at regional level giving visualization of larger patterns but not suitable for minor level features. On the other hand, IRS P6 LISS III FCC at scale 1: 50,000 is noticed very suitable for mapping of micro level variations of features at watershed level having homogeneous topography. The images created through Google Earth are found very promising for detailed study of objects at local level observation. 80 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
References Bocco, G., Mendoza, M. and Velázquez, A. (2001). Remote sensing and GIS-base regional geomorphological mapping – a tool for land use planning in developing countries, Geomorphology, vol 39, pp 211- 219. Brierley, Gary J. and Fryirs, Kirstie A.(2005). Geomorphology and River Management: Applications of the River Style Framework, Blackwell, Oxford, UK. Campbell, J. B. (2002). Introduction to Remote Sensing, 5th edition, Taylor and Francis, London. Charlton, Rosemary (2008).Fundamentals of Fluvial Geomorphology, Rutledge, New York. Chorley, R.J. (1969). The drainage basin as the fundamental geomorphic unit. In: Chorley, R.J. (ed.) Water, Earth, and Man. Methuen and Co. Ltd., Canada. Krishnan, M.S. (1960).Geology of India and Burma, Higgin Bothams (P) Ltd., Madras (4th edn) Lillesand, T.M. and Kiefer, R.W. (2000). Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 4th edition,. Marriott, Susan B. (2004). Floodplain, in Goudie, A.S. (ed) Encyclopedia of Geomorphology, Vol-1, Rutledge Ltd, London,pp381-384. Mishra, Kavita (2010).Remote Sensing and GIS in Mapping and Analysis of Spatial Variations in Hydrogeomorphic Features: A Case Study, Indian Journal of Landscape Systems and Ecological Studies, Vol. 33 (2), pp 771-782. Mishra, Kavita and Kumra, V. K. (2007). Hydrogeomorphological Approach in Water Resource Management in Part of Chandraprabha Basin, Vindhyan Upland, Eastern UP. National Geographical Journal of India, Vol. 53 (1-2), pp. 61-72. Mishra, S.P. (2006). Regional Geomorphic Features and their Significance in Ground Water Resources Inventory Using Remote Sensing, National Geographical Journal of India, Vol. 52 (1-2), pp.33-50. Mishra,S.P. and Mishra, Kavita(2014). Geomorphic Features in Land Resource Management, in H.N. Misra (ed), Managing Natural Resources: Focus on Land and Water ,Chap.11. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, pp 157-170. Nag, P. (2016). Indian Geospatial Infrastructures, Bharati Prakashan, Varanasi. Nanson, G.C. and Croke, J.C. (1992). A genetic classification of floodplains, Geomorphology 4, pp 459–486. Rao, D.P. (1978). Utility of Landsat coverage in small scale geomorphological mapping – some examples from India, Photonirvachak (Journal of Indian Society of Remote Sensing) Vo l 6, pp 49-56. Rao, D.P. (2002). Remote sensing application in geomorphology, Tropical Ecology, vol 43(1), pp 49-59. Sabins, F.F., Jr. (1997). Remote Sensing – Principles and Interpretation. W.H. Freeman, New York, 3rd edn. Sastri, V.V., Bhandari, L.L., Raju, A.T.R. and Dutta, A.K.(1971). Tectonic framework and subsurface stratigraphy of the Ganga Basin, Journal of Geological Society, India, vol 12, pp222-233. Stojic, Mladen (2017). Everything has a location, Geospatial World, vol 7(1), pp 12-14. Verstappen, H. Th. (1977). Remote Sensing in Geomorphology, Elsevier Scientific Pub. Co., Amsterdam. Verstappen, H. Th. (1983). Applied Geomorphology: Geomorphological Surveys for Environmental Development, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Received : 14th March, 2018 Revised : 26th October, 2018 NO.Ind. J.2 of URBAN Landscape SPRAWL Systems IN andBARRACKPORE Ecological Studies SUBDIVISION 41 (2) December OF NORTH - 2018, 24 81PARGANAS - 95 DISTRICTISSN 0971-4170 81
Urban Sprawl in Barrackpore Subdivision of North 24 Parganas District, West Bengal
Madhusudan Pramanick*
Abstract : Urban sprawl refers to unauthorized and unorganized extension of city, which is a not only local phenomenon but also global phenomenon mainly driven by population growth and migration in developing country like India. Peri-urban area is usually dynamic and changing.In the present study, an attempt has been made to investigate the pattern of urban growth and urban sprawl in rurbanareaofBarrackporeSubdivision. The task comprises of steps: trend and growth of urbanization, delineation of urban area, identification of the urban city extent and built-up area,and recognition of magnitude and direction of urban sprawl. The nature of urban sprawl is identified by Sprawling Index applying Remote Sensing and GIS techniques. It was found that significant changes have occurred since 1991to 2011 and the same urban sprawl continues towards the Eastern region from North to South orientation. The findings provide invaluable information for urban planners and decision makers for urban planning and sustainable urban growth and sprawl. So, sustainable urban growth management and urban planning needs to take account of the dynamic process of temporal urban change.
Keywords : Urban sprawl, Barrackpore, Peri-urban
Introduction Urbanization is a process indicating growth of urban centres in number as well as population being concentrated these centres.It is a form of metropolitan growth in response to bewildering sets of economic, social, and political forces and to the physical geography of an area, through which, the productive agricultural lands, forests, surface water bodies and groundwater prospects are being irretrievably lost (Pathanetet al,1989 and 1991). Taylor (1953) stated that ‘urbanization is a shift of people from villages to city’. The term “sprawl” has been used to describe the extensions of the urban fringe or the expansion of the city.Sprawl refers to disordered and unplanned growth of urban areas often used to describe the awareness of an unsuitable development (Sudhira et al, 2003).The attribute of sprawl is endless cities, fuzzy boundaries between city and countryside, a polycentric urban structure, ribbons and commercial strips, scattered development, and the fragmentation of open space, among others (Angel, Partent and Civco, 2007).It is mainlydriven by unorganized growth, increased immigration,
* Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, PrabhuJagatbandhu College, Howrah, Email: [email protected] 82 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 unexpected population growth rate and unprecedented economic growth. Environmental problems associated with urban sprawl necessities better techniques to understand the spatial patterns of temporal urbanization for sustainable management of natural resources in rapidly urbanizing regions (Lambin, et al, 2000).Urban sprawl assessment, prediction, and monitoring are very important for the urban development plans.
The Study Area Barrackpur Subdivision is the part of the Kolkata Metropolitan Development. This area is extending from 22°35´30½N to 22°53´20½N and 88°20´E to 88°31´20½E. It is surrounded by the Ganges River in the west, Nadia district in North, Amdanga and Barasat-I C.D. blocks in the east and Kolkata in the south.The region is the part of lower Genetic deltaic plain and located in left bank of the Ganges River. Climate is Tropical Monsoon type and soil status varies from alluvial to clay loam.The present study area comprises 2 C. D. Blocks, 16 Municipalities, 14 Police Stations, 24 Census Towns, one Cantonment Board (CB), 4 outgrowths, 64 Mouzas and 53 inhabited villages. Long urban history, high population growth rate and population density, transport and communication, migration and industrialization etc. contribute to a vivid yet challenging picture of urbanization inthis area. High levels of urbanization have seen in Barrackpur Subdivision (Paul and Chatterjee, 2012).
Objectives The two basic objectives are: (1) to examine the trend of urbanizationduring last three decades; and (2) to analyze the urban growth and urban sprawl in study area.
Methodology The growth of city-extant area has been extracted from administrative map of C.D. Blocks of Barrackpore-I and II and built-up area has been calculated from satellite imageries by using single class classification for the years of 1990, 2000 and 2010. Growth rate has estimated on the basis of city- extent area and built-up area. Sprawling Indexmethod, the ratio between percentage growth of built-up area and growth of city-extent area, has been used for analyzing thenature of urban growth and sprawl. Single class classification for built-up area has been performed in Erdas Imagine 9.2.An overall classification accuracy of 85 % is commonly considered sufficient for a remote sensing data product (Anderson et al. 1976).Accuracy assessment is 87%, 89% and 92% for the year of 1990, 2000 and 2010. Digitization and layout have been prepared in Arc GIS 10.2.Growth of urban population, percentage growth rate of city-size town, percentage growth number of household according, share of urban area to the total urban area have been calculated.Thedifferent cartographic and statistical techniques have been used in Microsoft Excel to prepare chats and diagrams for analyzing theurban growth and sprawl of the study area.
Database The present study has been worked out on the basis of secondary sources. Census data like population, number of household, urban units, urban area or city-extent area etc. are collected from NO. 2 URBAN SPRAWL IN BARRACKPORE SUBDIVISION OF NORTH 24 PARGANAS DISTRICT 83
District Census Handbook of 24 Parganas,and Census of India for the year of1991, 2001 and 2011.The following multi-temporal remote sensing imageries have been used to extract urban built-up areas. Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) images have been selected (path 138, row 44) referred from Google Earth Proin 1990, 2000 and 2010. Landsat images were obtained from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, United States of America. The spatial resolution of these imageries is30 m × 30 m.
Results and Discussion The growth of urbanization is basically through two ways, one is through increase in the urban population and another is through migration.Urban growth and urban sprawl is very high and concentrated along the transport and communication in the eastern region of the study area.Bhatta (2009) found that northern and eastern regions are more sprawling than the southern or western part of the Kolkata.
Trend of Urbanization Industrialization and urbanization are inseparable, which encourages growth of towns and cities along the transport and communication in urban fringe area.As the economic control and administrative powers were captured by the British Capitalist rules, the economic basis of old towns of West Bengal were symmetrically ruined by the colonial rules with the construction of railways, transportation and communications system, the setting up of jute mills along the Ganges of the River at Bhatpara, Belgharia, Titagrah, Naihati, Halisahar and Barrackpore etc. Such a pattern of urban growth left a mark on the post -colonial trajectory of urban development in the state
Fig. 1 Trend of growth of population of the study area. 84 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
(Aggarwal, 2013). Level of urbanization of Barrackpore-I Barrackpore-II block is accounted for 92.51% and 97.85% respectively. Most of the urban units (44.16%) are located in Barrackpore Subdivisions. Growth of rate population is very high (51.51%) in which class-I city has increased 16.66%, Class-II city 50 %, Class-IV and Class-V accordingly 83.33% and 250% in census town since1991 to 2011(Fig. 1). Urban population was 61.11% out of total urban population in Barrackpore Subdivision and 35.01% out of total population in North 24 Parganas District in2011. Population growth rate is very high i.e. 24.35% from 1991 to 2011 (fig. 2) due to large influx of population coming from Bangladesh, who resides thisurban area for searching job opportunity in different industries.High and very high population growth rate (above 50%) is observed in South Dum Dum, and Naihati, Dum Dum (highest, 117.92%) and whereas negative population growth is noticed in Bhatpara (-13.2%), New-Barrackpore (-7.3%), Titagrah (-6.2%) and Halisahar (-4.3%), Kanchnapara (-4.2%) municipality. Urban household was 60% in which 55.63% and 4.37% household belongs in accordingly municipality and census towns (fig. 3). Growth rate of urban household is 39.33% in last decades. It is comparatively less (25%) in municipal area rather than census town (greater than 35 %). Negative growth of urban household is experienced in Titagrah (-8.40%) in 2011. The trend of urbanization is almost static or negative in municipal area due to scarcity of land, high land value, urban pollution, traffic congestion etc.but, it is very fast in census town at peri-urban area due availability of land, low land value, healthy environment etc.
Fig. 2: Growth of urban population in the study area. NO. 2 URBAN SPRAWL IN BARRACKPORE SUBDIVISION OF NORTH 24 PARGANAS DISTRICT 85
Fig.3: Distribution of municipal households in city-size towns.
Pattern and Process of Urban Sprawl Urban sprawl is considered as thepattern of urban land use (spatial configuration of a metropolitan area at a point in time)and as a process, namely as the change in the spatial structure of cities over time (Galsteret. al., 2001). If the sprawl is consider as a pattern, it is static phenomenon while as a process the sprawl is a dynamic phenomenon. Sprawl as a pattern or a process is to be distinguished from the causesthat bring such a pattern about, or from the consequences of such patterns (Galsteret. al., 2001).Ewing (1994) argued that the pattern of sprawl is ‘like obscenity’, the experts may know sprawl when they see it. It is a heterogeneous pattern with less population density than compact segments of the city and spatial configuration of urban land use in metropolitan area. Urban sprawl take place in three major forms (Harvey and Clark, 1965). First, low density continuous development-it is the lowest order of sprawl andleast offensive, second, ribbon development sprawl- it is composed of segments compact within themselves but which extends axially and leave the interstices undeveloped, third leap-frog development- which is the settlement of discontinuous, although possibly compact and patches of urban uses. On the other hand, there are three basic forms of growth of urban sprawl (Angel, Partent and Civco, 2007): (a) Secondary urban core- the built-up pixels are not belonging to the main urban core that have neighborhoods that are at least 50% built-up, (b) Ribbon development- the semi-contiguous components of built- up pixels that are less than 100 meters wide and have neighborhoods that are less than 30% built- 86 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 up and (c) Scatter development- the built-up pixels that have neighborhoods that are less than 30% built-up and not belonging to ribbon development.Urban area expansion starts with a historical seed or core that grows and disperses to new individual development of urban centers.
Fig.4: Growth of Urban Area
The dynamics of sprawlprocess can be understood from the theoretical framework of urban growth process. Herold et al. (2005b) presented a hypothetical schema of urban growth processusing a general conceptual representation shown in Fig. 5. Thediffusion continues along a trajectory of organic growth and outward expansion. The coalescencecontinues the spatial evolution transitions to the individual urban blobs. This transitionphase initially includes development in the open space
Fig. 5 : Temporal process of urban growth and sprawl. NO. 2 URBAN SPRAWL IN BARRACKPORE SUBDIVISION OF NORTH 24 PARGANAS DISTRICT 87 in interstices between the central urban core and peripheral urban centers. As this conceptual growth pattern continues the system progresses toward a saturated state. Finally,agglomeration can be seen as an initial urban core for further urbanization. Therefore, sprawl as aprocess without considering the pattern cannot be characterized. But, it wouldbe considered as a pattern at multiple dates. ‘‘In any event, measuring therespective dimensions of development patterns for an urban area at different timeswill reveal the process (or progress) of sprawl’’ (Galster et al, 2001).
Urban Growth The urban growth defines growth from the perspective of a growing urban patch while the landscape transformation process defines fragmentation type to reduce of non-developed land- covers (Wilson et al. 2003). Wilson et al. (2003) have identified three form of growth. These forms include:(a) Infill Growth: It is the development of small tract of land mostly surrounded by urban land cover. Ellman defines (1997) infill policies as the encouragement to develop vacant land in already built-up areas, (b) Expansion Growth: It has been called metropolitan fringe development or urban fringe development (Heimlich and Anderson 2001; Wasserman 2000), (c) Outlaying Growth:It is characterized by a change from non-developed to developed land cover occurring beyond existing development area (Wilson et al. 2003). The outlaying growth has two types: i) Isolated Growth: It is characterized by a one or several land patch some distance from an existing development area being developed. Forman (1995) defines, it as perforation, which is the process of making holes in an object such as habitat. ii) Linear Branch Growth: It can be defined as an urban growth such as a new road, corridor, or a new linear development. iii) Clustered Branch: It is typically of a large, compact, and dense development (Wilson et al, 2003).
Fig.6: Growth of city-sequential frames of urban growth, the graph on extent and built-up areathe bottom- right shows N,number of agglomerations,through a sequence of time steps (Herold et al, 2005b). 88 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Area of Urban Extension The important tool of targeting development and implemented in the US under the urban growth-management framework is the urban growth boundary (UGB), which is widespread at the city level (Anderson, 1999; Burby et al, 2001). UGB is a spatial boundary that controls urban expansion so that the land inside the boundary supports urban development and outside the boundary is determined to non-urban area. Cho et al. (2008) defines the UGB as ‘a regional boundary designed to control the pattern of urbanization by designating the area inside the boundary for high-density urban development and the area outside the boundary for low-density rural development’.Growth of urban area can be represented by two ways, firstly, urban built-upis to be calculated simply from the classified imageries each temporal instant and secondly, growth rate of city-extent area can be executed by census Hand Books. Then it has been calculatedthe percentage of change inbuilt-up areas and city extent area between three successive temporal instants. The growth rate of built-up and city extent areas have been calculated for 10-yearly period using thefollowing formula:
C − C BGR = i i−1 X100 − − − − − i Ci−1
C − C CGR = i i−1 X100 − − − − − − − ii Ci−1
Where, C-built-up area and city-extent area, i-a specific temporal instant, i-1=previous temporal instant of i. Ci-Ci-1=built-up and city extent growth between two temporal instants. Built-up area considers the urban pixels only (Fig.7) whereas city-extent is theadministrativeboundary which is defined by the contiguous urban landcover class but it includes the non-urban islands within the contiguous urban territory(Bhatta-2009). Therefore, the area of city-extent will be much higher than the built-uparea within this city-extent, because it contains large non-urban patches within it. Growth rate of built-up and city-extent area have been calculated using equation (i & ii) as shown in table 2. These values were plotted in the graph (Fig. 5) and positive trend in both of the city-extent and built-up area are found. The growthrate of built-up area was 1.15% during1980-90,1.96% during 1990-2000 and it has been reached2.10% during 2000-2010.Therefore, the percentage of increase (equation-iii) of built-up area was 69.73% from 1990 to 2000 and 7.21% from 2000 to 2010.On the other hand, the growth rate of city-extent area was 2.68% during 19801-91,10.55% during 1990-2000 and it has been extended 11.71% during 2001-2011. Therefore, the percentage of increase of city extent area was 74.62% from NO. 2 URBAN SPRAWL IN BARRACKPORE SUBDIVISION OF NORTH 24 PARGANAS DISTRICT 89
1991 to 2001 and 9.91% from 2001 to 2011. It may be mentioned that the percentage of increase in growth rate has been calculated as:
GGjj− −1 Percentage of increase in Growth Rate =×100 ———————————iii G j−1
Where, Gj = rate of growth during 2000-2001,
Gj-1=rate of growth during 1990-2000. So, it is revealed that- (I) The city-extent growth rate is larger than the built-up growthrate that indicates the urban sprawl is happing in urban fringe area.
Fig.7: Growth of city extant area from 1991 to 2011 90 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
(II) There is huge gap between city extent growth rate and built-up growth rate. It indicates that growth rate of sprawl or settlement is more dispersion in 2011 rather than 1991 and 2001. (III) Urban sprawl was compact in 1991. Then, it has started along the transport network and it is increasing day after day towards the peri-urban area. (IV) It is expected that the gap between the city-extent growth rate and built-up area will be reduced indicating the compact or less urban sprawl in this region.
Urban Sprawl The urban sprawl refers a situation of unauthorized and unplanned development, normally at the fringe areas.This transitional zone is the scene of urban sprawls, and has been well named the area of urban shadow” (Carver. 1962). Sprawl is often described as the scattering of urban settlement of the rural landscape. Gottman (1961) remarked that “where two cities are close together the intervening rural space becomes peppered with new developments. This kind of leap frogging sprawl outflanks some farms while it covers others.”Although accurate definition of urban sprawl is debated, a general consensus is that urban sprawl is characterized by unplanned and uneven pattern of growth, driven by multitude of processes and leading to inefficient resource utilization. Sprawling Index is one of the importantmethodsto measure the magnitude of urban sprawl in any urban area based on growth of city-extent area and growth of built-up area (equation-iv). Shannon’s entropy method is widely used to measure the degree of spatial concentration or dispersion of a geographical variable among zones (Theil, 1967; Thomas, 1981). Sprawling Index is the easiest and understandable method for analyzing of urban sprawl and growth (Fig. 7).The sprawl is therelative rather than an absolute characterization of an urban landscape. Thus,relative measure can be used to compare a single city at two points in time to determine whether it is more sprawling or less sprawling comparing two cities to determine for urban sprawl analysis.The formula is given below:
BGR Sprawling Index (SI) = ——————————————iv CGR
Where, BRG – Built-up Growth Rate, CGR-City-Extent Growth Rate The Sprawling Index (SI) value ranges from zero to one. Less sprawling index indicates dispersed or more urban sprawl and high sprawling index represents compact or less urban sprawl.Urbansprawling index and distribution of urban settlement are inversely proportional.The Sprawling Index is categorized in three forms. I) High Sprawling Index: This SI value extends from 0.6 to 1.0 indicates the compact or less sprawling distribution of urban settlement. NO. 2 URBAN SPRAWL IN BARRACKPORE SUBDIVISION OF NORTH 24 PARGANAS DISTRICT 91
II) Medium Sprawling Index: It lies between from 0.3 to 0.6 indicates moderate sprawling of urban settlement.Sprawling Index (SI) was 0.429 in 1991 that was moderate or comparatively highdistribution of urban settlement happed urban municipal contiguous area. III) LowSprawling Index: It lies between from 0.0 to 0.3 indicates high sprawling or dispersed or less compact.SI was 0.185 in 2001 and 0.175 in 2011 that represents high sprawlor dispersed distribution of urban settlement in the last decades.
Table1: Urban Sprawling Area along the Road Networks
Road Sprawling Area
Barrackpore-Kalyani Expressway Jetia, Binja, JadunathBati, Rajendrapur, Kultala, Bijaynagar, Mandalpara, Ramohonpally, Paltapara, Patulia, Arabinda Pally, Ruiya, Muragacha, Teghari, etc. Kanchnapara-Haringhata Road Nagdha, Palashi, Manpur, Kampa, Charapol, Dhankal, Sarodapalli, Hatikandha, Mondauri etc. Nahati-Habra Road Talikhala, SahebKolony, Mamadpur, Kultala, Dogachia, Bhabagachhi etc. BarrackporeMainRoad-Kolkata or Wireless Gate, Mohonpore, , Talepara, Kanthalia, Sewli, Barrackpore-Barsat Road Chapuria, Debpukur, ChhotaKanthalia, Telenipara, etc. Sodepur-Barasat Road Talbanda, Finga, Boardghar etc. Nilganj Road Nilganj, Iwaripur, Dopere, Surjyapur, etc.
Source: Primary Survey, 2011
The maximum urban sprawling has been occurred in between two important transportation and communication roads namely Braackpore-Trunck Road and Barrackpore-Kalyani Expressway. Road crossing and connecting node plays a significant role for urban sprawling in the study area. Pattern or geometry of urban sprawl is basically linear orrectangular in North-South and West-East direction in peri-urban.
Sustainable Development ofUrban Sprawl Frenkel (2004) has reviewed several existing tools for the control of urban growth and sprawl. It includes- exclusive agriculture zoning (Coughlin 1991)-restrain the conservation of farmland, green belts (Longley et al, 1992), annexation (Alterman, 1997)-protecting agricultural land by preventing open spaceinside city, purchase of development rights (Hadly, 2000)- the landowners sell their rights to develop land to the municipality for a limited number of years, land purchase by the government(Hollis and Fulton, 2002), - the government purchases the land forpreserving open space and farmland and, lastly another important tool regarded the targeting of development and implemented in the US under the growth-management framework is the urban growth boundary (UGB), which is widespread at the city level (Anderson, 1999; Burby et al, 2001). It is necessary to take different policies or strategies for sustainable urban sprawl. 92 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
(I) Protection of open spaces: Open spaces would have high value land rentfor changing land uses pattern.It is used for park, playground, recreational place and urban greenery. (II) Urban Agricultural Zone:This land is basically located at peri-urban area where it should be reserved only for agriculture purpose for supplying fresh vegetable, fish and milk after short distance and time. (III) Protection ofUrban Vegetation: Existing vegetation has to be preserved as well as creates urban green belt in vacant and open land in urban and peri-urban area. (IV) Urban WetlandsManagement: Wetlands in urban area is the heart of the city. It would be properly maintain for living of urban dwellers. (V) Vertical Urban Growth:Vertical urban growth will reduce urban sprawl. Hence, vertical urban growth should be accepted instead of horizontal urban growth.
Fig.8: Growth of urban built-up area during1991 to 2011 NO. 2 URBAN SPRAWL IN BARRACKPORE SUBDIVISION OF NORTH 24 PARGANAS DISTRICT 93
(VI) Smart Growth Policy: It helps torecognize compact pattern of development and redevelopment built up area in a city. (VII) Preservation of Urban Heritage: Historical Places, ancient architectures, holy places, old heritage buildings or houses should be preserved for future generation to know about urban architectures. (VIII) Control Urban Migration:Rural to urban migration happens continuously due to pull factors in urban area. Hence, urban amenities should be introduced in urban contiguous rural area. (IX) Control on Transportation: Public transport should be more used by the people instead of private vehicles. More taxation and toll gate is the other solution to reduced private travel. (X) Identify urban boundaries: Urban boundaries of cities should be identified and not should be extended edge of the urban areas. Table 2: Growth of City-extent area and built-up area
City Extent Built-Up Area Year Urban City- Percentage Built-up Percentage Area Difference Exten of increase Built- Growth of increase Spraw- Growth in growth Up Difference Rate in growth ling Rate (%) rate Area (%) rate Index
1981 197.86 189.9 1991 203.16 5.3 2.68 192.09 2.19 1.15 0.429 2001 224.6 21.44 10.55 74.62 195.85 3.76 1.96 69.73 0.185 2011 250.91 26.31 11.71 9.91 199.96 4.11 2.10 7.21 0.179
Source: District Census Handbook 2001 and 2011 and Landsat Image TM ETM+ 2001 and 2011
Conclusion The population growth rate is increased in both of rural and urban sector but it is uncontrolled and unprecedented. De-urbanization or negative population growth is found in municipalities whereas high population growth rate is found in census towns. Industrial area and old residential buildings in municipal area arebeing converted to multi-storied building while agriculture and wetland are changing to built-up and industrial sector in urban fringe area. Urban sprawl is mainly concentrated Eastern part in North-South direction along the Barrackpore- Kalyani Expressway while Western part is in static situation due to Gages River. Growth of urban area is very fast rather than growth of urban population indicates that urban sprawl is happing. It is an urgent need to controlthe sprawl in view of environmental and ecologicalsustainability. Urban facilities and amenities like transport and communication, drinking water, health, education etc.as well as urban infrastructure such aslight and medium scale industries, market and shopping 94 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 places, restaurant and recreational places that create job opportunities andreduce rural-urban migration. Sustainable urban growth should be introduced for future generation that would be ecologically and environmentally acceptable.
References Anderson, H. A. (1999). Use and implementation of urban growth boundaries. Center for Regional and Neighborhood Action, Denver. Alterman, R. (1997). The challenge of farmland preservation: lessons from a six-nation comparison. Journal of the American Planning Association, 63(2), 220-243. Angel, S., Parent, J., &Civco, D. (2007, May). Urban sprawl metrics: an analysis of global urban expansion using GIS. In Proceedings of ASPRS 2007 Annual Conference, Tampa, Florida May (Vol. 7, No. 11). Bhatta, B. (2009). Analysis of urban growth pattern using remote sensing and GIS: a case study of Kolkata, India. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 30(18), 4733-4746. Bhatta, B. (2009). Modelling of urban growth boundary using geoinformatics. International Journal of Digital Earth, 2(4), 359-381. Bhatta, B. (2009). Spatio-temporal analysis to detect urban sprawl using geoinformatics: a case study of Kolkata. In the Proceedings of 7th All India Peoples’ Technology Congress(pp. 434-442). Cho, S. H., Chen, Z., Yen, S. T., & Eastwood, D. B. (2006).Estimating effects of an urban growth boundary on land development. Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics, 38(2), 287-298. Census of India, District Census Handbook, North 24 Parganas, West Bengal Series, 1991, 2001 and2011. Carver, H. (1962). Cities in the Suburbs. University of Toronto Press. District Human Development Report: North 24 Parganas, February, 2010. Frenkel, A. (2004). The potential effect of national growth-management policy on urban sprawl and the depletion of open spaces and farmland. Land use policy, 21(4), 357-369. Gottmann, J. (1962). Megalopolis: the urbanized northeastern seaboard of the United States. New York: Twentieth Century Fund. Hadly, C. C. (2000). Urban Sprawl: Indicators, Causes, and Solutions. Prepared for Bloomington Environmental Commission. http://www. city. bloomington. in. Gov. Accessed in Nov, 2018 Lambin, E. F., Turner, B. L., Geist, H. J., Agbola, S. B., Angelsen, A., Bruce, J. W., ... & George, P. (2001). The causes of land-use and land-cover change: moving beyond the myths. Global environmental change, 11(4), 261-269. Longley, P., Batty, M., Shepherd, J., & Sadler, G. (1992). Do green belts change the shape of urban areas? A preliminary analysis of the settlement geography of South East England. Regional Studies, 26(5), 437-452. Herold, M., Goldstein, N. C., & Clarke, K. C. (2003). The spatiotemporal form of urban growth: measurement, analysis and modeling. Remote sensing of Environment, 86(3), 286-302. Pathan, S. K., Shukla, V. K., Patel, R. G., Patel, B. R., & Mehta, K. S. (1991). Urban land use mapping: a case study of Ahmedabad city and its environs. Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 19(2), 95-112. Pathan, S.K., Jothimani, P., Pendharkar, S.P., Sampat Kumar, D. (1989). Urban land use mapping and zoning of Bombay metropolitan region using remote sensing data. Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing 17 (3), 11–22. NO. 2 URBAN SPRAWL IN BARRACKPORE SUBDIVISION OF NORTH 24 PARGANAS DISTRICT 95
Paul, S., &Chatterjee, K. (2012).Urbanisation and consistency measurement: a study on District of North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, India. Archives of Applied Science Research, 4(5), 2052-2067. Rahaman, M. (2018). Urban Population Growth in the Municipalities of North 24 Parganas: A Spatio- Temporal Analysis. World Wide Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development, 2018; 4 (3), 68-73. Theil, H. (1967). Patterns in Human Geography England, Newton Abbot Ltd. Thomas, R.W. (1981). Information Statistics in Geography; Headey Brothers Ltd, TheInvicta Press: Ashford, Kent, UK, 1981. Wilson, E. H., Hurd, J. D., Civco, D. L., Prisloe, M. P., & Arnold, C. (2003). Development of a geospatial model to quantify, describe and map urban growth. Remote sensing of environment. 86(3), 275-285.
Received : 10th September, 2018 Revised : 30th September, 2018 96Ind. J. of Landscape INDIAN Systems JOURNAL and Ecological OF LANDSCAPE Studies 41SYSTEMS (2) December AND ECOLOGICAL- 2018, 96 - 104 STUDIESISSN 0971-4170 VOL. 41
Status of Micro and Small Scale Enterprises (M&SSE) of Haora District, West Bengal
Malay Kumar Maiti*
Abstract : The micro and small scale enterprises are the premier industry of Haora district. But economic development of the district is highly affected due to the sickness and closure of micro and small scale enterprises (M&SSE). According to the report of Third Census (2006-07) 3380 registered units were closed. The registered units, employment and investment in M&SSE have marked remarkably dwindling figures in Haora district. The registered units, which in 2007-08 figured 2788, have been reduced to 1418 in 2011-12. Consequently in employment generation, there is reduction from 29589 in 2007-08 to 13758 in 2011-12. The field of investment in the said sector has also witnessed a considerable decline from 33882 lakh in 2007-08 to 19254 lakh in 2011-12. That’s why different innovative techniques and skilled entrepreneurial maneuvering are necessary to revive and restore the lost glory of micro and small scale enterprises of Haora district.
Keywords : M&SSE/MSME, Haorah/Howrah, Industrial sickness
Introduction The micro and small scale enterprises (M&SSE) are one of the most important industries of Indian economy in terms of employment generation and strong entrepreneurial base. Former Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, stated “Gone are the days when the business lime light was reserved almost entirely for the captains in the corporate sector and SMEs remain in the shadows. India SMEs business leader now stand proudly on their own feet” (Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises, Govt. of India, 2007). The M&SSE sector continues to play a pivotal role in Indian economy with significant contribution to GDP, employment generation and industrial production in India. Nearly 39 percent of the gross manufacturing output and 34 percent of exports of India are generated from M&SSE (Ministry of Small Scale Industries and Agro & Rural Industries, 2007). In terms of employment generations M&SSE take second position after agriculture. According to Bharati (1978), M&SSE create large scale employment. In equitable economic growth and poverty alleviation M&SSE is an engine (Kumar, 2010). The most significant factor is that the M&SSE provides employment to nearly 60 million people through 26 million enterprises (Fourth All India Census of MSMEs, 2006). But these industries encountered with different types of problems in
* Assistant Teacher of Geography, Bangalpur U. C. High School (H.S.) Email: [email protected] NO. 2 URBAN SPRAWL IN BARRACKPORE SUBDIVISION OF NORTH 24 PARGANAS DISTRICT 97 various parts of the country. The industrial sickness is spreading in the country at an alarming rate (Hari Kumar, 1994). At a seminar on prevention and cure of sickness among SSI units held in 1990 at Hyderabad, it was stated that experience from Kerala shows that an overdose of incentives had a casual effect in turning healthy units into sick units (Planning Board, Report of the Task Force on Small Scale Industries Eight F.Y.P, 1990-95, Govt. of Kerala, Trivandrum, 1994). Subsequently the revival of these enterprises entails innovative techniques and competent maneuvering. According to Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development (MSMED) Act of 2006, definition of micro and small scale enterprises are given below- Manufacturing Enterprises: (1) A Micro Enterprise is an enterprise where investment in plant and machinery does not exceed Rs. 25 lacs. (2) A Small Enterprise is an enterprise where investment in plant and machinery does not exceed Rs. 5 Crore. Service Enterprises: (1) A Micro Enterprise is an enterprise where the original investment in equipment does not exceed Rs. 10 lacs. (2) A Small Enterprise is an enterprise where the original investment in equipment is more than Rs. 10 lacs but not exceed Rs. 2 crore.
History and Development of MSSI in Haora District Haora is the second important district of West Bengal which being located at the right convex bank of Hugli river lies between 22o12/ - 22o48/ N of latitudes and 87o50/ -88o23/ E of longitudes. It is bounded by North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas districts on the east, and south west by Purba Medinipur. Haora had been famous for trade in rice, cotton, sugar in addition to silk, tobacco, indigo, oil, pearls, muslins, copper, aromatic spikenards etc. (Bagchi, 1935). Towards the end of the 17th it century, was well known for cotton cloths, handkerchiefs and the best sugar produced in Bengal (Hamilton, 1744). The riverside above the Howrah had been famous from the 14th century for the sea going trade (Hunter, 1901). Before 1586, Betor was recognized as the place of anchorage of large sea going vessels, particularly of the Portuguese, furthest up the river (Mitra, 1951). The deeper channel of the river was on the Betor side and the Sibpur sand bank, now a part of the mainland, was not formed at that time (Martin, 1837). Such was the back ground before the East India Company consolidated their position in this part of the country towards the middle of the 18th century. Modern industries, then, started taking their roots only to meet the immediate and essential needs of the Europeans who came in India for trade and commerce and the Howrah city was considered as the workshop of Calcutta at that time. The Europeans, naturally, were not interested in the development of the industries or the exploration of the resources of the country for the benefit of the Indians (The Calcutta Review, 1845).The location of the city opposite Calcutta and the existence of the hinterland rich both in men and raw materials, no doubt, led to the subsequent consolidation and extension of the industries. Howrah, besides possessing the headquarters of the district and being the second biggest town in West Bengal, is one of the most important industrial cities in India. 98 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Different types of micro and small scale enterprises have developed here i.e. basic metal products, metal products, machinery and spares, electrical and electronics machine and parts, transport machinery and spares, hosiery and garments, rubber and plastics, paper and paper products, miscellaneous manufacturing industries, food oriented units, repairing and servicing etc.
Objectives This study is mainly concerned with the revival of micro and small scale enterprises of Haora district. Hence the main objectives are: 1. To study the present status of M&SSE of the district. 2. To examine the sickness of these enterprises and find out the reasons of it. 3. To suggest the strategies for the revival of M&SSE of the district.
Methodology and Database This study is an analytical and descriptive one and mainly depends on secondary data. The secondary data have been collected from All India Census of SSIs/MSMEs, Annual Reports on SSIs/MSMEs, Directorate of M&SSE, District Industrial Centre, Haora Municipality etc. Simple Line graphs are drawn on the basis of registered units, employment and investment data of Haora district. Following formula is applied for the percentage distribution of sick/ incipient sick enterprises- Percentage of sick units = Individual/ Total x 100
Findings and Discussion Haora is famous for its MSSE. In 2011-12 the total nos of Registered and Unregistered unit were 55,843.These industries can be divided into four categories i.e. i) Registered units, ii) Unregistered units, iii) Closed registered units and iv) Sick units. No. of Registered units, unregistered units, closed registered units and sick units are 15874, 29969, 26080 and 14980 respectively. Different types of micro and small scale enterprises are in exist in Haora district. No. of units, investment and employment status are given in Table no- 1. From the above chart it is clear that machinery and spare production units is high i.e. 5176; investment and employment are also high i.e. 6728.55 and 40866 respectively. Employment in Basic Metal Product is much higher (47872), than any other industries. M&SSE are the backbone of Haora district. Recently the number of registered units of the district has declined Table-2. NO. 2 URBAN SPRAWL IN BARRACKPORE SUBDIVISION OF NORTH 24 PARGANAS DISTRICT 99
Table 1: Registered Micro and Small Scale Enterprises in Haora District, 2012
Sl. Major Enterprises No. of Units Investment in Employment no Plant & Machinery (in person) (Rs. in lakh)
1 Basic Metal Products 1401 9976.23 47872 2 Metal Product 2589 5147.56 39644 3 Machinery and Spares 5176 6728.55 40866 4 Electrical and Electronics Machine 1965 2948.35 22238 5 Transport Machinery and Spares 514 1443.98 2741 6 Hosiery and Garments 1538 1236.76 11004 7 Rubber and Plastics 762 2955.90 13168 8 Paper and Paper Products 253 489.34 1694 9 Miscellaneous Mfg industries 469 1093.91 3368 10 Food Oriented Units 143 2273.54 1299 11 Repairing and Servicing 1064 571.94 6370
Total 15874 34868.03 1903444
Source: Report of DIC, Haora, 2012
Table 2: Registered Units, Employment and Investment in M&SSE in Haora District
Year No. of Registered Units Employment Investment (Rs in lakh) (in person)
2006-07 725 7944 7987.58 2007-08 2788 29589 33882.00 2008-09 1893 22246 21170.00 2009-10 1601 15810 23297.00 2010-11 1510 14381 13473.00 2011-12 1418 13758 19254.00
Total 9935 98728 118563.58
Source: Directorate of M&SSE, Govt. of West Bengal, 2012
From 2006-07 to 2007-08 no. of registered units, employment and investment in M&SSE of Haora district has increased. After that no. of registered units and employment have gradually 100 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 marked the decreasing trend though investment has traced increasing in flux 2008-09 to 2009-10 and then showed a steep decline. The registered units, which in 2007-08 figured 2788, have reduced to 1418 in 2011-12. Consequently in employment generation, there is reduction from 29589 in 2007-08 to 13758 in 2011-12. The investment in the said sector has also witnessed a considerable decline from Rs. 33882 lakh in 2007-08 to 19254 lakh in 2011-12.
Sickness of M&SSE Sector of Haora District The definition of sickness given by the Working Group on Rehabilitation of Sick Units set up by the RBI (Kohli Committee 2015) is given below - “A Small Scale Industrys is considered as sick when - (a) If any of the borrowers’ accounts of the unit remains substandard for more than six months, i.e, principal or interest, in respect of its borrowers’ accounts has remained overdue for a period exceeding one year will remain unchanged even if the present period for classification an account as substandard is reduce in due course; OR (b) There is erosion in the net worth due to accumulated losses to the extent of 50 per cent of its net worth during the previous accounting year, and (c) The unit has been in commercial production for at least two years.”
Criteria to Identify Sickness/ Incipient Sickness The following criteria were adopted to identify sick/ incipient sick units in the third census.
z Continuous decline in gross output compared to the previous two financial years,
z Delay in repayment of institutional loan, for more than 12 month, and
z Erosion in the net worth to the extent of 50 per cent of the net worth during the previous accounting year. According to the first Census (1972-73) there was 0.84 percent sick units in Haora district whereas incipient sick units and sick/incipient sick units were 10.26 per cent and 10.05 percent respectively. Result of the second Census (1987-88) showed that the number of sick, incipient sick units and sick/incipient sick had increased respectively 1.24, 15.67and 12.64 per cent. Thus, there occurred a growth of sick, incipient sick and sick /incipient sick units 1.94, 20.17 and 15.62 per cent respectively in the third Census (2001-02). The latest Census of MSMEs (4th Census, 2006-07) showed that sick, incipient sick and sick/incipient sick units were 3.62, 34.05 and 20.73 per cent respectively. The total growth of sick and incipient sick units were (3.62-0.84 = 2.78 per cent) and (34.05-10.26 = 23.79 per cent) where as sick / incipient sick unit growth was (20.73-10.05 =10.68 per cent). The above analysis makes it clear that sick, incipient sick units and sick/incipient sick increased rapidly. This is also indicative of the need of paying heed in deescalating the sickness. NO. 2 URBAN SPRAWL IN BARRACKPORE SUBDIVISION OF NORTH 24 PARGANAS DISTRICT 101
Table 3: Distributions of Sick/Incipient Sick Industries of Haora District (All figures in percent)
Name of Sick units (where Incipient sick units Sick/incipient sick Sick unit as per Census there is erosion of (continuous decline units (erosion of RBI criteria net worth or delay in gross output) net worth or delay (among units with in repayment of in repayment of outstanding instl. loan instl.) instl. Loan or loan where there continuous decline is erosion of net of gross output) worth or delay in repayment of instl. loan)
First 0.84 10.26 10.05 1.02 (1972-73) Second 1.24 15.67 12.64 1.40 (1987-88) Third 1.94 20.17 15.62 1.60 (2001-02) Forth 3.62 34.05 20.73 2.91 (2006-07)
Source: Directorate of Cottage and Small Scale Industries, Govt. of West Bengal, 2007
Reasons for Sickness/ Incipient Sickness It is essential to know the reasons for sickness /incipient sickness for better policy formation. To find out the reasons eight criteria are selected (table 6), after that a survey was carried in
Table 4: Proportion of Sick / Incipient Sick Units in Haora District
Reasons for sickness / Total SSI Regd.SSI Unregd.SSI incipient sickness Sector Sector Sector Lack of Demand 47.86 52.54 47.15 Shortage of Working Capital 47.18 60.41 45.19 Non-availability of raw material 4.33 7.58 3.84 Power Shortage 4.00 4.19 3.97 Labour Problem 5.50 4.39 5.67 Marketing Problems 48.20 38.88 49.61 Equipment Problems 7.76 6.04 8.02 Management Problems 7.42 3.88 7.95
Source: Third census, Directorate of Cottage and Small Scale Industries, Govt. of West Bengal, 2006 102 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 registered and unregistered SSI sector. About 47.18 percent of the sick/incipient sick units were facing shortage of working capital, followed by 47.86 per cent facing lack of demand and 48.20 percent facing marketing problems. Strategies for the Revival of M&SSE of Haora District The micro and small scale enterprises of Haora district are now confronting various difficulties. To revive the M&SSE of Haora district some innovative techniques may be adopted, as follows : 1. Stimulating demand: The micro and small scale industries of Haora district have encountered with different problems. The demand of M&SSE will have to be stimulated using varied instruments and channels. For instance, for stimulating demand in basic metal product which is facing a serious problem, a huge number of workers are left, unemployed; one could offer a consumer loan to the employees in organized sector with significantly discounted price of metal product. However, unless market for resale is created, demand may not stimulate. Basically, one is using credit as an instrument to overcome the resistance for consumption among those segments, which have regular income. It has to be done in a manner that the industries are encouraged to find more innovative ways of reducing cost and improving quality. The following measures may be significantly effective in reducing cost:
z Pooling the under-utilized manufacturing capacity: The dissemination of manufacturing triggered by pooling the under-utilized capacity may mark a new possibility in cost reduction as far as cost of logistics and transportation is concerned. This will entail new kinds of portals listing capacities, specifications, turn -around time of an order, proportion of the order value required as advance etc. Commercial banks in the possession of data of such enterprises in different branches may collaborate the creating knowledge network among the M&SSEs.(Gupta, 2009)
z Dematerializing the economy: To diagnose the redundancy, inept shop floor design sourcing and procurement procedures, waste reutilization processes, technological logjam, current units require an energy and material audit. (Bigano A, Sniegocki A, Zotti J., 2016)
z Creating industrial symbiosis: Clusters treated as ecosystem and the use of waste of one unit for the input of another are significant for creating industrial symbiosis. In establishing industrial mutualism, enentrepreneurial role in implementing the opportunities into reality is undeniable. To ensure competitiveness in the market place cooperation in knowledge, energy and resource space, and the development of innovative models of working together are urgent need of the day. Saving of energy will also ensure higher competitiveness in the market place (Jacobsen, 2003). 2. Upgrading technology and skills: Technology and skills of Haora district is quite older than modern time’s technology and skills. A large number of enterprises are facing this problem; in this case production and quality are below standard. That’s why up gradation in technology and skills are necessary to revive M&SSE of Hoara district (Reeg, 2013). NO. 2 URBAN SPRAWL IN BARRACKPORE SUBDIVISION OF NORTH 24 PARGANAS DISTRICT 103
3. Stimulating innovations for new products and services and develop new ways of doing business (Braunerhjelm, 2010). 4. Creating new partnership within the small sector, public and private sector R&D institutions and with thwe grassroots innovators (Bansal, 2008). 5. Adept entrepreneurial maneuvering can be instrumental in reviving the M&SSE of Haora district (Loewe, 2013). 6. Encouraging and empowering women owned enterprises: The M&SSE may fetch potential momentum of growth and development if micro and small scale enterprises owned and monitored by women are encouraged and incentivized. 80 percent guarantee cover under the Credit Guarantee Fund Scheme has been instrumental to the said sector. Women entrepreneurial organizations may be very effective in garnering market exhibition and enhancing sale of products manufactured from the M&SSE. Women taking up entrepreneurship would be awarded 50 percent concession in fees in various courses and programmes offering entrepreneurship. The National Small Industries Corporation Ltd (NSIC) will promote and boost export by women entrepreneurs by assisting them to participate in 25 exhibitions (Ministry of Small Scale Industries and Agro and Rural Industries, 2007).
Conclusion The M&SSE can usher Indian economic growth and development into a new horizon of global competitiveness. The revival and revamp of the enterprises in the aforesaid sector will explore a new promising prospect of progressive economy. This may also pave the way for employment generation and escalating investment in these sectors. More importantly, M&SSE will reinforce and consolidate the claim of Haora district of getting back its previous glory. In a nutshell, it can be concluded that the revival of M&SSE of Haora district will understandably enable the district to converge with the global competitiveness and challenges.
References Bagchi, P.C. (1935). Calcutta and Suburbs, Calcutta, P. 200. Banerji, A. K. (Nov.1972). West Bengal District Gazetteers-Howrah, 188-257. Banerji C. N. (2012). An Account of Howrah Past and Present. West Bengal District Gazetters, Higher Education Department, Govt. of West Bengal. Bansal, R. (2008). Public R & D – Private Industry Partnerships. India, Science and Technology. Bharati R.K. (1978), Industrial Estates in Developing Economics, New Delhi, National publishing House. Final report on Third Census of Registered SSI Units and 2001-2002, (2006). Directorate of Cottage and Small Scale Industries govt. of West Bengal, in associate with Development Commissioner (SSI), Ministry of Small Scale Industries, Government of India Gupta, Anil. (2009). Innovations for Reviving Small-Scale Industries. Indian Institute of Management. Hamilton, Capt. A (1744). A New Account of the East Indies, London, P. 6. Hunter, W.W. (1901). Imperial Gazetter of India, Provincial Series, Vol. I, Calcutta 104 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Jacobsen, N. (2003). The Industrial Symbiosis in Kalundborg, Denmark. An Approach cliner production, in E. Cohen-Rosenthal, J. Musnikow (Ed.), Eco-Industrial strategies, Business and Economic Greenleaf; Shefield. Kumar, H. (1994). A Study on Sickness in Small Scale Industries in Kerala, Ph.D.Thesis Kerala University, Trivandrum. Kumar, N.P. (2010). Structure and Performance of Small Scale Industries in India. Productivity 51(1), 69-90. Loewe, Maskus et al.(2013). Which Factors Determine the Upgrading of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs)? The case of Egypt, p. 288, Boau. Ministry of Micro Small and Medium enterprises, Government of India (2007), Laghu Udyog Ministry of Micro and Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs), Government of India (2011).Annual Report 2010-2011, New Delhi, Development Commissioner. Ministry of MSME, Government of India (2012). Annual Report 2011-2012.New Delhi, Development Commissioner. Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises(MSMEs), Government of India(2007) New Delhi: Development Commissioner. Reeg, C. (2013). Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Upgrading in India. German Development Institute, Berlin.
Received : 10th February, 2018 Revised : 12th August, 2018 NO.Ind. J.2 of Landscape EDUCATIONAL Systems and Ecological ATTAINMENT Studies OF 41 TRIBAL(2) December PEOPLE: - 2018, A CASE 105 - 111STUDYISSN 0971-4170 105
Educational Attainment of Tribal People: A Case Study in Ajodhya Gram Panchyat of Baghmundi C.D. Block in Purulia District
Mrinal Mandal1, Partha Modak2, Manas Karmakar3, Dayamoy Mandal3, Susanta Mandi4 and Debasis Ghosh5*
Abstract : Tribal community in West Bengal is unevenly distributed in forest and hilly areas. In present day, many of them are still deprived of modern educational facilities. The present work has been carried out in Ajodhya Gram Panchayat of Baghmundi C.D. Block of Purulia district to examine the educational level of tribal people taking 557 households as sample from 25 villages using random sampling technique. It is found that the literacy rate was 33.09 per cent of the population. It was also confirmed by the study that the majority of the people were not highly educated; they only managed to reach up to the upper primary level. Of the total surveyed households, 37 per cent people never attended schools. Most of the people were observed to be Santali speaking and prefer to use this language. They live a life of disparity and deprivation struggling with remoteness and poverty.
Keywords : Educational attainment, Tribal people, Purulia
Introduction Education, one of the fundamental rights to everyone, is essential for shaping a creative nation. People gain their knowledge, and develop their skill and character by education. Education helps to generate awareness about social, political and cultural environment and also provides facilities to improve their present status. According to Swami Vivekananda, the purpose of education does not depend on quantity of data/information we contain in to our mind and starts a whirlpool there for rest of the life. Our life should be blended with proper character, life building and man making ideas (Sarkar, 2015). The present scenario of our country indicates that majority of our people cannot get proper education regardless of their caste, religion, language and culture. Literacy 1 Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University, Purulia, West Bengal 2 Contractual Teacher, Department of Geography, Raghunathpur College, Purulia, West Bengal 3 Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, West Bengal 4 Guest Teacher, Department of Geography, Arsha College, Purulia, West Bengal 5 Associate Professor, Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, West Bengal, Email: [email protected] * Corresponding author 106 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 and educational attainment are two important key factors to improve the socio-economic condition of backward groups of any nation, especially for India. It is observed that in every sector tribal people are lagging behind not only the general or unreserved population but also the scheduled caste population in every respect (Sahu, 2014a). Basically tribal people are almost detached from the modern world and live a life of their own. Education is only the instrument, which actually can alter the socio-economic situation of any community and can write new fate by changing philosophy of life and setting up a new goal of prosperity. It was experienced when a baby is born in a family; the family wants to give him/her the best education to empower for the future. In contrast, the perception of a tribal family in the same case is different. For them, the empowerment refers to the access to the land, forest, and water of the community and also to find the way for new substitute option for livelihoods (Ganguly, 2016). In a paternalistic society or nation, women are generally treated weaker and unwise than the men. This notion brings a negative feedback in the process of development. It is better to allow the women to participate in all works equally with men. But, there is a noticeable gap between male and female existing among the tribal people in case of literacy rate and attainment of education. The role of elementary education is believed to be essential for the tribal people for their community development in general and enhance the level of strong reliance to manage outsiders in particular. The government has eagerness to withstand the tribal community with the main stream population in all respects, but in reality they are still lagging behind, sometimes due to their lack of awareness and consciousness (Sahu, 2014b). In the present study we try to observe the situation of tribal people in terms of educational attainment and level of literacy at Ajodhya Gram Panchayat in Pururlia district. The tribal people of Ajodhya hill live at an altitude of more than 500 meter, which is remote, rough in terms of terrain and some parts are accessible. In the present century they have to live a life, which is full of challenges and crisis, of hand to mouth. Deprivation from almost all basic necessities is a day to day event of their life. They have been accepting for decades their piteousness. We think this situation can be overcome forever with the proliferation of modern education among the distressed tribal people.
Review of Literatures A study was conducted by Ganguly, (2016) on tribal education in north east India and observed that physical infrastructure of the remote schools of north east tribal regions should be developed. It is believed that tribal teachers need to be employed in those schools where students are tribal. The teachers of the same community of students could understand the problems faced by the students and may find solutions for them. It is also assumed that tribal students are nevertheless weaker in any case than the other students. Locational remoteness and inadequate consciousness of the tribal people restrict them to enjoy the facilities and opportunities provided to them by governments. Therefore, the growth rate of development is too slow for them. In this situation there is an urgent need for planners and policy makers to allocate more funds for tribal education and socio-economic development (Sahu, 2014a). Another study conducted by Pandurangar et al., (2014) stated that the state government as well as central government have already taken several initiatives for the development of tribal community, but it was seen that many of them are not taking the facilities available to them. In this case, governments must come forward more effectively to make NO. 2 EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF TRIBAL PEOPLE: A CASE STUDY 107 Location Map of the Study Area Location Map of the Study Fig. 1: 108 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 them more conscious and aware so that the tribal people enjoy a decent life. It is also found that due to low level of per capita income, educational attainment and literacy rate of tribes are retarded, and to augment the same, and the teaching-learning process must be done only by the local language to develop the skill of the students and educational attainment (Sahu, 2014b). It is examined that there is no such significant works done on educational status of tribal people of Ajodhya Gram Panchayat of Purulia district. In the present context of globalization, it is tried to focus on those people who are bare to food and education. We find a significant gap of research in this direction and feel this problem needs to be addressed. The study was conceived to understand the status of education and related problems among the people of the Ajodhya Gram Panchayat.
Materials and Methods The work is mainly based on primary database, which have been collected from door to door survey at Ajodhya Gram Panchayat. Collected data were tabulated and basic information of the study area was gathered. We consulted many printed and non-printed materials to meet our knowledge gap to this end. Total household sample taken for the study was 557, where total population was 3182. The technique of sampling was random, and the survey was carried out in the year 2015. District Statistical Handbook of Purulia, 2011 was used for general information and 18th All India Livestock Census, Agriculture Implements & Machinery, Fishery Statistics West Bengal, 2007 was the source of all relevant maps.
Literacy Rate Rate of literacy is an important determinant of social development. Total surveyed population of the Gram Panchayat was 3182, in which 682 (21.43 per cent) and 371 (11.66 per cent) were male and female literate persons respectively. Total literacy rate was found to be 33.09 per cent, which was guite low (Table 1). The situation requires immediate attention.
Table 1: Literacy rate
Sex Population ( per cent)
Male 682 (21.43) Female 371 (11.66)
Source: Computed by the authors from primary data
Language Proficiency It is always a matter of appreciation and advantage for any individual who knows a number of languages. We have to know many languages sometimes for jobs. Here we can see more than 69 per cent people know and speak the Santali language followed by 27 per cent population who know and speak both Bengali and Santali (Table: 2). It is evident from the data that people are more likely to be comfortable in Santali than Bengali and other languages. NO. 2 EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF TRIBAL PEOPLE: A CASE STUDY 109
Table 2: Language Proficiency
Language spoken Population ( per cent)
Bengali, Santali, Hindi, English 102 (3.20) Bengali, Santali 873 (27.42) Santali 2207 (69.35)
Source: Computed by the authors from primary data
Educational Attainment The level of educational attainment is another important criterion to perceive the status of education in a particular area. It is noticed that the majority of the people ended up their education mainly in primary and upper primary levels. Only a very few people could manage to complete their Madhyamik (M.P.), Higher Secondary (H.S.) and collegiate education. No one was found who went to the university level (Table: 3). It is an indication that the tribal people of the area are not coming to the higher education arena. Lack of consciousness and facilities restrict them to come forward. These people of remote area are still backward in respect to socio-economic conditions.
Table 3: Literacy rates (in %) of male and female population in different standards of education
Sex Primary Upper Primary M.P. H.S. Collegiate
Male 282 (26.78) 234(22.22) 114(10.83) 41(3.89) 11(1.04) Female 184(17.47) 122(11.59) 38(3.61) 17(1.61) 10(0.95)
Total 466(44.25) 356(33.81) 152(14.43) 58(5.51) 21(1.99)
Source: Computed by the authors from primary data
Educational Status of the People Here we have tried to understand educational portfolio among the all population irrespective of their age. Of the total, about 42 per cent of male population was associated with education and about 33 per cent never attended school. In contrast, only around 24 per cent females either were attending or attended school (Table 4). The situation is alarming and needs to be addressed properly.
Table 4: Educational status of the people of the study area (Figures in %)
Sex Currently Attended Never Attended Below 5 Total Attending in Past Year Age
Male 392 (24.22) 290 (17.92) 527 (32.57) 409 (25.28) 1618 (100) Female 308 (19.69) 63 (4.02) 658 (42.07) 535 (34.21) 1564 (100)
Source: Computed by the authors from primary data 110 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Mode of Transport to Attend School Ajodhya Gram Panchayat, situated over a height of 500 metre from mean sea level, is a hilly region and people of the area live a tough life. Majority of the people being economically poor cannot enjoy transportation facilities all the time, as the transportation system is not good. A huge number of students (76.43 per cent) have to travel a long way for their schools by walking. No student was found availing bus to go to school. It is quite clear from table: 5 that socio-economic barriers restrict the students to enjoy happy schooling days.
Table 5: Mode of transport
Transportation Type Students ( per cent)
By walking 535 (76.43) Cycle/Motorcycle 165 (23.57)
Source: Computed by the authors from primary data
Reasons for Not Attending School The Government of India has declared the Right to Education Act, in 2009 in which free elementary education is provided up to the class eight irrespective of sex, caste and religion. We found that the majority of the school – age children were not taking the opportunity offered by the government. Here an attempt was made to trace the reasons responsible for school dropout. It was observed (Table: 6) that the majority of the male children did not go to the school as their families would not be able to afford the cost of education as well as the time needs to be spent in school for the same. In contrast, not interested and cannot afford were the two other significant reasons, which were restricting female children from attending school. It is evident that the education is not the matter of priority to the people of Ajodhya as their condition is mostly hand to mouth. They have to struggle a lot to have their livelihoods.
Table 6: Reasons for not attending school
Reasons Male ( per cent) Female ( per cent)
Not Interested 293 (31.30) 403 (33.78) Cannot Afford 398(42.52) 487 (40.82) Need to work 245 (26.18) 303 (25.40)
Total 936 (100) 1193 (100)
Source: Computed by the authors from primary data NO. 2 EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF TRIBAL PEOPLE: A CASE STUDY 111
Conclusion Our study reveals that the majority of the tribal people are illiterate; therefore, they cannot not understand the long term value of education. Of the total, about 34 per cent could only reach to the level of upper primary and the reason being poor economic status of households. Families allow their children to earn for them by doing work. Those who were aware of the value of education, but fail to continue education of their children was because of their low level of income. It was experienced by discussing with the primary teachers of the study area, that the locations of the schools in these remote villages of the Gram Panchayat constranits themselves to serve the students properly. There is an immediate need of proper education, and awareness campaign to change the mind set up of the tribal people. Government should take up more fruitful initiatives for them.
Acknowledgements The study received supports from a number of people. First and foremost, the authors are indebted to the villagers of the Ajodhya Gram Panchayat, especially to participants for their kind help and time given during the survey. They are also thankful to Mr. Krishnendu De, Mr. Gobindo Paul, Mr. Khalid Raja Khan, Mr. Jiban Bandhu Gayak, Mr. Rahul Mahata and Mr. Sumanto Mahata (M.A., B.Ed.) for their continuous assistance in collecting household data.
References Ganguly, L. (2016). Tribal Education and North East India. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Vol. 7 (1), pp. 1099-1101. Government of West Bengal (2014). District Statistical Handbook, Purulia 2012. Kolkata: Bureau of Applied Economics and Statistics. Government of West Bengal (2007). 18th All India Livestock Census, Agriculture Implements & Machinery, Fishery Statistics West Bengal, Purulia District, Part-I. Kolkata: Directorate of Animal Resources And Animal Health. Panduranga, R., & Honnurswamy, N. (2014). Status of Scheduled Tribes In India. International Journal of Social Science and Humanities Research , Vol. 2 (4), pp. 245-252. Sahu, K. K. (2014a). Challenging Issues of Tribal Education in India. IOSR Journal of Economics and Finance (IOSR-JEF) , Vol. 3 (2), pp. 48-52. Sahu, K. K. (2014b). Myths and Realities of Tribal Education: A Primary Study in Similipal Area of Odisha. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention, Vol. 3 (4), pp.01-06. Sarkar, R. (2015). Swami Vivekananda’s Ideas and Philosophy of Education: A Way Out to Promote Impressive Imperishable Development of the Nation. Quarterly Research Journal, Vol. 1 (4), pp. 45-58.
Received : 7th October, 2018 Revised : 12th November, 2018 112Ind. J. of Landscape INDIAN Systems JOURNAL and Ecological OF LANDSCAPE Studies 41SYSTEMS (2) December AND ECOLOGICAL- 2018, 112 - 121 STUDIESISSN 0971-4170 VOL. 41
Economic Status and Housing Conditions of Slums in Kalyani Town, West Bengal
Mustafijur Rahaman*
Abstract : Slums play vital role in changing landscape within urban premises. They are located in vacant lands, beside roads and railways in an unplanned manner. Slum is characterized by a high density of population with a low standard of housing. This is also an adjustment or compromise with the needs of lives to survive in a worst condition. Poverty is an inseparable part of slum dwellers. So the slum population is considered economically backward. The housing condition is the reflection of economic well-being. This paper focuses on the study of the economic status and housing conditions with selected parameters like income level, occupational structure, work participation rate, dependency ratio, house condition, toilets electricity and other civic facilities of slums within Kalyani town. The study has been done by collecting primary data from the selected slums of the municipal area. The present paper also tried to find out the problems due to the poor housing conditions and backward economy of slum dwellers in the town. Some recommendations are also suggested for the development of the slum pockets.
Keywords : Kalyani Town, Slums, Housing
Introduction Slum is a heavily populated urban informal settlement characterized by substandard housing and squatter. Due to rural poverty most of the unskilled village people migrate from rural to urban, and they built their houses in the vacant lands, besides road and railways in unplanned manner. They search for their works in the urban area through which they can sustain their families. ‘Slum’ is characterized by high density of population with a low standard of housing, lack of basic facilities, street light, road conditions, garbage disposal etc. and unhygienic conditions. House is the most important indicators for showing the reflection of economic well-being. Economic well-being and housing conditions both are interrelated to each other. Urban economic well-being is distinctly different from that of rural because there is the difference between rural and urban areas in respect of notable economic structure. It is interesting to study such type of changes to reveal the reasons behind such difference among heterogeneous groups in an urban setup.
* Research Scholar (UGC NET-JRF), Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India; M.Sc. in Geography (2015), University of Kalyani, West Bengal Email: [email protected] NO. 2 ECONOMIC STATUS AND HOUSING CONDITIONS OF SLUMS IN KALYANI TOWN 113
The Study Area Kalyani town has been selected as the study area which is a new planned city located in Chakdah C.D. block in the southern part of Nadia district, West Bengal. The geographical extension of Kalyani Municipality is 88°24′44″E to 88°28′38″E and 22° 59′36″N to 22°57′00″N. There are 20 wards in the Municipality. The total population of Kalyani Municipality, as per 2011 census, is 100620, with the area of 29.14 sq. km. Two wards (ward no.1 and ward no.17) have been chosen in the present study, slum population (Fig. 1) in mostly concentrated.
Fig. 1: Location Map of the Study Area Source: Prepared by the Author based on maps obtained from NATMO and Kalyani Municipality 114 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Objectives The primary and objectives of this study are to examine the economic status and housing conditions of slum dwellers within Kalyani municipal area. These are ditailed act as :
z To find out the economic profile of the slum population of ward no.1 and ward no.17 in the Municipality.
z To create a layout about housing conditions of the people in the slum area.
z To analyze the occupational structure of slum dwellers.
z To identify the significant findings related to housing conditions and economic status of slum dwellers and create a development plan to solve the problems.
Data Base and Research Tools This study is exclusively based on primary data which have been collected using questionnaire. Random Sampling has been taken with 5 per cent of population. Secondary data is used for showing the distribution of slum population of the study area. For showing work participation rate, the formula used is Work participation Rate = (Total Workers / Total population) ×100. The same method is used regarding the male and female population differently, Male Work Participation Rate = (Male Workers / Total male Population) × 100, Female Work Participation Rate = (Female Workers / Total Female Population) × 100. Also, the formula has been used for showing the Dependency Ratio as : (Number of People aged 0-14 years and those aged 65 years & above / Number of people aged 15-64 years) × 100. Maps and diagrams are prepared with the help of GIS techniques using the software TNT Mips and Q-GIS.
Economic Status and Housing Conditions Occupation Structure and Monthly Income In Ward no.1 of Kalyani Municipality, the graph (Fig. 3) shows that income of the slum population ranges from Rs. 1001 per month to Rs. 13000/month/household. More than 37 per cent of the family lies in the income category of Rs. 30001-5000. The lowest income class (Rs.1001-3000) and highest income class (Rs.11001-13000) contain 15 per cent and 9 per cent of the households respectively. Income generation is to some respects related to the occupations they are involved. The economy depicts a diversified occupation structure (Fig. 2). It includes industrial labour mainly in the commodity producing sector, business mostly in the shopping, service mostly as group D staff in SE railway & J.N.M. hospital, daily wage earner primarily rickshaw puller, mason and hawker. In the lower income category (Rs. 1001-3000/month), daily wage earner is a principal occupation, coupled with less paid industrial labourer and in the higher income category (Rs. 11001-13000/ month) the predominant occupation is specialized industrial labourers. And in the middle-income NO. 2 ECONOMIC STATUS AND HOUSING CONDITIONS OF SLUMS IN KALYANI TOWN 115 category, the predominant occupation is again industrial labourers. The overall picture represents that the highest number of workers (52 per cent of total workers) are engaged in the industrial sector and the lowest (2 per cent) in the service sector.
Fig. 2 Occupational Structure of Slums population Fig. 3 Monthly Income of the Slum Dwellers Source: Primary Survey, 2017
Besides, in Ward no.17 of Kalyani Municipality, it in found that income of the slum population ranges from Rs. 1001 per month to Rs. 15000/month/household. The lowest income class (Rs.1001- 3000) and the highest income class (Rs.13001-15000) comprise of 25 per cent and 15 per cent of the households respectively. Income generation is to some respects related to the occupations they are involved. The economy depicts a diversified occupation structure. It includes industrial labour mainly in the commodity producing sector and farm sector, business mainly in the shopping, service mainly as group D staff in SE railway & J.N.M. hospital, daily wage earner mainly rickshaw puller and primary activities (i.e. activities extracting commodities directly from nature) mainly agriculture. In the lower income category (Rs. 1001-3000/month), daily wage earner is a principal occupation, coupled with less paid industrial labour and in the higher income category (Rs. 13001-15000/month) the predominant occupation is specialized industrial labour and service sector ; and in the middle- income category, the predominant occupation is again industrial employment except for some portions of worker is engaged in primary activities. The overall picture represents that the highest workers (51 per cent of total worker) are involved in the industrial sector and the lowest (2 per cent) in business sector (Fig. 2). 116 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Work Participation Rate The survey reveals that how much people engage with their work and earn money for their family well-being. With the increasing rate of work participation, social well-being should be increased. Here both of the surveyed wards of Kalyani Municipality show the work participation rate with the reference of the male and female population. In Word no.1 male and female work participation rate is 61 per cent and 12 per cent respectively. It also signifies that the female work participation rate is lower than the male Fig. 4. Work Participation Rate work participation rate and even in Ward no.17 male and female work participation Source: Primary Survey, 2017 rate (Fig. 4) 50 per cent and 6 per cent respectively.
Family Status on the Basis of Economic Condition It includes APL, BPL and Antyodaya which are the social welfare schemes from Govt. aids for the slum people of Kalyani Municipality. The below table shows in both surveyed wards most of the households belong to APL and few people belongs to Antyodaya. (Table 1) Table 1: Family Status of the Slum Population Family Status No. of Households Households No. of Households Households Ward No.1 ( per cent) Ward No.17 ( per cent)
APL 51 77.27 38 80.85 BPL 12 18.18 7 14.89 Antyodaya 3 4.55 2 4.26
Total 66 100 47 100
Source: Primary survey, 2017
Dependency Ratio Dependency ratio is the number of children (aged 0-14) and the old people (aged 65 and over)in a population as a ratio of the number of adults (aged 15-64). It is a useful comparative indicator of the average number of people that each member of the active or potentially active (i.e. employed) population has to support. The Dependency Ratio aged 0-14 years is 79 and 70 in Ward no.1 and 17 respectively, aged 15-64 years is 165 and 146 in both ward respectively and aged 65 and above is 20 and 13 in Ward no.1 and 17 respectively. So, the calculated dependency ratio in NO. 2 ECONOMIC STATUS AND HOUSING CONDITIONS OF SLUMS IN KALYANI TOWN 117 percentage is 60 and 56 in Ward no.1 and 17 respectively. Thus it is clear that the dependency ratio is high in the surveyed area.
Housing Condition House Types House conditions including the family size is the outcome of flourished economic status. Pucca and multistoried buildings indicate emerged economy, whereas kuchha or semi pucca and monostoreyed buildings indicate a poor financial condition. As the house material condition of the slum population is concerned, it is clear that due to their less income, most of the houses are kuchha in nature and all are monostoreyed. The house conditions vary according to income category. 86 per cent of surveyed households are kuchha, 11 per cent of surveyed households are semi- pucca, and remaining households are pucca. Kuchha houses are built up by the following: the floor is made of mud, wall and roof is constructed with the tin. In the ward no.17, there are kuchha houses surveyed which is 72 per cent, 15 per cent surveyed of households are semi-pucca, and 13 per cent of households are pucca (Fig. 5). Among the surveyed kuchha houses built up is the following: most of the household’s floor is made by the mud and wall and roof constructed by the tali and tin.
Fig. 5 House Types in Slum Source: Primary Survey, 2017
Households with Toilet Facilities The present study reveals the toilet facilities in the slums area. The status of toilet facilities in the slum area is moderately poor. Most of the latrine is kuchha in slums. Its expresses the pathetic 118 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 conditions of the social well-being of slum people. In respect of ward no.1, there has latrine with the 83 per cent of households (Fig. 6), but most of the toilet is kuchha which are 82 per cent household and pucca latrine surveyed household 18 per cent of that ward. Non-latrine household’s person uses the community latrine (Fig. 7). There is community latrine as 19.7 per cent and 53 per cent of households access the family latrine. Besides in ward no.17, there have 83 per cent household’s latrine in that ward, but also most of the toilet is pucca. The surveyed households of kuchha latrine are 32 per cent, and the remaining is pucca. Community latrine is 38 per cent of households, and family latrine is 61 per cent of households.
Fig. 6 Households with Toilet Facilities in Slum Fig. 7 Household with Community toilets Source: Primary Survey, 2017
Persons per Room In slums, most of the households are single roomed system excluding kitchen. And also two roomed system. The consequently higher room density (number of family members residing in a room) i.e.in Ward no.1 the average room density is 3 and in Ward no.17 the room density is three. In the surveyed 100 per cent of the households, three persons live in one room in the Ward no.1 and Ward no.17 both. (Table 2)
Table 2: Households with Persons/Room
Ward No. Total Rooms Total population Persons/Room
1 86 264 3 17 67 229 3
Source: Primary survey, 2017 NO. 2 ECONOMIC STATUS AND HOUSING CONDITIONS OF SLUMS IN KALYANI TOWN 119
Households with Electricity facilities In the Year of 2005, most of the slums have not sufficient availability of electric facilities. In 2010, 30 per cent (Ward no.1) and 44 per cent (Ward no.17) of households having electric facilities. Lastly, in 2015 most of the households have been connected. 50 per cent to 57 per cent of households are joined at present (Fig. 8).
Fig. 8 Household with Electricity Facilities in Slum Source: Kalyani Municipality, W.B.
Households with Material Assets In the slum area, people have T.V, Mobile, Bicycle, Refigerator, Van, Motorbike, Audio-Video System and Radio. In Ward no.1, 48 per cent households have T.V, Mobile in 83 per cent of the households, Bicycle in 60 per cent of household, Refigerator in 2 per cent of households, Van in 15 per cent households, and Motorbike in 6 per cent households, Audio-Video system in 6 per cent of households. Radio in 5 per cent of the households. In Word no. 17 of Municipality T.V (23 per cent of the household), Mobile (94 per cent of the household), Bicycle (87 per cent of the household), Refigerator (6 per cent of the household), Van (2 per cent of the households), Motorbike (9 per cent
Table 3: Household Assets of Slum Dwellers in percentage
Assets T.V Mobile Bicycle freeze Van Motor Audio- Radio Bike Video system
Ward no.1 72 83 91 2 15 6 6 5 Ward no.17 49 94 87 6 2 9 4 0
Source: Primary Survey, 2017 120 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 of the households), Audio-Video system (4 per cent of the households).Again it is seen that due to economic backwardness of the slum population, their material possession is few in comparison to Ward no.1 and ward no.17 (Table 3).
Major Findings It is found that house condition of slum dwellers is moderately poor; most of the houses are kuchha and semi-pucca which are showing the poor scenario of housing conditions. A significant percentage of dwellers are engaged in industrial activities and daily wage activities. Monthly income of the people is not satisfactory. In the surveyed area, high dependency ratio depicts the low type of economic background. Female work participation rate is lesser than the male participation. The trends of electricity in slum area are changing; in the present day, it a stands moderate condition, more than 56 per cent people are getting electricity facilities in the slum area. Most of the toilets of the slum population are kuchha. Around 35 per cent dwellers depend on community toilets.
Conclusion and Recommendations The economic status and housing conditions of slum areas in Kalyani town is moderate and poor. It is found that majority of the slum habitants live below the poverty line. For improving the economic levels and to bring the social well-being, steps have to be taken to create employment.
References Asthana, M. & Ali, S. (2004). Urban Poverty in India. New Delhi: Uppal Publishing House. Basu, M. and Basu, S. (2016). Socio-Economic Status of the Slum in Kolkata: A Case Study of Ward No.82. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science studies, 3(2), 141-151. Dasgupta, B. (1993). Urbanization in India; Basic Services and peoples Participation. New Delhi: Institute of Social Sciences and Concept Publishning Company. Census of India. (2011). District Census Handbook. Nadia district, West Bengal. Clark, D. (2007). Measuring Human Well-being. USA: United Nations University. Retrieved from www.unu.edu Dasgupta, A. (2014). Livelihood Problems of Slum Dwellers and Role of Municipality on Ghuskara, Burdwan. Indian Journal of Landscape System and Ecological Studies, 34(01), 92-101. Islam, A. (2011). A Comparative Study Level of Social Well-being between Slum and Non-Slum Population- A Study on Krishnagar Municipality. Indian Journal of Landscape Sestem and Ecological Studies, 34(01), 357-364. Islam, A. and Tarafdar. (2012). An Analysis of the Morphological Structure of Kalyani Municipality. Indian Journal of Landscapes system and Ecological Studies,01(1), 04. Jha, D.K., Tripathi, V.K. (2014). Quality of Life Slums of Varanasi City: A Comparative Study. Transations Institute Indian Geographers, 36(02), 172-183. Johnston, et al. (2005). The Dictionary of Human Geography (4th ed.). Blackwell Publishing, Ltd. Kumar, R. (2007). A Look at Slum Problems. Retrieved from www.RameshKumar.co.in/a look_at_slum_problems.php NO. 2 ECONOMIC STATUS AND HOUSING CONDITIONS OF SLUMS IN KALYANI TOWN 121
Planning Commision, Govt. of India. (2010). West Bengal Development Report. New Delhi: Academic Foundation. Prajapati, B., et al. (2011). A Study on Availability of Basic Civic Facilities in Urban Slum Area of Bhuj Gujrat, India. National Journal of Community Medicine, 2(3), 383-387. Rahaman, M. (2018). Demographic Structure and Educational Status of Slum Population in Kalyani Municipality, West Bengal. The Research Journal of Social Sciences, 9(10), 146-152. Singh, B. (2016). Socio-Economic conditions of Slum dwellers: A Theoretical study. KAAV International of Arts, Huminities and Social Sciences, 34(1), 1-20.
Received : 4th June, 2018 Revised : 16th September, 2018 122Ind. J. of Landscape INDIAN Systems JOURNAL and Ecological OF LANDSCAPE Studies 41SYSTEMS (2) December AND ECOLOGICAL- 2018, 122 - 130 STUDIESISSN 0971-4170 VOL. 41
A Study of Noise Levels in Jharkhand: A Case Study of Million Cities
Nigar Alam*
Abstract : Noise pollution and related hearing loss is a growing problem of urban world. WHO asserts that over five percent of the world population about 360 million people suffer from hearing loss in the world every year. Noise pollution is continuously increasing in India. It is the fastest growing source of pollution in towns and cities of India. Noise pollution is the level of sound unbearable to human health. It is uncomfortable level of sound which damages the normal human behaviour. It partially or completely destroy the listening capacity of men and animals. It disturbs psychological balance and affects the cognitive domain of man. Motor vehicles and electronic appliances are the main sources of noise pollution even in the residential and medical areas of the cities. The main objective of this study is to know the noise levels of major million cities in Jharkhand. The other objective of this study is to have an account of the noise levels so that the control measures could be formulated well in advance. This study is based on both primary and secondary sources of data. Primary data are collected from selected areas of a city. The selections were made on the basis of the traffic flow, industrial works, commercial activities and the population interactions. The four locations were randomly selected from the commercial, industrial and transport and residential areas. Some of the localities were found extremely high in noise pollution terms.
Keywords : Noise pollution, Million cities, Jharkhand
Introduction India’s national capital city Delhi is rated as the most outstanding city in the world for hearing loss. Noise pollution and related hearing loss is a growing problem of urban world. WHO asserts that over five percent of the world population about 360 million people suffer from hearing loss in the world every year. As per the World Health Organisation Report Guangzhou ranks as the overall noisiest city on this planet. It is a city in south China. The metropolitan cities of India like Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi are the noisiest cities of the world. These three Indian metro cities are enlisted among the top ten polluted cities of the world. Mumbai ranks first and Kolkata second in noise pollution in the world. Delhi is the forth noisiest city in the world as per the citiquiet report. Above all population density seems major factor behind noise pollution. It has been reported by World Hearing Index (WHO). The expansion in electrical gadgets, diesel or petrol engines, household appliances and vehicles have generated high degree pollution damaging human health.
* Associate Professor, AMU. Aligarh, B-26, Medical Colony, AMU. Aligarh 202002 U.P, Email: [email protected] NO. 2 A STUDY OF NOISE LEVELS IN JHARKHAND: A CASE STUDY OF MILLION CITIES 123
Urban population is continuously growing in India. The percent of people living in cities and towns are increasing while the percent of people living in rural areas are decreasing. The industrialisation and traffic density are also growing year after year. Population density, traffic increase and industrial intensity are some of the common sources of noise pollution all over the world. Transportation and industrial concentrations are the growing sources of pollution in the towns of India. Population density is the common source of noise pollution for residential and commercial areas everywhere. The main source of noise pollution in India and the world is transportation. It affects almost each and every segment of human activity such as commercial areas, industrial areas, residential areas, recreational areas, educational areas and even the medical areas. Transportation includes aeroplane, cargo, ships, trains, buses, trucks, car, taxies, motor bikes etc. Transportation and the means of transportation is regarded as the most outstanding source of pollution as compared to the other sources of pollutions. Industries are the second major sources of noise pollution but it is the most intense source of noise pollution in industrial areas and industrial towns.The household appliances such as television, mobiles, mixture, grinder, washing machine are the third significant source of pollution. This type of noise pollution is more severe in residential areas. The noise pollution is also created by generators, machines, motor vehicles and human noise which makes commercial areas as the fourth severe source of noise pollution. Apart from these mid night shows, hotel dance, orchestras, street shows, marriage parties, political processions, religious festivals are other sources of occasional noise pollutions within urban areas.
Objectives The main objective of this study is to know the noise levels of major million cities in Jharkhand. The other objective of this study is to have an account of the noise levels so that the control measures could be formulated well in advance. It is easy to keep the problem of noise pollution in control in small town of the country.
Data and Methodology This study is based on both primary and secondary sources of data. Primary data are collected from selected areas of a city. In this way data from two other cities are also observed. This study is more based on secondary data sources. The secondary sources of data are collected from various sources. These sources are government, semi-government as well as private organisations maintaining pollution related statistics. The four most affected areas were selected from each city on the basis of the traffic flow, industrial works, commercial activities and the population interactions. The locations were observed during day time. The four locations were in the core area of the city and serve as centre of commercial, industrial and transport activities. Apart from these wide sources of literature is consulted in preparation of this work. The study is discussed and presented in an appropriate format. 124 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
The Study Area Jharkhand is one the small state in India situated in eastern part of the country. Jharkhand has emerged as a separate state in 2000. It is surrounded by Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Odisha and West Bengal. It has 79,714 s. q. km areal extent with 33 million population as per 2011 census. Ranchi is the state capital and the third largest city inhibited within an area of 182 s. q. Kmhaving 1.12 million populations. (Fig-1)
Fig. 1 Jamshedpur Jamshedpur is the largest urban agglomeration in the state of Jharkhand. It is the first planned industrial city of India. It is also known as Steel City, Tata nagar simply Tata or Pittsburgh of India. NO. 2 A STUDY OF NOISE LEVELS IN JHARKHAND: A CASE STUDY OF MILLION CITIES 125
Jamshedpur is the headquarters of the East Singhbhum district of Jharkhand and also biggest city of Jharkhand with highest per capita income. It has 13.4 lakh population according to the 2011 census and ranks 36th among the 53 million plus cities in India. It is located on the Chota Nagpur plateau.Jamshedpur was declared the 7th cleanest city of India for the year 2010 as per a survey conducted by Government of India. Jamshedpur was declared the 7th richest city of India in a survey in the year 2007. The survey was conducted on the basis of the percentage of population whose annual income is more than 1 million Rupees. It has been predicted as the 84th fastest growing city in the world during 2006-2020. A major part of the city is run by Tata Steel itself. Jamshedpur has been selected as one of the cities for the Global Compact Cities Pilot Programme by United Nations, the only one to be selected in India as well as the entire South East Asia (Fig. 1).
Dhanbad Dhanbad is the second largest urban agglomeration of Jharkhand. It has a population of 12 lakh population which constitute 53 percent males and 47 percent females’ as per the 2011 provisional census.It has a sex ratio of 908 females per thousand males. Dhanbad has an average literacy rate of 75.71 percent which is higher than the national average of 59.5 percent. Here male literacy is 85.78 percent and female literacy is 64.70 percent. In Dhanbad 10.57 percent of the population is under 5 years of age. Majority of the population are natives of Jharkhand remaining others are from Bihar, Odisha and West Bengal. Besides these Marwari and Punjabi have also settled in Dhanbad.
Table 1: Major Urban Agglomerations of Jharkhand
Name of District City Density Urban Urban Urban Cities Population per s.q. percent percent Percent in Lakhs kms 2001 2011 2021*
Jamshedpur E. Singhbhum 14 8395 51.31 55.50 71.31 Dhanbad Dhanbad 13 5362 52.37 58.13 66.26 Ranchi Ranchi 12 6152 40.36 43.41 67.73
Source: Census report & *projection
Ranchi Ranchi is the third largest city and the capital city of the state. It has more than one million i. e. 11 lakhs population as per the census of 2011. Ranchi is the most urbanising city of the state after the creation of Jharkhand as a separate state. Ranchi city lies on a natural undulating landscape, surrounded by two major rivers on north and eastern. It is also a city of lakes surrounded by waterfalls and forest. It is well connected with major cities of India via rail routes and most profitable 126 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 station in South Eastern Railways. It is well connected with major metro cities of India like New Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata, Mumbai, Bhubaneswar, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Patna. The other urban agglomeration of Jharkhand are Bokaro Steel City one of the leading steel producing centre of India with a population of 8 lakhs and Hazaribagh with a population of about 2 lakhs (table-1).
Ambient Noise Parameters Noise means unwanted or unpleasant sound that causes discomfort and irritation to human beings. Noise pollution thus means unpleasant sound in the atmosphere causing health hazards like sleeplessness, annoyance, stress and fright. The major sources of noise pollution are jet planes, traffic, music played during the marriage parties or other occasions and industries. It is a growing nuisance especially in the cities.Noise pollution is defined as a form of air pollution that is an audible unwanted sound that poses a threat to a person’s health and well-being. Noise has been a source of discontent to the people. Noise affects human health in a number of ways. These include both direct as well indirect effects. Direct effects include annoyance, irritability, sleeplessness, and interference with communication, performance effects, effects on social behaviour and hearing loss and health effects. Indirect effects include increased health cost, decreased property values (especially near railway stations, airports, industrial areas) Continuous or prolonged exposure to noise levels of 80-85 dB or more can cause deafness. Exposure to a noise of around 100 dB can cause permanent loss of hearing power. The standard parameters by the government of India and other organisation has been set(table 2).
Table 2: Noise Risk Parameters in Db (A)
< 66 Safe 66-71 Tolerable 71-76 Low risk 76-81 Moderate risk 81-86 High risk > 86 Very high risk
Source: Banerjee et. al, 2008, L .T
Noise Standards As per the Ministry of environment and Forests, Government of India ambient permissible standards has been set for the noise levels in different establishments during day as well as night times. These have been set under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986 and presented Ambient Noise Standards in India (table-3). NO. 2 A STUDY OF NOISE LEVELS IN JHARKHAND: A CASE STUDY OF MILLION CITIES 127
Table 3: Ambient Noise Standard
Area Code Category of Area Day timedB(A) Leq Night timedB(A) Leq
A Industrial 75 70 B Commercial 65 55 C Residential 55 45 D Silence 50 40
Source: Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000
Noise Levels in Cities of Jharkhand The noise levels in the city of Jharkhand in night times are found below the standard limits. But in day times, all the three cities were found beyond the limit at most of the selected localities. Therefore day time data were selected for this study. Most of the places selected in these towns are found above the limit while others are close to the standard limit. Noise pollution in almost all the three selected cities were observed beyond the limit. The three places of Jamshedpur, three places of Dhanbad and two places of Ranchi were recorded beyond the ambient limit. The Kalimati road area, Mango bus stand area and Jugsalai area were found highly noisy. In the same way Bhartand Chowk, Shakti Mandir and bank Morr areas of Dhanbad were recorded noise polluted. Further two areas of Ranchi namely Upper Bazar and Nawatoli areas were recorded highly noisy (table-4).
Jamshedpur Jamshedpur is an industrial city with heavy and basic industrial set up and stand first in terms of noise pollution. It attracts large number of heavy vehicles from the greater parts of India. The industrial sound coupled with transportation as well as commercial activities produces huge amount of noise in many parts of the city in day time. Howrah bridge area have been found most noisy in day time where about 80 dB day time noise level were recorded. This noise is due to industrialisation, heavy vehicle concentration and commercial activities. Second most noisy place in Jamshedpur is Mango Chowk where 78 dB noise is recorded. The main cause of noise pollution in this area is high degree of incoming and outgoing transportation. This is the main entrance of the city. Apart from these two places, other places of high degree of noise are Jugsalai crossing and Sakchi Golchakker where degree of noise pollution are 77 dB and 75 dB respectively. These two areas are also beyond the standard limits. The main source of noise pollution in these areas are due to the high degree of heavy and light vehicle concentrations. Apart from the above causes, urbanisation and human activities are the other sources of noise pollution Jamshedpur. 128 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Table 4: Average Noise Levels of Million Cities in Day Times in Db (A)
S. No. Location Noise Levels
JAMSHEDPUR 1. Mango Chowk to Bus stand 78 2. Howrah bridge- Kalimati Road 80 3. SakchiGolchakker 75 4. Jugsalai Crossing to Railway Station 77 DHANBAD 1. Bhartand Chowk 80 2. Sharmik Chowk 75 3. Bank Morr 76 4. Shakti Mandir 78 RANCHI 1. Nawatoli 80 2. Siramtoli 64 3. Lalpur Chowk 65 4. Upper Bazar 86
Source: City Devt. Plan of Metro. Cor-Meinhardt,Singapore,Pvt.Ltd. (India Branch)& field observations.
Dhanbad Dhanbad is the second noisiest town in Jharkhand. It is also known as the mining town of Jharkhand. Bhartand Chowk is the noisiest place in Dhanbad where about 80 dB noise level is recorded in day time. Traffic congestion and commercial activities are the main sources of noise pollution in this area. The second noisiest place of Dhanbad is Shakti Mandir area where noise level is recorded 78 dB. The major causes of noise pollution are population concentration and traffic congestion in Shakti Mandir area. Bank Morr and Sharmik Chowk are the other very noisy areas of Dhanbad where noise level recorded in day time are 76 dB and 75 dB respectively. Haphazard settlement, construction activities and traffic congestion increases noise levels in these areas of the town.
Ranchi Ranchi is the third affected city of Jharkhand in noise pollution terms. It is administrative headquarter of Jharkhand. It could rightly be called as residential and educational hub of Jharkhand. NO. 2 A STUDY OF NOISE LEVELS IN JHARKHAND: A CASE STUDY OF MILLION CITIES 129
The motor vehicle urban social activities are the main source of noise pollution in Ranchi. Upper Bazaar area is the noisiest place of Ranchi. This area has been recorded as high as 86 dB in noise pollution. The main source of pollution is commercial activities as well as light vehicle concentration. The second most polluted area of Ranchi is Nawatoli where noise level is recorded as high as 80 dB. Population density, high concentration of houses and traffic congestion are the sources noise pollution in the city. Lalpur Chowk and Sitaramtoli are other places of Ranchi from where noise level were recorded. The noise level of these places were found as 65 dB and 64 dB respectively. The main sources of noise pollution in these residential areas are due to the emerging commercial activities as well as urban traffic concentrations.
Main Causes of Noise Pollution
z Transport Intensity vehicles- buses, trucks, rail, cars, bikes etc.
z Industrialization- with mills and small scale industrial units.
z Urbanization- Hotels, orchestra, theatre, bars, parties etc.
z Commercial establishments- loading and unloading of goods.
z Construction activities such as building construction and machine works.
z Social gatherings- political processions, marriage parties, road shoes etc.
Controlling Measures of Noise Pollution Provision of Adequate Road Infrastructure and Industrial machinery condition as per the norms could reduce the noise pollution to a great extent. The construction of missing links, bypasses and other roads to cater to transport service will help to reduce vehicular pollution. Street parking management, one-way traffic plans, widening of roads, pedestrian facilities, shifting of some of activities such as temporary markets removal of encroachments etc.
z With the improvement in public transport facilities such as providing bus shelters, increase in frequency etc.
z With the widening of roads and improvement in the flow of vehicles, the improvements in transport network, the congestion on roads will reduce leading to higher travel speeds and lower time of travel.
z Industrial norms have to be followed which induces sustainable industrialisation.
z Main social activities centres such as parks, temples, heritage structures should generally be avoided for development of transportation infrastructure facilities.
z Relocation of utilities in the pre-construction stage causing temporary disruption to services. Stacking of construction waste causing interruption to traffic and pedestrian movements.
z Alternate routes and by-passes from the congested areas will reduce the noise pollution level. 130 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
z Outdated and obsolete vehicles are more polluting and noisy. This types of vehicles needs to be removed from the road.
z Social gatherings, political processions, dharna, road jam, marriage parties and religious ceremonies on road should be banned. It reduces traffic flow and increases noise levels.
Conclusions Jamshedpur is the largest and fastest growing town of Jharkhand with high economic inertia. This city needs the route diversification and fly over construction over the Suwarnarekha and Kharkai rivers to minimise the traffic congestion.Dhanbad is second most noisy town in Jharkhand. It is also known as the mining town of Jharkhand. Traffic congestion and commercial activities are the main sources of pollution. Bhartand Chowk, Bank Morr and Shakti Mandir areas need widening of passages. In Ranchi city Nawatoli is located near the city centre. It is basically a highly unplanned residential area. Siramtoli is located adjacent to Ranchi railway station. Lalpur Chowk is a commercial and residential establishments, population density and heavy traffic flow are the main reason of pollution.Upper Bazar is a wholesale market located in the centre of the city. It is a highly congested and noisiest part of Ranchi. The roads are narrow and commercial activities intensely take place in the region.
References Alam N. (2012), Jamshedpur Sounds Unreasonably High in Day and Night’, Indian J. of Landscape Systems and Ecological Studies, Kolkata, pp.257-262 Chauhan C. 2010, Noise Pollution Levels to Be Monitored’, Hindustan Times Jamshedpur ed. Sept11 Rajagopalan R. (2009), ‘Environmental Stress: Crisis to Cure’, Oxford Univ. Press, New Delhi, p-181 National Ambient Noise Monitoring (1989), Network NANMN, MoE, Govt. of India. Ministry of Envt. and Forests (1989), Govt. India, Notification GSR 1063, Dec-26, Jharkhand State Pollution Control Board-jspcb.org Vision 2012-17, Central Pollution Control Board, Annual Report 2014-15 cpcbenvis.nic.in
Received : 5th February, 2017 Revised : 16th July, 2018 NO.Ind. J.2 of Landscape CONTRIBUTION Systems and OF Ecological CRAFT HUBSStudies IN 41 DEVELOPEMNT (2) December - 2018, OF RURAL 131 - 141 TOURISMISSN 0971-4170 131
Contribution of Craft Hubs in Developemnt of Rural Tourism: Case Studies of West Bengal
Premangshu Chakrabarty1*and Krishna Biswas2
Abstract : Evolved from farm tourism, rural tourism is now recognised as multidimensional opportunities for leisure and recreation, especially with the increasing attraction of the crafts hubs, where tourists are visiting in order to experience the making process of individual crafts popular among them as souvenirs. This paper is an attempt to study the functional aspects of rural tourism in ten craft villages of West Bengal appraised by UNESCO with the objective to evaluate the status of symbiosis between craft making and rural tourism. The role of rural women is specially emphasised in this context as they are ultimately related in functioning of this symbiotic relationship in sustainable manner.
Keywords : Craft hubs, Rural tourism, West Bengal
Introduction Rural tourism is emerged as a type of alternative tourism which has immense potential. A number of recreational activities have been introduced in the rural milieu including fishing, skiing, rafting, golf etc., apart from which agriculture, heritage, culture and traditions are utilised as major tourist attractions (Gartner, 2005). There is no doubt, that a quest for peace, rest and recreation encourage rural tourism all over the world (Drãgulãnescu and Drutu, 2012).The promotion of rural way of life to pull the urban tourists is the underlying principal in the functionalities of rural tourism. It is fundamentally an experience oriented activity based on host-guest interaction with wise use of the natural environment as well as local events aiming to the preservation of culture, heritage and traditions (incredibleindia.org). With the application of the principles of distance decay, the distance of a village from city is found proportionate to the rural-specific tourism opportunities (Lane, 1994, cited in Neumeier and Pollermann, 2014). In this context, it is noteworthy to mention that expansion of industrial cities and the consequences of it on daily life gave birth to countryside recreational activities in the nineteenth century. Recognizing rural tourism as a complex multi- faceted activity, ‘rurality’ is identified as the central and unique selling point (USP) for rural tourism
Dr. Premangshu Chakrabarty is an Associate Professor 2 Smt. Krishna Biswas is an UGC-SRF in the Department of Geography, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan Email: [email protected] * Corresponding author 132 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 promotion (OECD, 1994). The daily hazards of hectic urban professions generate a flow of tourists from urban to rural environment. Accommodating tourist at farm or home-stay is recognised as the conventional form of rural tourism, for which the term rural tourism was previously used as synonymous to farm tourism (James, 2012). However, the present paradigm of rural tourism incorporates a number of newer motivations among which making of rural crafts generate maximum attention. In the context of such paradigm shift, creativity and authenticity are keys for satisfying the demand of consumers (Sasu and Epuran, 2016). Addressing the research gap on gender involvement, the present study aims to evaluate the status of rural tourism in UNESCO appraised rural craft hubs of West Bengal.
Background of the Study The handicrafts of West Bengal appreciated as souvenirs by the tourists could be genetically classified as:
z Wooden and other vegetal products: Wood Carving, Wooden Doll and Idol, Coconut Shell Carving, Cane and Bamboo Work, Grass Craft- Sitalpati, Madurkathi, Shola Pith, Lac Dolls and Jewellery, Jute handicrafts etc. z Soil made products: Terracotta and Clay artefacts. z Product associated with animal: Leather products, Horn-Bone crafts etc. z Metal work: Dokra, Dhalai Kansa, Sherpai-Measuring Bowls, Beaten Silver Engraving, Copper made jewellery etc. z Paintings: Drawn as Patachitra, Dashavatara Ganjifa etc. z Mask: Gambhira or Gomira/ Chau z Weaving and Textile: Carpet, Kantha stitch, Handloom products, Batik etc. z Conch Shell carving z Stone carving Among the aforesaid crafts, only a few (e.g. Dokra, Chau Mask etc.) are highly localised and become established themselves as geographical identity for that particular area in terms of the flow of traditional knowledge, creativities and authenticities transferred from generation to generation through oral tradition (Sen, 1994). Under such circumstances, most of these crafts have the immense potentialities of obtaining the official status of Geographical Indication (GI), which is the international recognition of area specific credentials for the artisans. A number of initiatives have been taken by different governmental and non-governmental agencies for serving the interest of nearly 5lakh artisans of West Bengal. The prime objective is to restore about 200 types of crafts by providing technical supports to the artisans in the form of product diversification, design development and marketing (MSME, 2015). A number of Self Help Groups (SHGs) have also been created to empower the artisans. Permanent Urban Hut is one of the planning outcomes, usually established in tourist areas and different craft fairs and festivals are NO. 2 CONTRIBUTION OF CRAFT HUBS IN DEVELOPEMNT OF RURAL TOURISM 133
Fig. 1: The Study Areas 134 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 organised regularly. A new paradigm was initiated in the year 2013, when the Department of Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises & Textile (MSME&T) Government of West Bengal in collaboration with UNESCO (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation) identified eleven villages as practitioner of ten outstanding crafts to develop them as exemplary as craft hubs (Map 1). For capacity building and effective marketing, public-private partnership (PPP) model is adopted in which WBKIB (West Bengal Khadi and Village Industry Bureau) as a government agency and an organisation appointed by UNESCO named Banglanatak dot com started acting as the key players.
Materials and Methods A handicraft centric rural tourism model with emphasis on organising regular fairs is very much appreciated by UNESCO and has been documented as Responsible Cultural Tourism. It is particularly the opportunity of in situ marketing of rural crafts contributes to backward area development. The gender empowerment is the subsequent effect since maximum stakeholders of most of the village craft making are women. The objectives of the present study include: 1. To highlight the status of community participation in craft hub tourism of West Bengal with special reference to the involvement of women. 2. To specify the possibilities and hindrances in order to initiate sustainable rural tourism in craft hubs of West Bengal.
Fig. 2 : Ethnographic Approach to Trace Craft-Rural Tourism Interplay Source: Prepared by the Authors
In order to fulfil the objectives of the study, repeated field surveys have been conducted using open ended and semi-structured questionnaires apart from interviewing and application of NO. 2 CONTRIBUTION OF CRAFT HUBS IN DEVELOPEMNT OF RURAL TOURISM 135 ethnographic methods of survey involving artisans (Fig-1). In this connection, Focused Group Discussion (FDG) is adopted since it turned out to be a preferred choice among social science researchers for collection of primary data (Purushotham and Paani, 2016). An inductive approach has been undertaken in which the researcher interacts with artisans in their habitat and acquires data on a. The legacy of a specific craft; its emotional attachment with the community b. Access to common property resources in connection with craft making c. Access to funding agencies and financial constraints d. Level of adaptation of changing skill and technologies e. Exploration of new market f. Perception about their experience with PPP model of development g. Perception of credibility of governmental agencies extending supports to them h. Level of women empowerment in artisan families i. Rural tourism potentials For each and every crafts, its artisans are conceived as separate homogenous groups. From feedbacks of each of the focussed groups, a few hypotheses on problems and prospect of individual crafts have been generated and structured schedules have been prepared to obtain both quantitative and qualitative data for further analysis. Nature of the study is thus a combination of empirical and a phenomenological approach to derive the opportunities and challenges of rural tourism associated with the following crafts: 1. Chau Mask: Chau mask is an integral part of Chau dance of Purulia, an acrobatic folk dance form already famous worldwide. To represent the mythological characters, the dancers use different kind of decorated masks. The Sutradhar community of Charida village of Purulia District is found engaged in this craft making through generations. Presently, the artisans prepare miniatures of the divine masks along with other mask to sell as home decorative items. It is evolved as a family craft where the entire family is involved in craft making. Women of the craft families help the male artisans in mask making, mainly in the preparation of raw materials, colouring etc. 2. Clay Doll: Clay Doll making is an age old tradition of West Bengal in which both male and female members of the artisan family are engaged in giving shape to the clay moulds. Apart from popular human figures, the idols of god and goddess, figurines of animals, vegetables and fruits etc. among the items attracting a tourist. 3. Dokra: The history of Dokra dates back to Indus valley civilization and it is identified as the oldest technique of non-ferrous metal casting found in human history (Mukherjee, 136 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
2016). Brass and bell metal scrap, wax wood resin, gum, tar, mustard oil, coal and soil of a particular type locally known as Nena are among the raw materials used by the Dokra artisans. The primitive identity, ethnic nature and rustic essence of this complex craft enamour the art connoisseurs of the world. This craft making requires complete family involvement. Women are appreciated in making of Dokras for their artistic skills as found in study villages. 4. Gomira Mask: It is wooden mask of unique quality, primarily utilised as the costume of the traditional Gomira dance (a religious dance ritual in worshipping Lord Shiva). Originally, the Gomira/ Gombhira/ Mukha mask making was seasonal (during the harvesting period) activity of village folk. With rural tourism, there arises increasing scope of marketing it as tourist souvenir. The dance itself and the craft making are however, both male dominated. The masks are prepared for dance characters, which are supernatural and superhuman in nature. 5. Kantha: Kantha is a Bengali word which stands for embroidered quilt. Combining the layers of old saaris (traditional cloth used by Bengali women), a Kantha is stitched for domestic uses. This indigenous rural craft is exclusively the contribution of rural woman which is manifestation of their skill and aesthetic sense. A Kantha is used to narrate the pictorial stories through the intricate stitches. With rural tourism, this unique stitching art is manifested on souvenir products like bags, cushion cover, bed cover and even on modern garments. 6. Madurkathi: Madurkathi is a popular floor mat of Bengal prepared from a rhizome-based plant Cyperus corymbosus, which is also locally known as Madurkathi. Women in high number are engaged in such mat weaving. Most of them contribute hand woven mats while a few artisans prefer to use handloom. The modern product diversification is manifested in making multi used baskets, wall hanging and other lifestyle products. 7. Patachitra: The word ‘Patachitra’ is derived from the combination of two Sanskrit words ‘Patta’ meaning piece of cloth and Chitra meaning painting. Patachitra is traditional folk painting on long scrolls having association with Pater Gaan, narration of predominantly mythological tales painted on the scroll while unfurling it. It is an age-old folk tradition practiced predominantly by a few converted Muslim families, who claim themselves as ‘Patua’. Originally, the Patuas paint mythological and contemporary stories on long scrolls of cloth by using natural colours. They used to tell the stories through songs, which are mostly composed by them. There are a number of villages in districts like Pashim Medinipur, Purba Medinipur, Bankura in western and south western part of West Bengal, where Patuas are concentrated. 8. Sitalpati: Sitalpati is an eco-friendly traditional floor mat; produced from a plant locally called Murta (Schumannianthus dichotomus) grown soft green cane slips splits into fine NO. 2 CONTRIBUTION OF CRAFT HUBS IN DEVELOPEMNT OF RURAL TOURISM 137
strands lengthwise. In Cooch Behar district of North Bengal, the Kayastha caste of Hindu population is found involved in this craft making. Before introduction of cheaper alternatives, Sitalpati was an integral part of daily life of rural Bengal due to its usefulness in view of warm and humid climate of the region. In Bengali language ‘sital’ means cool and ‘pati’ represent the word mat. This particular product is still characterised by its smoothness, ûne texture and ability to impart coolness that is far better than all its alternatives. 9. Terracotta: Terracotta, a type of fired clay is used since time immemorial for producing earthenware that has been discovered from ancient civilizations all over the world. In West Bengal, this ancient craft is traditionally used for decoration of Hindu shrines as ornamental building material and in modelling idol of the Hindu deities. The archetypal Bankura terracotta horse becomes a famous brand in the export of terracotta items from India. Such horses are not only locally offered to village deities but also collected by the tourists as souvenirs. Presently, the artisans are making utility items apart from fulfilling ritualistic demand of folk society. The demand of terracotta jewellery in post modern society is increasing worldwide. Alluvial soils and a special yellow coloured soil called Bono is used by the craftmen because the amazing colour of terracotta art is derive from it. It is also a family craft but role of women in production process is to some extent marginal. 10. Wooden Doll: Wooden dolls made by the artisans of Natungram are famous for intricate design, vibrant colour and ethnic style. Folk concept on various deities and mythologies are motivations of the master craftsmanship using mainly Gamhar wood as well as Mango wood, Neem Wood and even Akshmoni recently. Traditionally, figures of owl (escort of Hindu Goddess Laxmi), Vaishnavite Rashiputul (combined figure of Radha-Krishna), iconographies of Devi Durga, Gour-Nitai, Raja-Rani etc. are carved from one piece of wood. After application of colours, motifs with specific designs are marked out by fine brush strokes. More than fifty artisan families living in the area have improvised themselves in producing different utility items like mirror frame, table lamp, cupboard, stools, bookshelf, clock, jewellery etc. besides a galaxy of decorative items. Women are found actively participating in different stages of the making of this craft.
Discussion and Analysis Tourism is considered as the function of 5 A’s – namely: Attractions, Accessibility, Accommodation, Amenities and Administration. Based on the crafts outlined, Table 1 represents the accessibility and accommodation status of the study villages, which played vital role in their evolution as rural tourism hubs. The aim of promoting rural tourism is to provide exposure to specific crafts as souvenirs. It is revealed that more is the distance from district head quarter; less is the development status as rural tourism cum craft hubs. Railway accessibility is nevertheless the key factor. However it is noticed that tourists are preferring railway towns for accommodation rather than staying at villages, which is a indication for better planning requirements in the promotion of rural tourism in craft hubs of West Bengal. 138 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Table 1: Accessibility and Accommodation Scenario of the Selected Craft Hubs
Sl. Name of Location District District Head Nearest Railway Accommodation No. the Hub Quarter station Facility
1. Sitalpati Ghughumari Cooch Cooch Behar New Cooch Behar Cooch Behar Hub Behar (17.8 km. Via (20.1 km via Town NH17) NH17) 2. Gomira- Kushmandi Dakshin Balurghat (68.0 Kaliaganj (17 km Within village Wooden Dinajpur km via NH512) via SH 10A) (dormitory type Mask Hub accommodation) 3. Kantha Hub Nanoor Birbhum Suri (56.1 km.via Bolpur (35.1 km. Bolpur SH6, NH114 and via Suri - Bolpur Nanoor Chandidas Rd) Rd) 4. Clay Doll Ghurni Nadia Krishnanagar (6.5 Krishnanagar (7.6 Krishnanagar Hub km. via km. via Krishnanagar Krishnanagar - - Karimpur Rd) Karimpur Rd) 5. Wooden Natungram Purba Bardhaman (80.2 Agradweep Within village doll Hub Bardhaman Km. via Dainhat (2.5 Km.) (dormitory type Rd and Katwa Rd) accommodation) 6. Dokra Hub Dariyapur Purba Bardhaman (41.1 Guskara (4.4 km Within village Bardhaman Km. via NH114) via Guskara - (dormitory type Dignagar Rd) accommodation) Bikna Bankura Bankura (3.2 Bankura (4.2 Km. Within village Km. via NH14) via NH14) (dormitory type accommodation) 7. Terracotta Panchmura Bankura Bankura (36.3 Bishnupur (20.0 Within village Hub Km.) Km via Bishnupur- (dormitory type Nakaijuri-Taldangra accommodation) Rd) 8. Chau Mask Charida Purulia Purulia (60.5 Km Barabhum (27.0 Baghmundi (2.3 Hub via NH18 and Km via NH116B) Km. via NH116B) NH116B) 9. Patachitra Pingla Paschim Medinipur (47.4 Balichak (11.2 Within village Hub via NH16) Km) (dormitory type accommodation and homestay) 10. Madurkathi Bhagabanpur Purba Tamluk (35.9 Km.) Mecheda Digha (78.4 Km. Hub Medinipur (51.3 Km) via NH116B)
Source: Compiled by the Authors NO. 2 CONTRIBUTION OF CRAFT HUBS IN DEVELOPEMNT OF RURAL TOURISM 139
The followings are the planning recommendations as the outcome of this study for promotion of craft hubs from rural tourism perspectives:
z Ensuring the Guest Participation: A cultural tourist seeks the opportunity to experience the craft making procedure and also prefer to take part in it if possible. Besides, they feel themselves somehow enriched while interacting with ethnic culture during the close association of the craft makers. In this context, creative tourism may be appropriate for the craft hubs. Creative tourism is an activity contributing to an authentic experience, in which the tourists are able to learn unique mechanism of outstanding creations that have been designated as heritages (UNESCO, 2006). Travel motivation in this context is described in various literatures using the terms like ‘active participation’, ‘authentic experiences’, ‘creative potential development’, and ‘skills development’ (Richards, 2011 cited in Tan et.al, 2013). All the selected crafts under this project are however not equally suitable for creative tourism. As for example, Dokra is a metal craft that involves a number of complicated preparatory steps in its production process. Clay doll making, Patachitra, Madur Craft and Kantha Stitch are among the other crafts better suited for the practitioners of ‘creative tourism’.
z Initiatives for Host Community: Different workshops have to be organised involving the host community particularly the young generation and especially women for capacity building in the field of hospitality management and visitors’ guidance. The craft women, who are to some extent exposed to urban culture as the result of participation in different fairs and festivals abroad, may play a valuable role in this venture. There is varying scope of introducing home-stays in the craft hubs depending on the location attributes of the villages as well as the nature of the crafts. In the craft hubs like Bikna and Dariyapur, the potentiality of developing home-stay based rural tourism is less due to the congested and unplanned pattern of the houses contributing to a slum like environment. On contrary, the home-stays have already been introduced in Naya of Pingla where the authentic flavor of Bengal village is readily available with modern facilities and amenities. The craft hubs of Sitalpati, Mukha, Kantha, Madurkathi etc. are endowed with the favourable locations for home-stays. Ethnographic survey reveals that women respondents are very much interested to be involved in this kind of venture as the stakeholders. Proper training for host community, especially for women is however required for the successful implementation of home-stay based rural tourism in the craft hubs of rural Bengal.
z Festive Attraction: Planning the three days long annual village festivals have been appreciated for resulting into a boom in rural tourism in the craft villages. On festive time, artisans utilise the opportunity to market their products as souvenirs, which provide them maximum return due to direct interaction with its consumers. Further, from survey it is revealed that inequalities prevail among the artisan families because of the extent of market exposure. A few are found benefitted due to their outside contacts while maximum are 140 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
living under poverty line as they have no option instead of handing over their production to the middlemen, who are supplier of the crafts to different markets. Rural tourism is a blessing for the artisans as they are provided with the opportunity of market exposure. From tourist survey, the followings are revealed regarding the demand of visitors that have been ranked according to preferences expressed: 1. In situ interaction with the artisans (80%) 2. Demonstration of craft making in village work places (65%) 3. Folk-cultural performances organised in the evening (60%) Generally, the folk song, dance and drama co-exist as a package for recreating the urban based visitors. These elements have a tremendous potentiality to satisfy cultural tourists visiting the rural areas. Further the folk rituals associated with worshipping of village deities namely Manasha, Sosthi or Dharma practiced by craft makers especially the women in villages like Panchmura, Bikna, Dariyapur etc. may be considered as unique from the perspective of rural tourism. The Gombhira or Mukha mask or the Chu mask possesses direct association with ritualistic dance forms which are recreating the visitors. ‘Pater Gaan’ is another excellent example in this context which is a combination of folk painting and songs. Rural tourism has acted as an instrument for restoration of these arts and crafts. In the belt of Mukha mask and Sitalpati, a number of folk songs, dances and drama such as Bhawaiya, Khan Song, Bier Gaan, Jang Gaan, Halna-Halnani, Natua etc. are actually facing the challenge of extinction, which could only be restored by rural tourism demand. The authors during the field work have interacted with a number of groups, incorporating male and female artists among the artisans, who are ready to provide folk musical essence to the cultural tourists arrived for enjoying the crafts.
Conclusion Rural tourism, as an alternative tourism is a new paradigm boosting the host-guest interaction in craft villages. There develops a symbiotic relationship which strengthens both the rural tourism and the craft industry in the journey towards sustainable development. It is no doubt that in the study area, socio-economic backwardness and attraction toward urban life are among the serious challenges for the survival of the traditional rural society. At this juncture, rural tourism may be used as an instrument to sustain the rural life by creating employment opportunities. It is also very much useful in reviving traditional environment, which is characterised by purities and authenticities. In West Bengal, the concept of rural tourism have already been materialised in developing home- stays and agro-tourism sector especially in the Northern Hilly region and Tarai region. Craft villages, where tourism has recently been introduced have noticed immense potentialities because of the symbiosis between attractive craft making and the rural way of life. The attention of the global tourism market could be attracted, if the government is able to provide the required infrastructure for rural tourism in outstanding rural craft hubs. Under the public-private partnership (PPP) model, the concept of ‘community led craft tourism’ is already introduced in these craft villages. This is appraised by UNESCO, for its contribution to direct linkage with the buyers and craft makers. Apart NO. 2 CONTRIBUTION OF CRAFT HUBS IN DEVELOPEMNT OF RURAL TOURISM 141 from the rejuvenation of the crafts, rural tourism exhibits its multiplier effect by creating a number of employment opportunities. This is vital for empowerment of rural women and ultimately encourages the young generation to focus upon their age-old practice, which they are about to forget due to lack of marketing opportunities. It may finally be concluded that betterment of the craft and the success of rural tourism are positively correlated in the craft villages of West Bengal taken for present study and the symbiotic relationship between them assigns a significant role for rural women as a service provider in rural tourism sector.
References Drãgulãnescu, I. V. & Drutu, M. (2012). Rural Tourism for Local Economic Development. International Journal of Academic Research in Accounting, Finance and Management Science, 2 (special issue 1), 196-203. Gartner, W. C. (2005). A Perspective on Rural Tourism Development. The Journal of Regional Analysis and policy, 35(1), 35-42. James, G. (2012). Farm Based Rural Tourism in Kerala. Kurukshetra-A Journal on Rural Development, 60(7), 7-10. MSME (2015). State Industrial Profile of West Bengal 2015-16. Ministry of MSME, Kolkata: Government of India, 28-29. Mukherjee, D. (2016). A Comparative Study of Dokra Metal Craft Technology and Harappan Metal Craft Technology. Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology, 4, 757-768. Neumeier, S. & Pollermann, K. (2014). Rural Tourism as Promoter of Rural Development – Prospects and Limitations: Case Study Findings from a Pilot Project Promoting Village Tourism. European Countryside, 4, 270-296. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (1994). Tourism Strategies and Rural Development, Paris Purushotham, P. and Paani, B. S. (2016). Strengthening Rural Livelihoods in Bundelkhand. Journal of Rural Development, 35(1), 1-16. Richards, G. (2011). Creativity and Tourism: The State of the Art. Annals of Tourism Research, 38, pp.1225– 1253.Cited in Tan, S.K., Kung, S.F. & Luh, D.B (2013). A Model of ‘Creative Experience’ in Creative Tourism Annals of Tourism Research, 41, 153–174. Sasu, K. A. & Epuran, G. (2016). An Overview of the New Trends in Rural Tourism. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braºov, Series V, 9 (58) No. 2, 121-126. Sen, P. (1994). Crafts of West Bengal, Ahmadabad: Mapin Publication private ltd., 14. UNESCO Creative Cities Network (2006). Towards Sustainable Strategies for Creative Tourism: Discussion Report of the Planning Meeting for 2008 International Conference on Creative Tourism Santa Fe, New Mexico, U.S.A. http://ruralcrafthub.com incredibleindia.org/lang/images/docs/trade-pdf/.../rural- tourism/rural guideline
Received : 9th September, 2018 Revised : 10th November, 2018 142Ind. J. of Landscape INDIAN Systems JOURNAL and Ecological OF LANDSCAPE Studies 41SYSTEMS (2) December AND ECOLOGICAL- 2018, 142 - 155 STUDIESISSN 0971-4170 VOL. 41
Spatial Distribution of Healthcare Infrastructure in Malda District, West Bengal
Pritam Ghosh1* and Pratiama Rohatgi2
Abstract : Health care is an active process in which improvement from physical and mental illness, disorder, injury, impairment, disease of human being done through diagnosis and treatment. There are disparity from the aspect of health care infrastructure among different districts of West Bengal. Malda is one of the backward districts from this aspect. Also there are inter block variation in distribution of healthcare infrastructure. The main aim of the study is to find out the distribution of infrastructural facilities of health care service in different community development blocks of Malda district. The analysis has been made in this paper totally based on different district level, state level and national level secondary data source. Various statistical calculation, cartographic technique and mapping has been made in different software like Excel 2013, IBM SPSS, Q-GIS etc. for the study.Overall healthcare infrastructure in the district is not good enough in relation to public demand and at the same time, there is a huge disparity among all the blocks. Other than English Bazar block, health care facilities is too low in different blocks of the study area.
Keywords : Healthcare infrastructure, Malda, West Bengal
Introduction Health is perhaps the most crucial aspect of human well-being (Sen, 1998). Moreover,it is one of the key factor of overall development and progress of a nation or a community. Therefore, the quality of life is determined through the availability, accessibility, adequacy, affordability, feasibility, relevance and after all utilization of basic service like education, healthcare etc. In this context, health care services can be defined as “all those personnel and community health service including medical care and related education and research oriented towards protection promotion of health of the community” (WHO, 1991).Thus, Health care is an active process in which improvement from physical and mental illness, disorder, injury, impairment, disease of human being done through diagnosis and treatment. Hence, a good medical system can provide these medical care services to a mass or community through various preventive and protective measures (Choubey, 1996). Nevertheless, in many parts of West Bengal medical or healthcare infrastructure are not sufficient to provide adequate health or medical care service to their population load. On the other hand, 1 Research Scholar, Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, 2 Professor, Department of Geography, University of Calcutta Email: [email protected] * Corresponding author NO. 2 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEALTHCARE INFRASTRUCTURE IN MALDA DISTRICT 143 people from different parts of the state being influence by various socio-demographic, eco-cultural and religious causes cannot access different healthcare services. Hence, there are disparities from the aspect of health care infrastructure among different districts of West Bengal. Malda is one of the backward districts from this aspect. Also there are inter block variation in distribution of healthcare infrastructure. Ali (2008) in his research work, based on some selected parameters, explained English Bazar, Chanchal-I and Bamongola as developed blocks in the study area, from the aspect of healthcare infrastructure.
Objectives The main aim of the study is to find out the infrastructural facilities of health care service in different community development blocks of Malda district. There are also an attempt to search whether these intra blocks medical infrastructural facilities are sufficient for their population load or not.Beside this, also the focus of the study is to analyze the distribution of several aspects of healthcare infrastructure in different blocks of the study area. To identify these blocks as poor moderate or good based on the healthcare facilities that they have already created for public.
The Study area Malda district lies 347 km north of the state Capital, Kolkata. It is situating over an area of 3733, sq. km. that is 4.10 per cent of the total area of West Bengal. The District comprises withfifteen community development blocks under two sub-divisions. Under these CD blocks there are 146 Gram Panchayats and 1,771 villages. The study area characterize with a number of 39,88,845 total population and 21.50 percent positive population growth from the year of 2001 to 2011, whereas the average is 13.93 percent (Census of India, 2011). Only 13.58 percent of the total population resides in urban areas against the state average 21.87 percent. The literacy rate of the study area is 59.96 percent against the state average 70.54 percent (Statistical Abstract, Wet Bengal, 2014). According to Human Development Index, the rank of the district was in last position among all other districts of the West Bengal. Therefore, the study characterize with Illiteracy, poor urbanization, unemployment, poor health and education condition and infrastructure. These above-mentioned conditions led to the selection of the district as study area.
Database and Methodology The analysis has been made in this paper mostly based on secondary data base. Nationally representative data like Census of India 2001, 2011, State level data like District Level Household Survey 2002-2004, Health on March 2010,2011,2012,2013,2014, 2015, District Level Household and Facilities Survey 2007-2008, Statistical Handbook, West Bengal 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, and Some District Level data like District Statistical Handbook, Malda, from 2001 to 2014 have been utilized here.Collect secondary data has been converted into tertiary data set and then various statistical calculation, cartographic technique and also mapping has been made in different software like Excel 2013, IBM SPSS, Q-GIS etc. 144 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
To analyze different aspects of health care in the study area, different index like Curative healthcare index, healthcare infrastructure index, patient care service index etc. have been done. Curative healthcare index has been determined by combining selected indicator with certain weightage.In case of healthcare infrastructure index and patient care service index selected indicators have been standardized with the help of Z- score or standard score method.
()Xij− X j Z-Score = σ j
th th th σ Where, Xij= X variable in the i district and j variable, Xj = Mean of the j variable, j = Standard deviation of the jthvariable. After that, composite Z score for each block has been determined by adding all the Z-score values of these selected indicators. Therefore, Composite Mean Z-score is thus,
∑ Zij Composite Z-Score = N Where, Zij is Z-score of a variable j in block i, and N denotes the number of variables.
Results and Discussion
Medical Institution in the Study Area According to census of 2011, total population of the study area is 39, 88, 845, and the density of the population is 373 people/Sq. Km. (Statistical Handbook, West Bengal, 2014).Its means Malda required at least 32 community health care center and at least one sub center per 2 Sq. Km. Number of population is above 2 lakhs per blocks in the study area, which required at least one hospital in each block (HDR-Malda, 2006). But some blocks does not have any Hospital or rural hospital. It is observable that number of NGO or private nursing home has been increased in English Bazar municipality. Number of block primary health center or primary health center is more or less same in different blocks of Malda. But in respect to the number of population or density of the population, some blocks required more BPHC/PHC.
Population Loads on Healthcare Institutions Entire Malda district has been divided into three principal physiographic divisions (Tal, Barind, and Diara region). Comprises with four blocks like, Manikchak and three Kaliachak, Diara division of the study area have highest population agglomeration and density. Despite of carrying the highest load of population, the number of PHCs and SCs are lowest in the four blocks of Diara region than the other blocks of Malda. Such situation reveals that these four blocks area most NO. 2 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEALTHCARE INFRASTRUCTURE IN MALDA DISTRICT 145
Table 1: Number of Healthcare Institution in Different CD Blocks of Malda District, 2011
C.D. Blocks Hospital/RH BPHC/PHC Sub-Centre N.G.O, Private Bodies (Nursing Home)
Harishchandrapur-I 1 3 25 - Harishchandrapur-II - 3 33 - Chanchal-I 1 2 27 - Chanchal-II - 3 25 - Ratua-I - 4 36 - Ratua-II - 3 25 - Gazole 1 4 60 - Bamongola 1 2 27 - Habibpur 1 2 43 - Old Malda - 3 25 1 English Bazar - 3 33 - ManikChak 1 3 35 1 Kaliachak-I - 4 42 1 Kaliachak-II - 3 34 - Kaliachak-III - 3 41 - English Bazar(M) 3 - - 17
Source: Computed by the Authors deprived in terms of healthcare service delivery. On the other hand, population concentration and density is relatively low in four Barind blocks (Old Malda, Gazole, Bamongola and Habibpur).But the number of PHCs and SCs is comparatively high than the blocks of Diara region. In respect to their population load, this number is also not adequate in six blocks of Tal region of the study area, but relatively better than the blocks of Diara region. (Fig. 1) Disparity in population concentration and density in association with number of health centres in different blocks has created disparity in number of indoor and outdoor patients among different blocks of the district. Healthcare centers of some blocks are providing health care services to a large number of indoor patient, some blocksnot. In case of outdoor patient, the scenario is same in the study area. Comprises with higher number of Government healthcare institution English Bazar (excluding private healthcare center) and Kaliachak-I have served healthcare services to a large number of both indoor and outdoor patient. 146 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 Inter Block distribution of population density and number BPHC/PHC & SC Fig.1. NO. 2 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEALTHCARE INFRASTRUCTURE IN MALDA DISTRICT 147
Fig 2. Distribution of health center and share of indoor or outdoor patient in different blocks of Malda, 2011 148 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Infrastructural Gap in Healthcare Facilities in Malda District Malda is a district where health care facilities has not properly distributed in each blocks as well as villages. On the other hand there are some gap between the required and the actual healthcare infrastructure. There are some national norms regarding primary healthcare facilities (Table no. 2).
Table 2: National Norms Regarding Primary Healthcare Facilities
Items Norms
One trained village Guide For each village per 1000 population. One Sub-Centre For 5000population in plain area and 3000 population in tribal, hilly and backward areas. One Primary Health Centre 30,000 population in plain area and 20,000 population in tribal, hilly and backward areas.
Source: District Human Development Report, Malda, 2006
Nevertheless, following these national norms, the healthcare infrastructural development has yet not been setup at satisfactory level in maximum blocks. That is why in district level as well as block level, Malda cannot provide such facilities to its population. On an average, each block in Malda district has 2.5-lakh population, which should be served by Six or more primary health center under existing national norms. But the picture is different here. On an average two PHCs present in each blocks. Similar infrastructural gap also exist in case of the distribution of Sub-Center and Female Health Assistant. Now, it is clear from diagram (Fig. 3) that there are some gaps between existing and required healthcare facilities in every block of the study area. Therefore, the district cannot provide adequate healthcare service to the people. Because the population is high in number in each and every block and healthcare institution is low from its requirement. Thus, a huge pressure of population is created on healthcare service.
Curative Healthcare Infrastructure To represent another angel of healthcare infrastructure curative healthcare index has been determined. Curative Healthcare Index has been done on the basis of two indicators, (a) Number of doctor per thousand population and (b) Number of bed per thousand populations. In addition, these two indicators have been aggregated with possession weighing method, which was suggested by Peter Townsend (1979). These index values have been represented here through thematic map (Fig.4), which shows that there are block wise variation in healthcare facilities in the year of 2011. Different blocks of the study area have been classified into three categories from this aspect. Only English Bazar is good in position than the other blocks in the district in case of curative healthcare facilities. Hanse, it is clear that English Bazar enriched with a good number of doctor and NO. 2 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEALTHCARE INFRASTRUCTURE IN MALDA DISTRICT 149 011 Required medical facility and Gap of facilities (a) PHC, (b) SC, (c) FHA, (d) PHC & SC in different blocks Malda, 2 Fig. 3 150 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Fig. 4 Curative healthcare infrastructure in Malda district, 2011 NO. 2 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEALTHCARE INFRASTRUCTURE IN MALDA DISTRICT 151 bed in comparison to the other blocks of the district as most of the private hospital and nursing home has been concentrated here with Government health centers. Harischandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, from the northern part, blocks of entire middle portion of the study area, like Gazole, Bamongola, Habibpur Old Malda, Manikchak and Kaliachak-II shows moderate condition in this case. On the other hand, Harischandrapur-II, Chanchal-II, Ratua-I & II at the northern middle part of the study area are representing bad situation with two blocks, named Kaliachak-I & III, situated at the southern most part.
Healthcare Infrastructure To represent overall healthcare infrastructure of the study area, composite healthcare infrastructure index has been determined by composite Z-score method based on some selected indicators. These are like a) number of public health center (PHC) per 30000 population, b) Sub- center (SC) per 5000 population, c) number of female health assistant (FHA) per 1000 population, d) number of bed per 10000 population and e) number of doctor per lakh population. Maximum blocks of the study area are showing more or less moderate or near to mean condition from the aspect of overall health care infrastructure in respect to whole district. Harischandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Gazole, English Bazar and Kaliachak-II are representing moderately good condition whereas moderately bad healthcare infrastructure are being observe in Harischandrapur-II, Chancha- II, Ratua-I & II. Old Malda, Kaliachak-I & II despite of being adjourning block with main administrative head quarter English Bazar, are still in very poor healthcare condition. Only two blocks like, Bamongola and Habibpur, staying along with the boundary of Bangladesh, are remaining good healthcare infrastructure to provide sufficient healthcare services to their population in comparison to other blocks of the study area.
Patient Care Service A different aspect of health care in the study area has been shown by patient care service index. It has been represented by composite Z score value of three indicators, like a) Number of Anganwadi centers reported to have conducted VHNDs, b) Number of facilities having a Rogi Kalyan Samiti (RKS) and c) Number of facilities having Ambulance services (Assured Referral Services).Harischandrapur-II and Chanchal-I are the most backward blocks in the study area in this case. Whereas Gazole shows good condition in these matter. Except these three others blocks shows moderate situation in patient care service.
Major Findings Malda is such a district where health care or medical facilities are not properly distributed all over the district. Hearne there are inter block disparity in the development of healthcare infrastructure. At the same time, number of different medical care institution is quite low in several parts to provide health care service adequately to their population. Therefore, there exist a gap between the required and provided healthcare service and infrastructure. 152 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Fig. 5 Inter CD block distribution of overall health care infrastructure, 2011 NO. 2 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEALTHCARE INFRASTRUCTURE IN MALDA DISTRICT 153
Fig. 6 Patient care service in different blocks of Malda, 2011 154 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
As because of district administrative headquarter, concentration of government and private healthcare institutions, number of doctor and bed arerelatively sufficient in English Bazar block.On the other hand, due to carrying highest population load in comparison to other blocks of the district, despite of providing healthcare service services to highest number of patient, here healthcare infrastructure is not good enough. Gazole, Bamongola and Habibpur shows relatively good situation from the aspect of all healthcare infrastructure just because of low population load. Beside this six blocks of northern part of the study area like Harischandrapur-I & II, Chanchal-I & II,Ratua-I & II shows moderate or moderately bad situation in this matter.
Conclusion It is clear from the above discussion overall healthcare infrastructure in the district is not good enough in relation to public demand and at the same time, there are a huge disparity among all the blocks.Only in English Bazar, curative healthcare facilities are sufficient or near to sufficient. But other than this block this facilities is too low in different blocks of the study area. Therefore, Government has to increase the number of doctors and number of bed in different medical institutions of other blocks (other than English Bazar) in the study area. On the other hand, being main district administrative blocks of the district people from different parts around the study area come here for medical treatment. Therefore, quality and accessibility of medical infrastructure and healthcare services must developed in this block. Side by side as the population load is high in the four blocks of Diara region, government should give more emphasis to develop a quality healthcare infrastructure as soon as possible. On the other hand, in six blocks of the Tal region of the study area, despite of representing lower moderate population density as comprises with low medical or healthcare infrastructure, government must take adequate stapes to setup more medical or healthcare institution or to increase quality, accessibility, adequacy of the existing medical or healthcare institution.
References Ali, J. (2008). Regional Planning for Socio-Economic Development in Malda District, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh (India), pp. 140-142 Census of India (2011). Primary Census Abstract of Malda,Table-PCA1906_2011_MDDS, http:// www.censusindia.gov.in Choubey, K. (1996). Health Care Delivery System in India: A comparative study in geography of health, Geographical Review of India,The Geographical Society of India. Vol. 58, No. 4, pp. 350-366 District Human Development Report (2007). Malda, 2006, Development of Planning Department, Government of West Bengal. Government of India (2017). Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, Health Management and Information System. Health on March (2014-15). State of Health Intelligence, Directorate of Health Service, Government of West Bengal (2015) NO. 2 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF HEALTHCARE INFRASTRUCTURE IN MALDA DISTRICT 155
Health on March (2013-14). State of Health Intelligence, Directorate of Health Service, Government of West Bengal (2014) Health on March (2012-13). State of Health Intelligence, Directorate of Health Service, Government of West Bengal (2013) Health on March (2011-12). State of Health Intelligence, Directorate of Health Service, Government of West Bengal (2012) District Statistical Hand Book (2014, 2010-2011). Malda District, Bureau of Applied Economics and Statistics, Department of Statistics & Programme Implementation, Government of West Bengal Sen, A. (1998). Objectivity, Health and Policy, in Monica Da Gupta, Lincoln C. Chen, and T.N. Krishna (eds), Health Poverty and Development in India,Oxford University Press, pp. 25-31 Statistical Abstract of West Bengal. (2014, 2015). Bureau of Applied Economics and Statistics, Government of West Bengal Statistical Hand Book, West Bengal. (2014 and 2015). Bureau of Applied Economics and Statistics, and Programme Implementation, Government of West Bengal Townsend, P. (1979). Poverty in the United Kingdom- A Survey of Household Resources and Standards of Living, Penguin Books Ltd, Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England, pp. 32-59
Received : 8th June, 2018 Revised : 6th October, 2018 156Ind. J. of Landscape INDIAN Systems JOURNAL and Ecological OF LANDSCAPE Studies 41SYSTEMS (2) December AND ECOLOGICAL- 2018, 156 - 168 STUDIESISSN 0971-4170 VOL. 41
Linking Quality of Life of Slum Dwellers of Kanpur City With UN-SDGS and India Vision- 2020: A Comparative Analysis
Rohit Singh1* and V. K. Kumra2
Abstract : This paper is an attempt to compare the condition of slum dwellers of Kanpur city with the targets of UN-SDGs and India vision 2020. Rapid urbanization accompanied by sustained population growth due to large scale migration from rural to urban centres leads to mushrooming slum settlement in all cities and town in India. Urban population in India has grown from 78.9 million in 1961 to 286 million in 2001 and is estimated to be doubled in next 25 years. The population pressure on cities is bound to escalate. They are increasingly facing the negative consequences of rapid urbanization, such as polarization of population in large cities, high density, slum and squatter settlements, acute shortage of housing and basic civic amenities, degradation of environment, traffic congestion, pollution, poverty, unemployment, crime and social unrest. This paper also examines the quality of life (QOL) of different slums of Kanpur city. The study is based on secondary, as well as primary data. Primary data are collected through an interview schedule by field survey of 150 households of randomly selected slums. This paper reveals that 92 per cent of families live in thatched houses more than 56 per cent people are still illiterate, less than 48 per cent population access government medical facilities, more than 56 per cent people go for open defecation,only 34 per cent household use tap water and 84 per cent areas havevery poor sewage disposal facilities. This evaluation shows a wretched picture of slums and inabilities to achieve both SDGs and national goal.
Keywords : Quality of life, Slum dwellers, Kanpur City
Introduction Urban growth in the third world countries has been increasing at an alarmingly high rate. Larger cities have been expanding at a faster rate. The main causes of rapid growth of such cities are two-foldnatural growths of urban population and rural urban migration. The impact of the ever increasing urban population has increasingly been acute shortage of housing, employment, resulting in poverty which in turn results in undernourishment, inadequate physical and civic amenities and the mushrooming expansion of slums and squatter settlements. The slums and squatter settlements scatter almost every city of the world. These settlements have become a universal and an inevitable
1 Assistant Professor, Dept. of Geography, S.K.D.C. Basti 227001, email: [email protected] 2 Professor, Dept. of Geography, B. H. U. Varanasi 221005, email: [email protected] * Corresponding author NO. 2 LINKING QUALITY OF LIFE OF SLUM DWELLERS OF KANPUR CITY 157 phenomenon accompanying urban growth in all countries of the world. The processes of technological modernization, urbanization and industrialization in the metropolis injected situations of wide disparity in the levels of living, income and development of human facilities much more soamong the rural migrants living in degraded environment forming such slum and squatter colonies without the basic facilities and services.Rapid growth of industrialization creates enormous employment opportunity. It attracts the lower income peoples and the unskilled labourer from the rural area. The high rate of migration from rural area to the urban sector formulated slum area, because these men are unskilled labours to industries(Das et al., 2012).Presently, Indian Population is 1/6th of the world population slightly more than 28 percent of the country’s population is urbanized, but unfortunately 21.68 percent (61.8 million) of the urban population live in slum area. As per Last NBO report total housing shortage was 19.4 million units. In urban are the shortage is 6.6 million unit and 90 per cent of these shortage hits poor and low income group (LIG) people (NBO, 2011). World Bank and UN Habitat suggest that over 800 million people in developing countries live in slum and squatter settlements, most of them being squalid, unsafe environments that create health and security problems (World Bank, 2003) Kanpur, being the hub of industrial and modern technological development, has acted as a magnet and its level of industrialisation, employment opportunities, both in the formal and informal sectors of its economy, educational development, amenities and facilities in the field of transportation, electricity and other such related advancements have attracted thousands of immigrants from far and wide.Living conditions of the inhabitants of Kanpur slums are extremely poor due to inadequate provision of infrastructure, shelter and basic services.Majority of the inhabitants of the slum localities of Kanpur are the immigrants from the nearby districts like Pratapgarh, Lucknow, Sitapur etc.The quality of life of these people is poor due to their poor health status with a high incidence of waterborne communicable diseases such as gastroenteritis, cholera, hepatitis skin, eyes and throat ailments.Living conditions of slums of Kanpur city are utterly bad due to high incidence of crime, delinquency, prostitution, drunkenness, drug abuse, mental disorder, suicide, illegitimacy, family maladjustment.The slum concentration in these areas has not only led to poor living conditions for the slum dwellers but is also responsible for the general deterioration of the living environment in the city. This is primarily due to lack of proper infrastructure services in these areas and considering the fact that most of these slums are overcrowded, there is always constant pressure on the city infrastructure and resources.Considering the physical location of the slums of Kanpur City; 120 slums are located in Non-hazardous/Non-objectionable sites, 57 slums are located along major transport alignment, 86 slums are located along open and storm water drains, 69 slums are located along river / water body bank and 28 slums are located on hazardous/objectionable sites.
Objectives
z To examine the quality of life (QOL) of different slums of Kanpur city
z To compare the condition of slum dwellers of Kanpur city with the targets of UN SDGs and India vision 2020 158 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Methodology The study is based on secondary as well as primary data. Primary data are collected through an interview schedule in 150 households of randomly selected slums (Kachimadaiya (Dada Nagar),Silpi Nagar (Tat Mill), HiraPurwa (ChamanGanj), Bangla cantt. (Mall Road) and Saipurwa (Jhakkarkatti) of Kanpur city. This paper highlights the appallingQOLof slum dwellers of Kanpur City.For determining the Quality of Life in slums various indicators have been chosen. Altogether, 13 variables (X1 to X13) have been preferred to determine the existing QOL (please refer to Table 3). Finally, this paper compares the status of slum dwellers with goal and target of the SDG and vision 2020.
The Study Area Kanpur city (26 28' 15" N of latitudes and 80 23' 45" E of longitudes), the industrial capital of Uttar Pradesh, occupies a very important position in Northern India. The Kanpur city is nestled on the right bank of eternal Ganga River, stands as one of the North-India’s major industrial centre with its own historical, religious and commercial importance. The area is drained by two rivers, River Ganga and River Pandu and the city lies between the doab of these rivers. It has an area of about 298.98 km2. It is administratively divided into 6 zones and 110 wards with an average ward population range of 19000 to 26000. Kanpur is the fifth most highly-populated city in India. As per census of 2011, Kanpur total population is 2767031as compared to the 2,551,337 people registered in 2001. It may be observed that the average annual growth in population has increased to 8.26 percent during the period 2001-2011 One of the factors for this kind of growth can be higher number of in-migration to Kanpur City from other areas. As per the survey conducted by DUDA in 2003 and the documents from KNN, total number of slums in Kanpur is 390. According to census 2001, the slum population was 3.68 lakh i.e. 14.5 per cent of total Population. As per KNN estimate in 2006, slum population was about 5.0 lakh which corresponds to 20 per cent of total population.
Slums in Kanpur City The Kanpur city has a total of 412 slums in its municipal jurisdiction area. Out of which 101 are notified slums and 311 are non-notified slums. The National Building Organization (NBO) Annexure primary survey was carried out in January, 2011 for all 412 slums in the city. The total slum population in the city is 714027 which constitute about 26 per cent of city population. The total number of slum households in the city is 152124 which constitute about 30 per cent of total city households. Among the slum population, 79 per cent belongs to OBC and SC division of social groups and 36 per cent are living below the poverty line (BPL). Out of the total 412 slums in the city, 300 slums have existed for more than 50 years. Though, the total slum area is (1274.71 ha) 5 per cent of the total city area. Nearly 41 per cent of slums are found to be situated in area less than 1 Ha and 59 per cent of slums are situated in area more than 1 ha. The total slum area under the ownership of urban local body is 344.6 ha, and the State Government ownership is 414.9 ha. NO. 2 LINKING QUALITY OF LIFE OF SLUM DWELLERS OF KANPUR CITY 159
Table 1: Comparison of city population & area against the slums
City Slum Per cent of Slum City area Total area Per cent of Population Population population to (ha) under slums slum area to city Population (ha) city area
2767031 714027 26 per cent 26223 1274.71 5 per cent
Source: Census 2011, Primary Survey, 2011
Profile of Sample Slums For the present study 5 slums (i.e. Kachimadaiya, Silpi Nagar, Hira Purwa, BanlawCantt. and Sai Purwa) have been selected. Highly degraded condition of locality is considered for selection of slums. Thereafter, 150 responded have been surveyed, whereas, 30 responded were selected for each slum. Sai Purwa slum is located at Jhhakerkatti where condition and quality of life is worse than other slums. Kachimadaiya slum is located at Dada Nagar and Silpi Nagar slum is located in Tat mil area; whereas, Hira Purwa and BanglawCantt is located at Chamanganj and Mall road respectively.
Indicators of Quality of Life In the present study altogether 13 variables have been carefully chosen to determine the existing quality of life in slums dwellers of Kanpur city.
Housing condition (X1) Housing condition is measured as a parameter of quality of life. The housing condition of Kanpur slums is worst, where one quarter of housing units are temporary structure. A deplorable picture exists in sample region, where all of the sample slums were dominated by pucca, kachha, semi-pucca and thatched housing structure. Out of 150 sample houses, 61.33 percent houses are in thatched (JuggiJhopri) condition. While, only 1.33 slum dwellers have pucca houses.
Source of lighting (X2) Electricity is considered as a parameter of measurement of development and quality of life. It has been reported that majority of sample households in slums used kerosene (74.64 per cent), while, 19 per cent household in slum used electricity as a source of lighting. But it is notable that majority of household had no legal connection.
Fuel used for cooking (X3) Fuel for cooking is also taken as a parameter of quality of life. It is notable that only 17.33 per cent slum dwellers used LPG for cooking purpose. Though much of them have not got LPG connection, they use the small cylinders of 2 kg and 4 kg. Kerosene, coal and cow-dug-cakes are major fuels for cooking. 160 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Literacy (X4) The literacy is a significant indicator of socio-economic condition and quality of life. Due to wide spread poverty in the slum areas, illiteracy prevails and even it can be said that poverty exists because illiteracy exists (Tripathi, 2010). Although literacy level is lower in slums of Kanpur city. It has been seen lower rate of literacy was found in Jhakkarkatti, Mall Road and Chamnganj slums.
Employment (X5) Kanpur slum areas have more than 24 percent (1,02,763) that are unemployed (JNNURM, 2006). Out of total 150 household, it has been reported that no people are in govt. job. The maximum percentage of slum dwellers is self-employed (83 per cent) which shows that either they have their own small establishments or work as casual labourers. It has also been observed that a large number of women and children are working in the collection of solid waste and its segregation etc.
Income (X6) The income of the slum household is also low. It has been observed that 36 per cent Households have income Rs. Above-1500, whereas, more than 29 per cent household have income less than Rs. 1001.
Medical facilities (X7) Medical facility is one of the most significant parameter of measurement of quality of life. Around half the urban population in developing countries is suffering from one or more of the diseases associated with inadequate provision of water and sanitation (DFID, 2001). During field survey it has been reported that around 49 percent slum dwellers consulted traditional medical practitioner. The condition of Chamanganj slum (70 per cent) is better than other slums.
Sources of drinking water (X8) Safe and pure drinking water is also concerned as a basic need for life. During survey it has been observed that the quality of water of hand pump is not up to the mark. The survey reveals that 66 per cent household of slum use water of hand pump, while 34 per cent use water of municipal tap for drinking.
Environmental condition (X9) Though, it is seen that environmental condition of all slum is terrible, but the condition of Jhakkarkatti is far worse than other slums. It has been reported that more than 97 per cent people are forced to live in degraded and extremely degraded environmental condition.
Sanitation facilities (X10) Sanitation is important for ensuring a non-polluted environment and healthy living condition. It is notable that more than 63 per cent slum dwellers go for open defecation, while only 0.67 per cent household has individual toilet. NO. 2 LINKING QUALITY OF LIFE OF SLUM DWELLERS OF KANPUR CITY 161
Sewage disposal facility (X11) It has been reported that the majority of households (84 per cent) were very poor sewage disposal facility. During field survey it was found that sewerage systemof all slums is either non- existent or it is found chocked. The open drains in the slums are of very small size and are mostly blocked due to lack of cleaning and solid waste finding its way into drains.
Solid waste collection (X12) There is no proper way of solid waste collection system existing in Kanpur slums. During field survey it was observed that more than 79 per cent of waste were collected by Rag pickers/ scavenger. In many slums solid waste can be seen flowing in the drains leading to chocked drains and health hazardous situation.
Place of waste dumping (X13) There is no adequate arrangement for the dumping of domestic wastes in Kanpur slums. The risk to human health are compounded in these slums, where garbage collection is non- existent in most cases and drainage tends to be poor, promoting the growth of insects and other diseases vectors (Sundari, 2003). The survey reveals that 56 per cent house hold throw their domestic waste on road side, while, only 18 per cent households used the place fixed by municipality for the dumping of domestic wastes.
UN SDG, IndiaVision- 2020 and QOL in Slums of Kanpur City This section deals with the comparative analysis of the goals and targets of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and India vision 2020 while linking it with QOL status of the slum dwellers (please also refers to table 3). This comparative analysis presents a comprehensive view of low QOL in sample slums and shows lacunas in policies and programmes. In connection to education, UN-SDGs have determined goals: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. Several targets were fixed so that the goal can be achieved in the due course of time. The first target is to ensure that by 2030, all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre-primary education so that they are ready for primary education. Second target is to ensure all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes no later than 2030. Besides, another target is to by 2030, substantially increase number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship. In the context, India vision 2020 has the goals to achieve 100 per cent literacy, school education and vocational training;while, in the case of sample slums of study area, more than 66 per cent population is illiterate and more than 82 per cent population are labourer. Besides, child labour is also predominant in the city. Large number of women and children are also engaged in the collection of solid waste and its segregation. 162 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 Total Hira Purwa (ChamanGanj) 23.33 13.33 29.33 63.33 70 74.67 33.34 40 26.67 Kachimadaiya (Mall Road)Nagar) (Dada Mil) 13.33 26.6766.67 16.67 70 23.33 56.67 16 70 66.67 46.67 76.67 43.33 46.67 61.33 Purwa Silpi Nagar Bangla cantt. 3.333.34 0 3.33 13.33 0 20 3.33 13.33 0 10.67 1.33 96.67 93.33 77 70 76.67 82.67 % of HH % of HH % of HH % of HH % of HH % of HH (Jhakarkatti) (Tat Govt. employeePvt. Employee 0Self employee (labourer) 3.33Above-15001001/-1500 0 6.67501/-1000 20500 27 23 0 43 40 33.33 10 30 16.67 23.33 0 20 50 10 23.33 50 23.34 0 6.67 17.33 46.67 26.67 0 3.33 36.00 26.00 13.33 8.67 KeroseneWoodElectricity 70Kerosene 13.3CoalCow dug cake 90 0 6.67 3.33Illiterate 80 20 0 23.34 0 80 60 70 6.66 0 6.67 50 23.33 0 6.67 30 3.33 6 12.67 0 50 0 54 Semi Pucca KacchaThatched 0 93.33 50 10 Indicator Sai Table 2: Selected Variables for Quality of Life of Slum Dwellers of Kanpur City Quality of Life Slum Dwellers Kanpur for Variables 2: Selected Table for cooking lighting condition XI housing Pucca X6 Income X5 Employment X3 Fuel used LPGX4 Literacy 13.33 Literacy 3.33 16.67 30 33.33 30 30 23.34 43.33 17.33 30 33.33 X2 Source of Electricity 16.67 6.67 0 30 23.33 19.33 Variable Parameters NO. 2 LINKING QUALITY OF LIFE OF SLUM DWELLERS OF KANPUR CITY 163 Source: Primary Survey, 2017 Primary Survey, Source: 63.33 50 86.67 34 6.676.67 3.33 13.34 10 26.67 3.33 10 4.67 11.33 6.67 0 6.67 3.33 3.33 10 63.33 33.33 63.33 70 48.00 3.33 70 503.33 60 20 33.333.33 26.67 50 20 30 17 23.33 26.67 20.67 26.67 18.67 96.67 23.33 46.67 36.6796.67 66.67 80 47.33 73.33 70 76.67 79.33 Govt. Private 0 0 0 0 0 0 Change 0 6.67 3.33 3.33 0 2.67 Degraded Extremely Degraded Individual ToiletPublic Toilet 0Open DefecationAverage 93.33 6.67 0very Poor 63.33 36.67 0 66.67 3.33 100By Ragpickers/ 0Scavenger 36.67 86.66Municipality 60On Road 3.33 BodiesNear Water 83.33 46.67 56.67 43.33 50 0 63.33 13.33 63.33 36 66.67 23 0.67 86.67 60 23.33 84 50 20 53.33 25.33 56 Pvt. HospitalsTraditional practitioner 0 Municipal Water Supply 90 30 50 66.67 80 30 26.67 48.67 facilities Disposalfacilities PoorCollection By 0 condition Dumping Drinking Water Facilities X9 Environmental No X8 Source of Hand Pump 50 20 36.67 50 13.33 66 X7 Medical Govt. Hospitals X10 Sanitation X11 Sewerage X12 Solid Waste By X13of Place Area fixed by Table 2. contd... Table 164 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
In the field of public health and their well-being, UN-SDGs had fixed four goals: First, toensure healthy lives and promote well-being. Second goal is to increase life expectancy. Third, to reduce child and maternal mortality and fourth was to combat malaria, tuberculosis, polio and the spread of HIV/AIDS. To achieve these goals certain target were fixed.The targets are to reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from pollution-related diseases no later than 2030. Reduce the global maternal mortality rate to less than 70 per 100,000 live births and reduce preventable deaths of newborn at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live births till 2030. Further, targets are to reduce child mortality (under- 5 age) at least as low as 25 per 1,000 live births and end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases no later than 2030.On the other side, India vision 2020 has the goal of expansion of the infrastructure for public health and medical care to ensure health for all. However, the real situation of public health and well-being of slum dwellers of Kanpur cityare rather dismal. More than 48 per cent households prefer traditional practitioners (Jhola Chap Doctors). On the other hand,about 66 per cent household of sample slums use water from hand pump for drinking, which are not up to the mark. In case of clean water and sanitation the SDGs had targeted goal: to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. For this, several targets have been set so that the goal can be achieved in due course of time. These targets are achieving universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water , access to adequate, equitable sanitation and hygiene for all as well as end open defecation till 2030.By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally.In familiar context, the vision 2020 documents aim to expand the physical infrastructure; to maximize national prosperity, individual freedom and social equity. However the condition of clean water and sanitation in sample slum is far from reality; the strategies targeted by SDGs and vision 2020, failed to reach in Kanpur slums. There are more than 61 per cent houses of sample slums are in thatched condition. And less than 20 per cent households use electricity as a source of energy for lighting where majority of them have no legal connection. On the other hand, only 26 per cent households throw their waste at place fixed by municipality for dumping. About 74 per cent residents throw their waste on road side and near water bodies. While 66 per cent sample residents use water from hand-pump for drinking, that are not up to the level of expectation. There are more than 79 per cent solid waste collected by rag pickers and 84 per cent households of sample slums have very poor conditioned sewerage facilities. Similarly more than 63 per cent population prefer open defecation. The comparative study of slum dwellers in Kanpur city with respect to SDGs and national goals portrays a pathetic picture. In order to achieve these goals, one has to understand the consequence of the problems related to slums. NO. 2 LINKING QUALITY OF LIFE OF SLUM DWELLERS OF KANPUR CITY 165
Table 3: UN-SDGs, India Vision 2020 and status of slums of Kanpur City UN- SDGs India Vision 2020 Status of sample slums
EDUCATION Goals: Goals: z More than 66 per cent population is illiterate z Ensure inclusive and z 100 per cent literacy equitable quality education and & schooleducation, and z More than 82 per cent promote lifelong vocationaltraining population are labourer learning opportunities for all Targets: z Child labour is also Targets: predominant in the city z Male adult literacy rate z By 2030, ensure that all girls (per cent): 68(96) percent z Large number of women and boys have access to quality and children are also z Female adult literacy early childhood development, engaged in the collection of rate (per cent): 44 (94) care and pre-primary education solid waste and its percent so that they are ready for segregation. primary education. z Net primary school enrolmentratio: 77.2 (99) z By 2030, ensure that all girls percent and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary • Public expenditure and secondary education leading oneducation as percent of to relevant and effective learning GNP:3.2 (4.9) percent outcomes.
z By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy
GOOD Goals: Goals: z More than 48 per cent HEALTH households prefer z Ensure healthy lives and z Expansion of the AND WELL- promote well-being infrastructurefor public traditional practitioners BEING health and medicalcare to (Jhola Chap Doctors) z Increasing life expectancy ensure health for all. z About 66 per cent z Reduce child and maternal Targets: household of sample slums mortality use water from hand pump zLife expectancy at birth z Reduce malaria, tuberculosis, for drinking, which are not polio and the spread of HIV/ inyears:64 (69) up to mark. AIDS. z Infant mortality rate 166 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Targets: per 1000live births :71(22.5) z Reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from pollution- zChild malnutrition as related diseases. per cent ofchildren under 5 years based onweight z By 2030, reduce the global for age:45(8 maternal mortality rate to less than 70 per 100,000 live births.
z By 2030, reduce preventable deaths of new born at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live births.
z By 2030, reduce child mortality (under-5 age) at least as low as 25 per 1,000 live births.
z By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases.
z By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including for family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national strategies and programmes.
CLEAN Goals: z Continuous expansion z Only 26 per cent WATER AND z Ensure availability and of thephysical households throw their SANITATION sustainable management of infrastructure waste at place fixed by water and sanitation for all municipality for dumping. z To maximise z About 74 per cent Targets: nationalprosperity, residents throw their waste individual freedomand zBy 2030, achieve universal on road side and near water social equity and equitable access to safe and bodies. affordable drinking water for all Targets: z About 66 per cent zBy 2030, achieve access to Electric power sample residents use water adequate and equitable consumption percapita from hand pump for sanitation and hygiene for all (kwh):384(2460) drinking, which are not up and end open defecation, paying Puccahouses for every to mark. special attention to the needs slumdweller (RGHS) z More than 79 per cent of women and girls and those solid waste collected by rag in vulnerable situations. pickers. NO. 2 LINKING QUALITY OF LIFE OF SLUM DWELLERS OF KANPUR CITY 167
•By 2030, improve water z About 84 per cent quality by reducing pollution, households of sample eliminating dumping and slums have very poor minimizing release of hazardous condition sewerage chemicals and materials, halving facilities. the proportion of z More than 63 per cent untreated wastewater and population prefer open substantially increasing defecation. recycling and safe z More than 61 per cent reuse globally. houses of sample slums are in thatched condition. zMore than 74 per cent households usekerosene as a source of energy for lighting.
Source: Compiled from (a) http://www.undp.org.in/indg.htm (b) Government of India (2002) & (c) Sample Survey (2016)
Conclusion As the current pace of urbanization is bound to accelerate due to the factors of rural-urban migration and in situ population growth, we need to put our minds together to find meaningful solution to these problems. If urbanization has to act as a positive force in economic development, we should avoid the past mistakes and aim at an urban and regional planning system that is inclusive and does not exclude the poor and informal sector.The present study highlights that, low and very low quality of life exists in the slums of Kanpur city. The housing, literacy and medical facilities are poor, the lack of piped water supply in the slum areas leading to high dependence on ground water, the lack of proper waste disposal facility and poor sewage system leading to pollution and health related problems and the level of disparity is related to the socio-economic setup of the city. Although Government has launched several programme and policies related to poverty alleviation for slum dwellers but these are not up to mark. Even though, the quality of life is low in all sample slums but it varies from one slum to another. The suggestion therefore is to improve the socio-economic condition which led to improvement of quality of life in slums. For this, there is a need of strengthening the role of NGO’s and private sector in slum up-gradation, participatory planning for slum areas, gender based planning and other inclusive planning measures. Finally, there is a need of holistic work to understand the above mention issues at city level as well as to analyse linkage among proliferation of slums, ‘urbanization of poverty’ and ‘poverty in planning’. In principle, cities offer a more favourable setting for the resolution of social and environmental problems than rural areas (UNFPA, 2007). The future of humanity depends on how we deal problems and challenges of urbanisation and unequal development. 168 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
References Census of India (2001). (Series 1) Slum Population 640 Cities and Towns Reporting Slums. Registrar general and Census Commissioner, India, New Delhi, Census of India, (2011). Town Village Directory. http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/censusdata2k11.aspx Accessed in December, 2018 Das, Biplab, Khara, U., Giri, P., &Bandhyopadhyay, A. (2012). The Challenges of slum Development in India, A Case Study of Melatala-Das Nagar Slum Area of Howrah Municipal Corporation. International Journal of Advance System and social Engineering Research, 2(1), 22-27 Jha, D. and Tripathi, V. K. (2015). Achieving Millennium Development Goals and India Vision 2020: Evidences from the Slums of Varanasi City. Space and Culture, India, 2(4), 49- 59 JNNURM, (2006). Kanpur City Development Plan. Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewak Mission Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD), (2014). City Sanitation Plan for Kanpur City. Kanpur Nagar Nigam, Govt. of India National Building Organization (NBO) (2011). Report on the Committee on Slum Statistics/census. Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, Govt. of India, New Delhi. RCUES, (2013). Slum Free City Plan of Action Plan-Kanpur. Regional Centre for Urban and Environmental Studies, Osmania University, Hyderabad Sundari, S. (2003). Quality Of Life of Migrant Households in Urban Slums. In Martin J. Bunch, V. Madha Suresh and T. Vasantha Kumaran, (Eds.), Proceedings of the ThirdInternational Conference on Environment and Health, Chennai, India, 15-17 December, 2003. Chennai: Department of Geography, University of Madras and Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, 537 – 552. Suresh, V. (2002). India Vision 2020. Available online at www.urban.India. Tripathi, (2010). Socio-Economic Status of Urban poor living in Slums of Varanasi City. BhootalDigdarshan (Earth Science Review), BhaugolikVikashSodhSansthan, Gorakhpur, 1(2). UNFPA (2007). Linking Population, Poverty and Development. http://www.unfpa.org/pds/urbanisation.htm Accessed in December, 2018 United Nations (2016). http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html Accessed in December, 2018 World Bank (2003). Upgrading Urban Communities: A resource for practitioners. Available online at http:// web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/upgrading/, Accessed on December 12, 2003.
Received : 7th March, 2018 Revised : 11th August, 2018 NO.Ind. J.2 of LandscapeENCROACHMENT Systems and OF Ecological LANDS FOR Studies BHERI-FISHERIES 41 (2) December AND - 2018, ITS ADVERSE169 - 178 EFFECTSISSN 0971-4170 169
Encroachment of Lands for Bheri-fisheries and its Adverse Effects on the Localities in the District of North 24 Parganas, West Bengal
Sipra Biswas*
Abstract : Bheri-fisheries are cultured in the twelve C.D. blocks situated in the south and eastern skirts of North 24 Parganas district. Bheri has a vital role in local livelihood and economy, though at the same time it calls for some adverse effects like swallowing of agricultural lands, spreading of salinization, providing environmental degradation along with depletion of biodiversity, creating various societal problems and complications etc. Thus the bheri in the district has dual-edged effects.
Keywords : Bheri-fisheries, Encroachment, West Bengal
Introduction Bheri is a local name of a typical inland fishery in West Bengal (WB) cultured in shallow wet land in which depth of water seldom exceeds 1.00 mm (Ghosh, 2002). It takes a significant role in food and nutritional security particularly in rural Bengal and broadly in rural India. In WB bheri- fishery is in existence from time-immemorial in the Hooghly-Matla estuarine systems. This state occupies the highest position in India in terms of area covered by brackish-water bheri (Annual Report, 2009-10, MPEDA, Ministry of C&I, GoI) and it is concentrated in three coastal districts viz. North 24 Parganas (34,000 ha), South 24 Parganas (10,000 ha) and Purba Medinipur (4,000 ha) (Director of Fishery, Govt. of WB). Paddy-cum-fish culture is an age-old practice in North 24 Parganas like in other parts in India following traditional procedures in farming though beginning of scientific culture is a recent phenomenon (mid 1980’s and by mid 1990’s) (NABARD’s Initiatives). However, market-oriented and export-driven prawn culture is the main causal effect in the district to convert the lands to aquaculture (here bheri-fishery). In the 1980’s such transformation took a fast pace as a result of various measures and policies taken by the Government to encourage inland fishery since marine-shrimp-catch was then rapidly reaching a plateau. Thus after 1990’s such conversion took place with the highest acceleration because of adopting new economic
* Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Kultali Dr. B. R. Ambedkar College, Kultali, South 24 Parganas, e-mail Id: [email protected]/ [email protected] 170 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 policies by the Government in 1990s. The local farmers vis-à-vis the outside-investors came forward to acquire more and more lands for bheri-culture. Consequently the lands that were previously used for other purposes like agricultural activities, settlement, mangrove plants, grazing of livestock (fallow land), and production of indigenous & capture fish etc, were then being swallowed for bheri-farming. That is, as a result of such encroaching, the land use pattern might have been changed in some particular areas of the district and as well, the net area sown was following a shrinking trend. Of course, no such significant increase in bheri-area has taken place in the district in the recent past, i.e., such transformation has got almost saturated.
The Study Area Bheri-culture is practiced almost all over the coastal states in India, though with different local names and in different procedures. However, for easy and convenient approach the present study is limited to the saline water bheries in North 24 Parganas, WB, India. The district is located in the south eastern part of the state West Bengal (India) adjoining Bangladesh and almost in the heart of Bengal Delta bounded by the river Hooghly and Nadia district to the west, Bangladesh and Nadia to the north, Bangladesh to the east, South 24 Parganas to the south and Kolkata to the south-west. It lies within 22o11’06’’N to 23o01’02’’N of latitudes and 88o20’E to 89o05’E of longitudes covering an area of 4,094 sq km and a population of 1,00,82,852 (20011 Census). North 24 Parganas comprises the largest share with more than 60% of total brackish water bheri-area in entire WB. Of course, in this district there are other types of inland water resources which are being used for pisciculture, but brackish water bheri alone constitutes more than 40% of the total inland water resource-area. In the district bheri exists in twelve blocks vide Barasat-II, Deganga, Rajarhat, Baduria, Haroa, Minakhan, Hasnabad, Hingalgunj, Sandeshkhali- I&II, and Bashirhat-I&II where in the so called bheri is locally known as ‘gher’, ‘gheri’, ‘jalkor’, bhasabandha etc. The areas are criss-crossed by innumerous tidal rivers and tributaries and literally characterized by delta formation.
Data Source The saline water bheries have been identified in the district from IRS P6 (Resource Sat-I), LISS-III dated 03.02.10. The map has been taken from National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO), India. Some information and data have been found based on empirical evidences and intensive field works with an integrated approach. The secondary sources like published literatures, Govt. and non-Govt. organizations, different research institutes, websites etc also have contributed significantly to this work.
Discussion and Findings Saline water bheri-culture has been being practiced in south and south-eastern part of the district since a long past by enclosing low lands with earthen dykes. Though during the last few decades bheri-area has expanded considerably in those areas swallowing more and more agricultural lands and at the same time semi-scientific procedures were being adopted also. NO. 2 ENCROACHMENT OF LANDS FOR BHERI-FISHERIES AND ITS ADVERSE EFFECTS 171
Map-1 Brackishwater Bheri Area in 1980-81 and 2012-13 172 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 i) Swallowing of Agricultural Lands by Bheri In the district the area of such typical aquaculture was 14,000 ha only in 1978, 15,000 ha in 1980, which reached to the tune of 30,000 ha in 1990 and now it is around 34,000 ha (Ghosh, 1990 and Deptt. of Fishery, Govt. of WB). That has been depicted in the map-1. However, such new bheries have evolved particularly at the cost of agricultural lands. As a result the land use pattern in those areas was changed due to advent of new bheries which again was drastic in nature during the 1980’s pushing the quantum of land previously meant for agriculture and other uses to its edge. Agricultural production, extension of settlement-area, forestation, adopting various development-works etc had been shrinking as a result of expansion of bheries and consequently more pressure was observed to take place on rest of the lands. The Fig.1 shows the incremental change of bheri area vis-à-vis the dwindling trend of net agricultural land in the concerned blocks of the district together.
Fig. 1: Bheri area and net agricultural area in the 13 blocks together from 1978-2013. Source: Ghosh, 1990, Deptt. Of Agriculture and Deptt. of Fishery, GoWB. ii) Law and Order Problems due to Bheries The bheri belt of the district is always the subject of debate on law and order. Some places like Shason, Kharibari, Bada, Haroa etc remain frequently on headlines of hot news. In these areas large numbers of bheries are being farmed on the vested lands. Here question is the custody of control over the lands lying vested in the areas since a section of the local people get shares of the money earned by giving those vested lands on lease to the bheri-farmers. All the local chiefs and political leaders try to bring the vested lands under their control even with the help of a section of administration, local and outside anti-socials, outside political influences etc. NO. 2 ENCROACHMENT OF LANDS FOR BHERI-FISHERIES AND ITS ADVERSE EFFECTS 173
Again, in almost all the areas there exists a formal committee which looks after the auctioning process, lease-arrangement including rates of giving lease, bheri related disputes, interests of the beneficiaries etc and some where even the marketing of the bheri-products. Here also the local elites and political parties try to interfere that committee and hence a chance of competition always remains among them. Such type of irrational competition calls for frequent conflicts and subsequently results into problems of law and order. In some cases the local chiefs and political parties apply muscle power to acquire the vested lands and control over that committee. This process may also help to increase corruption among the law enforcement authorities. However, all the complaints of law and order may not be lodged as official records of the administration. On the other hand all the recorded cases may not be identified whether they occurred as a result of bheri related problems or not. Hence, it is very much difficult to assess the number of cases of law and order problem related to bheri in the district even with the records available with the police administration. That is why this author made a field survey among the local people excluding the bheri-owners and political leaders with a formal questionnaire to assess the law and order problems in the areas persisted in relation to bheri. At least 30 people of different villages in each block totaling 419 persons were questioned whether there were any bheri-related law and order problems and anti-social activities within last five years or not. More than 50% people on total claimed that there were some law and order problems and anti-social activities related to bheri in the areas. Percentage of people claiming law and order problems and anti-social activities related to bheri has been shown with circle diagram in the map-2 against twelve blocks surveyed. It is observed that in Barasat-II block the percentage is found maximum (75.61%) and in Hasnabad and Sandeshkhali-I blocks it is minimum. It is here mentioned that Shasan Gram Panchayet is situated within Barasat-II block and in and around Shasan considerable area of land is lying vested where bheri is farmed. iii) Interference in the Localities for Existence of Bheri In the bheri areas of North 24 Parganas many outside-people come for various purposes. They want to get control over the local people. Thus, they influence or interfere the activities of the local people or the societies in general consciously or unconsciously. To assess the matter the author made a field survey among the local general people excluding the bheri-owners and political leaders with a formal questionnaire so as to know whether there is any interference of out-side people come in relation to bheri over the local people and societies. A total of 419 persons in twelve blocks were questioned whether there was any sorts of interference or influence of out-side people on the local people. The result has been depicted in the map-3. Over all 63.25% person claimed existence of interference of out-side people come in the locality in relation to bheri in some way or other. 174 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 iv) Loss of Fish Diversity Though bheri-farming industry is going on with significant boost in economy, development of various allied sectors etc, it has simultaneously set high adverse effect on livelihood of the local folks by destruction of biodiversity like depletion of forest, indigenous plants, crops, animals, fishes, shrimps etc and reduction of availability of different fishes and shrimps in rivers, canal etc. All these may have serious implications for the sustainability of the local folks and the shrimp- farming itself. Such deterioration of local and region-wise environmental capacity has happened due to unplanned and unregulated growth of the same. Traditionally the mangroves provide some goods and services to the local human communities, fishes and animals. In general these mangroves, directly or indirectly, are one of the victimized components of the environs. In many pockets of the district bheri had grown up destroying the ecologically sensitive areas like mangroves and marshes which, in turn, are attributing a great deal of economic and social adverse impacts to the local people. Hence, these typical ecosystems which are the natural and suitable breeding and nursery and shelter-ground for various fishes, crustaceans and mollusks, play an important role in soil building, as a source of nutrient recycling. That is, bheri-culture is directly responsible for reduction in capture of fish in those areas which can lead to affecting the socio-economic conditions of the artisanal fishermen. The table-1 gives an idea of reduction of mangroves in Sundarban which includes North 24 Parganas.
Table-1: Estimates of Mangrove Systems in West Bengal (Sunderban)
Survey Ministry of National Institute MoEF Fishery Survey Done by Environment and of Oceanography of India (FSI) Forests (MoEF) (NIO)
Year 1987 1992 1994 1997 Area 4200 sq. km 2300 sq. km. 2119 sq. km. 2123 sq. km
Source: “Pollution Potential from Coastal Aquaculture”, Central Pollution Control Board, Ministry of environment and Forests, Govt. of India, COPOCS/31/2005-06, April 2005.
Both the wild and hatchery seeds of tiger prawn are reared up in the bheries of North 24 Parganas. The wild seeds are caught from the canals, rivers, creeks etc in the estuaries of North and South 24 Parganas mostly by the children and women using push net, drag net, bag net etc. But only the desired seed of tiger prawn are not captured in the nets. All sorts of seeds and fingerlings of different fishes and prawns are collected along with the target seeds of tiger shrimp, though only the demand-oriented costly seeds of tiger shrimp and other prawns are segregated, collected and stocked for selling since only they have demand for the local bheries. All the other seeds and fingerlings are dumped on the river banks and died ultimately. Thus, 90 to 95% seeds of other fish and prawns are destroyed after discrimination and collection of those sellable seeds. This NO. 2 ENCROACHMENT OF LANDS FOR BHERI-FISHERIES AND ITS ADVERSE EFFECTS 175 is, probably the worst impact on general environment particularly towards depletion of the local biodiversity in the water courses which ultimately leads to shrinking of capture fishery in the localities and affecting the occupational as well as protein-shortage crisis.
Photographs Related to Depletion of Biodiversity
Plate No. 1: Catching “Meen” by seed net Plate No. 2: Dumped & damaged unwanted species
Plate No. 3: GuriKhalse (Endangered Species) Plate No.4: Nadosh (Endangered Species) v) Loss of Control over the Lands and Shifting of Power to the Periphery There is an uneven distribution of land-ownership in several pockets of the bheri areas in the district. Years after years many of the landless or marginal agricultural farmers found their right to cultivate lands in the form of barga or lease-cultivation paying some prefixed monetary amount or quantity of crops to the owner of the lands. But at the advent of bheri the land owners found it more profitable to farm bheries in the lands or give the lands to the bheri-farmers on lease. Hence, the then existing bargadar or lease-takers who were cultivating agricultural crops, lost their control over the lands and the same went to the grip of the official land-owners or bheri-farmers as the case may be. 176 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
There arises another type of problem among the land owners which begins with loosing of authority even over their own lands. Some land owners or bargadars may keep themselves reluctant to provide their lands for bheri-farming, rather they may insist to cultivate any agricultural crops at their own choices. But when their lands lie within the particular bheri-area or the local powerful elites decides to make bheri in a particular land-area the land-owners or bargadars are undone but to provide the lands on lease for farming of bheri. In some cases lands are forcefully taken by the influential bheri-farmers for the purpose and the actual land-owners get nominal or even no remuneration. This process has been accelerating pushing of a great portion of the local people towards more marginalness even to landlessness. In some cases, outsiders without having any land (in the bheri-areas) or even any affinity or emotion or weakness to the local people take control of the related lands even of the entire areas by way of providing capital and forming alliances with local powerful people for the purpose of extracting money and opportunities. Ultimately control over the land-farming or power in the areas shifts from the common people to either the outsiders or the local influential individuals. Thus at the advent of bheri-culture the landless and marginal agricultural farmers lost their control over the lands they previously had and some land owners lost freedom to cultivate the lands at their own choices. Again, since the bheri cultivation has now been turned into a commercial proposition by the financially solvent and elite-outsiders who mostly seek for their own interests, they are practically reluctant and insensitive to the local people. Again most of the bheri-owners maintain direct and good links with the government-officials, administration and political resources and muscle-power. Hence, the extending domain of dominance of the influencing individuals in the name of bheri- farming has been generating different types of insecurities among the local common people resulting into various conflicts and chief of them are mentioned here under: a) Conflicts between Local and Outside Labourers All the bheri-producers prefer to employ the labourers or even managers of their own control or from outside the localities to avoid revealing some typical secrets or to earn more against lower investment. Hence, this creates a vacuum in the local structure of employment, though employment as a whole remains the same. Ultimately conflicts occur between the local and outside labourers. b) Conflicts between Local Common People and Bheri-owners Bheri-farming has now become a capital intensive industry and hence more and more economically solvent outside-elites have been investing in the same resulting into increase of rate of leasing. Hence, the local shrimp producers do consider the outside producers as their rivals and enemies and be afraid of losing control over the lands, though it may financially be benefitted to the land owners. Again social status and power of local elites decline at the advent of outside elites who are practically of urban residence and enjoy more economic strength, higher linkage with NO. 2 ENCROACHMENT OF LANDS FOR BHERI-FISHERIES AND ITS ADVERSE EFFECTS 177 administration, greater political holds etc. And ultimately there grows a tendency to dominate the local power-structure by replacing local elites. This turns the local shrimp producers to move against outside bheri-owners. In case of joint ventures by the local and outside growers, there also is a chance of contradictions between them on several issues. In order to maintain an exclusive management style, the owners keep the view of deploying minimum number of operators and staffs in the industry. They also prefer to have the managers at their choices to ease the process of gaining maximum profit and suppress some unlawful things. At the same time they try to bring the neighbouring smaller farms under their larger operations. The outsider-owners also want a total control over the common channel which is used by all the related bheri owners for the purpose of providing influent saline water required for bheri-farming. After all, unlike locals the outsiders are purely profit-oriented and do not care any societal or environment impact of bheri-culture in the areas. These ultimately result into great implications in the localities. In some cases the farm-owners, local or outside, take lease from the absentee land owners keeping the rent-rate secret from the other land-owners. Again the surrounding land-owners are also forced or provoked by them. In these cases the land-owners are occasionally paid lower rents. However, based on the above it may be concluded that the benefits coming out of bheri- farming in the rural areas are biased and the control-power is seized by the group of elite people, local or otherwise. Thus all sorts of benefits seem to be minimal or even negative due to the outflow of positive return of bheries from centre to the periphery.
Conclusion Farming of bheri in south and eastern skirts of North 24 Parganas has a long tradition though they are run in traditional or improved traditional ways and not in scientific manners. The growth of bheri took a great pace in the eighties which has now reached almost a plateau. In parallel with their high value economic returns the bheries call for some adverse effect like swallowing of agricultural lands, mangrove-forests, spreading of salinization etc, creating various types of societal problems, increasing of unemployment, law and order situation etc in the localities, providing environmental degradation, decreasing biodiversity and so on. Of course, most of the local people, as per the author’s survey, welcome bheri-farming in the district. However, bheri-farming in the district should be in scientific manners not only for the sake of the local people, but also broadly for the nation as a whole and the environment in general.
References Annual Report, (2009-10) : The Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA), India, Page 3- 4. Central Pollution Control Board, Ministry of environment and Forests, Govt of India, COPOCS/31/2005-06, (April 2005) : “Pollution Potential from Coastal Aquaculture”, Page 1, 23. Deptt. of Fishery, Govt. of WB, (2009-10) : Extracted from Hand Book on Fishery Statistics, WB. 178 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Deptt. of Fishery, Govt. of WB, (2003-04) : Hand Book on Fishery Statistics, WB. Ghosh A., (1990) : Rice-cum-Fish Culture and its Economic Feasibility in the book “Technologies for Inland Fisheries Development”, Page 69-75. Ghosh A., (1990) : “Culture Prospects of Brackishwater Finfish and Shellfish and Their Economics published in the book “Technologies for Inland Fisheries Development” Edited by VV Sugunan and UtpalBhowmik, Central Inland Fishery Research Institute (CIFRI), Barrackpur and Department of Fisheries, Government of WB. Ghosh A., (2002) : Ecology and Fisheries of Estuarine Wetlands of West Bengal, Central Inland Fishery Research Institute (CIFRI) Bulletin No. 111, page 1-2.
Received : 11th January, 2018 Revised : 5th October, 2018 NO.Ind. J.2 of Landscape TRENDS Systems AND DYNAMICS and Ecological OF FEMALEStudies 41 WORK (2) December PARTICIPATION - 2018, 179 IN - 188BACKWARDISSN 0971-4170 179
Trends and Dynamics of Female Work Participation in Backward Class Population: A Case Study of Scheduled Caste Females in Nadia District, West Bengal
Supriya Ghosh1*and Sahina Khatun2
Abstract : Since historical past, Indian society is oppressed by caste system. Scheduled caste (SC) is one of the weaker groups in the society and female population of this group reveals more lagging status in socioeconomic strata. So, the paper has tried to analyse the status of scheduled caste women through their involvement in work in Nadia district, West Bengal. The analysis of census data has revealed that total work participation as well as male work participation rate of scheduled caste people both in rural and urban areas of Nadia district registered an increasing trend from 2001 to 2011 but showed a declining work participation rate for women. Female work participation rate (FWPR) is higher in backward class than general caste females and SC female has recorded higher percentage in main worker category than marginal as well as higher participation in non- agricultural sector than agriculture sector. But, the literacy rate is lower than general caste females. Scheduled caste Women’s active participation in workforce in Nadia can help to increase economic development of the district and by this their status can be determined.
Keywords : Female work participation, Nadia, Scheduled castes
Introduction Scheduled castes are known for their backwardness in society. The term ‘Scheduled Caste’ was first introduced by the Simon commission in 1935. According to government of India Act 1935, all the untouchable castes became known as the scheduled caste. Article 366(244) of the Indian constitution mentioned that “scheduled caste” means such castes, races or tribes or parts of or groups within such castes, races or tribes as are deemed under article 341 to be scheduled castes for the purpose of this constitution (Karade, 2008). Karade mentioned that Scheduled castes are known as backward class due to their ‘unemployment’, ‘dependence on agriculture’, ‘illiteracy’ and ‘social segregation’. Parvathamma (1981) in his paper observed that Scheduled caste people, the weaker section of society are exploited by their ‘economic vulnerability’. Singh and Upadhyay
1 Research Scholar (UGC-JRF), Department of Geography, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, Nadia 2 Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, Nadia Email for correspondence: [email protected] * Corresponding author 180 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
(2017) has pointed out Some factors like economic pressure, desire of family members, availability of job, increasing status in society etc. are influences scheduled caste women to participate in work. “In India nature of exclusion and discrimination is strongly associated with the strong social institution of caste which provided unequal rights and occupational choices to individuals not by their merit but simply their birth in a caste group” (Mamgain, 2014:19). Desai and Dubey (2011) said that ‘Inequality of opportunity’ and ‘inequality of outcome’ are two major concern of caste inequality. “Scheduled caste women are discriminated when they are poor, when they are women and when they belonged to scheduled caste family” (Ashappa, 2015:45). Ashappa also said that Scheduled caste women can recovery themselves from discrimination and upgrading their status by take in higher education. Rayappa and Grover (1979) and Pandey (1986) observed that Scheduled caste women are less educated than general caste women due to “poverty’ and ‘economic backwardness’. Roy (2012) explained that Scheduled caste female’s participation in work is more as compared to general caste female but the quality of job is low among scheduled caste female than general caste. The status of scheduled caste working women is low because of their early marriage, poor education and less decision making ability (Ghosh, 2016). “In the practice of Devadasi system where the teen age scheduled caste girls get married to the god and afterward they will be turned into prostitution” (Sushma, 2016:66).The present study has focused on work participation state of scheduled caste women and tried to perceive their status in Nadia district, West Bengal. The work participation rate of SC women is 13.34 per cent in Nadia district which is low as compared to national (28.30 per cent) and state (21.54 per cent) level. But the work participation rate of SC men is 58.46 per cent in the district which is higher than national (52.75 per cent) and state (57.99 per cent) level. So the male female difference in work participation of scheduled caste is much higher at district level than national and state level (Census of India, 2011).
Objectives
z To analyse the trends of work participation and literacy of scheduled caste women in the study area z To find out the spatial dynamics of working category of SC women z To determine the factors related to scheduled caste women work participation
Methodology The study has used census data of the year 2001 and 2011. Some other secondary data sources have also been used. According to Indian census, the following measures have been used- Female work participation rate (FWPR) = (Total female worker/ Total female population) × 100. Female literacy rate= (Female literates/ Female population excluding 0-6 female population) × 100. The study has applied correlation matrix to study the relationship of FWPR (Y) and the different variables such as female literacy rate (X1), sex ratio (X2), male work participation rate (X3), urban female population (X4), female cultivator (X5), female agricultural labourer (X6), female household industry worker (X7), female other worker (X8) and female non-agricultural worker (X9). NO. 2 TRENDS AND DYNAMICS OF FEMALE WORK PARTICIPATION IN BACKWARD 181 Location Map Fig. 1 182 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
The Study Area Nadia district is extended between 22º00’53" N - 24º00’11" N of latitudes and 88º00’09" E - 88º00’48" E of longitudes in the state of West Bengal (Fig.1). The area of the district is 3,927 sq. km. and lies 46 feet above the mean sea level. Nadia district got its nomenclature from Nabadwip (not the headquarters but the block of the district). There are 17 Community Development (C.D.) Blocks, 8 Municipalities and 2 Notified Areas. The important rivers that flow through the district are Bhagirathi, Jalangi and Churni. The climate of the district is characterised by hot summer, high humidity and well distributed rainfall during the south-west monsoon season. Total population of the study area is 5167600, among them male population is 51.35 per cent and female population is 48.65 per cent. In terms of total population 29.93 per cent SC population is observed in the study area (Census of India, 2011).
Results and Discussion According to census data 2011, total SC worker in Nadia district is 566526 among them, male worker is 82.37 per cent and female worker is 17.63 per cent and 2001 census data recorded total 477301 SC workers where male worker was 78.39 per cent and female worker was 21.61 per cent. Table 1: FWPR, Female Literacy Rate and Sex Ratio of Scheduled and Non-scheduled Group in Nadia District (2001-2011)
Caste Total/ FWPR Female Literacy Sex Ratio Group Rural/ ( per cent) Rate ( per cent) Urban 2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011
SC Total 15.50 13.34 53.94 67.29 950 938 Rural 14.50 11.60 52.48 65.36 947 933 Urban 20.19 18.19 60.66 72.60 961 953 ST Total 33.93 27.46 29.20 49.98 982 978 Rural 34.81 27.76 27.77 47.87 979 974 Urban 26.51 25.72 40.81 62.03 1000 1002 Non-SC/ ST Total 12.71 10.00 63.14 73.45 942 950 Rural 11.60 7.43 57.29 68.22 937 943 Urban 16.30 16.18 81.01 85.54 962 968
Source: Calculated data based on Census of India 2001 and 2011
From table-1, it is clear that SC female is showing declining WPR but recorded increasing literacy rate from 2001 to 2011. Sex ratio is also showing the decreasing trend for SC on that decade. NO. 2 TRENDS AND DYNAMICS OF FEMALE WORK PARTICIPATION IN BACKWARD 183
Work participation rate of scheduled caste women is low as compared to scheduled tribe women both in rural and urban Nadia but higher in comparison to non-scheduled women and literacy rate of SC women has found the opposite scenario with ST and non-SC/ST women. Sex ratio is low among SC than ST and non-SC/ST. Sex ratio may be declined by expectation of male child, female infanticide, maternal mortality etc. In table-2, it is found that all the age groups and education levels in both the year 2001 and 2011 (except 5-14 age groups in the year 2011) showing higher percentage of main worker than marginal of SC female. Declining WPR of SC female is also found over the decade (2001-2011) among all the age groups and education levels. SC women’s work participation rate is more in 15-34 and 35-59 age groups and relatively less in 5-14 and above 60 age groups and also more among illiterates than literates in both the year. WPR of SC women decreases with increasing their age i.e. above 60 age groups and also decreases with declining the percentage of worker at 5-14 age groups i.e. girl child worker. Scheduled caste women who have achieved post graduate degree indicate high WPR than graduate and below graduate. In the other way their WPR is more in below secondary level than secondary level because with increasing level their job aspiration depends on job
Table 2: Different Age Groups and Education Levels of SC Women in Nadia (2001- 2011)
Category Sub-category SC Women 2001 2011 Main Marginal FWPR Main Marginal FWPR Worker Worker Worker Worker (per cent) (per cent) (per cent) (per cent) (per cent) (per cent)
5-14 57.34 42.66 2.85 43.50 56.50 1.11 Age 15-34 62.19 37.81 22.31 61.87 38.13 15.87 Group 35-59 65.62 34.38 27.31 69.08 30.92 22.83 60+ 62.69 37.31 9.61 69.21 30.79 8.13 Education Level Illiterate 64.63 35.37 16.73 66.63 33.37 13.84 Literate 61.60 38.40 14.09 64.80 35.20 13.01 Literate but below matric/secondary 60.29 39.71 13.61 63.18 36.82 12.65 Matric/secondary but below graduate 63.89 36.11 12.99 66.14 33.86 10.24 Graduate 79.52 20.48 27.03 86.01 13.99 26.53 post-graduate degree 94.26 5.74 56.48 96.73 3.27 54.18
Source: Calculated data based on Census of India 2001 and 2011 184 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 satisfaction and below secondary level they can involve any kind of work for earning money without thinking about status. But WPR is comparatively low among those SC women who cannot find their job according to their qualification and choices. So, where illiterate women can easily involve any kind of work to fulfill their basic needs, literate women with high educational qualification prefer job satisfaction. This is the reason for higher WPR of SC female among illiterate than literate.
Block Level Analysis of data In 2001, FWPR was the highest (30.27 per cent) in Nakashipara and lowest (6.99 per cent) in Krishnaganj and in 2011, it is highest (24.54 per cent) in Nabadwip and Lowest (4.34 per cent) in Tehatta-II. All the blocks have exposed growing female literacy rate on that decadal period. Kaliganj block has recorded the lowest female literacy rate for both the census year. In 2001, highest female literacy was found in Ranaghat-II but in 2011 Hanskhali is achieved the highest percentage for it. In discussing female work participation rate and female literacy rate of scheduled caste (table-3) in the year 2001 and 2011, block level data of the study area expressed that except Krishnagar-II, Krishnaganj and Hanskhali, the other blocks have shown decreasing FWPR over the decade (2001 to 2011). The maximum declining rate of FWP on that decade is viewed in Nakashipara (-20.83 per cent). As WPR of SC women is more among illiterates than literates in the study area, their work participation rate is not increasing with their growing literacy rate from 2001 to 2011. In 2001, the percentage of female main worker was maximum in Santipur and minimum in Nakashipara and marginal worker was maximum in Nakashipara and minimum in Santipur. In 2011, the percentage of female main worker is highest in Ranaghat-I and lowest in Chapra and marginal worker is highest in Chapra and lowest in Ranaghat-I. The spatial distribution of main and marginal SC female workers in the year 2001 and 2011 and their decadal change (table-3) has recorded the positive change for main female worker in Karimpur-I, Tehatta-I, Tehatta-II, Nakashipara, Krishnagar- I, Hanskhali, Ranaghat-I, Ranaghat-II, Chakdah and Haringhata blocks and recorded the negative change for the rest blocks. Marginal female workers have found the inverse condition. So, the blocks which have shown positive value for main female worker also imply negative value for marginal female worker. Most of the blocks of Nadia district have higher percentage of SC main female worker than marginal female which indicates the tendency of SC women’s engagement in work more than six months of a year. In table-3, the decadal change (2001-2011) of four major working categories i.e. cultivator, agricultural labourer, household industry worker and other worker of SC women has recorded both positive and negative change for all the blocks. Among 17 C.D. blocks, only six blocks i.e. Nabadwip, Krishnaganj, Hanskhali, Santipur, Ranaghat-I and Ranaghat-II have recorded increasing percentage of SC women cultivator in the year 2011 from the previous census year 2001. Except Karimpur-I, all the blocks have found positive decadal change for SC women agricultural labourer. Work participation rate of SC women has increased in household industry from 2001 to 2011 in four blocks i.e. Karimpur- II (10.75 per cent), Nakashipara (9.80 per cent), Nabadwip (30.49 per cent) and Santipur (16.93 per NO. 2 TRENDS AND DYNAMICS OF FEMALE WORK PARTICIPATION IN BACKWARD 185
Table 3: Decadal Changes of WPR, Literacy Rate and Working Categories of SC Females in Nadia District (2001-2011)
C.D.BLOCKS FWPR Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Literacy Main Marginal Cultivator Agricultural Household Other Rate Worker Worker Worker Industry Worker Worker
Karimpur-I -1.01 11.68 19.16 -19.16 -1.10 -1.13 -1.65 3.89 Karimpur-II -1.29 12.20 -8.48 8.48 -15.22 4.34 10.75 0.13 Tehatta-I -0.98 14.91 8.23 -8.23 -1.50 1.10 -15.49 15.89 Tehatta-II -4.95 14.82 13.85 -13.85 -5.21 0.61 -2.57 7.17 Kaliganj -2.08 16.06 -11.68 11.68 -3.70 10.52 -2.20 -4.62 Nakashipara -20.83 14.38 26.17 -26.17 -17.70 1.10 9.80 6.80 Chapra -1.92 16.87 -9.23 9.23 -12.81 19.33 -9.25 2.73 Krishnagar-II 6.34 13.17 -28.31 28.31 -0.37 7.65 -12.01 4.73 Nabadwip -1.57 15.67 -9.08 9.08 0.32 2.61 30.49 -33.43 Krishnagar-I -0.05 13.56 0.43 -0.43 -0.99 2.95 -5.49 3.52 Krishnaganj 6.11 13.90 -9.96 9.96 1.66 8.83 -4.42 -6.06 Hanskhali 0.96 13.56 1.00 -1.00 2.19 3.68 -16.74 10.87 Santipur -5.83 14.96 -10.83 10.83 0.03 3.18 16.93 -20.13 Ranaghat-I -2.78 15.56 2.50 -2.50 0.04 2.94 -17.68 14.71 Ranaghat-II -2.18 10.22 1.75 -1.75 0.76 2.59 -11.59 8.25 Chakdah -3.09 10.30 7.33 -7.33 -2.88 12.36 -14.03 4.56 Haringhata -3.39 13.68 8.98 -8.98 -1.59 6.97 -5.56 0.18
Nadia -2.16 13.35 2.20 -2.20 -3.22 3.48 -4.16 3.90
Source: Calculated data based on Census of India 2001 and 2011 cent). Except Kaliganj, Nabadwip, Krishnaganj and Santipur the remaining blocks have found the positive change (2001-2011) for SC women in other worker category. In district level analysis, SC female cultivator and household industry worker have found negative change where positive change has been found in agricultural labourer and other worker. That means SC women increases their involvement in work as an agricultural labourer from 2001 to 2011 because higher level of education and skill is not needed in this type of work. On the 186 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 other hand SC women’s increasing participation rate in other work on this decade indicates their engagement in non-agricultural sector.
Table 4: Correlation Matrix of FWPR and different Variables of Scheduled Caste in Nadia District, West Bengal (2011)
Variables Y X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 Y 1.000
X 1 0.124 1.000
X 2 -0.349 -0.494* 1.000
X 3 0.589* 0.090 -0.016 1.000
X 4 0.569* 0.181 -0.350 0.337 1.000
X 5 -0.702** 0.296 0.246 -0.356 -0.493* 1.000
X 6 -0.468 -0.185 0.319 -0.034 -0.339 0.338 1.000
X 7 0.708** -0.105 -0.377 0.199 0.328 -0.573* -0.751** 1.000
X 8 -0.351 0.324 0.135 -0.176 0.052 0.199 -0.157 -0.511* 1.000
X 9 0.578* 0.102 -0.343 0.109 0.415 -0.525* -0.978** 0.805** 0.098 1.000 * Significant at the 0.05 level and ** significant at the 0.01 level Calculated data based on Census of India 2011
In table-4, no significant relation has found between female work participation (Y) rate and female literacy rate (X1). FWPR is negatively correlated with sex ratio (X2), female agricultural labourer (X6) and female other worker (X8). FWPR has revealed positive relationship with male work participation rate (X3) and female household industry worker (X7) which is significant at 0.05 and
0.01 level of significant respectively. Female cultivator (X5) is negatively correlated with FWPR at 0.01 percent significant level. Except sex ratio, no significant relation has found between female literacy rate and other variables. Female cultivator (X5) is negatively correlated with female household industry worker (X7) and female non-agricultural worker (X9). Female agricultural labourer (X6) is negatively correlated with female household industry worker (X7) and female non-agricultural worker
(X9). Positive significant relation at 0.01 percent level has observed between female household industry worker (X7) and female non-agricultural worker (X9). So, male work participation rate, urban female population, female household industry worker and female non-agricultural worker of scheduled caste have significant positive influence and sex ratio, female cultivator, female agricultural labourer and female other worker have negative influence on work participation of SC female in the study area. Positively correlated variables increase the participation of SC female in workforce but negatively correlated variables referred the opposite scenario. NO. 2 TRENDS AND DYNAMICS OF FEMALE WORK PARTICIPATION IN BACKWARD 187
Conclusion Division of caste is one of the major problems in our society. Working nature of scheduled caste people is different from non-scheduled group in terms of gender difference, work pattern, education level etc. The status of SC women especially working women is not so encouraging in the Nadia district. Improper education and skill, poor health condition, early marriage, unequal wage, less work participation rate, lack of knowledge about government rules and regulations may be the major hindrances for improving their status in society. So, by the active participation of SC women in work with developed education and skill level can increase their status within home as well as outside home.
Acknowledgement This research is supported by UGC, New Delhi and University of Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal in different ways.
References Ashappa, R. (2015). A Sociological Study of Scheduled Caste Girls in Degree Colleges: A Sample Survey in Kalaburagi City. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS).20(7), 45-49. DOI: 10.9790/0837-20754549 Desai, S. and Dubey, A. (2011). Caste in 21st Century India: Competing Narratives. Economic and Political Weekly. 46(11), 40-49. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41151970 on 18th June 2018 Ghosh, S. (2016). Rural Women Empowerment: A Case Study on Scheduled Caste Population of Haora District, West Bengal, India. International Journal of Innovative Research & Development. 5(12), 50-55 Government of West Bengal. (2011). District Human Development Report: Nadia. HDRCC, Department of Planning, Government of West Bengal, retrieved on 19th May, 2017 Karade, J. (2008). Development of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in India. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.1-18 Karade, J. (2009). Occupational Mobility among Scheduled Castes. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.1-16 Mamgain, R. P. (2014). Social Exclusion, Discrimination and Atrocities on Scheduled Castes in India: The Worrying Spots and Future Challenges. Journal of Economic & Social Development10 (1), 17-30 Pandey, B. (1986). Educational Development am0ong Scheduled Castes. Social Scientists. 14(2/3), 49-68. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3520173 on 18th June 2018 Parvathamma, C. (1981). The Weaker Sections of Society—the Scheduled Castes in India. Indian Sociological Society. 30(1), 54-72. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23619210 on 18th June 2018 Rayappa, P.H. and Grover, D. (1979). Employment Planning for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Economic and Political Weekly. 14(24), 1015-1022. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4367693 on 18th June 2018 188 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Roy, D. (2012). Caste and power: ethnography in West Bengal, India. Cambridge University Press. 46(4), 947-974. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41478424 on 18th June 2018 Singh, R. and Upadhayay, P. (2017). Work force structure in India: a comparative study of scheduled caste and non-scheduled population work domain. International Research Journal of Social Sciences. 6(8), 27-32. Sushma, N. (2016). Empowerment of Scheduled Caste Women in India: An Overview. International Journal of Academic Research. 3(4), 65-69.
Received : 8th May, 2018 Revised : 18th October, 2018 NO.Ind. J.2 of Landscape Systems and Ecological StudiesBOOK 41 REVIEW (2) December - 2018, 189 - 190 ISSN 0971-4170 189
Book Review
Geomorphology of the Southern Singalila Range, Dr. Samir Kumar Samanta, Rhito Prakashan, Kolkata, 137+ iv pp. including 25 plates, Price: Rs. 800/-
At the very outset, I express my gratitude to the Editor of Indian Journal of Landscape Systems & Ecological Studies for giving me this opportunity to review such an interesting publication entitled “Geomorphology of the Southern Singalila Range” authored by Dr. Samir Kumar Samanta. I have gone through the book in three different phases. In the first phase, I was only going through the pages, the contents, the tables, the photographs in the form of cursory glance, with special emphasis on the Preface. In the second phase, I was giving my attention to those aspects, which were systematically documented in detail and categorically mentioned by Dr. Samanta in the Preface. The third phase of reading was very meaningful to me not only as a student of Geology but also out of true love for nature. My knowledge of Geomorphology and my interest in Geomorphology were actually ignited by W. D. Thornbury, while I read his famous book, ‘Principles of Geomorphology’, for the first time some decades ago. The basic tenets of Geomorphology, as discussed in Thornbury’s book are still applicable for all of us in the fields of Earth Sciences. The issues that I liked in this book can be summarized as follows: (a) the layout of the chapters with reference to Part – I , II, & III and corresponding distribution of the materials with specific sub headings; (b) the maps and the tables are well placed, as I was particularly interested to check the table related to 2.2 i.e. Tectonic Mechanism- though I feel that the tables should bear separate numbers, along with the sketches and maps showing Forest Cover, Drainage Density, Climate Zones, & so on. This is needed for easy reference, suppose someone wants to refer Streams & River: Southern Singalila Range, Drainage Texture, Residual Map, Land Use Map Gorkhey, etc.; (c) in terms of description and discussion, chapter 6, 7 and 9 are very well written; particularly enlisting and describing all the possible types of hazards in Chapter 9, and sub-units 7.2 & 7.3 in chapter 7; however, all the necessary terminologies should have a separate index with definitions if possible for the nontechnical readers (although, in some cases, these are included in the text). Some of the terminologies like Scarplets, Gravitational 190 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Collapse, Nappism, Clinographic Curve, Hypsometric Curve, etc. should have been adequately explained; (e) the Glossary of Local Terms is very interesting to go through and I personally learnt some of those terminologies with utmost concern; (f) the excerpts of important lines like “In the mountain all is pure, all is calm” are assets to this book; it also reminds me of using excerpts in my Ph. D. thesis; (g) the photographs included are really interesting to look at, specially Nos. 1a, 4b, 6a, 7a, 12a, 13a, 15a, 15d and so on (though, I couldn’t make out anything from the photograph Nos. 9b & 9d); (h) the suggested reading part contains some interesting references; (i) the case study part in chapter 12 is simply engrossing with all the sub-units. Finally I sincerely congratulate Dr. Samir Kumar Samanta for his untiring effort and enthusiasm to study all such details for a prolonged period of time and writing this monograph. Rhito Prakasha has done a commendable job by publishing this important document in the realm of natural science.
Debdas Ray Director Directorate of Distance Education Rabindra Bharati University [email protected] NO.Ind. J.2 of Landscape Systems and Ecological Studies ANNUAL 41 (2)REPORT December - 2018, 191 - 194 ISSN 0971-4170 191
THE INSTITUTE OF LANDSCAPE, ECOLOGY & EKISTICS 52/2A, Hazra Road, Kolkata 700019
THE THIRTY- SIXTH ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING Annual Report for the Financial Year: 2017-18
Dear Members, As the Honorary Secretary of this Institute I have got the privilege to present the Annual Report for the here for the last financial year. It is my responsibility to inform all of you about our programmes taken during the said-period as well as overall progress of our Institute. This is the year in which we lost our two esteemed members: Prof. S. C. Mukhopadhyay, the founder Editor of the Journal ‘Indian Journal of Landscape Systems and Ecological Studies’ (passed away on 23.06.2017), and Dr. A. K. Ghosh, Vice President of our Institute (passed away on 02.04.2018). In the meantime we have lost another well wisher: respected Prof. H. R. Betal (passed away on 15.02.2018). In spite of deep sadness caused by their sudden death other members of this Institute have been moving forward bearing all truths and promises. The Executive Council was illuminated by the inspiring lives of those great personalities and tried its best to continue all programmes, either being set before, or being planned later to fulfill their hopeful desires. Prof. L. N. Satpati took over the responsibility for bearing the herculean tasks of Editorial desk just after the passing away of Prof. Mukhopadhyay and his post was approved unanimously in the A.G.M. held on 22.09.2017. By his industrious efforts the publication of the Journal crossed all hurdles smoothly and gained a new outlook to be worthy of new regulations set by the U.G.C. The numbers 1 and 2 of the 40th volume were published in time. Henceforth, all of the members can be assured that the next issues of the journal will be brought out in due course. I invite more papers with true research based data and information from the members as well as other well wishers for publication in this Journal. This will enhance its reputation much widely. Besides the publication of its Journal, the Institute of Landscape, Ecology & Ekistics has another function of organizing seminars and symposiums. During the last financial year we could 192 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41 not organize any elaborate seminar or symposium. As per decision of the Executive Council a one- week long workshop was arranged from 16th to 22nd May, 2018. The theme of that workshop was ‘Quantitative Techniques in Geospatial science’. The workshop was arranged at the Department of Geography, C.U. with the heartiest collaboration of the said Department. The secretary is thankful to the Council for supporting such an initiative and strongly believes that many young geographers have been benefitted by such a workshop. In the memory of Prof. S. C. Mukhopadhyay a special lecture by Prof. S. C. Santra was arranged on 26th June, 2018. Prof. Santra imparted an unforgettable speech on the ‘Changing Climate over the Earth and its impact on human life’. Another lecture by Sri Amlanjyoti Kar, Regional Director of Central Groundwater Board (Eastern Region) is being arranged today, at the end part of our Annual General Meeting. The secretary is expressing his deep gratitude to the speakers for spending their valuable times for the sake of our members. To overcome the rising expenditures of the Institute the Executive Council has decided to slightly increase the rates of subscription along with admission fees (at the meeting of E.C. held on 19.03.2018) from the financial year 2018-19. Thus the new rates of subscription and admission fees have been Rs.1000 per annum and Rs.1500 respectively. Life membership, with a sum of Rs.10 000, has also started from the new financial year. In the last financial year total income of the Institute was Rs.282 342 in which Rs.100 000 was donated by a senior member of the Institute. The amount of subscription in the same period was Rs.27 200 only. The secretary hereby requests the treasurer to take necessary action for sending reminder to the defaulters. It is expected that regular renewal of membership will surely be helpful to continue the activities of our Institute without any financial crunch. The respected members of the Executive Council have approved this annual report at its meeting held at 5-00 P.M. today. With regards and a lot of thanks,
Place: Kolkata Sd./ Samir Kumar Samanta Date: 20th September, 2018 (Honorary Secretary, ILEE) NO. 2 ANNUAL REPORT 193
Institute of Landscape Ecology & Ekistics 52/2A, Hazra road, Kolkata-700 019 Income & Expenditute Account for the Year Ending 31st March, 2018
Expenditure Rs. Income Rs.
To Journal Publication 1,25,553 By Admission 25,600 To Printing & Stationary 27,339 By Subscription 27,200 To Postage 11,251 By Sale of Publication Nil To Contingency 17,074 By Donation/Reprint 2,24,300 To Library Nil By Symposium, Seminar Nil To Donation 55,000 To Symposium, Seminar 15,000 By Miscellaneous Nil To Annual General Meeting 8,500 By Bank Interest S/B 5,242 Less : Reinvestment To Miscellaneous Nil Excess of expenditure Nil To Transfer to Life Fellowship 1000 Over Income Fund Over expenditure 21,625
2,82,342 2,82,342
I have examined the books of accounts of the Institute of Landscape, Ecology & Ekisticf of 52/2A, Hazra Road, Kolkata-700 0009
Sd/ A. K. Dutta Dated : Kolkata Chartered Accountant 26th August, 2018 (Hony. Auditor) 194 INDIAN JOURNAL OF LANDSCAPE SYSTEMS AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES VOL. 41
Institute of Landscape Ecology & Ekistics 52/2A, Hazra road, Kolkata-700 019
Balance Sheet as on 31st March of 2018
Liabilities Rs. Assets Rs.
General Account : Cash in Hand (including 2,883 As per last account 5,16,305 uncashed cheques deposited at the bank S.B at S.B.I. Add : Excess of Income Cash at Bank (S/B) 1,78,809 over Expenditure 21,625 Cash (F/D) at S.B.I. 6,44,238 Life Fellowship Fund As per last Account 2,87,000 2,88,000 Add : This year 100
Total 8,25,000 Total 8,25,930
I have examined the books of accounts of the Institute of Landscape, Ecology & Ekisticf of 52/2A, Hazra Road, Kolkata-700 0009
Sd/- A. K. Dutta Dated : Kolkata Chartered Accountant 26th August, 2018 (Hony. Auditor)